Kul-34.

4300
Aircraft Structural Design
Airworthiness Requirements

M Kanerva 2016
Objective and Contents of the Module
The objective of the module
is to introduce and explain
safety requirements related
to aircraft structures

Contents:

• Overview

• Structure

• Design and construction

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Overview – Airworthiness Codes
Safety requirements of
structures are defined
in airworthiness
codes issued by
aviation authorities

In (Western) Europe,
the codes are issued
by EASA and called
Certification
Specifications (CSs)

Note! EASA CSs are reviewed in this course. Codes issued by

aviation authorities other than EASA are similar but not identical

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Overview – Requirement Policy
Certification specifications define the minimum acceptable level of
aeroplane performance

Structure requirements are defined with operating conditions (load

conditions) that the aeroplane must withstand

Safe operation is achieved with operating limitations that restrict the

use of the aeroplane respectively

Aeroplane structures are mostly designed to the minimum required

level to avoid weight penalties

Note! Organisation responsible for the design may exceed the

minimum level as seen necessary and/or beneficial, e.g. for additional
safety or comfort

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Overview – Code Grouping
Important codes are those specifying requirements for the most
common types of aeroplanes:
• CS-23: EASA Certification Specifications for Small Aeroplanes
• CS-25: EASA Certification Specifications for Large Aeroplanes

Additionally, certification specifications are issued e.g. for

• other types of flight vehicles such as helicopters, very light
aeroplanes and gliders, and
• separately for aircraft parts such as engines and propellers

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Design Specification – Design Criteria
Airworthiness
Airworthiness requirements are
defined with applicable CS/FAR
paragraphs and AMC´s, e.g. for a
transport aircraft
• CS/FAR 25 Subpart C - Structure
• CS/FAR 25 Subpart D - Design
and construction
• AMC 25.571 - Damage Tolerance
and Fatigue Evaluation
• AMC 25.603 - Composite Aircraft
Structure
https://easa.europa.eu/document-library/certification-specifications/group/
http://www.ecfr.gov

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Overview – Aircraft Categories in CS-23
In CS-23, requirements are set separately for 4 aircraft categories:

Normal category Utility category

• pilot seats + max. 9 seats • pilot seats + max. 9 seats
• MTOW 12 500 lbs or less • MTOW 12 500 lbs or less
• intended for nonaerobatic • intended for limited aerobatic
operation operation

Aerobatic category Commuter category

• pilot seats + max. 9 seats • propeller-driven, multiengine
• MTOW 12 500 lbs or less aeroplanes
• intended for use without • pilot seats + max. 19 seats
restrictions (other than those • MTOW 19 000 lbs or less
shown to be necessary) • intended for nonaerobatic operation

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Overview – CS-23 and CS-25 Contents
CS-23 and CS-25 are further divided into subparts:
Subpart A - General
Subpart B - Flight
Subpart C - Structure
To be reviewed
Subpart D - Design and Construction
Subpart E - Powerplant
Subpart F - Equipment
Subpart G - Operating Limitations and Information
Subpart J - Gas Turbine Auxiliary Power Unit Installations (CS-25)

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Overview – Notes on Airworthiness Codes 1/3
An aeroplane is designed to meet airworthiness codes of countries
with potential customers

The status of airworthiness codes to be applied is agreed in the

beginning of the type certification process

The codes
• are formulated to be “exact”
• have evolved during a long time span

Ø are not very user-friendly

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Overview – Notes on Airworthiness Codes 2/3
Airworthiness codes are based on knowledge achieved from
conventional aeroplanes

If an aeroplane being developed is unconventional, the authority may

set Special Conditions for the aeroplane

Beech Starship

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Overview – Notes on Airworthiness Codes 3/3
The following types of special conditions related to primary structures
were specified for Boeing 787:
• Composite Fuselage In-Flight
Fire/Flammability Resistance
(25-360-SC)
• Composite Wing and Fuel Tank
Structure - Fire Protection
Requirements (25-348-SC)
• Crashworthiness (25-362-SC)
• Lightning Protection of Fuel Tank
Structure To Prevent Fuel Tank
Vapor Ignition (25-414-SC) For further information, see e.g.
• Tire Debris Penetration of Fuel the candidate thesis of T. Lindholm
Tank Structure (25-363-SC) (Aalto University, spring 2013)

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Objective and Contents of the Module
The objective of the module
is to introduce and explain
safety requirements related
to aircraft structures

Contents:

• Overview

• Structure

• Design and construction

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Structure Requirement Grouping
CS-23 structure requirements are
grouped as follows:
• general (definitions)
• flight loads
• control surface and system loads
Notes!
• horizontal tail surfaces
• vertical surfaces Slightly different grouping is
• ailerons and special devices used in CS-25
• ground loads Simplified structural design
• water loads criteria may be used for small
• emergency landing conditions aircraft as specified in CS-23
• fatigue evaluation Appendix A

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General – Load Definition 1/2
Loads are defined in terms of
limit loads and ultimate loads:
• limit loads are maximum Fu = FoS × Fl
loads that can be expected in
service
• ultimate loads are limit loads
multiplied by the prescribed Lift
factor of safety

In load analyses, air, ground and

water loads must be placed in
equilibrium with inertia forces, Wing empty weight

considering each item of mass in Fuel

the aeroplane

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General – Load Definition 2/2
The factor of safety is applied due to uncertainties in design and
operation, e.g., an aeroplane may be accidentally overloaded due to
heavy turbulence and/or pilot action

Unless otherwise provided in aviation regulations:

• prescribed loads are limit loads
• the factor of safety is 1.5, i.e. ultimate load = 1.5 x limit load

Note! Factors of safety higher than 1.5 are required in special cases
when uncertainties are expected to be higher than normal (e.g., for
castings and fittings)

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General – Load Distributions
Loads must be distributed to
conservatively approximate
or closely represent actual
conditions

If deflections under load

would significantly change
the distribution of external or
internal loads, the
redistribution must be taken
into account

E.g. wing bending and wing

twist due to aileron deflection

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General – Load Carrying Capability
The structure must be able to support limit loads without
detrimental, permanent deformation

At any load up to limit loads, the deformation may not interfere with
safe operation

The structure must be able to support ultimate loads without failure

for at least three seconds

Note! Local failures and/or structural instabilities between limit and

ultimate load are acceptable but only if the structure can sustain the
required ultimate load for at least three seconds

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General – Proof of Structure
Compliance with the strength and deformation requirements
must be shown for each critical load condition

Structural analysis may be used only if the structure conforms to

those for which experience has shown this method to be reliable

In other cases, substantiating load tests must be made

Dynamic tests, including structural flight tests, are acceptable if the

design load conditions have been simulated

Note! Most parts of the structure must be tested as specified in

Subpart D of the requirements

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Flight Loads
Lwb
Flight loads requirements r
are reviewed here as
Lht
follows: Mwb

• Introduction V T D
W
• Symmetrical load
conditions F

• Rolling conditions
• Yawing conditions
• Supplementary
conditions

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Introduction to Flight Load Requirements
Flight Load Factor 1/2

The flight load factor n is applied in the specification of flight loads

that an aeroplane must withstand

It represents the ratio of aerodynamic

force component, acting normal to
the assumed longitudinal axis of
the aeroplane, to the weight of the
aeroplane:
n=N W

A positive flight load factor is the one N = L cos a + D sin a

in which the aerodynamic force acts
T = D cos a - L sin a
upward, with respect to the aeroplane

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Introduction to Flight Load Requirements
Flight Load Factor 2/2

Normally, the lift L is a good L,D N,T

approximation of the aerodynamic
normal force N

Flight load factors for an aeroplane

are defined so that
• they meet constraints defined
by airworthiness codes
N = L cos a + D sin a
• they provide the required
T = D cos a - L sin a
performance for the aircraft

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Introduction to Flight Load Requirements
Group Work Exercise

The main topics of CS-23 are reviewed in groups – answers for group
questions can be compiled on a PowerPoint show or similar

• Three groups are formed

• Division by stand in experience line -method and count

• Delivery of group work results are presented next Monday (25.1.)

• Successful delivery of results gives 2 points for the exam
(8-10% of exam points)

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Introduction to Flight Load Requirements
Group Work Exercise

After the lecture (18.1.):

• Deliver the first page of the group work print-out
• Write here the group number:_______________
• Write below the student names and division of questions per student:

Student____________________pages_____________________

Student ___________________ pages _____________________

Student ___________________ pages _____________________

Student ___________________ pages _____________________

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Introduction to Flight Load Requirements
Group Work Exercise

For lecture (25.1.):

• Group work presentations
• Approximately 15-20 minutes reserved per group

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Ground Load Requirements
Load Cases
Requirements are defined for the following ground load cases:
• landing, the nose and main wheel contact the ground simultaneously
• landing, the main wheels contact the ground and the nose wheel is
just clear of the ground
• landing at stalling attitude or the maximum angle allowing ground
clearance by each part of the aeroplane, whichever is less
• one-wheel landing conditions
• side load conditions
• braked roll conditions
• supplementary conditions
• jacking loads
• towing loads

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Ground Load Requirements
Analysis of Load Cases
Ground load requirements must be complied with
• design maximum weight; and
• maximum landing weight
as defined by the airworthiness codes

Wheel spin-up loads, spring-back load and side loads to be determined

as defined by the airworthiness codes

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CS-23 Ground Load Requirements
Parameter Values in Landing Load Cases
Descent velocity equal to 4.4 (W/S)1/4
is assumed, except that the velocity
need not be more than 10 f.p.s. and
may not be less than 7 f.p.s.

Wing lift not exceeding two-thirds of

the weight of the aeroplane may be
assumed

Limit ground reaction load factor

may not be less than 2.0 (with an
exception)

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CS-25 Ground Load Requirements
Parameter Values in Landing Load Cases
The aeroplane is assumed to contact the ground:
• with a limit descent velocity of 10 fps at the design landing weight
• with a limit descent velocity of 6 fps at the design take-off weight

Aeroplane lift, not exceeding aeroplane weight may be assumed

(Limit ground reaction load factor may be less than 2.0)

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Emergency Landing Conditions
Summary 1/2
The structure must be designed to give each occupant every reasonable
chance of escaping serious injury in a minor crash landing when
• proper use is made of seats, belts and all other safety design
provisions;
• the wheels are retracted; and
• the occupant experiences the ultimate inertia forces defined in
airworthiness codes
Equipment, cargo in the passenger compartment and other large
masses must be positioned so that if they break loose they will be
unlikely to (1) cause direct injury to occupants, (2) penetrate fuel tanks
or lines or cause fire or explosion hazard, or (3) nullify any of the escape
facilities provided for use after an emergency landing

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Emergency Landing Conditions
Summary 2/2
In CS-23, the following ultimate inertia forces acting separately relative
to the surrounding structure are defined to be used:
• upward 3g (4.5g for aerobatic category aeroplanes)
• forward 9g
• sideward 1.5g
• downward 6g

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Fatigue Requirements
Overview
Fatigue requirements given in CS-23 for small aeroplanes and in CS-25
for large aeroplanes differ in structure

Requirements given is CS-25 for large aeroplanes are reviewed on the

following slides

Specific requirements for composite structures

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CS-25 Fatigue Requirements
General 1/2
Evaluation of the strength, detail design, and fabrication must show
that catastrophic failure due to fatigue, corrosion or accidental damage,
will be avoided throughout the operational life of the aeroplane

Each evaluation must include:

• The typical loading spectra, temperatures and humidities
expected in service
• The identification of principal structural elements and detail
design points, the failure of which could cause catastrophic failure
of the aeroplane
• An analysis, supported by test evidence, of the principal
structural elements and detailed design points

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CS-25 Fatigue Requirements
General 2/2
The service history of
aeroplanes of similar
structural design may
be used

Inspections must be
established as
necessary to prevent
catastrophic failure

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CS-25 Fatigue Requirements
Damage-tolerance Evaluation 1/2
The evaluation must
include a determination of
the probable locations and
modes of damage

Damage at multiple sites

due to prior fatigue
exposure must be
included when this type of
damage can be expected

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CS-25 Fatigue Requirements
Damage-tolerance Evaluation 2/2
The structure must always have the specified residual strength
level (typically close the limit load level when a defect is not readily
detectable)

If significant changes in structural stiffness or geometry, or both, follow

from a structural failure, the effect on damage tolerance must be further
investigated

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CS-25 Fatigue Requirements
Safe-life Evaluation
Safe-life evaluation can be used instead of
damage-tolerance evaluation, if the latter is
impractical
The structure must then be shown by
analysis, supported by test evidence, to
withstand the repeated loads of variable
magnitude expected during its service life
without detectable cracks
Appropriate safe-life scatter factors must
be used

Note! Scatter factor defines the multiple of design life to be used in the
fatigue life verification (due to variation)

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CS-25 Fatigue Requirements
Sonic Fatigue and Discrete Source Damage
Sonic fatigue must be evaluated. It must be shown by
analysis, supported by test evidence, that
• Sonic fatigue cracks are not probable
in any part subject to sonic excitation
• Catastrophic failure caused by sonic
cracks is not probable

The aeroplane must be able to successfully complete a flight

during which likely structural damage occurs as a result of:
• Bird impact
• Sudden decompression of compartments

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Objective and Contents of the Module
The objective of the module
is to introduce and explain
safety requirements related
to aircraft structures

Contents:

• Overview

• Structure

• Design and construction

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Design and Construction
Overview
Subparts D of CS-23/25 define requirements for the design and
construction (and testing) of an aeroplane with the following contents:
• General requirements
• Wings Note! Only general requirements
• Control surfaces are reviewed here
• Control systems
• Landing gear
• Floats and hulls
• Personnel and cargo accomodations
• Pressurisation
• Fire protection
• Electrical bonding and lightning protection

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Design and Construction
Materials and Fabrication Methods 1/2
The suitability and durability of materials used for parts, the failure of
which could adversely affect safety, must

a) Be established on the basis of experience or tests;

b) Conform to approved material specifications that ensure their

having the strength and other properties assumed in the design
data; and

c) Take into account the effects of environmental conditions, such

as temperature and humidity, expected in service

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Design and Construction
Materials and Fabrication Methods 2/2
The methods of fabrication
used must produce
consistently sound structures.
If a fabrication process
requires close control to reach
this objective, the process
must be performed under an
approved process
specification

Each new fabrication method

must be substantiated by a
test programme

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Design and Construction
Material Strength Properties and Design Values
Strength properties must be based on enough tests of material
meeting specifications

The design values must be chosen to minimise the probability of

structural failure due to material variability
• Safe-life structures: material strength assured with 99 % probability
and 95 % confidence (“A-value”)
• Fail-safe structures: material strength assured with 90 % probability
and 95 % confidence (“B-value”)

Environmental effects to be accounted for

Exceptions are allowed if “premium selection” of the material is made

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Design and Construction
Structures
Fasteners
• Requirements defining the use of locking devices are defined

Protection of structure
• Suitable protection against weathering, corrosion and abrasion +
adequate provisions for ventilation and drainage must be arranged

Accessibility
• Means to be provided to allow inspection, replacement of parts,
maintenance, adjustment and lubrication as necessary

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Design and Construction
Factors of Safety
The factor of safety (1.5) must be multiplied with a special factor of
safety for each part of the structure whose strength is
• uncertain
• likely to deteriorate in service
• subject to appreciable variability

Special factors specifically defined by the requirements:

• castings factors (1.25 ... 2.0 ...)
• bearing (free fit) factors
• fitting factors (1.15 ...)

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Design and Construction
Aeroelastic Stability 1/2
The aeroelastic stability evaluations required include flutter,
divergence, control reversal and any undue loss of stability and
control as a result of structural deformation

The aeroplane must be designed to be free from aeroelastic instability

for all configurations and design conditions within the aeroelastic
stability envelopes defined by the requirements (enlarged envelopes
when compared to the normal use)

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Design and Construction
Aeroelastic Stability 2/2
If balance weights are used, their effectiveness and strength, including
supporting structure, must be substantiated

The failures, malfunctions, and adverse conditions must be considered

as defined in the requirements

Full scale flight flutter tests must be conducted for new type designs
and for modifications to a type design unless the modifications have
been shown to have an insignificant effect on the aeroelastic stability

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Design and Construction
Bird Strike
The aeroplane must be designed to assure capability of continued safe
flight and landing of the aeroplane after impact with a 4 lb bird

The velocity of the aeroplane (relative to the bird along the aeroplane’s
flight path) is assumed to equal to VC at sea level or 0·85 VC at 2438 m
(8000 ft), whichever is the more critical

Compliance may be shown by analysis only when based on tests

carried out on sufficiently representative structures of similar design

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