Chapter-3 : Material Science

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Strength: Ability of material that can withstand to mechanical load.
Ductility: Ability of material that can undergo plastic deformation before failure.
Toughness: Ability of material that can observe the energy at time of failure.
Brittleness: Ability of material that can undergo sudden failure without plastic deformation.
Hardness: Resistances offer by the material against the mechanical deformation.
Stiffness: Ability of material than bear mechanical deformation under stress.
Creep: Study the behavior of material under constant mechanical load.
Fatigue: Study the behavior of material under variable mechanical load.
Resilience: Ability of material that can observe energy within a elastic limit.

Nano material:

1
Strength 
Defective int ensity

If the grain size of the material is less than 1000 Nano meters is known as Nano material.
If the defect size in the material is decreases, strength will be high. Therefore, Nano material will
possess a low defect size and high strength.

MATERIAL SCIENCE
Material science definition: Study of relationship between structure and properties of
engineering materials.

What is material and what is engineering material?

A material is any substances exist in the world.
Engineering material is material which is designed, developed and manufacturing to
specific application.
Eg: Tailors
The crystal structure of metals: When metals solidify from molten state. The atoms arrange
themselves into various orderly configuration is called as crystals. This arrangement of the atoms
in the crystal is called crystalline structure.
Unit cell: A unit cell is defined as the smallest representation of atoms which when repeated in
all the crystallographic direction results in development of crystal lattice.

Crystal lattice: It is three dimensional network of lines in spaces. It is also called as line lattice.
Note: No atoms only lines.
Space lattice: It is defined as three dimensional network of points in space. It is also called as
point lattice.

Note: For mathematical representation only lines are drawn.

Let ‘a’ =lattice parameter = It is defined as the distance between centers of neighboring corner
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atoms.
1. Average number of atoms: It is defined as the number of atoms which originally belong to
particular unit cell. It can be calculated by a formula.
Nc Nf N ce N c N f N ce
N Atom    for cubic, N Atom    for hexagonal
8 2 1 6 2 1
2. Co-ordination number: It is defined as the number of nearest and equidistant atoms
surrounding an atom under consideration
3. Packing factor: The ratio of volume occupied by average number of atoms to volume of unit
cell.
3 4
N avg ×
πr
= 3
Volume of unit cell
Solidification process for metals:

1. Simple cubic:

8 0 0
N avg atom    1
8 2 2
Coordination number = 6
Note: The key feature of a crystal structure is co-ordination number.

4 3 4
N avg × πr 1 πr 3
Packing factor = 3  3 3  52% (a=2R)
a3 8r
2. Body center cubic (B.C.C):

8 0 1
N avg    2
8 2 1
Coordination number = 8
4 3
N avg × πr
Packing factor = 3
3
a
4r
4r  3a  a 
3
Packing factor = 68%
Ex: Alpha iron, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and vandium

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3. Face center cubic(F.C.C):

8 6 0
N avg    4
8 2 1

Coordination number = 12
4 3
4× πr
3 4r
Packing factor = 3
a
a 2
= 74%
Eg: Gama( γ ) iron, aluminum , copper, nickel, lead, silver, gold and platinum.
4. Hexagonal closed packed structure (H.C.P.S):-

α  β  900 , γ  1200
One atom is placing in each hexagonal
Three atoms is placing in between the two hexagonal face.
12 2 3
N avg     2 1 3  6
6 2 1
Volume = Bh, where B = Area of base, h = height
c
= 1.632
a
Packing factor = 74%
Ex: Berlium, cadmium, Cobalt, magnesium, zinc etc.
5. Diamond structure: Diamond structure is a F.C.C with body atoms at a distance of a/4 along
the body diagonal.
8 6 4
N avg    8
8 2 1

 8r 
Packing factor = 34%  a  
 3
Co-ordination number = 4
Note: In diamond cube each atom is at centre of tetrahedron formed by four other carbon atoms.
So the co-ordination number is four.

Case-1: If material forms with simple cubic and B.C.C structure.

 B.C.C structure has more number of atoms
 Strength of B.C.C > Simple cubic
 Number of Bonding will be more
 Strength will be more
 In B.C.C structure, packing factor is high = The distance between atoms is less = Binding
energy is high

Case-2: Simple cubic (S.C), B.C.C and F.C.C

Strength: F.C.C > B.C.C > S.C
Density: F.C.C > B.C.C > S.C

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Because number of atoms are more in a unit cell it possess a more mass per unit volume. Density
will be high.

Case-3: F.C.C structure is more stronger than the H.C.P.S

During formation of H.C.P.S gaps are formed among lattice atoms = Binding energy decreases
Therefore, strength is low.

Case-4: Diamond exhibiting high strength even through it have low packing factor.
Note: Number of carbon atoms present is high. therefore, bonding energy among the carbon
atoms is high. If the bonding energy is high, automatically the strength is high.

1. The effective number of lattice points in the unit cell of simple cubic, B.C.C and
F.C.C space lattices respectively are
a) 1, 2, 2 b) 1, 2, 4 c) 2, 3, 4 d) 2, 4, 4

2. A. Alpha iron 1. F.C.C

B. Zinc 2. B.C.C
C. Glass 3. H.C.P.S
D. Copper 4. Amorphous
A B C D A B C D
a) 1 4 3 2 b) 2 4 3 1
c) 1 3 4 2 d) 2 3 4 1

Miller indices: Naming of atomic planes is done with miller indices.

Steps:
1. Write intercepts distance of the plane along x, y and z axis 2a, 4b, 2c
1 1 1
2. Take reciprocal of above values , ,
2 4 2
3. Rationalized above values 0.5, 0.25, 0.5
2 1 2
4. Miller indices plane [2, 1, 2]
Lattice parameter relationships and figures showing unit Geometries for the seven
Crystal Systems:
Crystal system Axial Internal angles Unit cell
relationship geometry
Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 900

Hexagonal a=b c α = β = 900 , γ = 120 0

Tetragonal a=b c α = β = γ = 900

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 Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ  900

Orthorhombic a b  c α = β = γ = 900

Monoclinic a b  c α = γ = 900  β

Triclinic a b  c α  β  γ  900

Hume-Rothery rule: Two materials will combined together and forms alloy, when condition of
Hume-Rothery are satisfied.
Even before looking of this condition, crystal structure of both material will same.

Conditions:
1. Differences in atomic radius of both material should be less than 15%.
2. Valency of both materials should be same
3. Electronegativity (different electrons)and electron affinity (same electrons) of both materials
should be comparable.

Deformation and strength of single crystal:

Slip:-When a crystal is subjected to external forces, It first undergoes
1. Elastic deformation 2. Plastic deformation [permanent deformation]

a = atomic planes, b = Inversely proportional to atomic density

Note: Permanent deformation take place with help of
1. Slip 2. Twinning
1. Slip: Slipping of one plane atoms over the adjacent plane under a shear stress.

Note: For this we can say that, single crystal is anisotropic.

Ex: Woven cloth

2. Twining: Second mechanism of plastic deformation is twinning.

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In which a portion of crystal form a mirror image of itself across the plane of twinning.
 Twins forms abruptly and cause of high sound.
 If generally occurs in hcp metals. [ex: Zinc at room temp]

Slip system: Combination of slip plane and if direction of slip is known as a slip system.
Note: If slip system above 5 = more ductile
If slip system below 5 = more brittle
B.C.C = 48 possible slip system.
The atoms arranged randomly orientation. The result stopping movement of dislocation and arrest
the slip and builds the permanent deformation.
Hence, B.C.C will fail without exhibiting ductility.
F.C.C = 12 slip system
These metals have moderate strength and good ductility. Compare to B.C.C, Because atoms are
arranged in systematically.
H.C.P.S = 3 slip system
So, it has low probability of slip.

1. The material property which depends only on the basic crystal structure is
a) Fatigue strength b) Work hardening
c) Fracture strength d) Elastic constant
2. Match list-I (Crystal structure) with List-II (Example) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Simple cubic 1. Zinc
B. Body-centered cubic 2. Copper
C. Face-centered cubic 3. Alpha iron at room temperature
D. Hexagonal close packed 4. Manganese
Codes: A B C D A B C D
a) 4 3 1 2 b) 4 3 2 1
c) 3 4 2 1 d) 3 4 1 2
3. The co-ordination number for F.C.C crystal structure is
a) 4 b) 8 c) 12 d) 16
4. The effective number of lattice points in the unit cell of simple cubic, body
centered cubic, and face centered cubic space lattices, respectively are
a) 1, 2, 2 b) 1, 2, 4 c) 2, 3, 4 d) 2, 4, 4
5. Assuming atoms to be perfect spheres, what is the value of the highest possible
atomic packing (APF) in metals?
a) 0.95 b) 0.74 c) 0.66 d) 0.5
6. Atomic packing factor (APF) in the case of copper crystal is
a) 0.52 b) 0.68 c) 0.74 d) 1.633
7. In the atomic hard-sphere model of the crystal structure of copper, what is the
edge length of unit cell?
a) 2  Atomic radius b) (4/ 3 )  Atomic radius
c) (2 2 )  Atomic radius d) 2  Atomic radius
8. Match List-I (crystal structure) with list-II (Atomic packing factor) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Simple cubic 1. 74%
B. Body centered cubic 2. 74%
C. Face centered cubic 3. 52%
D. Hexagonal close packed 4. 68%
Codes: A B C D A B C D
a) 3 4 2 1 b) 4 3 2 1
c) 3 4 1 2 d) 4 3 1 2

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9. Which one of the following is the correct ascending order of packing density for
the given crystal structures of metals?
a) Simple cubic-face centered cubic-body centered cubic
b) Body centered cubic-simple cubic-face centered cubic
c) Simple cubic-body centered cubic-face centered cubic
d) Body centered cubic-face centered cubic simple cubic

Dislocations: Types of defects:

1. Point defect 2. Line defect 3. Surface defect 4. Volume defect
1. Point defect:
a) Vacancies: A position vacated by an atom in the parental metal lattice is called as vacancies.
b) Impurities: Foreign atom existing in a parent metal lattice
Interstitial: Replacing atom by smaller atom
Substitutional: Replacing atom by large atom
c) Frenkel defect: It denotes vacancy and it is self-interstitial existing with in a neighborhood.
d) Schottky defect: It occur in Ionic solids due to the formulation of cations (–) and Anions (+).

Effect of point defect:

1. Vacancy formation result in the weaking of material.
2. Due to presence of impurities, lattice distortion will take place.

2. Line defect:
(a). Edge dislocation:

Although millions of dislocation are present in real materials but to understand concepts, let us
take an ideal material free form any defect.

*One face of material is restricted to deform and an opposite face 50% area of uniform pressure
applied.
*Once this pressure exceeds beyond certain value, there will be slipping of atoms.
*A unit plastic deformation is called slip. Direction of slip is represented by burger vector.
*Burger vector will always be in the direction of applied load.
This slipping of atom will continue upto certain thickness with in the materials. At a certain
point this slipping will stop. Because other side of material is fixed. As it can be seen in figure. ‘AB’
is boundary between slipped and unslipped region and this is called dislocation line.
As if taken seen in figure, at edge dislocation line there will be extra half plane.
Due to pregence of extra half plane. Interstitial void will be slightly bigger in size.
In edge dislocation, dislocation line is perpendicular to burger vector.

b) Screw dislocation: In screw dislocation, dislocation line will be parallel to burger vector.
In every material there are millions of dislocation present with in the grain when external
load applied on the material, dislocation present in the direction starts moving.

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Note: When dislocation comes out it is said that plastic deformation begin in the materials.
Any activity within material that create obstacle in movement of dislocation and increase
strength of materials.
3. Surface defect:
a) Grain boundary defect: The bond length is more at the grain boundary due to orientation
mismatch and can easily be broken. So, atmospheric oxygen reacts with the atom at grain
boundary and corrodes. So finer the grain structure lower will be the corrosion resistance.
10 0
b) Tilt boundary defect: When the orientation mismatch at the given boundaries is  1 , grain
2
boundaries are called tilt boundaries.
c) Twin boundary defect: When the orientation on one side are mirror image of opposite side,
such grain boundary defects are called twin boundary defects.
4. Volume defects: Volume defects are stacking faults which are created by a fault in the
staking sequence of close packed atomic planes in crystals such as FCC and HCP.

1. Which one of the following defects is schottky defect?

a) Vacancy defect b) Compositional defect
c) Interstitial defect d) Surface defect
2. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?
a) Point defect in crystal lattice: Self interstitials
b) Linear defect in crystal lattice: Grain boundary
c) Planar defect in crystal lattice: External surface
d) Volume defect in crystal lattice: Other phases
3. Which of the following factors govern solubility of two non-ferrous metals both in
liquid state, as well as in solid state?
1. Crystal structure 2. Relative size factor
3. Chemical affinity factor 4. Relative valence factor
Codes;
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2, 3 and 4 c) 1 and 4 d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
4. Which one of the following is correct for “Burger’s vector” in screw dislocation?
a) Perpendicular to the dislocation line b) Inclined to the dislocation line
c) Parallel to the dislocation line d) Opposite to the dislocation line
5. Chemicals attack atoms within grain boundaries preferentially because they have
a) Lower energy than those in the grains b) Higher energy than those in the grains
c) Higher number of atoms than in the grains
d) Lower number of atoms than in the grains
6. What is a surface imperfection, which separates crystals of different orientation in
a poly-crystalline aggregate, called?
a) Edge dislocation b) Stacking fault c) Grain boundary d) Screw dislocation
7. What is the movement of block of atoms along certain crystallographic planes and
directions, termed as?
a) Glide b) Twining c) Slip d) Jog

Yield point phenomenon:

Carbon and Nitrogen are interstitial impurities in iron. But regular interstitial void is
much smaller than size of carbon atom. Since at dislocation side interstitial void is larger in size,
carbon and nitrogen diffusive through atomic structure and accumulates dislocation side.
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Producing carbon and nitrogen rich atmosphere called cottrel atmosphere still interstitial voids
at the dislocation side is slightly smaller than size of carbon and nitrogen atom. So cottrel
atmosphere produces atom strain on the host iron atom near the dislocation side.
When load is applied on the material slightly stress are required to break the cottrel
atmosphere and jumping dislocation of next side thats why upper yield appears in the material.
Once the dislocation jumps to new side since there is no cottrel atmosphere. Slightly lower
stress are sufficient to keep the dislocation moving thats why lower yield point and yield point
phenomenon appear in the material.
After appearances of yield point phenomenon when we upload the material upon on
Reloading, yield point phenomenon will not appear. It is because there is cottrel atmosphere at
dislocation side.
After certain time period carbon and nitrogen again diffused at new dislocation sight yield
point phenomenon re-appear in the material.
The time period after which the yield point phenomenon re-appear is called strain aging
time.
In medium and high carbon steel, carbon is not only present on dislocation side but also on
the other Interstitial side as well. So the moment dislocation jumps to new position carbon is
already there. So yield point phenomenon doesn’t appear in this material.
Strengthen Mechanism:

Impurities material, if it occupies interstitial side , it produces compressive strain field(S.F).

1. Large size substitution impurities produces compressive S.F.
2. Smaller size substitution impurities produces tensile S.F.
This strain field create on obstacles in the moment of dislocation. So, alloys will also be
stronger than pure metal.

2. Grain refinement:

Upon applying the load dislocation with in grain starts moving. As soon as dislocation
reaches on the boundary . Since atom on other side oriented differently. Slightly larger stress
required to cross the grain boundary. So grain boundary are obstacles in the movement of
dislocation.
Fine grain in the micro structure or lattice, more obstacles in the movement of dislocation.
So the material will get higher strength.

Work or strain hardening:

Upon cold working the material, number of dislocation with in the material increases. How
much dislocation multiplication will take place is a property of material. This dislocation pile up
at the grain boundaries and produces as dislocation forest. Interaction between two dislocation
are repulsive in nature dislocation for as produces a back stress. Larger stress are required for
dislocation to cross dislocation forest present at the grain boundary. This increases the
strength of material.
Upon unloading the material from region of work hardening and reloading the opposite
direction back stress supports movement of dislocation. So yield in compression appear

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prematurely. This phenomenon is called Baushingo effect.
Age hardening or precipitation:

Alloy of aluminum with less than 5.5% of Cu is heated to temperature. So that uniform
phase  appears in the microstructure.
This material is quenched to room temperature. so copper get locked in the structure of
Aluminum as time pass copper start coming of microstructure and produces precipitation of Al2
CO2. This precipitation creates an obstacles in the moment of dislocation. This increase the
strength of material.
As the time pass more & more precipitates will nucleate and this will be the average
distances between the two aluminum molecules.
After sometime period, Nucleation will stop and these corresponds to peak strength. Later
on smaller precipitate combining together and forming bigger precipitation. This increase average
distances between precipitates and dislocation line find lesser number of obstacles. This decreases
the strength of materials. This phenomenon is called over aging.
When aging temperature is high, rate of nucleation is high because of higher diffusion. So
material will be stronger in lesser time period. But higher is temperature less is peak strength.
Because rate at which small precipitation will combining together faster.
Creep: -
It is slow and progressive deformation of material over a period of time at constant load at
temperature higher than the recrystalization temperature.
1. Work hardening 2. Recrystalization

This movement material is loaded instantaneous creep appear in the material. Instantaneous creep
is similar to elastic strain. In primary creep region strain rates are decreased because due to work
hardening material is become stronger. In the secondary creep region a balance will be achieved
between work hardening and recrystalization. So strain rate will almost constant. But there will be
limit up to which work hardening take place and slowly recrystalization phenomenon decreases and
strain can rate suddenly increases and material fracture. Higher is the temperature more
predominant in the recrystalization phenomenon and hence creep curve can shift towards left.

Cooling curve of pure iron:

Initially raw material [iron] is heated upto liquid state and then cooling up to ambient
temperature.
During this stage phase change and crystal structure changes as shown in figure.

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IRON DIAGRAM:
IRON – IRONCARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM:

Why it is called equilibrium diagram:

1. Isothermal 2. Time dependent 3. Reversible

Definitions of some important phases:

1. S – ferrite: It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in '  ' iron. '  ' -iron with BCC structure
[Navg – 2].
2.   Austenite: It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in '  ' iron. '  ' - Iron with F.C.C.
structure. Navg – 4.
3.   Ferrite: It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in   iron.   Iron with B.C.C
structure. [ Navg – 2.]
4. Fe3C: It is compound Fe and carbon having 0 maximum carbon solubility of 6.67% carbon in it.

1. Peritectic reaction: [1492oC, 0.18%C].

  L 
cooling
   Austenite 
2. Eutectic reaction: [ 1147oC, 4.3%C]
L 
cooling
   Fe3C  Ledeburite 
Ledeburite is mixture of Austinite and cementite.
3. Eutectoid reaction: [727oC 0.8%]

Decompose reaction    + Fe3C [pearlite]

Pearlife is a mixture of  -ferrite and cementite solubility of carbon in various phases.
1. Solubility of ‘C’ in  –phase–0.1% 2. Solubility of ‘C’ in  - phase – 2.1%
3. Solubility of ‘C’ in  -phase–0.025%
4. Solubility of ‘C’ in  - phase room temperature – 0008%

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Some critical temperature lines and their significances:
A1line : (727oC)
It is called as lower critical temperature line, this line signifies the transformation of pearlife
to Austenite.[Upon heating of eutectoid steel].
A2 line:768
This line is known as Curie point temperature line. It signifies the magnetic to non-magnetic
transformation.
Note: Carbon content has no effect on curie point temperature.
A3 line:
This is known as upper critical temperature line for hypo eutectoid steels. This line signifies
the transformation of ferrite into Austinite upon heating of hypo–eutectoid steel.
Acm line:
This is known as upper critical temperature for hyper eutectoid steels. This line signifies the
transformation of cementite.

Classification of cast irons:

Gray cast iron: In pure iron–carbon system, when percentage of carbon is more than 6.67% carbon
will appear in the form of free (or) flake. Such cast iron is called gray cast iron.
Note: This material are used to manufacture machine beds, piston ring etc.

White cast iron: When entire amount of carbon present in the material appears in the combined
form, it is called white cast iron.
Chilled cast iron: Cast iron of such composition, in which it normally freeized to Gray cast iron,
but forced to appear as white by rapid cooling. Such cast iron is called chilled cast iron.
Note: 1. It mainly used for manufacturing the Nozzle.
2. White and chilled cast iron are not used directly in any engineering application. These
materials are used to produce ductile cast iron.

Spheroidal cast iron: When object is to produce ductile cast iron, small amount of magnesium is
added into liquid iron. After producing chilled cast iron, the material is again heated to
temperature less than 11500 C and cooled extremely slowly in the furnace.
When the cooling rate are little fast, carbon will combine in middle form is called Modular cast iron.
Note: Hardness increases order S.C.I, N.C.I, G.C.I. W.C.I, C.C.I.
Steels:
 Mild steel: [0 to 0.15% carbon]
Properties:
1. Very highly ductile 2. High weldability
 Application: Screws, gears, shafts.
 Dead steel (or) low carbon steel [0 to 0.25% C]: -
Properties:
1. Highly ductile 2. High weldability. [It is less compare to mild steel]
Application: Chains, rivets, seam welded pipe.
 Medium carbon: - [0.25 C to 0.45 C]
Properties: 1. Medium hard & ductile 2. Moderate ductility 3. Medium corrosion resistance
Application: Connecting rod, shafts, crank shafts etc.
 High carbon: [0.45 to 2.1%]
Properties:1. High hardness 2. Low weldability 3. Low cost
Application: Rails, wire ropes, drop–hammer dies.
 High speed steel: [18 – 4 – 1 ] 18 % W, 4% Cr, 1% V
1. It is used mainly for cutting tools 2. It is medium carbon steel
3. In terms of molybdenum [6 % MO, 6 % W, 4% Cr, 2% V]
 Stainless steels (or) Austenitic stainless steels.[18/8]
18 – Chromium
8-Nickel

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1. List – I List – II

A. Pearlite P. Extremely hard and brittle phase

B. Martensite Q. Cementite is finely dispersed in fertile
C. Austenite R. Alternate layers of cementite and ferrite
D. Eutectoid S. Can exit only above 723oC
T. Pertaining to state of equilibrium between three solid phases
Codes: A B C D A B C D
a) R P S T b) R S P T
c) T R P S d) T R S P
2. List – I List – II
A. Alpha Iron 1.  Iron
B. Iron carbide having crystal with 2. Eutectic
3 iron and 1 carbon atom 3.Ferrite
C.B.C.C pure allotrope of iron is stable 4. Cementite
between 1388oC and is melting point is 1535oC
Codes: A B C A B C
a) 4 2 3 b) 3 4 1
c) 4 2 1 d) 3 1 2
3. Eutectic reaction for iron 0 carbon system occur at
a) 6000C b) 723oC c) 1147oC d) 1493oC
4. During peritetic solidification, one liquid
a) Combines with one solid to form a second new solid
b) Solidifies into two different solids c) Forms one solids
d) Forms one solid and another liquid
5. Pearlite consist of
a) 6.67% and 93.33 %ferrite b) 13 % Fe and 87% cementite
c) 13% C and 87% ferrite d) 13% cementite and 87% ferrite
6. Vibration damping in machinery is best achieved by means of base structures
made of which one of the following materials?
a) Low carbon steel b) Nodular iron c) Grey cast iron d) White cast iron
7. Which of the following materials is used in the manufacture of extrusion
nozzles?
a) Grey cast iron b) Malleable cast iron c) White cast iron d) Nodular cast iron
8. Consider the following statements:
1. Cast iron has poor ability to damp vibrations
2. Cast iron has higher compressive strength compared to that of steel
3. Cast iron parts are suitable where permanent deformation is preferred over fracture.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
a) 1, 2 & 3 b) 1 & 3 c) 3 only d) 2 only
9. Nodular grey cast iron is obtained from the grey cast iron by adding a small
amount of
a) Manganese b) Phosphorous c) Magnesium d) Chromium
10. Assertion (A): Cast iron is generally hard, brittle & wear resistant.
Reason (R): Cast iron contains more than 2% carbon and as such the percentage
cementite in it is higher.
a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are individually true and R is not a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true
11. Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists:
List I (Name of the material) List – II ( % Carbon range)
A. Hypo – eutectoid steel 1. 4.3 – 6.67
B. Hyper – eutectoid steel 2. 2.0 – 4.3
C. Hypo – eutectic cast iron 3. 0.8 – 2.0
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 D. Hyper – eutectic cast iron 4. 0.008 – 0.8
Codes: A B C D A B C D
a) 4 3 2 1 b) 1 3 2 4
c) 4 1 2 3 d) 1 2 3 4
12. Addition of magnesium to cast iron increases its
a) Hardness b) Ductility and strength in tension
c) Corrosion resistance d) Creep strength
13. The composition of some of the alloy steels are as under
1. 18 W 4 Cr 1 V 2. 12 MO 1 W 4 Cr 1 V 3) 6 Mo 6 W 4 Cr 1 V 4) 18 W 8 Cr 1 V
The compositions of commonly used high speed steels would include
a) 1 & 2 b) 2 & 3 c) 1 & 4 d) 1 & 3
14. The main alloying elements in high speed steel in order of increasing
proportion are
a) Vanadium, Chromium, tungsten b) Tungsten, Titanium, Vanadium
c) Chromium, titanium, vanadium d) Tungsten, Chromium, titanium

Heat treatment:
Annealing:
Full Annealing (200oC/hr): The objective of full annealing is to decrease hardness or brittleness
or increase ductility or toughness.

Hypo eutectoid steel sample are heated 50oC above upper critical temperature and hyper eutectoid
are heated 50 % above lower critical temperature. After heating this sample at that temperature for
certain time period. Samples are cooled slowly in the furnace. As it can be seen on TTT diagram.
Slow cooling will produce coarse structure.

Process Annealing: This process is used to relive the residual gradual stress from low carbon
steels. The sample is heated to recrystalization temperature that is slight below lower critical
temperature and then cools slowly in furnaces.

Due to formation new crystals, residual stress will die out. As it can be seen that in process.
Annealing austenite has not been produces there will not be any change in grain structure because
TTT diagram will not operational.

Spherodise Annealing: The objective of spherodise Annealing is to decrease machinability in

medium and high carbon steel. These samples are heated close to lower critical temperature and
then cooled extremely slow in furnaces.

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Machinability of material improves by formation of spherodise.

Diffusion Annealing: Diffusion annealing is performed to homogeneous the chemical composition

of any structure.

Higher temperature is selected to enable the diffusion phenomenon more and more.

Normalizing:

A steel sample heated to a temperature at which Austinite is stable. From this temperature
sample is air quenched. Since surface will experience faster cooling rate it will produces fine grain
structure and grain will become coarse and coarse towards center.
Normalizing produces hard surfaces and tough core the microstructure which is used in
engineering application. That’s why normalizing is considered as final heat treatment process.

Hardening: A steel sample is heated to a temperature at which austenite is stable. This samples
are quenched into medium to achieve cooling equal or higher than critical cooling rate. This will
produces martensite.

Quenching medium:
Water : Although water is cheap but as soon as it comes and contact with work piece. Vapour will
be formed and entire work piece will be covered by vapour blanket. This decrease the heat transfer.
Brain solution : So excessive salt is added in the water. It increases boiling point and hence
decrease vapour blanket formation. Faster cooling is provided by Brain solution.
Oil Bath :Although uniform cooling rate provide but also cooling rate is very low. Oil bath are used
only in case of oil bath.
Note : In case of tool steels, it increases the hardness and wear retaining the toughness at the same
time.
In case of structural steel, it improves strength, ductility and toughness.

Tempering: The martensite which is formed during quenching is too brittle and hence cannot be
used in many cases, the residual stresses are also developed during martensite formation hence
hardening should be followed by tempering. Tempering consist of heating the hardened steel to a

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temperature below the lower critical temperature holding it for some time and then cooling slowly.
It is the final operation in heat treatment.
Some advantages of tempering are:
1. Residual stresses are relived. 2. Ductility is improved. 3.Toughness is increased

Tempering is classified according to the tempering temperature, because it has much effect
on properties of steel:
1. High temperature Tempering (Sorbite): It is employed at 500 – 650oC. The resulting
structure consists of sorbite which gives good strength and toughness. Residual stresses are
completely relieved if holding temperature is 100 – 120oC the holding time can be increased to
give desired properties to steel.
2. Medium temperature: Tempering(Troosite): This type of tempering is employed at 350 –
500oC the resulting steel structure consist of tempered troosite. This process increases the
endurance limit and elastic limit. After tempering the work is cooled in water. This increases
the endurance limit in case of springs. This process is used for spring steel and die steels.
3. Low temperature tempering: The temperature used in this process is 250oC and the
holding time is 1 -3 hrs. This process reduces internal stresses increases strength and
toughness and provides high wear resistance. This method is employed in manufacture of
measuring tools and cutting tools. This is also employed to the components which are surface
hardened by carburizing nitriding or carbo – nitriding.

Case Hardening: Hard surfaces are produced on relatively soft cores by case hardening. The parts
which are subjected to wear and impact are hardened by surface treatment, the hard surface has
good wear resistance and the soft core has good toughness. Since mild steels can not be hardened by
quenching. So their strength is increased by case hardening.
Carburizing: It is applied to low carbon steel up to 0.18% carbon. In carburizing the carbon
content of the surface layer is increased, the purpose is to obtain a hard layer on the work piece
surface after heat treatments.
Hardness = 800 VHN
Note : - 1. It is done at 9500C 2. It requires heat treatment after carburizing.
Pack carburizing:- In pack carburizing mild steel specimen are kept in a container along with
charcoal. Upon heating this container to 9500C carbon diffuse from charcoal to mild steel specimen.
Although pack carburizing is cheap and easy. But it doesn’t produces quality case and also it take
lot of time to perform carburizing .

Compositions: - 50 % good charcoal 20 % BaCO3, 5% CaCO3 and 5 - 12 % Na2CO3.

Nitriding:- In nitriding the N content of the surface is increased, this is done by heating the steel
in the atmosphere of ammonia(NH3) gas the parts to be nitride are placed in the air tight container.
NH3 is passed continuous through the work pieces at a temperature of 500 to 650oC. NH3 gas
dissociates as follows:
2NH 3  2N  3H 2
Advantages:
a) It increases the hardness of surface layer which is harder as compared to carburizing.
b) It increases wear resistance, endurance limit and resistance to corrosion.

Uses: Nitriding is used during manufacture of gears components of M/C tools. Cylinders of powerful
engines, cylinder liners, gauges, cams, valves etc.
Disadvantages:
a) The case produced is brittle b) The process is costly compared to carburizing
Note:
1. Nitriding produces harder and stronger case as compared to carburizing.

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Because atomic radius of nitriding  atomic radius of carburizing.
2. Hardness = 1000 VHN, it is heated up to 650oC.
Cyaniding: - The mild steel specimen is dipped into the carbon nitrogen solution at 850oC. It
produces hardness in between the carburizing and nitriding.
Hardness = 900 VHN.
Note: - Nitriding> Cyaniding > Carburizing (Hardness)

Induction Hardening: This process is employed to increase hardness, wear, resistance and
endurances limit of the surface of the work piece. The heat treatment is given to the surface only by
supplying excessive heat to the surface followed by drastic quenching; the surface is heated to the
austenite range and then quenched immediately to form martensite. The structure of core remains
unchanged because it is not effected by heat, the components should contain 0.4 – 0.5 % carbon or
sufficient alloying elements as chromium Ni, or Mo. The work is placed in helical coils called
inductor. The coil consists of several turns of water cooled cu tubing. Alternate current is passed
through the inductor and thus alternate magnetic field sets up. The field induces eddy currents on
the surface layers and heat is generated. The current density is not uniform throughout the cross –
section of the work piece. Approximately the 90% of the heat is generated in the work layer of
thickness (x) represented by

X  5000
f

  electrical resistivity, f = frequency,  = magnetic permeability

Advantages:
1. Time required is very small hence the process is very quick and productivity is high.
2. Scale is not formed hence machining time is saved more over material is not lost due to
scale formation.
3. The process can be automated.
4. Depth of hardness can be controlled easily.
Disadvantages:
Each type of work piece requires different fixtures for its holding where as different work
pieces can be treated at one time in carburizing and nitriding.

Applications:
Automobile component, cold rolling mills, splined shaft, crane wheels, spindles, Brake drums etc.

Flame hardening: Cam shaft are case hardened by this technique. Material is heated using
oxidizing flame and immediately it quenched by water. This produces a very thin layer of
martensite on the surface.
It doesn’t produces quality cases. But process is very cheap. In some rare case low carbon steel are
also case hardened. But in that case we use carburizing case.

Note: Lathe machine beds are flame treated to produce a thin layer of white cast iron on the
surface.

Mar tempering : - Austenite sample is initial quenched into the hot bath, maintained at a
temperature of below the nose point bur above the martensite line. But sample kept at this bar for
certain period. so temperature of surface and cone will be uniform. So sample is taken out from hot
bath and placed at cold bath and maintained at room temperature.

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Auss Tempering:
Austenite is cooled at rate equal to or higher than cooling rate to a temperature less than nose point
of TTT diagram but above the martensite start line. This temperature is maintained for substantial
period of time so that the transformation line enter into TTT diagram it produces a Bainite.

Bainite cannot be produced continuous cooling. Mechanics of formation of Bainite is combination

of diffusion and shear.

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