The Virial

Theorem and
its
astronomical The Virial Theorem and its astronomical
applications

Marco
applications
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
Marco Loreggia, Anna Sancassani, Giulia Zuin
The
Formation of
Stars Università degli Studi di Padova
Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
Bi - national Heraeus Summer School Series
I. Cosmology

Heidelberg, August 17 - 25, 2013

 Contents

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications This work is divided in three parts:
Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, 1 The Formation of Stars
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars 2 Fundamental Plane and FP’s Tilt
Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter 3 Dark Matter

 The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin FIRST SECTION:
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
The formation of Stars
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Introduction

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter

Eagle Nebula Stellar sector ngc 2467

(source NASA) (source NASA)
 Purpose

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The This criterion is called the Jeans

Formation of
Stars mass from Sir James Jeans
Fundamental (1877 − 1946)
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter

Front page of the original

document
 The Virial Theorem

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications The basic equations which let to describe the hydrostatic
Marco equilibrium are the
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The Virial Theorem

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications The basic equations which let to describe the hydrostatic
Marco equilibrium are the
Loreggia,
Anna Equation of Continuity
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin if ρ is the density
∂ρ
The + div (ρv ) = 0 of the medium with velocity v
Formation of ∂t
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The Virial Theorem

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications The basic equations which let to describe the hydrostatic
Marco equilibrium are the
Loreggia,
Anna Equation of Continuity
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin if ρ is the density
∂ρ
The + div (ρv ) = 0 of the medium with velocity v
Formation of ∂t
Stars
and the equation of Navier-Stokes.
Fundamental
Plane and
a is the acceleration due to
FP’s Tilt external forces, P is the pressure
Dark Matter dv 1 due to the mass of fluid and the ω
= a − ∇P + ω∇2 v
dt ρ is the kinematic coefficient of
viscosity.
 The Virial Theorem

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna Now we suppose that the cloud has spherical simmetry, in
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin which the viscous effects are negligible and that the body is in
Hydrostatic Equilibrium.
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The Virial Theorem

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna Now we suppose that the cloud has spherical simmetry, in
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin which the viscous effects are negligible and that the body is in
Hydrostatic Equilibrium.
The
Formation of
Stars 1 ∂P GMr
Fundamental
∇P = ρg and =− 2 (1)
Plane and
ρ ∂r r
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The Virial Theorem

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna Than it is possible to proof that for a cloud in Hydrostatic
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin Equilibrium holds the next formula called the Virial Theorem.
The
Formation of 2K + U = 0 (2)
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
where K is the total thermal energy (internal kinetic energy) of
FP’s Tilt
the star and U expresses the gravitational potential energy.
Dark Matter
 Jeans criterion

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
If now we consider a spherical cloud of constant density,
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Jeans criterion

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
If now we consider a spherical cloud of constant density,the
applications gravitational potential energy is approximately
Marco
Loreggia,
Anna 3 G(Mc )2
Sancassani, U=− (3)
Giulia Zuin 5 Rc
The
Formation of
where Mc and Rc are the mass and the radius of the cloud.
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Jeans criterion

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
If now we consider a spherical cloud of constant density,the
applications gravitational potential energy is approximately
Marco
Loreggia,
Anna 3 G(Mc )2
Sancassani, U=− (3)
Giulia Zuin 5 Rc
The
Formation of
where Mc and Rc are the mass and the radius of the cloud.
Stars If the interstellar cloud is approximated as being isothermal
Fundamental
Plane and
and constant density ρ then the thermal energy may be written
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter 3
K = NkB T (4)
2
where N is the total number of particles contained in the cloud
and kB is the Boltzmann constant.
 Jeans criterion

The Virial
Theorem and N is just
its
astronomical
M
applications
N= (5)
µmH
Marco
Loreggia, where µ is the molecular weight mean and mH is the mass of
Anna
Sancassani, hydrogen atom.
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Jeans criterion

The Virial
Theorem and N is just
its
astronomical
M
applications
N= (5)
µmH
Marco
Loreggia, where µ is the molecular weight mean and mH is the mass of
Anna
Sancassani, hydrogen atom.
Giulia Zuin
Then by the Virial Theorem the condition of collapse
The
Formation of
(−U > 2K ) becomes
Stars

Fundamental 3 GMc2 kB TMc

Plane and >3 (6)
FP’s Tilt 5 Rc µmH
Dark Matter
 Jeans criterion

The Virial
Theorem and N is just
its
astronomical
M
applications
N= (5)
µmH
Marco
Loreggia, where µ is the molecular weight mean and mH is the mass of
Anna
Sancassani, hydrogen atom.
Giulia Zuin
Then by the Virial Theorem the condition of collapse
The
Formation of
(−U > 2K ) becomes
Stars

Fundamental 3 GMc2 kB TMc

Plane and >3 (6)
FP’s Tilt 5 Rc µmH
Dark Matter
If we suppose constant the initial mass density of the cloud ρ0
we have
3Mc 1/3
 
Rc = (7)
4πρ0
 Jeans criterion

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Then after substitution we obtain the condition to initiate the
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
collapse of the cloud and is know as the Jeans criterion

The ! 32 ! 21
Formation of 5kB T 3
Stars M> =: MJ (8)
Fundamental
µmH G 4πρ0
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
where Jeans mass MJ is defined.
 Jeans criterion

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
From the expression of the radious in the previous formula we
Giulia Zuin can get the so called Jeans radius
The
Formation of
1/2
15kB T

Stars
RJ = (9)
Fundamental 4πGµmH ρ0
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The free-fall timescale

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna Other important parameter which we have to introduced is the
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin free-fall timescale.
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The free-fall timescale

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna Other important parameter which we have to introduced is the
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin free-fall timescale.
The 1/2
3π 1 1

Formation of
Stars tff = ≈√
Fundamental
32 Gρ0 Gρ0
Plane and
FP’s Tilt where ρ0 is the initial density of the body.
Dark Matter
 Homologous Collapse

The Virial
Theorem and So far, the instruments present here let to an Homologous
its
astronomical Collapse
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Problems and observations

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco (i) stars frequently tend to form

Loreggia,
Anna in group
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Problems and observations

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco (i) stars frequently tend to form

Loreggia,
Anna in group
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
(ii) only a few numbers of cloud
let to the formation of stars
 Adiabatic evolution process

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Adiabatic evolution process

The Virial
Theorem and
According to the Virial theorem the energy must be liberated
its
astronomical
during the collapse of the cloud is
applications

Marco 3 GMJ2
Loreggia, ∆E =
Anna 10 RJ
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Adiabatic evolution process

The Virial
Theorem and
According to the Virial theorem the energy must be liberated
its
astronomical
during the collapse of the cloud is
applications

Marco 3 GMJ2
Loreggia, ∆E =
Anna 10 RJ
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
and then the luminosity due to the gravity is given by
The
Formation of 5/2
∆E MJ

Stars
Lff ' ' G 3/2
Fundamental tff RJ
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Adiabatic evolution process

The Virial
Theorem and
According to the Virial theorem the energy must be liberated
its
astronomical
during the collapse of the cloud is
applications

Marco 3 GMJ2
Loreggia, ∆E =
Anna 10 RJ
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
and then the luminosity due to the gravity is given by
The
Formation of 5/2
∆E MJ

Stars
Lff ' ' G 3/2
Fundamental tff RJ
Plane and
FP’s Tilt
On the other hand thanks to Stefan-Boltzmann’s equation we
Dark Matter
may express the radiated luminosity as

Lrad = 4πR 2 eσT 4

where we introduced the efficiency factor 0 < e < 1, to

indicate the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium
 Adiabatic evolution process

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications Equating the two expressions for the cloud’s luminosity
Marco
Loreggia,
(Lff = Lrad ) and rearranging, we have
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Adiabatic evolution process

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications Equating the two expressions for the cloud’s luminosity
Marco
Loreggia,
(Lff = Lrad ) and rearranging, we have
Anna
Sancassani, 2/5
4π 9/2

Giulia Zuin
MJ = R eσT 4
The G 3/2 J
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Adiabatic evolution process

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications Equating the two expressions for the cloud’s luminosity
Marco
Loreggia,
(Lff = Lrad ) and rearranging, we have
Anna
Sancassani, 2/5
4π 9/2

Giulia Zuin
MJ = R eσT 4
The G 3/2 J
Formation of
Stars
Then we arrive at the estimate required
Fundamental
Plane and
T 1/4
FP’s Tilt
 
Dark Matter MJmin = 0, 03 M
e 1/2 µ9/4

where T is expressed in kelvin and M is the mass of the sun.

 Conclusion

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, In conclusion from this simple analysis we can observe that:
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Conclusion

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, In conclusion from this simple analysis we can observe that:
Giulia Zuin
fragmentation ceases when the segments of the original
The
Formation of
cloud begin to reach the range of the solar mass object
Stars
our estimate is relatively insensitive to other reasonable
Fundamental
Plane and choise for T , e and µ
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Conclusion

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, In conclusion from this simple analysis we can observe that:
Giulia Zuin
fragmentation ceases when the segments of the original
The
Formation of
cloud begin to reach the range of the solar mass object
Stars
our estimate is relatively insensitive to other reasonable
Fundamental
Plane and choise for T , e and µ
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 References:

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco 1 A. MAEDERr, Physics, Formation and Evolution of Rotating Stars, book

Loreggia, editor by Springer, 2009
Anna
Sancassani, 2 FRANCIS LEBLANC, An Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics, book editor
Giulia Zuin
by Wiley, 2010
The 3 BRADLEY W. CARROLL, DALE A. OSTLIE, An introduction to modern
Formation of Astrophysics, secon edition, editor by Pearson
Stars
4 RALF S. KLESSEN, ANDREAS BURKET, MATTHEW R.BATE,
Fundamental Fragmentation of molecular clouds: the initial phase of a stellar cluster,
Plane and
FP’s Tilt article of The American Astronomical Society The Astrophysical Journal,
501:L205-L208, 1998 July 10
Dark Matter
5 Simulation and visualisation by MATTHEW BATE, University of Exeter UK
 The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
SECOND SECTION:
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
The Fundamental Plane
and
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
the problem of “Tilt”
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals - Introduction

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical Until 70’s, between scientists, elliptical galaxies wasn’t
applications
considered objects of intrinsic interest from the standpoint of
Marco
Loreggia, dynamic. Essentially for two reasons:
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
they was considered simple stellar systems, revolution
The
Formation of ellipsoid
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals - Introduction

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical Until 70’s, between scientists, elliptical galaxies wasn’t
applications
considered objects of intrinsic interest from the standpoint of
Marco
Loreggia, dynamic. Essentially for two reasons:
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
they was considered simple stellar systems, revolution
The
Formation of ellipsoid
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and the instrumentations was not able to give appropriate
FP’s Tilt
informations about their kinematics
Dark Matter
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals - Introduction

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical Until 70’s, between scientists, elliptical galaxies wasn’t
applications
considered objects of intrinsic interest from the standpoint of
Marco
Loreggia, dynamic. Essentially for two reasons:
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
they was considered simple stellar systems, revolution
The
Formation of ellipsoid
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and the instrumentations was not able to give appropriate
FP’s Tilt
informations about their kinematics
Dark Matter

For example, with the introduction of CCD, in the second half of

Seventies, the scientists were able to make more accurate photometric and
kinematic measurements. . .
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals - Some Parameters

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
There are two fundamental sets of elliptical galaxies basic
Loreggia,
Anna
structural parameters: one is the set of shape parameters and
Sancassani, the second consists of the shape-independent parameters. We
Giulia Zuin
are interested in the second type
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals - Some Parameters

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
There are two fundamental sets of elliptical galaxies basic
Loreggia,
Anna
structural parameters: one is the set of shape parameters and
Sancassani, the second consists of the shape-independent parameters. We
Giulia Zuin
are interested in the second type
The
Formation of
Stars The second type parameters are, for example: the effective
Fundamental
Plane and
radius (Re ), the effective surface brightness (Ie ), the central
FP’s Tilt velocity dispersion (σ0 ), the luminosity in various bands X
Dark Matter
(LX ), the mean color (B − V) and the line-strenght indices of
magnesium (Mg2 )
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Definition of some important parameters

The Virial
Theorem and We recall the definition of some of these parameters, (we will
its
astronomical focus only on those that are involved in the following):
applications

Marco
Loreggia, the effective radius (Re ) of a galaxy is the radius at which
Anna
Sancassani, one half of the total light of the system is emitted within this
Giulia Zuin
radius (spherical symmetry)
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Definition of some important parameters

The Virial
Theorem and We recall the definition of some of these parameters, (we will
its
astronomical focus only on those that are involved in the following):
applications

Marco
Loreggia, the effective radius (Re ) of a galaxy is the radius at which
Anna
Sancassani, one half of the total light of the system is emitted within this
Giulia Zuin
radius (spherical symmetry)
The
Formation of the surface brightness (Ie ): the overall brightness of an
Stars extended astronomical object (a galaxy, a cluster, a nebula) can
Fundamental be measured by its apparent magnitude. This is a limited tool
Plane and
FP’s Tilt for our purposes because it is clear that, on equal apparent
Dark Matter magnitude, an extended object will be harder to see than a star.
We need an extra parameter: the surface brightness give an
indication of how easily observable the object is
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Definition of some important parameters

The Virial
Theorem and We recall the definition of some of these parameters, (we will
its
astronomical focus only on those that are involved in the following):
applications

Marco
Loreggia, the effective radius (Re ) of a galaxy is the radius at which
Anna
Sancassani, one half of the total light of the system is emitted within this
Giulia Zuin
radius (spherical symmetry)
The
Formation of the surface brightness (Ie ): the overall brightness of an
Stars extended astronomical object (a galaxy, a cluster, a nebula) can
Fundamental be measured by its apparent magnitude. This is a limited tool
Plane and
FP’s Tilt for our purposes because it is clear that, on equal apparent
Dark Matter magnitude, an extended object will be harder to see than a star.
We need an extra parameter: the surface brightness give an
indication of how easily observable the object is
the velocity dispersion (σ) is the statistical dispersion of
velocity about the mean velocity of a group of objects
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Some correlations among parameters of ellipticals

The Virial With the development of techniques in the Seventies, it was realized
Theorem and
its that many property of ellipticals was correlated by empirical relations:
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Some correlations among parameters of ellipticals

The Virial With the development of techniques in the Seventies, it was realized
Theorem and
its that many property of ellipticals was correlated by empirical relations:
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Re - Ie : There is a correlation between the effective radius Re
Anna and the mean surface brightness within Re , Ie :
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
Re ∝ I−a
e (Kormendy, 1977)
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Some correlations among parameters of ellipticals

The Virial With the development of techniques in the Seventies, it was realized
Theorem and
its that many property of ellipticals was correlated by empirical relations:
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Re - Ie : There is a correlation between the effective radius Re
Anna and the mean surface brightness within Re , Ie :
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
Re ∝ I−a
e (Kormendy, 1977)
The
Formation of
Stars In 1987, Djorgovsky and Davies completed the
Fundamental formula with the determination of the value
Plane and
FP’s Tilt
a = 0, 83 ± 0, 08.
Dark Matter
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Some correlations among parameters of ellipticals

The Virial With the development of techniques in the Seventies, it was realized
Theorem and
its that many property of ellipticals was correlated by empirical relations:
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Re - Ie : There is a correlation between the effective radius Re
Anna and the mean surface brightness within Re , Ie :
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
Re ∝ I−a
e (Kormendy, 1977)
The
Formation of
Stars In 1987, Djorgovsky and Davies completed the
Fundamental formula with the determination of the value
Plane and
FP’s Tilt
a = 0, 83 ± 0, 08. So, fainter galaxies have an higher
Dark Matter
surface brightness and a smaller effective radius
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Some correlations among parameters of ellipticals

The Virial With the development of techniques in the Seventies, it was realized
Theorem and
its that many property of ellipticals was correlated by empirical relations:
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Re - Ie : There is a correlation between the effective radius Re
Anna and the mean surface brightness within Re , Ie :
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
Re ∝ I−a
e (Kormendy, 1977)
The
Formation of
Stars In 1987, Djorgovsky and Davies completed the
Fundamental formula with the determination of the value
Plane and
FP’s Tilt
a = 0, 83 ± 0, 08. So, fainter galaxies have an higher
Dark Matter
surface brightness and a smaller effective radius

Mg2 - σ0 : The intensity of Magnesium increases with both the

luminosity of galaxy (Faber, 1973) and the central
velocity dispersion (Burstein et al. 1988; Bernardi et
al. 2003)
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Some correlations among parameters of ellipticals

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications Color - Magnitude: There is a correlation between the
Marco absolute magnitude an the color of galaxies; so
Loreggia,
Anna the brighter galaxies are more red than fainter
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin galaxies
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Fundamental Plane of ellipticals -
Some correlations among parameters of ellipticals

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications Color - Magnitude: There is a correlation between the
Marco absolute magnitude an the color of galaxies; so
Loreggia,
Anna the brighter galaxies are more red than fainter
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin galaxies
The
Formation of
Stars
L - σ0 : In 1976 Faber and Jackson discovered the
Fundamental
following relation:
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
L ∝ σ0n

where 3 ≤ n ≤ 5 and, the σ0 is referred,

generally, to the central region of radius Re /8
 The fundamental plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
In 1987 two groups of scientists introduced the effective radius
Marco
in the last equation, and observed that, in this way, the value
Loreggia,
Anna
of n become more exact
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The fundamental plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
In 1987 two groups of scientists introduced the effective radius
Marco
in the last equation, and observed that, in this way, the value
Loreggia,
Anna
of n become more exact
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
The innovation of this discover was the definition of the three
The
Formation of
dimensional space of three observable σ0 , Re and Ie . In this
Stars space, the elliptical galaxies are not uniformly disposed, but
Fundamental
Plane and
are concentrated on a logarithmic plane, named fundamental
FP’s Tilt plane, that is a relation like:
Dark Matter

logRe = α logσ0 + β logIe + γ

 The fundamental plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco logRe = α logσ0 + β logIe + γ

Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The fundamental plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco logRe = α logσ0 + β logIe + γ

Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The The coefficients depends slightly on the used photometric

Formation of
Stars band.
Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The fundamental plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco logRe = α logσ0 + β logIe + γ

Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The The coefficients depends slightly on the used photometric

Formation of
Stars band.
Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt An important property of the FP is the constant dispersion of
Dark Matter the various involved observable: for example, the distribution of
Re around the best-fit (with fixed Ie and σ0 ) has a dispersion
that can change from 15% to 20%.
 The Virial Theorem

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications It is possible to prove that the characteristic dynamical time of
Marco ellipticals and their collisionless relaxation time is of the same
Loreggia,
Anna order (Lynden-Bell 1967). In particular are both short with
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
respect to the age of ellipticals.
The
Formation of
Stars ⇓
Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
Highly perturbed galaxies are presumably caught in a
non-stationary phase. Stationarity is a sufficient condition for
the validity of the Virial Theorem, and so for ellipticals the
Virial Theorem holds.
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
So, assuming the validity of Virial Theorem, we can begin the
astronomical
applications
calculation.
Marco
Loreggia, The scalar Virial Theorem, says that the kinetic energy T and
Anna
Sancassani, the potential energy Ω in a system are correlated in this way:
Giulia Zuin

The 2T = −Ω
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental So it is true that:

Plane and M D E
FP’s Tilt G = V2
hRi
Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
So, assuming the validity of Virial Theorem, we can begin the
astronomical
applications
calculation.
Marco
Loreggia, The scalar Virial Theorem, says that the kinetic energy T and
Anna
Sancassani, the potential energy Ω in a system are correlated in this way:
Giulia Zuin

The 2T = −Ω
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental So it is true that:

Plane and M D E
FP’s Tilt G = V2
hRi
Dark Matter

- G is the gravitational constant

 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
So, assuming the validity of Virial Theorem, we can begin the
astronomical
applications
calculation.
Marco
Loreggia, The scalar Virial Theorem, says that the kinetic energy T and
Anna
Sancassani, the potential energy Ω in a system are correlated in this way:
Giulia Zuin

The 2T = −Ω
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental So it is true that:

Plane and M D E
FP’s Tilt G = V2
hRi
Dark Matter

- G is the gravitational constant

- M the mass
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
So, assuming the validity of Virial Theorem, we can begin the
astronomical
applications
calculation.
Marco
Loreggia, The scalar Virial Theorem, says that the kinetic energy T and
Anna
Sancassani, the potential energy Ω in a system are correlated in this way:
Giulia Zuin

The 2T = −Ω
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental So it is true that:

Plane and M D E
FP’s Tilt G = V2
hRi
Dark Matter

- G is the gravitational constant

- M

the
 mass
- V 2 the mean quadratic velocity weighted by the mass
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
So, assuming the validity of Virial Theorem, we can begin the
astronomical
applications
calculation.
Marco
Loreggia, The scalar Virial Theorem, says that the kinetic energy T and
Anna
Sancassani, the potential energy Ω in a system are correlated in this way:
Giulia Zuin

The 2T = −Ω
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental So it is true that:

Plane and M D E
FP’s Tilt G = V2
hRi
Dark Matter

- G is the gravitational constant

- M

the
 mass
- V 2 the mean quadratic velocity weighted by the mass
- hRi the characteristic gravitational radius, weighted by the mass
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
If Re is the effective radius of the elliptical galaxy, we can
Marco
define a parameter kR that satisfy:
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, hRe i = kR hRi
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
If Re is the effective radius of the elliptical galaxy, we can
Marco
define a parameter kR that satisfy:
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, hRe i = kR hRi
Giulia Zuin

The This parameter must take into account the structure of

Formation of
Stars internal density of mass in the galaxy
Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
If Re is the effective radius of the elliptical galaxy, we can
Marco
define a parameter kR that satisfy:
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, hRe i = kR hRi
Giulia Zuin

The This parameter must take into account the structure of

Formation of
Stars internal density of mass in the galaxy
Fundamental
Plane and
We can define a parameter kV that satisfy:
FP’s Tilt D E
Dark Matter σ02 = kv V 2
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
If Re is the effective radius of the elliptical galaxy, we can
Marco
define a parameter kR that satisfy:
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, hRe i = kR hRi
Giulia Zuin

The This parameter must take into account the structure of

Formation of
Stars internal density of mass in the galaxy
Fundamental
Plane and
We can define a parameter kV that satisfy:
FP’s Tilt D E
Dark Matter σ02 = kv V 2

and that must reflects the kinematic structure of the

galaxy
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Now, substituting the hRe i = kR hRi and σ02 = kv V 2 in the


Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
virial equation:
Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Now, substituting the hRe i = kR hRi and σ02 = kv V 2 in the


Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
virial equation:
Marco
M D E
Loreggia,
Anna G = V2
Sancassani, hRi
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Now, substituting the hRe i = kR hRi and σ02 = kv V 2 in the


Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
virial equation:
Marco
M D E
Loreggia,
Anna G = V2 M = c2 σ02 Re
Sancassani, hRi
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
where c2 = (GkV kR )−1 .
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Now, substituting the hRe i = kR hRi and σ02 = kv V 2 in the


Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
virial equation:
Marco
M D E
Loreggia,
Anna G = V2 M = c2 σ02 Re
Sancassani, hRi
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
where c2 = (GkV kR )−1 .
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
Finally, we know that L = c1 Ie Re2 where Ie is the mean
FP’s Tilt superficial effective brightness (Ie = L/2πRe2 )
Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Now, substituting the hRe i = kR hRi and σ02 = kv V 2 in the


Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
virial equation:
Marco
M D E
Loreggia,
Anna G = V2 M = c2 σ02 Re
Sancassani, hRi
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
where c2 = (GkV kR )−1 .
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
Finally, we know that L = c1 Ie Re2 where Ie is the mean
FP’s Tilt superficial effective brightness (Ie = L/2πRe2 ) so we insert this
Dark Matter
information in the above equation for M.
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Now, substituting the hRe i = kR hRi and σ02 = kv V 2 in the


Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
virial equation:
Marco
M D E
Loreggia,
Anna G = V2 M = c2 σ02 Re
Sancassani, hRi
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
where c2 = (GkV kR )−1 .
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
Finally, we know that L = c1 Ie Re2 where Ie is the mean
FP’s Tilt superficial effective brightness (Ie = L/2πRe2 ) so we insert this
Dark Matter
information in the above equation for M. The final result is:
−1
M

Re = (c1 c2−1 ) σ02 Ie−1
L
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
If we assume that every galaxy has the same luminosity
Marco
Loreggia, profile (i.e. we assume that all galaxies are “homologous” in
Anna
Sancassani, this sense) the parameter c1 is constant
Giulia Zuin

(because Ie = L/2πRe2 and L = c1 Ie Re2 and if we substute...)

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
If we assume that every galaxy has the same luminosity
Marco
Loreggia, profile (i.e. we assume that all galaxies are “homologous” in
Anna
Sancassani, this sense) the parameter c1 is constant
Giulia Zuin

(because Ie = L/2πRe2 and L = c1 Ie Re2 and if we substute...)

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and The parameter c2 indeed depends on the mass and the
FP’s Tilt
velocity dispersion in the galaxy (because c2 = (GkV kR )−1 ).
Dark Matter
So, c2 is constant if we assume that all galaxies are
homologous in this sense too.
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia, A priori, the resulting equation
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin −1
M

Re = (c1 c−1
2 ) σ02 I−1
e
The
Formation of
L
Stars

Fundamental
is not a defined locus in the space (σ0 , Re , Ie ). For every point
Plane and
FP’s Tilt
of this three-dimensional space, the values of c2 and M/L can
Dark Matter vary a lot.
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
−1
M

Marco Re = (c1 c−1
2 ) σ02 I−1
e
Loreggia, L
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
But, if the galaxies all belong to the same homologous family
The
Formation of
and the ratio M/L is constant from galaxy to another with the
Stars change in mass, we have that the equation below should define
Fundamental
Plane and
univocally the physical characteristic of the galaxy:
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The theoretical interpretation of Fundamental Plane

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
−1
M

Marco Re = (c1 c−1
2 ) σ02 I−1
e
Loreggia, L
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
But, if the galaxies all belong to the same homologous family
The
Formation of
and the ratio M/L is constant from galaxy to another with the
Stars change in mass, we have that the equation below should define
Fundamental
Plane and
univocally the physical characteristic of the galaxy:
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
The FP from the Virial Theorem

Re ∝ σ0A IB
e with A=2 B = −1
 The problem of “Tilt”

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications The PROBLEM:
Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
the experimental evidences say that the galaxies,
Giulia Zuin
in the (σ0 , Re , Ie ) space, are concentrated in a
The
Formation of plane that is considerably distant from the plane
Stars

Fundamental
that the Virial Theorem return!
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter

This gap between the theoretical and experimental coefficients

is also named “the tilt of fundamental plane”
 The problem of “Tilt”

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The problem of “Tilt”

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia, In the 1987 it was determined, in photometric band B, the
Anna
Sancassani, right coefficients of the plane: Ā = 1, 39 ± 0, 15 and
Giulia Zuin
B̄ = −0, 9 ± 0, 1.
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental To be more precise, when the two planes Re ∝ σ0A IeB and
Plane and
FP’s Tilt Re ∝ σ0Ā IeB̄ are in logarithmic form, they appear to be
Dark Matter tilted by an angle of ∼ 15◦ in all three variables.
 The problem of “Tilt”

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
This problem is a consequence of a wrong assumed
Anna
Sancassani,
hypothesis:
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 The problem of “Tilt”

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
This problem is a consequence of a wrong assumed
Anna
Sancassani,
hypothesis:
Giulia Zuin

The
the ratio M/L is not constant with the change in mass of
Formation of
Stars
galaxy and the ellipticals are not an homologous family of
Fundamental galaxies in this sense
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
(an explanation can be the existence of Dark Matter . . . )
 The problem of “Tilt”

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications The conclusion is that there are three important still open
Marco problems:
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin i) why is the FP so thin
The
(i.e. why is that relation so tight);
Formation of
Stars ii) why is the FP “tilted”
Fundamental (i.e. why elliptical galaxies don’t seem to obey the Virial
Plane and
FP’s Tilt Theorem);
Dark Matter iii) why does the FP itself exists
(i.e. what causes the properties of elliptical galaxies to be
so “systematic”)
 References:

The Virial
Theorem and 1 SCHNEIDER P. T., Extragalactic astronomy and cosmology: an
its introduction, Berlin, Springer, 2006.
astronomical
applications 2 PIZZELLA A., Corso di astrofisica delle galassie 1, Dispensa, 2006,
http://www.astro.unipd.it/pizzella/corso/2006/dispense/
Marco
Loreggia,
dispense_FP_1_0.pdf (last access 26/07/13)
Anna 3 FERRARI A., Stelle, galassie e universo: fondamenti di astrofisica, Milano,
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin Springer, 2011.
4 BINNEY J. - MERRIFIELD M., Galactic astronomy, Princeton, Princeton
The University Press, 1998.
Formation of
Stars 5 Galaxy scaling relations: origins, evolution and applications :
Fundamental proceedings. . . , Germany, 18-20 November 1996, 1997.
Plane and 6 BUSARELLO G. et al., The relations between the Virial Theorem and the
FP’s Tilt
fundamental plane of elliptical galaxies, in Astron.Astrophys., 320, p.
Dark Matter 415-420.
7 CIOTTI L. et al.,The tilt of fundamental plane of ellipitical galaxies: I.
Exploring dynamical and structural effects, in Mon.Not.Roy.Astron.Soc.,
282 (1996), p. 1-12.
8 BORRIELLO A. et al., The fundamental plane of ellipticals: I. The dark
Matter connection, in Mon.Not.Roy.Astron.Soc., 341 (2003), p.
1109-1120.
 The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin THIRD SECTION:
The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
The Dark Matter
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Evidence for an unseen component in spiral galaxies

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia, In 1970s Vera Rubin was studying HII regions in spiral
Anna
Sancassani, galaxies, and she was able to plot their velocities around
Giulia Zuin
the galactic centre as a function of their distance from it.
The
Formation of
Stars
Problem: she found that the rotational speeds of the
Fundamental
Plane and clouds did not decrease with increasing distance from the
FP’s Tilt
galactic centre and, in some cases, even increased
Dark Matter
somewhat.
 Evidence for an unseen component in spiral galaxies

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
Possible answers: even the stars in the galaxy are
embedded in a large halo of unseen matter or Newton’s
law of gravity does not hold true for large distances.
 Dark matter halo in spiral Galaxies

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Why dark matter is dark

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia, With ordinary matter, electromagnetism affects everything
Anna
Sancassani, from chemistry to luminosity to electric and magnetic
Giulia Zuin
fields and even the pressure of stellar winds; thus
The electromagnetism plays an important role in determining
Formation of
Stars the arrangement of ordinary matter, which is often
Fundamental irregular.
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Why dark matter is dark

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications With ordinary matter, electromagnetism affects everything
Marco
Loreggia,
from chemistry to luminosity to electric and magnetic
Anna
Sancassani,
fields and even the pressure of stellar winds; thus
Giulia Zuin electromagnetism plays an important role in determining
The the arrangement of ordinary matter, which is often
Formation of
Stars irregular.
Fundamental Except through gravitation, dark matter does not
Plane and
FP’s Tilt interact (or interacts only very weakly) with itself or with
Dark Matter ordinary matter. Indeed, that’s why it’s dark: to emit light
it would have to interact via the electromagnetic force.
 Why dark matter is dark

The Virial
Theorem and With ordinary matter, electromagnetism affects everything
its
astronomical from chemistry to luminosity to electric and magnetic
applications
fields and even the pressure of stellar winds; thus
Marco
Loreggia, electromagnetism plays an important role in determining
Anna
Sancassani, the arrangement of ordinary matter, which is often
Giulia Zuin
irregular.
The
Formation of Except through gravitation, dark matter does not
Stars
interact (or interacts only very weakly) with itself or with
Fundamental
Plane and ordinary matter. Indeed, that’s why it’s dark: to emit light
FP’s Tilt
it would have to interact via the electromagnetic force.
Dark Matter
Because electromagnetism plays no role in the distribution
of dark matter, however, dark matter forms large, smooth,
spherical clumps, usually filled by ordinary galaxies plus
hot gas or plasma, which it has trapped and retained
solely through gravitation.
 Gravitational Lensing

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Mass curves the space around it, bending the paths along
Loreggia, which rays of light travel.
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Gravitational Lensing

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications →The more mass and the closer to the center of mass,
Marco
Loreggia,
the more space bends, and the more the image of a
Anna
Sancassani,
distant object is displaced and distorted.
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Gravitational Lensing

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
→The more mass and the closer to the center of mass,
applications
the more space bends, and the more the image of a
Marco
Loreggia,
distant object is displaced and distorted.
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter

Thus: measuring distortion (or shear ) is key to measuring

the mass of the lensing object itself.
 Homemade gravitational lens effect

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Homemade gravitational lens effect

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Homemade gravitational lens effect

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Gravitational Lensing

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter

1
1
An international team of astronomers using the NASA/ESA Hubble
Space Telescope has discovered a ghostly ring of dark matter that was
formed long ago during a titanic collision between two massive galaxy
clusters. It is the first time that a dark matter distribution has been found
that differs substantially from the distribution of ordinary matter.
 Gravitational Lensing - Strong Lensing

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
Lensing of this type are called strong lensing.
applications (A very massive object or collection of objects, like a
Marco
Loreggia,
nearby galaxy cluster and the dark matter that encloses it).
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter

,→ The visible distortion is a direct measure of the mass of

the lens and points to its center.
 Gravitational Lensing - Weak Lensing

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications There are also weak lensing, work in the same way of
Marco strong lensing, exept that the shear is too subtle to be
Loreggia,
Anna seen sirectly. Most of the apparent shear isn’t distortion at
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin all: a galaxy has its own distinct shape, and we often see
The
it from an angle that makes it too elongated.
Formation of
Stars Faint additional distortions in a collection of distant
Fundamental galaxies can be calculated statistically, and the average
Plane and
FP’s Tilt shear due to the lensing of some massive object in front of
Dark Matter them can be computed.
 Gravitational Lensing - Weak Lensing

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications
There are also weak lensing, work in the same way of
Marco
strong lensing, exept that the shear is too subtle to be
Loreggia,
Anna
seen sirectly. Most of the apparent shear isn’t distortion at
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin
all: a galaxy has its own distinct shape, and we often see
it from an angle that makes it too elongated.
The
Formation of Faint additional distortions in a collection of distant
Stars
galaxies can be calculated statistically, and the average
Fundamental
Plane and shear due to the lensing of some massive object in front of
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
them can be computed.

Yet, to calculate the mass of the lens from average shear,

one has to know its center.
 Mapping the Dark Matter

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Possible DM Candidates - Barionic Dark Matter

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
MACHOs (MAssive Compact Halo Objects) :
Anna
Sancassani, - Brown Dwarfs
Giulia Zuin
- Low mass, Faint red Stars
The - White Dwarfs
Formation of
Stars - Neutron Stars
Fundamental
Plane and
- Black Holes
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
→ Detection Method: Gravitational Lensing
 Possible DM Candidates - Nonbarionic Dark Matter

The Virial
Theorem and
its
WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) :
astronomical
applications neutral particles formed during the Big Bang,
Marco passing through massive particles without
Loreggia,
Anna interacting and which exert and experience
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin only gravitational (and possibly weak) forces
The
Formation of
Stars
i.e., photinos, neutrinos, gravitinos, axions... only
Fundamental neutrinos have been detected.
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
→ Detection Methods and Projects: The Amanda Project
(Antartica Muon and Neutrino Detector Array), The
Cryogenic Dark Matter Search, The DAMA Experiment
(Particle Dark Mattre Searches with Highly Radiopure
Scintillators at Gran Sasso).
 Composition of the Universe

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Dark Matter role in Galaxies Formation

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco We essentially have accurate data on the distribution of

Loreggia,
Anna galaxies over most of the evolution of the universe.
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin Although the measurements at earlier epochs have larger
The
errors, due to smaller data sets, their accuracy and power
Formation of to constrain theoretical models is quite remarkable.
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt In 2006, the Chicago scientists based their supercomputer
Dark Matter simulations on the assumption that galaxies form in the
center of dark-matter halos.
 Dark Matter role in Galaxies Formation

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical According to this scheme, gravity causes the dark matter
applications
in these regions to collapse into halos. These halos provide
Marco
Loreggia, a central location where normal matter consisting of
Anna
Sancassani, hydrogen, helium and a small amount of heavier elements
Giulia Zuin
would collect in gaseous form. Once this gas had cooled
The and condensed, it achieved sufficient density for star
Formation of
Stars formation to begin on a galactic scale.
Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 CDM Model - Cluster Formation

The Virial
Theorem and CDM Model: asserts that cold dark matter is present in the
its
astronomical Universe in the form of long filaments, which build a “cosmic
applications
web” on a big scale. The model also postulates that in the
Marco
Loreggia, intersections of these filaments there are cluster of galaxies.
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter
 Galaxy Clusters - Filaments of DM

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco
Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani,
Giulia Zuin

The
Formation of
Stars

Fundamental
Plane and
FP’s Tilt

Dark Matter

2
2
A July 2012 study of the galaxy clusters Abell 222 and Abell 223
found they are connected by a dark matter filament, shown here. The blue
shading and the yellow contours indicate the density of matter.
 References:

The Virial
Theorem and
its
astronomical
applications

Marco 1 IAN MORRISON, Introduction to Astronomy and Cosmology, Wiley, 2008

Loreggia,
Anna
Sancassani, 2 STEVE KOPPES, Simulations show dark matter’s role in galaxy formation,
Giulia Zuin
The University of Chicago Chronicle,
http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/060713/darkmatter.shtml
The
Formation of
Stars
3 Un filamento di materia oscura tra due ammassi di galassie, Le Scienze,
Fundamental
Plane and
06/07/2012, www.lescienze.it/news/2012/07/06/news/filamento_
FP’s Tilt materia_oscura_cluster_galassie-1133317/
Dark Matter
4 Nuove ipotesi sulla materia oscura, Le Scienze, 10/06/2013