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ISSN on-line: 1807-8621
Doi: 10.4025/actasciagron.v41i1.42621

REVIEW

How to write the discussion section of a scientific article

Rogério Faria Vieira1* , Renan Cardoso de Lima2 and Eduardo Seiti Gomide Mizubuti3
1
Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária de Minas Gerais , Vila Gianetti, 47, 36570-900, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. 2Instituto Federal do Mato Grosso, Sorriso,
Mato Grosso, Brazil. 3 Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. *Author for correspondence. E-mail:
[email protected]

ABSTRACT. The Discussion is the hardest section of a scientific article to write, as cognitive skills must
be used to properly contextualize the findings of a study. In this article, we guide scientific writers,
particularly unexperienced ones, on how to structure a Discussion section based on an article by Docherty
and Smith (1999). According to these authors, a discussion should be prepared by organizing information
in the following order: (a) statement of principal findings; (b) strengths and weaknesses of the study; (c)
strengths and weaknesses in relation to other studies, discussing particularly any differences in results;
(d) meaning of the study: possible mechanisms and implications; and (e) unanswered questions and
future research. Each component of this sequence is discussed in detail with examples drawn from the
literature.
Keywords: writing the discussion; discussion section; conclusion; scientific writing.

Received on October 26, 2017.

Accepted on March 16, 2018.

Introduction
In the natural sciences, the Abstract, Introduction, Material and methods, Results and Discussion
(AIMRaD) structure has been used in scientific papers. Some variations in this structure can be found in
journals such as Nature and Plant Physiology, in which the Material and methods (or Methods) section is
included in the final part of the paper (AIRDaM). Another structure variation permitted in some journals
involves presenting the Results and discussion in a single combined section sometimes followed by the
Conclusion [AIM(RaD)C]. The Results and discussion are usually combined in shorter articles (Cargill &
O’Connor, 2009).
The Introduction and Discussion should function as a pair (Day & Gastel, 2006). The Introduction opens
with a broad focus and concludes by more closely referring to the present study (narrowing focus), whereas
the Discussion opens with a narrow focus (your findings) and ends with a broad focus (contextualizing your
findings to the field at large). Many elements of the Introduction section are used in the Discussion in
reverse order. In the Introduction, these elements are used to position the reader within the current state of
research, whereas in the discussion, these elements are generally used to interpret results (Glasman-Deal,
2010). The Introduction poses one or more questions, while the Discussion answers what is asked in the
Introduction (Day & Gastel, 2006).
The content of the Discussion is more difficult to define than the content of other sections (Day &
Gastel, 2006). The main function of the Discussion is to answer the research question posed in the
Introduction and to use the study’s results to pose an answer (Foote, 2009), or according to Annesley (2010),
the Discussion explains what the study results mean and what contributions the paper makes to the area of
study. More pragmatically, in the Discussion you explain how you arrived at the conclusion (Hofmann,
2014). Overall, the following questions should be considered when this section is drafted (Docherty &
Simith, 1999; Foote, 2009; Annesley, 2010; Hofmann, 2014, Wallwork, 2016):
(a) What are the most important findings of your study?
(b) Did you reject the hypothesis?
(c) Did your findings suggest an alternative hypothesis?
(d) What are the strengths and weaknesses of your study?
(e) What other factor(s) could have influenced your findings?
(f) How are your findings related to those of other relevant studies?
(g) Why are the findings of your study different from those of other studies?
(h) What are the strengths and weaknesses of your study in relation to other studies?
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(i) Did you explain unexpected findings?

(j) What assumptions did you make upfront?
(k) How do your findings fit with existing knowledge on the topic?
(l) How do your results influence knowledge of the problem examined?
(m) Why are the contributions of your study important?
(n) Can you improve your hypothesis or model?
(o) What mechanisms explain the phenomenon explored?
(p) Is there a theoretical implication or a practical application of your study?
(q) Did you propose changes to experimental designs to be applied in future studies that could address
the problems or limitations you experienced?
(r) What new questions emerge from your study?
(s) What generalization can be drawn from your study?
(t) How could your findings be generalized to other areas?
(u) What further research would be needed to explain the issues raised by your findings?
Given the Discussion’s broad focus, researchers tend to experience difficulties when writing this section.
Too often, the significance of the results is not discussed or is not discussed adequately. Even when data
included in a paper are valid and interesting, a poor interpretation of data can lead a journal editor or
reviewers to reject the manuscript (Day & Gastel, 2006). As a common mistake, many young researchers
limit the discussion to a comparison of their results to the results of other researchers. In addition to these
mistakes, you should avoid the following when writing a Discussion (Hess, 2004; Hofmann, 2014; Wallwork,
2016):
(a) Including too little or too much text.
(b) Including text without structure (open with a narrow focus and then generalize).
(c) Including data not presented in the Results section.
(d) Describing detailed aspects of the results. To relate results to interpretations, use “bridge sentences”
as shown in example 1 in bold + italic (suggesting that). A “bridge sentence” is also used in example 2.
(e) Emphasizing irrelevant and incidental findings (remain focused on the hypothesis).
(f) Presenting ambiguous data source (are you writing about your study or about another study?). Avoid
this problem by using terms such as those in bold + italic in example 2.
(g) Criticizing other researchers (be professional).
(h) Making unwarranted speculations.
(i) Overstating the importance of your findings.
(j) Presenting conclusion not supported by data or overgeneralizing the findings.
(l) Arriving at conclusions not related to objectives presented in the Introduction.
1) “Plant growth promotion (PGP) by Ct was shown to be tightly regulated by Pi availability, ‘suggesting
that’ beneficial activities of the fungus are conditional upon particular environmental conditions… (Hiruma
et al., 2016, p. 471).
2) ‘Previous reports’ of mcr-1 associated resistance in Egypt found mcr-1 in an isolate of E. coli from a cow
displaying subclinical mastitis [58] and in a human clinical case associated with bacteremia [59] suggesting that mcr
associated resistance would also appear to be emergent in Egypt where the isolates ‘of the present study’ were
sourced… ‘This study’ was also able to review the mcr-2 prevalence among our collection and ‘we were unable’ to
detect the gene in any isolates examined” (Barbieri et al., 2017, p. 8).

Writing the discussion

As a first step in preparing this section, you should prepare an outline to organize your thoughts in a
logical form. To avoid obscuring your message with peripheral issues, keep the objective/hypothesis of your
study in mind during the writing process. (Michel, 2012). For long discussions, consider using subheadings
to highlight the main points you wish the reader to understand (Cargill & O’Connor, 2009). To avoid
plagiarizing, write the Discussion in your own words after interpreting, summarizing and generalizing
relevant papers. Use the first person and the active voice to make your discussion more lively and
interesting. You should consider using ‘we’ even when you are the only author of the paper. Use the past
tense when referring to your findings, and use the present tense when referring to general or true
information. Additionally, use the present tense when answering a question or stating your study’s
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significance (Hofmann, 2014). The present perfect (for example “we have described”) should be used to
describe what you have accomplished through the writing process (Wallwork, 2016).
The sequence of the Discussion section varies from author to author. In an attempt to improve
standardization, Docherty and Smith (1999) proposed a structure for Discussion sections. According to
these authors, a structure helps a reader to find specific information from the Discussion and signals to the
writer the most important topics to cover in this section. These authors recommend using the following
structure that opens with specific information and closes with generalized statements:
a) Statement of principal findings.
b) Strengths and weaknesses of the study.
c) Strengths and weaknesses in relation to other studies, discussing particularly any differences in
results.
d) Meaning of the study: possible mechanisms and implications.
e) Unanswered questions and future research.
While this structure is not a “one size fits all” formula, it may help young researchers efficiently prepare
this important section of a scientific paper. Information not explicitly included in the structure proposed by
Docherty and Smith (1999) is included by us given that we judge this information as important.

Statement of principal findings

Open the discussion by briefly restating the key finding(s) of your study as shown in examples 3, 4, and 5.
The key finding(s) should address the research question/purpose stated in the Introduction using the same
key terms (Hofmann, 2014). If the research question was only answered partially, explain which aspects of
the question were answered and why. The answer to the research question represents the culmination of the
paper. Hence, it should be included in the beginning of the Discussion (Annesley, 2010) and should be used
to initiate a discussion of broader implications or generalizations drawn from the results (Glasman-Deal,
2010). After stating the relevant results (positive or negatives), you should, when appropriate, present
supporting evidence or other important findings. Secondary results should be summarized and generalized
rather than repeating what was found (Hofmann, 2014). When necessary, mention the figures or tables in
which results are presented (see examples 3, 4, and 5). In example 5, the authors include a statement (“To
our knowledge…”) that calls attention to the novelty of their study.
3) Here we show that wild bee pollinators provide important pollination services to crops around the
globe with the economic value of this ecosystem service being on par with that provided by managed honey
bees (Kleijn et al., 2015).
4) “The present study demonstrates the protective effects of oral administration of Lactobacillus
gasseri SBT2055 (LG2055) against influenza A virus infection. This effect enables mice to be resistant to a
virus infection as shown by improvements in the survival rates and by decrements in the virus titer in the
lungs” (Nakayama et al., 2014).
5) “Soybean plants grown from seeds containing 5.35 mg kg−1 Ni showed a significant yield increase up
to 25 % in response to external Ni supply, in spite of the fact that these plants were neither dependent on
N2-fixation nor treated with urea. To our knowledge, a statistically significant seed yield response to Ni
supply in nutrient solution is reported for the first time for a crop plant in the present study” (Kutman,
Kutman, & Cakmak, 2013).
Alternatively, before presenting your key finding(s), you can begin the Discussion reminding readers of
important information included in the Introduction section and/or in the Material and methods section to
contextualize your study. In examples 6 and 7, the Discussion begins with general information recovered
from the Introduction: “Imidacloprid is a widely used...” or “ABA is an essential phytohormone...” Next, the
authors describe gaps in the knowledge, which are usually reported in the Introduction: “...but no studies
have previously examined...” or “...has not yet been characterized in detail.” In example 8, the authors open
the Discussion by reminding the reader of information reported in the Material and methods section: “In
this study, two transgenic lettuce lines...” In example 9, the objective of the study is described (“The
objective of this study was...”) followed by a description of information drawn from Material and methods
section (“Genotypes were compared based on...”). In these four examples, the key results are presented
following a contextualization: “...we show that...” (example 6), “…we found that…” (example 7), “…this
work demonstrate that…” (example 8), “The results for…” (example 9).
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6) “Imidacloprid is a widely used neonicotinoid pesticide throughout China, but no studies have
previously examined its effect on olfactory learning, a key element in successful foraging, for an
economically and ecologically important native bee species, A. cerana. In adult bees, we show that ingestion
of 0.1 or 1 ng/bee reduced olfactory learning acquisition, which was 1.6-fold higher in control bees” (Tan et
al., 2015).
7) “ABA is an essential phytohormone regulating seed maturation, germination, stomatal closure and various
stress responses. However, the effect of ABA on cellular growth and morphogenesis has not yet been
characterized in detail. Here, we found that epidermal cells developed ectopic protrusions in seedlings
germinated and grown in the presence of ABA” (Takatani, Hirayama, Hashimoto, Takahashi, & Motose, 2015).
8) “In this study, two transgenic lettuce lines (AVPD1-2 and AVPD1-6) with enhanced H+-PPase
abundance and activity were used to evaluate the potential of this genetic manipulation for improving NO3-
uptake efficiency in lettuce. The experiments described in this work demonstrate that this technology was
instrumental in improving lettuce N use efficiency under control and limiting NO3- regimens in laboratory,
greenhouse, and field scenarios. In all instances, more production (including marketable yield) was obtained
per unit of N input for AVP1D-engineered lettuce versus controls” (Paez-Valencia et al., 2013).
9) “The objective of this study was to determine if there were genetic differences among common bean
genotypes in the threshold at which N2 fixation declined during soil drying. Genotypes were compared based
on daily measurement of ARA over a soil drying cycle. The results for all cultivars were well-represented by
a two-segment linear regression ” (Devi, Sinclair, Beebe, & Rao, 2013).

Strengths and weaknesses of the study

Here, you must highlight the strengths and weaknesses (or limitations) of your methods and approach
(Wallwork, 2016). Although the strengths of the study can help convince readers of the validity of
conclusions drawn (Falavigna, De Foite, Blauth, & Kates, 2017), editors and readers are likely to be most
interested in the limitations of your study. Thus, place equal emphasis to both strengths and limitations
(Docherty & Smith, 1999). Limitations are generally discussed while assuming that there is no evidence to
reject your hypothesis and that the experimental design used is reasonable (Wallwork, 2016). If you do not
criticize your own study, be sure that the reviewers will do so. We present study limitations in papers for
ethical and pragmatic reasons. As a pragmatic reason, limitations indicate to readers which ‘mistakes’ we
made (Wallwork, 2016) so they can avoid making similar mistakes. You must explain the reasons for the
limitations found (Falavigna et al., 2017) and explain the implications of these limitations for the
conclusions of your study. You may even propose modifications and improvements to the study design to
minimize or eliminate “mistakes” from affecting future work. In specific situations, you can lessen the
impact of limitations by noting that other researchers have had experienced similar problem or that the
current state of knowledge is unable to resolve the problems that you have encountered (Wallwork, 2016).
In examples 10, 11 and 12, the authors describe the limitations of their studies: “An important caveat for
interpreting our study is that…”, “One inherent weakness of this study…”, or “Another important limitation…” In
example 10, the authors propose modifications to the methodology used for improving future work:
(“…further research should be done with more species-rich communities). In example 11, the authors comment
on limitations of the study concerning its temporal and geographic relevance, which limits the
generalization of the conclusions drawn. In example 12, confounding variables interfered with the results
and the authors note how they tried to control them (“...we tried to control for...”). In example 13, the
strengths of the study (“This study has several strengths.”) are clearly highlighted (“First… Second…”). In
example 14, both strengths (“This study has some strengths…”) and limitations (“…the number of participants
in the study was relatively small and they were mostly French-speakers…”) are noted. In addition, these authors
clarify that limitations restrict the study’s conclusions (…might limit the transferability of the results to a
particular cultural context …”).
10) “An important caveat for interpreting our study is that we used four-species mixtures, and four
species per m2 is lower than in most grasslands. A relatively small number of species was used in this study
due to its focus on dominance and evenness, and further research should be done with more species-rich
communities” (Huang, Martin, Isbell, & Wilsey, 2013).
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11) “One inherent weakness of this study is its restricted temporal and geographic relevance. A single
season of field data conducted at a single site in the northern portion of the plant’s geographic range limits
inferences that can be drawn from the data” (Frye & Hough-Goldstein, 2013).
12) “Another important limitation is that there were differences in age, sex ratio and BMI between the
two study groups resulting in an unmatched case–control study. However, we tried to control for these
confounding factors during the logistic regression analysis of the study” (Dimitriou et al., 2015).
13) “This study has several strengths. First, we were able to adjust for many covariates that could
potentially confound our associations. Although no data was available about complications that occurred,
length of hospital stay was used as an indicator of major complications after surgery. Second,…” (van
Zutphen et al., 2017).
“This study has some strengths, including the use of a mixed-method design that enabled us to explore
in depth the quality of life of participants with various adapted sports’ backgrounds and triangulate the
quantitative and qualitative data. The entire team was involved in the analysis, and the triangulation of the
researchers’ perspectives enriched the results. The participants in the qualitative component also had
different characteristics, which allowed us to explore a variety of experiences. However, the number of
participants in the study was relatively small and they were mostly French-speakers, which might limit the
transferability of the results to a particular cultural context…” (Côté-Leclerc et al., 2017).

Strengths and weaknesses in relation to other studies, discussing particularly any differences in
results
Once key findings have been presented and once the strengths and weaknesses of your study have been
noted and discussed, the next step is to amplify the discussion by commenting on the key findings of your
study in relation to studies available in the literature. Confine yourself to discuss relevant work conducted
in your field. Although you can mention studies not mentioned in the Introduction, it is not common to
refer to a large number of studies for the first time in the Discussion (Glasman-Deal, 2010).
Your study may confirm (you could write: Our study confirms…, Our results are consistent with…) or
contradict (Our study differs from…; However, other studies found that…) the current state of knowledge.
Your study can also extend (Our study extends…, Our study adds…) the results of previous studies
(Glasman-Deal, 2010) or modify the knowledge in a given area (Our study modifies…). You should also
consider how the results of other studies may be combined with the results of your study to better
comprehend the problem being investigated (Wallwork, 2016), or you may propose an improved or new
model. You should consider using a figure to clarify the model and when appropriate describe ways to
validate the model (Hofmann, 2014).
The strengths of your study relative to those of other studies may help you convince your readers about
the quality of your research and the correctness of your conclusion, but do not hide the limitations of your
study. Knowing the limitations of your study may lead you to restrict generalizations of your conclusions
(Cargill & O’Connor, 2009) and to reveal ways to improve future works (Glasman-Deal, 2010). By outlining
concrete future strategies to apply, you will make a more convincing case to your readers (Wallwork, 2016).
Unless you made so many errors that your results have been rendered unreliable, you certainly learned
something from your study.
When describing your study’s strengths or limitations, compare your Material and methods section with
those of other studies. Overall, differences between results may be explained by the ways in which the
results were acquired. If you cannot explain why the results are conflicting, say: We cannot explain why…
When appropriate, you should explain assumptions (or premises) made upfront so that the validity of your
research can be assessed.
Unexpected findings should also be discussed. If the study was conducted effectively, results contrary to
what was expected require interpretation (Wallwork, 2016). These results may lead you to new discoveries
and may change the focus of your study (Hofmann, 2014) or may serve as helpful indicators for the
progression of knowledge (Wallwork, 2016). When unexpected findings alter the focus of your study, you
should signal this to the reader (To our surprise…, Surprisingly…) and describe your unexpected findings
briefly (Hofmann, 2014) in a neutral and subjective manner (Wallwork, 2016).
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In example 15, the authors describe both the strength and the limitations of their study relative to other
studies. After addressing the first limitation, they claim: “This is a major limitation of this study…” In
example 16, the authors describe the strengths of their study by exploring points cited in their study and
comparing them with those cited in two studies (“Our study was better controlled…”). In example 17, the
value of N-resorption efficiency found by the authors (72.1%) is greater than that of a large number of
graminoids reported in the literature (58.5%). The authors provide two possible explanations for this
difference: one is speculation (“The higher average of N-resorption efficiency in this Stipa species
seemed...”) and the second is based on methods used for calculation of resorption efficiency (“…this
discrepancy may partly result from differences in methods…”). In example 18, after the authors describe the
strength of their study in comparison to a study [41], they describe their contributions to current knowledge
(“…our study adds to the previous knowledge…”).
15) “A particular strength of this study is the use of a nationwide population-based dataset that
provides a sufficient sample size and statistical power to explore the association between neovascular AMD
and dementia. Nevertheless, some limitations to our study should be addressed. First, neovascular AMD and
dementia diagnoses, which rely on administrative claims data and International Classification of Diseases
codes, may be less precise than those made according to standardized criteria. This is a major limitation of
this study compared with previous studies that used standardized diagnostic examinations of patients”
(Chung et al., 2015).
16) “The studies by Shanahan et al. (1990) and Reynolds et al. (1994) were the only ones published thus
far indicating a positive association between cellular membrane thermostability and yield under heat stress
in different field environments. In these studies the field-testing conditions may have included stresses
other than heat, such as drought and various biotic stresses. Our study was better controlled to eliminate
any drought or biotic stresses so that heat was the main yield-limiting factor under the summer test
conditions” (Blum, Klueva & Nguyen, 2001).
17) “The value of N-resorption efficiency (72.1%) for S. krylovii characterized in the present study was
higher than that of a large number of graminoids worldwide (58.5%) reported in the literature (Aerts, 1996).
The higher average of N-resorption efficiency in this Stipa species seemed rather to be a consequence of its
generally greater fitness to infertile habitats. Further, this discrepancy may partly result from differences in
methods used for calculation of resorption efficiency. For instance, we calculated resorption efficiencies
based on N pool per plant (g plant-1), while previous studies calculated them on the basis of leaf mass or
leaf area (mg g-1 or mg m-2)” (Yuan et al., 2005).
18) “It has previously been found that intention to change food consumption in order to mitigate
climate change increases with worry about climate change consequences [41]. We did not study intentions
but assessed the actual food intake frequencies. Therefore our study adds to the previous knowledge: the
high concern about climate change might actually concretize the intentions to make dietary adjustments”
(Korkala, Hugg, & Jaakkola, 2014).

Meaning of the study: possible mechanisms and implications

At this point in the Discussion, you should inform your readers the mechanisms that could have
produced the phenomenon and the implications of the results for your research area. According to Illari and
Williamson (2012), a mechanism for a phenomenon consists of entities and activities organized in such a
way that they are responsible for the phenomenon. Identifying theoretical or practical implications involves
finding ways in which your results may be used or may lead to the development of new applications in the
future. Listing applications allows the reader to understand the value of your research beyond the narrow
objectives of the study (Glasman-Deal, 2010). You must be careful here not to extrapolate the evidence
provided by the data. In some cases, it may be wise to emphasize what your results do not indicate,
discouraging readers from reaching unjustified conclusions (Docherty & Smith, 1999). It is also possible for
your study to have no clear implications (Glasman-Deal, 2010).
Possible mechanisms are noted in example 19 (“…biochemical mechanism acting as…” or “…via a phyB-
independent mechanism such…”) and 20 (…via mechanisms involving…”) for the phenomena examined. In
example 21, one mechanism was suggested in literature followed by a mechanism suggested by the study.
The implications of study findings are described in examples 20 (“...an attractive target for preventing or
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treating...”), 22 (“This finding is likely to have practical consequences.”), and 23 (“…provides an opportunity for
conservation intervention.”).
19) “High fluence rate control could be mediated either through a biochemical mechanism acting as
a Pr to Pfr flux counter or else via a phyB-independent mechanism such as photosynthesis” (Johansson
et al., 2014).
20) “Thus, intestinal epithelial MyD88 acts as a metabolic sensor that switches host metabolism during
diet-induced obesity via mechanisms involving the gut microbiota. These unique features render intestinal
epithelial MyD88, an attractive target for preventing or treating diet-induced obesity and metabolic
disorders” (Everard et al., 2014).
21) “The decrease in soil microbial biomass has been suggested as one mechanism to explain the decreased
microbial respiration (Treseder, 2008; Wei et al., 2014; Riggs and Hobbie, 2016). Our study provides another
possible mechanism that the decrease in Rh and increase in SOC could be associated with the changes in
microbial CUE and priming effects under N deposition (Fig. 6)” (Liu, Qiao, Yang, Bai, & Liu, 2018)
22) “This finding is likely to have practical consequences. First, studies of gut microbiota should
habitually account for sex (and its interactions with other factors) even when there is no main effect of sex…
If genotype-by-environment interactions prove to be common in diverse host species, as our results
suggest, then therapeutic changes to the environment will not work equally well for all host genotypes, or in
both sexes. Consequently, treatment of microbially associated diseases might need to account for these
interactions, potentially requiring therapies tailored to host sex and possibly other aspects of host
genotype” (Bolnick et al., 2014).
23) “The identification of diclofenac as the cause of the OWBV decline in Pakistan provides an
opportunity for conservation intervention. The high rate of visceral-gout-associated vulture mortality in
India3,22,23 as well as the widespread use of veterinary diclofenac in India (R. Risebrough, personal
communication) suggests strongly that diclofenac may also be responsible for vulture declines in the rest of
the Indian subcontinent wherever diclofenac is used for the treatment of livestock” (Oaks et al., 2004).

Unanswered questions and future research

Finally, you should discuss questions that remain unanswered. Briefly propose avenues for future
research to further address these questions (Docherty & Smith, 1999). Questions left unanswered in
scientific papers are described in examples 24, 25, 26 and 27 and are followed by ways to improve future
studies such that they focus on these answers.
24) “A number of questions remain unanswered, such as why the interaction was not detected at S=3. It
is obvious, however, that studying global changes simultaneously is essential, as the responses to single
changes are likely not additive as also evident from other multi-factorial studies (Reich et al., 2001; Wang,
2007)” (Boeck et al., 2008).
25) “An important, but unanswered, question is how changes in plant architecture, such as those
obtained here, will alter the competitive ability of kudzu. Reductions in above-ground and root biomass, in
addition to shorter internodes and secondary vine lengths, for plants in the simulated herbivory treatment
might limit kudzu’s ability to produce adventitious roots at stem nodes, and slow the plant’s spread by
vegetative reproduction. Additional research is needed to understand how the changes in plant architecture
documented here translate to overall plant performance and health” (Frye & Hough-Goldstein, 2013).
26) “Many questions remain to be addressed concerning how these changes influence plant competitive
relationships and ecosystem function. Further work is clearly needed to determine how alteration of AMF
communities influences plant competitive relationships during C. maculosa invasion and the role played by
AMF community composition in determining seedling establishment and subsequent vigor” (Mummey &
Rillig, 2006).
27) “Therefore, LG2055 might have other protective effects against influenza virus infection such as
enhancement of IgA production. Further investigation is required to better understand the detailed
functions of LG2055 to enable the prevention of influenza” (Nakayama et al., 2014).
At the end of the Discussion, you should provide closure by writing a concluding summary of the main
points you want the reader to remember (Wallwork, 2016) based on all aspects discussed. The conclusion is
the most important message of your paper. Hence, it should be written with great care in the present tense
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(use the past tense when describing results). The conclusion (whether in a separate section or not) should
match both the question/hypothesis/objective posed in the Introduction section and the main results
presented in the beginning of the Discussion section. Base your conclusions on the methods (considering
both the strengths and the limitations of the study) and evidence (your findings and the findings of other
studies) presented in the article. Both negative and positive findings are equally important to the
conclusion.
In the conclusion, readers expect an interpretation of the study’s key findings associated, when
appropriate, with support from the literature in addition to the study’s significance. The significance of the
study adds value to the article and focuses on practical applications (…can be used for…), recommendations
or opinions (X should be used to…, We recommend that X…), implications (Our results imply…, Y indicates
that X might…) or theoretical propositions (We hypothesize that…, Here we propose that…). The level of
certainty increases from the theoretical proposition to the description of practical application (Hofmann,
2014). In describing practical applications, you can illustrate the study’s relevance beyond your specific
research question (Glasman-Deal, 2010). When your study’s conclusions are different from your hypotheses,
you might suggest, based on what you have learned about the given problem, possible avenues for future
research. Conjunctive adverbs generally used for the concluding paragraph include the following: In
summary…, Taken together…, In conclusion… (Hofmann, 2014).
In example 28, the authors present a conclusion that addresses the question posed in the Introduction
(“The results obtained in this study clearly demonstrated that...”) followed by the study’s implication (“This
trait appears to be a good candidate for…”). In example 29, the authors answer the question raised in the
Introduction (“Our results demonstrate that...”) followed by recommendations (“Current environmental
policy needs to focus more strongly…”). In example 30, the authors present their key findings (“This
research has identified...”) followed by two implications (“This knowledge will allow for...” and “Increased
knowledge of the critical period will also…”). In example 31, the study’s novelty is highlighted in the
conclusion of the study (“In conclusion, we discovered a novel function of...”) followed by a description of
its implications (“These unique features render intestinal epithelial MyD88, an attractive target for...”). In
example 32, the authors state at the end of the conclusion this implication: “Ni has a high potential to
improve the utilization of N fertilizers by soybean…” Emphasizing that this topic has little research, the
authors propose that “…future research…” should be conducted to improve the use of N fertilizers for
soybean and other crops.
28) “The results obtained in this study clearly demonstrated that genetic variability exists in N2 fixation
resistance to drought. This trait appears to be a good candidate for exploitation in common bean breeding
programs to enhance drought resistance of future common bean cultivars” (Devi et al., 2013).
29) “Our results demonstrate that deposition of reduced forms of Nr continues to be of greatest
importance in China (which is responsible for approximately 2/3 of total deposition) but emission and
deposition of oxidized Nr are increasing more rapidly. Current environmental policy needs to focus more
strongly on reducing present NH3 emissions from agricultural sources, whereas control of NOx emissions
from industrial and traffic sources will become more important in the near future. It is time for China and
other economies to take action to improve N-use efficiency and food production in agriculture and reduce
Nr emissions from both agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. These actions are crucial to reducing N
deposition and its negative impact locally and globally” (Liu et al., 2013).
30) “This research has identified the critical period for yield determination and the associated critical
periods for yield components. This knowledge will allow for more targeted stress mitigation practices, e.g.
combining sowing date and cultivar phenology to reduce the likelihood of severe stress in the critical
window. Increased knowledge of the critical period will also enhance the ability of breeders to screen for
stress tolerance with more targeted stress impositions” (Lake & Sadras, 2014).
31) “In conclusion, we discovered a novel function of intestinal epithelial MyD88. We show that
targeting intestinal epithelial MyD88 confers protection or therapeutic effects against diet induced
metabolic disorders. Thus, intestinal epithelial MyD88 acts as a metabolic sensor that switches host
metabolism during diet-induced obesity via mechanisms involving the gut microbiota. These unique
features render intestinal epithelial MyD88, an attractive target for preventing or treating diet-induced
obesity and metabolic disorders” (Everard et al., 2014).
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Writing the discussion section Page 9 of 11

32) “All these results together with the proven and proposed roles of Ni in urea and amino acid
metabolism indicate that Ni has a high potential to improve the utilization of N fertilizers by soybean and
possibly other crops, which represents an important future research topic” (Kutman et al., 2013).

Final thoughts
Writing a Discussion section for the first time is a difficult task. Even for experienced authors, the first
version of the Discussion is likely to suffer many modifications as the manuscript “matures”. Nevertheless,
as with any other activity in life, practicing and evaluating are keys to improving discussion writing skills.
We offer two final words of advice: i) read as many papers as you can, and read them critically to learn how
important scientific groups communicate results and discuss them, and ii) try to review manuscripts written
by colleagues to build a capacity to analyze (separate components of manuscripts to better assess each one),
synthesize (put the pieces back together) and evaluate the manuscript as a whole.

Conclusion
When writing a discussion, scientists should carefully think about the subject under investigation, about the
quality of work conducted and about what can be modified in future studies. Mastering scientific writing is not an
easy task, but it can be a rewarding experience for both novice and experienced authors. Docherty and Smith’s
(1999) structure for discussions described, commented on and exemplified in this paper embraces major points
that should be addressed and may help researchers write this challenging section of the scientific article.

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge FAPEMIG and CNPq for their financial support.

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