energies

Article
Load Signature Formulation for Non-Intrusive Load
Monitoring Based on Current Measurements
Aggelos S. Bouhouras 1 , Paschalis A. Gkaidatzis 2 , Konstantinos C. Chatzisavvas 1,3 ,
Evangelos Panagiotou 1 , Nikolaos Poulakis 1 and Georgios C. Christoforidis 1, *
1 Electrical Power Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering,
Western Macedonia University of Applied Sciences, 50100 Kozani, Greece; [email protected] (A.S.B.);
[email protected] (K.C.C.); [email protected] (E.P.); [email protected] (N.P.)
2 Power Systems Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; [email protected]
3 mSensis S.A., VEPE Technopolis, Bld. C2, P.O. Box 60756, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +30-24610-68141

Academic Editor: Rodolfo Araneo

Received: 14 February 2017; Accepted: 10 April 2017; Published: 16 April 2017

Abstract: In this paper we present a new methodology for the formulation of efficient load signatures
towards the implementation of a near-real time Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring (NILM) approach.
The purpose of this work relies on defining representative current values regarding the 1st, 3rd and
5th harmonic orders to be utilized in the load signatures formulation. A measurement setup has
been developed and steady-state measurements have been performed in a Low Voltage residence.
A data processing methodology is proposed aiming to depict representative current values for
each harmonic order in order to keep the load signature short and simple. In addition, a simple
disaggregation scheme is proposed under linear equations for the disaggregation mode in order to
examine the near-real time application of the methodology. The analysis indicates that the developed
load signatures could be efficient for a per second application rate of the NILM algorithm. The results
show that the higher harmonic currents facilitate the identification performance. Finally, the analysis
concludes that for combinations that include appliances with intense harmonic content, the phase
angle of the higher for harmonic currents should also be considered to the load signatures formulation.

Keywords: NILM; load signatures; load identification; odd harmonic currents

1. Introduction
The Smart Grid Concept (SGC) relies basically on advanced metering capabilities regarding the
real or near real time recording of the grid’s operational characteristics, and on upgraded automation
concerning immediate switching operations [1,2]. The Smart Home paradigm is expected to constitute
the core of the SGC in Low Voltage (LV) networks and is likely to be implemented via the installation
of Smart Meters with upgraded metering features, and advanced data acquisition and analysis tools.
Smart Meters are expected to provide detailed measurements of the energy consumption of each
residence in order to promote Demand Side Management (DSM) actions towards energy efficiency
strategic plans [3]. Moreover, in order to facilitate consumers to understand their consumption behavior
and to analyze its dependency on specific consumption patterns, further functional capabilities are
investigated to be embedded in Smart Meters. These capabilities refer to Load Identification (LI)
functions that aim to provide information about the identity of the turned-on appliance, its working
duration, and its consumption [4]. Such information is highly appreciated by both the consumers
and the aggregator (e.g., Distribution Network Operator) since it could support (a) the consumers to
understand their consumption behavior and possibly alter it in order to reduce their electricity cost,

Energies 2017, 10, 538; doi:10.3390/en10040538 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 538 2 of 21

and (b) the aggregator to launch DSM programs that provide incentives towards energy efficiency,
peak shaving, peak shifting and more.
LI is based on the notion that the consumption/working behavior of each appliance could be
described under a unique and distinct formulation, which embeds information about all features related
to the appliance’s operational/electrical attributes. This formulation is commonly known as Load
Signature (LS). In practice, LS constitutes a suitably configured data structure that describes concisely
the behavior of the load during its operation. The early attempts for LI involved either installing
sensors on every appliance or an intermediate monitoring system that recorded its operation [5].
Generally, this Intrusive Load Monitoring (ILM) method is inconvenient due to its high cost for
large scale implementations. A simpler methodology, namely the Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring
(NILM), was proposed in the early 1990s [6]. The advantage of NILM is that it requires only one
power meter for the monitoring and identification of the plugged appliances, installed at the main
feeding panel. The challenge, though, in NILM methodologies lies on the LI efficiency, since the
recorded and measured signal is actually an aggregated one that embeds the information from all
simultaneously working appliances. The efficient disaggregation of this signal into its components
depends greatly on the formulation of unique and distinct LSs. In case of simultaneous operation
of two or more appliances, LI involves finding an appropriate combination of the individual LSs of
the active appliances. Therefore, the higher the uniqueness of these load signatures the easier the
identification procedure.
Many NILM methodologies have been proposed to deal with the development of both efficient LSs
and LI approaches. The overall efficiency of a NILM algorithm is heavily dependent on the complexity
and size of the LS, which in turn depends on the selection of the appliances’ features [7–11]. Most of
the published methodologies utilize features like the active and reactive power, current and voltage
harmonics, transient behavior particularly during the activation, current waveform characteristics,
and techniques based on V-I trajectory [12–16]. For example in [17] the analysis utilizes the transient
response time and transient energy on the power signatures. These features are obtained via a discrete
wavelet transform as it has been considered more suitable than the short-time Fourier transform. In all
aforementioned methodologies the selected features are utilized either individually or combined,
in order to enhance the efficiency of the LSs.
One crucial aspect regarding the utilization of harmonics in NILM methodologies relies on how
this information should be depicted and embedded in LSs. For example in [18] it has been found
that the odd harmonic currents constitute efficient features for the load signature formulation. Thus,
the question raised in this case refers to the highest order of odd harmonic currents to be utilized.
Naturally, the more the harmonic currents depicted, the higher the uniqueness of the LS. On the
other hand, a high complexity regarding the LS formulation could cause unacceptable computation
burden for the disaggregation mode of the NILM algorithm. In this latter case, the identification
accuracy could worsen at the expense of the algorithm’s implementation time. In [19] a NILM scheme
is employed to identify special loads of a microgrid. Several Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) spectrum
components are considered for the formulation of the LSs, while sub-harmonics and interharmonics are
also examined due to the nature of the examined loads. The work in [20] presents a thorough survey
about NILM methodologies, analyzing four load types. Type-I refers to appliances with only two states
of operation (on/off). Type-II loads are multi-state appliances with a finite number of operational
states and repeatable switching pattern. Type-III includes appliances with variable power draw
characteristics, but without fixed number of operational states. Finally, Type-IV involves appliances
that remain active throughout weeks or days consuming energy at a constant rate. The analysis in [20]
concludes that NILM methods under steady-state that utilize harmonic current have a relatively low
accuracy for Type-III loads and for overlapping features for consumer electronics of Type-I and Type-II
category. The consideration of harmonic currents has been proven to contribute in formulating more
distinct LSs [21–23], but it has not been fully clarified how these harmonic features could be efficiently
disaggregated in NILM algorithms under simultaneous operation of various appliances.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 3 of 21

In [24] an approach of multi point sensing and group control in NILM techniques is presented.
The technique used the first 8 harmonic of the current signature for the classification with neural
network classifier and Bayes classifier demonstrating a recognition accuracy of up to 99.18%. Although
high identification accuracy is performed, the proposed technique depends on large data since
8 harmonic orders are utilized. In [25] a low cost NILM approach is proposed. The basic utilized
data for the LS formulation concern the peak current values. The performance of this approach is
significantly decreased when more than three appliances are operating simultaneously. In [26] the
LSs are formulated based on harmonic currents up to the 15th order. Moreover, the phase of each
order is also measured and the total rms current is also utilized. These aforementioned data have
been acquired under a high sampling frequency via an expensive measurement device. Finally, in [27]
an interesting approach is presented. The methodology utilizes a Data Acquisition (DAQ) card to
measure rms current values and as stated by the authors, an unknown appliance can be identified
according to the following metrics: (a) Similarity of magnitude arrays of the consumed current level,
(b) Similarity of standard distribution array of the consumed current level and (c) Operation time and
duration of each appliance type.
In this paper, we examine the contribution of the Odd-Order Harmonic Currents (OOHC) towards
the enhancement of LSs that are formed only by the amplitude of the currents at the fundamental
frequency (i.e., 50 Hz) and at 3rd and 5th harmonic orders (i.e., 150 Hz and 250 Hz respectively)
for each appliance. For this investigation, we have obtained measurements from a different mix of
appliances inside a residence with a single phase installation. Each appliance was measured under
stand-alone operation in order to develop the LS database of the residence. These measurements
concern the instantaneous current at the main feeding panel of the residence. Then the measured
current is processed (FFT application) and the amplitudes of the 1st, 3rd and 5th harmonic orders are
calculated. Based on these latter values the load signatures and the load identification (disaggregation
scheme is performed). In addition, we have realized scenarios regarding the simultaneous operation of
appliance combinations, in order to examine whether the efficient decomposition of aggregated signals
is possible for successful LI. The main aim of this analysis is to highlight the contribution of the OOHC
to the development of more distinct LSs especially for nonlinear LV loads and, in turn, to facilitate
the recognition of these appliances. Moreover, this work intends to examine if LSs consisting only of
harmonic current amplitudes up to the 5th order can be used to reliably decompose an aggregated
signal. In such case, we assess the performance of the identification procedure by determining the
magnitude of the recognition error.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides all information about the
measurement setup and the performed measurements. Moreover, the proposed methodology
for the LS formulation is explained and the LSs for the test case in this work are presented.
In Section 3 a NILM approach for near-real time load identification is analyzed and various scenarios
regarding simultaneous operation of appliances to be identified are presented. Recommendations and
suggestions for further improvements are commented. Finally, Section 4 is devoted to conclusions.

2. Measurements and Load Signature Formulation

In this section the measurement setup is analyzed and all relevant information about the
performed measurements are provided. Moreover, the proposed methodology about the LS
formulation is explained and the formed LS database is presented.

2.1. Measurement Setup

The measurement setup consists of a common AC current probe (LEM PR630, measuring range
±60 A with accuracy ±1%, DC to 20 kHz frequency range) and a voltage optoisolated transducer
(measuring range ±600 V). The outputs of the voltage transducer and current probe (transfer
coefficients 5 V/600 V and 10 mV/A, respectively) were acquired using a data acquisition card
(DAQ card, NI PXI-6123). Sampling rate was set at 50,000 samples/s. Voltage and current waveforms
Energies 2017, 10, 538 4 of 21

captured by the DAQ card contained 50,000 samples each corresponding to an acquisition period of
1 s or 50 periods of the fundamental frequency of the power line. Current acquisition was configured
to be in synchronization to the voltage waveform.
Acquired analog current waveform was processed and further FFT (Fast Fourier Transform)
analyzed in real time by means of an application developed in LabVIEW graphical programming
language. FFT analysis revealed the amplitudes and frequencies of current fundamental and harmonic
components (current power spectrum). The frequency interval df of the power spectrum resulted from
FFT analysis, i.e., the minimum frequency difference between successive harmonic components of
the signal, is given by df = r/n, where, r is the sampling rate (50,000 samples/s) and n is the number
of samples contained in each analyzed waveform (5000 samples). Taking into account the above
acquisition parameters, the frequency interval of the current power spectrum, presented in this work,
is 1 Hz. The recording frequency of the measured data was set to 1 Hz (1 sample/s).
Low-pass filter is intrinsic to the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm to comply with Nyquist’s
theorem. As a sampling rate of 50 kSamples/s was used for the acquisition of current in this
work, a low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency set at 25 kHz was applied to acquired waveforms
(Nyquist theorem). The FFT analysis applied to the filtered current signal in the frequency range
dc—25 kHz revealed a power spectrum consisting of a normal array of peaks at fundamental (50 Hz)
and higher harmonics (150 Hz, 250 Hz, . . . ) with diminishing amplitudes as frequency increases
with no intermediate peaks and an almost negligible white noise amplitude. A measure of the white
noise contribution to the variation of the observed harmonics amplitude is given by the measured
standard deviation of the peak amplitudes and its interpretation and handling lies within the subjects
of this work.

2.2. Measured Appliances

All measurements have been carried out in a residence with a single-phase installation, using
various appliances. The installed nominal capacity of the residence is 25 kVA. The measurements
involved (a) the stand-alone operation of each appliance so as to capture its own and unique operational
characteristics for the development of its LS, and (b) various scenarios with simultaneous operation
of appliance combinations. The recorded data were the amplitudes of the currents at 50 Hz, 150 Hz
and 250 Hz, i.e., the fundamental current, 3rd and 5th harmonic currents respectively. Prior to any
measurement, we measured the background in order to identify the harmonic content at the main
feeding panel. This has been found to be in the order of 10−2 regarding both the 3rd and 5th order
harmonic currents.
The first aim of this work is to investigate whether specific harmonic current amplitudes
(fundamental, 3rd and 5th) can formulate efficient LSs. This will result in less computation effort
for the data processing and the identification procedure, and lower cost for the measurement setup.
The second aim is to examine the potential for real time matching of aggregated individual LSs with
the input signal for load identification. Table 1 lists the examined appliances along with the appliance
combinations measured for this residence. It is clarified that each appliance has been measured
individually in order to form its LS and the load combinations have been measured in order to test the
efficiency of the disaggregation scheme in this work.

Table 1. Measured appliances and appliance combinations for the examined residence.

Measured Appliances
PC Hair-dryer (hot) Coffee-maker Vacuum Electric iron
TV Resistive-heater Toaster Refrigerator Blender
Measured Appliance Combinations
1 Hair-dryer (hot) Vacuum Resistive-heater
2 Coffee-maker Electric iron Resistive-heater Toaster
3 Coffee-maker Toaster Refrigerator Blender
4 PC Electric iron TV Resistive-heater
Energies 2017, 10, 538 5 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, 538 5 of 21

One of the greatest challenges in NILM methodologies is to ensure that the LSs would be
robust and distinct under the simplest possible formulation and the fewest possible
One of the greatest challenges in NILM methodologies is to ensure that the LSs would be robust operational
features
and of the appliances.
distinct Obviously,
under the simplest possibleif formulation
the LS of an andappliance
the fewest consist
possibleof many operational
operational features of and
electrical characteristics
the appliances. it would
Obviously, beLS
if the distinct
of an enough.
appliance However, such aoperational
consist of many choice yields
and complex
electrical LSs
with characteristics
large databases and increased
it would be distinctcomputational
enough. However, burden.
such aAnother difficulty
choice yields complexconcerns
LSs withappliances
large
databasesoperational
with various and increased computational
states/modes forburden.
which Another
most of difficulty concerns
the utilized appliances
operational with various
features in their LSs
followoperational states/modes
these alterations. for whichthese
Naturally, mostalterations
of the utilized operational
and/or features
variations in their
would beLSs follow under
present these the
alterations. Naturally, these alterations and/or variations would be present
operation of load combinations and could affect the identification performance. Therefore, in under the operation of such
load combinations and could affect the identification performance. Therefore, in such cases the
cases the question raised concerns the capability for the consideration of these variations in the LSs.
question raised concerns the capability for the consideration of these variations in the LSs. In this
In this work such an attempt is investigated under the consideration of discrete values that could be
work such an attempt is investigated under the consideration of discrete values that could be
representative
representativefor the different
for the operational
different operationalmodes
modes and willbe
and will beexplained
explained in detail
in detail in next
in the the next section.
section.
Figures 1a–c and 2a–c show the recorded current amplitudes at 50 Hz, 150
Figures 1a–c and 2a–c show the recorded current amplitudes at 50 Hz, 150 Hz and 250 Hz for theHz and 250 Hz for the
laptop and the vacuum appliances.
laptop and the vacuum appliances.

0.7
Current amlitude [A]

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
sec

recorded current amplitude at 50 Hz

(a)
0.45
0.40
Current amplitude [A]

0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
sec

recorded current amplitude at 150 Hz

(b)

Figure 1. Cont.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 6 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 538 6 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, 538 6 of 21

0.18
0.16

[A] [A]
0.18
0.14

amplitude
0.16
0.12
0.14
amplitude 0.10
0.12
0.08
0.10
Current

0.06
0.08
0.04
Current

0.06
0.02
0.04
0.00
0.02
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.00
sec
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
sec
recorded current amplitude at 250 Hz

recorded current
(c)amplitude at 250 Hz
Figure 1. (a) Recorded current amplitudes for laptop appliance for 50 Hz; (b) Recorded current
Figure 1. (a) Recorded current amplitudes for (c) laptop appliance for 50 Hz; (b) Recorded current
amplitudes for laptop appliance for 150 Hz; (c) Recorded current amplitudes for laptop appliance for
amplitudes
Figure for laptop appliance for 150 Hz; (c) Recorded current amplitudes for laptop appliance for
250 Hz.1. (a) Recorded current amplitudes for laptop appliance for 50 Hz; (b) Recorded current
250 Hz.
amplitudes for laptop appliance for 150 Hz; (c) Recorded current amplitudes for laptop appliance for
250
TheHz. results for the laptop measurements constitute a representative example regarding
The results with
appliances varied
for the laptopoperational
measurements modes.constitute
The appliance has been recorded
a representative example forregarding
5 min (i.e., 300
appliances
valuesTheunder
results
a for the laptop
recording frequencymeasurements
of 1 constitute
sample/s). The a representative
laptop is a typical example
load regarding
with varied
with varied operational modes. The appliance has been recorded for 5 min (i.e., 300 values under
appliances
consumption with
duevaried
toofthe operational
screen’s andmodes. The appliance
processor’s adjustments hastobeen
thewith recorded
user’s for 5 min
preferences. (i.e.,
It is 300
highly
a recording
values frequency
under a 1 sample/s).
recording frequency The
of laptop
1 is a typical
sample/s). The load
laptop is a varied
typical consumption
load with varied due to
possible to capture additional variations under a higher recording frequency. One first observation
the screen’s
consumptionand processor’s
dueshare
to the adjustments to the user’s preferences. It is highly possible to capture
is that all graphs anscreen’s
identicaland processor’s
pattern, which adjustments to the user’s
means that amplitude preferences.
harmonics It is highly
vary similarly at
additional
possiblevariations
to capture under a higher
additional recording
variations under frequency. One
a higher recording first observation is that all graphs share
each operating mode. The most interesting observation, though, isfrequency.
that thereOne are first
two observation
operational
an identical
is
modes pattern,
that all graphs
with which
share
different anmeans
identical
current that amplitude
pattern,
amplitude harmonics
which means
values varyvariation
that amplitude
and significant similarly
harmonics at each
range. vary operating
similarly
There are two atmode.
each
The most operating
interesting mode. The
observation, most interesting
though, is observation,
that there are though,
two is
operational that
concerns in this case: Firstly, a decision should be made about which of these operational modes there
modes are two
with operational
different current
modes
amplitude with
shouldvalues different forcurrent
and significant
be utilized amplitude
variation
the formulation ofvalues
range. and are
theThere
laptop’s significant
two variation
concerns
LS. Secondly, in range.
thethis case:There are
Firstly,
identification ofa two
decision
this
concerns
should be made
appliance in this
about
can case: Firstly,
which of
be hindered, a decision
asthese should
other operational
appliances may be
modesmade about
shouldthe
fall within which of
bevariation these
utilized range operational
for the modes
formulation
between the twoof the
should
operation bemodes.
utilizedFinally,
for the formulation
it should beof of the
stated that laptop’s
smoother LS. Secondly, the each
identification of state this
laptop’s LS. Secondly, the identification this appliance canvariations
be hindered, duringas otheroperational
appliances may fall
appliance
should can be hindered,
also be considered as other
duringthe appliances
thetwo may
LS formulation. fall within the variation range between the two
within the variation range between operation modes. Finally, it should be stated that smoother
operation modes. Finally, it should be stated that smoother variations during each operational state
variations during each operational state should
should also be considered during the LS formulation. also be considered during the LS formulation.
8.0
[A] [A]

8.0
6.0
amlitude

6.0
amlitude

4.0
Current

4.0
2.0
Current

2.0
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
0.0
sec
0 50 100 150 200 250
sec
recorded current amplitude at 50 Hz

recorded current
(a) amplitude at 50 Hz

(a)

Figure 2. Cont.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 7 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, 538 7 of 21

1.40
1.20

Current amplitude [A]

1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
sec

recorded current amplitude at 150 Hz

(b)
0.25
Current amplitude [A]

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
sec

recorded current amplitude at 250 Hz

(c)
Figure 2. (a) Recorded current amplitudes for vacuum appliance for 50 Hz; (b) Recorded current
Figure 2. (a) Recorded current amplitudes for vacuum appliance for 50 Hz; (b) Recorded current
amplitudes for vacuum appliance for 150 Hz; (c) Recorded current amplitudes for vacuum appliance
amplitudes for vacuum appliance for 150 Hz; (c) Recorded current amplitudes for vacuum appliance
for 250 Hz.
for 250 Hz.
In Figure 2a–c the recorded current values for the vacuum appliance are presented for the 3
examined
In Figure frequencies. In this case
2a–c the recorded one operational
current values formode
theexists that is
vacuum relatively are
appliance constant with very
presented for the
smooth variations. Thus, the LS could be formed based on few values for each frequency that would
3 examined frequencies. In this case one operational mode exists that is relatively constant with very
be representative for the whole steady state operation period.
smooth variations. Thus, the LS could be formed based on few values for each frequency that would
be representative for the
2.3. Load Signatures whole steady state operation period.
Formulation
In the present
2.3. Load Signatures work the formulation of the LSs relies on the utilization of the OOHCs and
Formulation
specifically on the 1st, 3rd and 5th order harmonic currents. This facilitates the identification both of
In the present
non-linear loadswork theanformulation
within aggregated of the LSs
signal, and relies on the utilization
of appliances of consumption.
with similar the OOHCs and
specifically on the
Therefore, 1st, 3rd and
the proposed 5th order harmonic
LS formulation is as follows: currents. This facilitates the identification both of
non-linear loads within an aggregated signal, and of appliances with similar consumption. Therefore,
LS i =   I 50
a
 , I b  , I c  
i   150 i   250 i   (1)
the proposed LS formulation is as follows: 
where:
h h i i
a b c
LSi = [ I50i ], I150i , [ I250i ] (1)

where:
Energies 2017, 10, 538 8 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 538 8 of 21

•• LSii is the load signature

LS signature of of appliance
appliance i;i;
•• indices 50, 150 and 250 represent the fundamental
indices 50, 150 and 250 represent the fundamental nominal
nominal current,current,
the 3rd the
and 3rd andharmonic
the 5th the 5th
harmonicrespectively;
currents currents respectively;
•• indices a
indices a ∈ N∈ N∗* and c ∈NNwith
andb, bc ,∈ a ≥a1≥and
with 1 and b , c0≥denote
b, c ≥ 0 denote
the the number
number of values
of values utilized
utilized for
for the
the respective
respective partpart of LS.
of the the LS.
Indices a,
Indices a, bb and
and cc express
express the
the number
number of of representative
representative current
current values
values that
that have
have been
been utilized
utilized for
for
each harmonic order (1st, 3rd and 5th) in order to form the load signature of each
each harmonic order (1st, 3rd and 5th) in order to form the load signature of each appliance. These appliance. These
representative values
representative values are
are supposed
supposed to to be
be efficient
efficient for
for load
load recognition
recognition under
under aggregated
aggregated measured
measured
current values. For example, in Figure 3 the recorded values of the fundamental
current values. For example, in Figure 3 the recorded values of the fundamental current for current for the the
PC
(desktop) appliance are presented in descending order. The values in Figure 3
PC (desktop) appliance are presented in descending order. The values in Figure 3 refer to a typicalrefer to a typical
operation of
operation of the
the appliance
appliance forfor approximately
approximately 55 min.
min.

1.35
Current amplitude [A]

1.25
1.15
1.05
0.95
0.85
0.75
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275
sec

recorded current values for 50 Hz

Figure 3. Recorded current amplitudes for PC (desktop) appliance for 50 Hz.

Figure 3. Recorded current amplitudes for PC (desktop) appliance for 50 Hz.

Based
Based on
on the
the data
data presented
presented in
in Figure
Figure 33 the
the variation
variation range
range of
of the
the fundamental
fundamental current
current for
for this
this
appliance is [0.86–1.3] A. The following questions are raised in this case:
appliance is [0.86–1.3] A. The following questions are raised in this case:
1.
1. Which one of these values should be considered for the formulation of the first part of the the LS
LS in
in
(1) since all of them describe
describe the
the operation
operation ofof this
this appliance
appliance under
under steady-state?
steady-state? A simple
simple and
and
quick approach
approachcouldcouldbebethethe mean
mean value.
value. TheThe problem
problem herehere is the
is that thathigher
the higher the variation
the variation range,
range,
the less the less representative
representative the mean
the mean value wouldvalue
be. Thiswould
couldbe. Thishinder
greatly could thegreatly hinder of
performance the
a
performance
NILM algorithm of a and
NILM thealgorithm and accuracy
identification the identification accuracy of the appliance.
of the appliance.
2.
2. If the
the consideration
consideration of of a single
single value
value yields
yields inefficient
inefficient LS,
LS, then
then howhow many
many values
values should
should bebe
utilized
utilized in
in order
order to
to ensure that the
ensure that the operation
operation of
of the
the appliance
appliance is
is captured
captured in in most
most of
of the
the possible
possible
operational
operational modes?
modes? ΤheThe answer
answer inin this
this question
question defines
defines the
the number
number of of a, b and
and c indices
indices of
of the
the LS.
LS.
In order to answer these questions the following methodology is proposed for the formulation
In order to answer these questions the following methodology is proposed for the formulation of
of each LS:
each LS:
1. Each appliance is measured for a time period of 5 min under a recording frequency of 1
1. Each appliance is measured for a time period of 5 min under a recording frequency of 1 sample/s
sample/s as described in Section 2.1. Therefore, a data series with approximately 300 current
as described in Section 2.1. Therefore, a data series with approximately 300 current values for
values for each harmonic order (i.e., at 50 Hz, 150 Hz and 250 Hz) for each appliance are stored
each harmonic order (i.e., at 50 Hz, 150 Hz and 250 Hz) for each appliance are stored in the
in the database. For most of the typical appliances in a residence the time period of 5 min can be
database. For most of the typical appliances in a residence the time period of 5 min can be
considered adequate, since it captures the typical residential usage. For those with multiple
considered adequate, since it captures the typical residential usage. For those with multiple
operational modes, e.g., washing machine, all of these different operational modes should be
operational modes, e.g., washing machine, all of these different operational modes should be
measured, for the LS formulation.
measured, for the LS formulation.
2. The standard deviation (SD) for each appliance is computed: SD50, SD150 and SD250 respectively
2. forThethe
standard deviationfrequencies.
three examined (SD) for each appliance is computed: SD50 , SD150 and SD250 respectively
3. A forthreshold
the three examined frequencies.
(th) is defined for each SD in order to identify if one or more values should be
utilized for the formulation of the respective part of the LS.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 9 of 21

3. A threshold (th) is defined for each SD in order to identify if one or more values should be utilized
for the formulation of the respective part of the LS.
4. This threshold is taken as follows: SD50(th) = SD150(th) = SD250(th) = 0.02. The value of the threshold
(th) has been selected after several trials since this specific value has provided relatively short
load signatures (i.e., with relatively few representative currents values) but efficient enough for
Energies 2017, 10, 538 9 of 21
load identification in the disaggregation mode of the proposed methodology. This threshold
value
4. isThis
proposed
threshold asisthe upper
taken limit regarding
as follows: the data
SD50(th) = SD150(th) processing
= SD250(th) towards
= 0.02. The value of the LSs formulation.
the threshold
5. (th) has been selected after several trials
For each appliance i the following rules are applied: since this specific value has provided relatively short
load signatures (i.e., with relatively few representative currents values) but efficient enough for
load identification in the disaggregation mode of the proposed methodology. This threshold
a. If SD50i ≤ SD50(th) , then compute the mean value (µ50i ) for the data in this data series and
value is proposed as the upper limit regarding the data processing towards the LSs
formulate the first part of the LSi as follows: I50i = µ50i . Obviously in this case the value of
formulation.
5. index a isappliance
For each 1, afollowing
equal toi the = 1. rules are applied:
b. Ifa.SD50i
If SD> SD
50i ≤50(th)
, then
SD50(th) , thenreorder
computethe thedata
meaninvaluethe data(μ50i) series
for the in descending
data in this dataorder. Afterwards,
series and
divide top-down
formulate the part
the first dataofin thea LS(ai =as1, . . . , z)I50inon-overlapping
follows: sequential
= μ50i. Obviously in this data of
case the value groups in
orderindex a is equal
to ensure thattofor
1, a each
= 1. one SD50ia ≤ SD50(th) .
b. If SD50i > SD50(th), then reorder the data in the data series in descending order. Afterwards,
c. For each of these a groups, compute the mean value (µ50ia ). Formulate the first part of the
divide top-down the data in a (a = 1, …, z) non-overlapping sequential data groups in order
LSi astofollows:
ensure that I50ifor=each , . .SD
µ50iaone . , 50ia
µ50iz . 50(th).
≤ SD
d. Apply
c. Forsteps
each of 5a–5c
these atogroups,
the data compute series
the for
mean150 valueHz(μ50ia
and 250 Hz the
). Formulate respectively under the
first part of the
LSi as follows:
corresponding SDI50ithreshold
= μ50ia, …, μthat
50iz. is defined in step 4. This obtains the values of indices
b d.
andApply
c. steps 5a–5c to the data series for 150 Hz and 250 Hz respectively under the
corresponding SD threshold that is defined in step 4. This obtains the values of indices b
e. the c.formulated LSs for the i appliances and form the LS database for this residence.
Store and
e. Store the formulated LSs for the i appliances and form the LS database for this residence.
This procedure is summarized in the LS formulation flowchart of Figure 4.
This procedure is summarized in the LS formulation flowchart of Figure 4.

START

Activation of individual
appliance i (recording
frequency 1sample/sec)

Apply FFT to measured values (sampling frequency 50,000 samples/

sec)
Current amplitudes for 50 Hz, 150 Hz and 250 Hz are computed.

Data acquisition under a recording

frequency of 1 value/sec
3 data sets – each set contains currents
values of respective frequency

Exclude outliers from the 3 data sets (i.e null

values which usually refer to appliances that are
switched off by thermostats)

For the remaining values regarding the 1st For the remaining values regarding the 2nd For the remaining values regarding the 3rd
data set (50 Hz) data set (150 Hz) data set (250 Hz)
define a (a=1,…,n) data groups for which define b (b=1,…,m) data groups for which define c (c=1,…,k) data groups for which
their standard deviation is lower than a their standard deviation is lower than a their standard deviation is lower than a
predefined threshold: SD<th1=0.02 predefined threshold: SD<th2=0.02 predefined threshold: SD<th3=0.02

For each of the a data groups, compute the For each of the b data groups, compute the For each of the c data groups, compute the
mean value (µ) and set this value as the ath mean value (µ) and set this value as the bth mean value (µ) and set this value as the cth
value of the LS for this frequency value of the LS for this frequency value of the LS for this frequency

Define the 1st part of the Define the 2nd part of the Define the 3rd part of the
LS consisting of the a LS consisting of the b LS consisting of the c
resulted mean current resulted mean current resulted mean current
values by the respective values by the respective values by the respective
data groups data groups data groups

Form the LS of appliance j as:

LSi =   I 50
a
 ,  I 150
b
  c 
   ,  I 250  


Database with LSs of all

measured appliances

END

Figure 4. Proposed methodology flowchart for LS formulation.

Figure 4. Proposed methodology flowchart for LS formulation.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 10 of 21

Table 2 illustrates the SDs resulted by the application of methodology described above, for all
examined appliances and frequencies. These values provide an indication about the variance of the
respective recorded current values under steady state operation. Finally, in Table 3 the resulted LS
database for the examined residence is presented. It should be noted that the LSs for all appliances have
been obtained by two set of measurements carried out in different days and times, in order to examine
various measurement conditions such as the background. The result of the comparison between the
measured data of different days is that the operating behavior for all appliances is consistent and do
not vary significantly.

Table 2. SD for data series of measured appliances.

Recording Frequency 1 Value/S Recording Time Approximately 5 min

Appliance
SD50 SD150 SD250
PC-desktop 0.210 0.173 0.110
Hair dryer (hot) 0.031 0.005 0.011
Coffee maker 1 0.020 * *
Vacuum 0.086 0.046 0.013
Electric iron 1 0.227 * 0.007
TV 0.010 0.006 0.007
Resistive Heater 1 0.039 * 0.020
Toaster 1 0.009 * *
PC-laptop 0.165 0.107 0.032
Refrigerator 0.016 * *
Blender 0.011 * *
1data during deactivation (turned off) by thermostat excluded as outliers; * blank cells indicate negligible respective
harmonic current.

Table 3. LS database for the examined appliances.

LS Database for the Examined Residence

1st Part for 50 Hz 2nd Part for 150 Hz 3rd Part for 250 Hz Indices
Appliance
Current Amplitudes [A] Current Amplitudes [A] Current Amplitudes [A] Values a-b-c
1.122 1.154 1.078 1.022 0.818 0.739
1.082 1.014 0.946 0.891 0.703 0.654
PC (desktop) 0.940 0.865 0.856 0.774 0.579 0.516 10-10-9
0.800 0.736 0.702 0.661 0.416 0.384
0.630 0.588 0.563 0.522 0.346
11.328 11.273
Hair dryer (hot) 0.084 0.180 0.147 4-1-2
11.162 11.136
4.668 4.570
Coffee maker negligible negligible 4-0-0
4.425 4.389
6.588 6.514 1.281 1.228
6.432 6.363 1.190 1.150
Vacuum 0.123 0.100 8-5-2
6.300 6.225 1.134
6.182 6.009
12.841 12.754
Electric iron 12.687 12.598 negligible 0.186 5-0-1
12.280
TV 0.100 0.175 0.142 0.167 0.150 1-2-2
14.940 14.805
Resistive Heater negligible 0.234 0.202 4-0-2
14.693 14.607
Toaster 2.721 2.670 negligible negligible 2-0-0
Refrigerator 0.940 0.860 negligible negligible 2-0-0
Blender 0.483 0.465 negligible negligible 2-0-0

The magnitude of the threshold for the SD in each frequency, i.e., SD50(th) , SD150(th) and SD250(th) ,
has a direct impact on the values of the a, b, c indices. Thus, the number of the values utilized for each
Energies 2017, 10, 538 11 of 21

of the three parts of the LS is also affected. Moreover, based on the results in Table 2, the PC, Electric
iron and PC-laptop appliances seem to present the highest SD regarding their recorded current values.
This high SD value is expected to increase the representative current values that will be utilized for the
formulation of the appliance’s LS.
In order to be able to efficiently identify an operating appliance under aggregated simultaneous
operation of various appliances, the LS of each appliance should be distinct and able to accurately
reflect the operational behavior of each appliance. When recording each appliance for 5 min under
state stated operation with a recording frequency of 1 value/s, then 300 current values are recorded for
each harmonic order. Examining only the first three odd-harmonic orders, the recorded values for each
appliance are 900 (i.e., 300 for 50 Hz, 300 for 150 Hz and 300 for 250 Hz). If for each harmonic order
these 300 current values are the same, then obviously this value describes adequately the appliance’s
behavior. However, if these values present variations, then a decision should be made about how many
values should the signature contain, and how the signature should be formed. The goal is to be able to
capture the appliance’s operational behavior under the most representative way and with the fewest
possible current values. Using few representative current values for the LS formulation facilitates the
identification procedure and reduces the computational burden during the disaggregation mode of the
NILM algorithm. For example the complete LS for the TV appliance for could be in the form
     
LSTV = I501 , ..., I50300 , I1501 , ..., I150300 , I2501 , ..., I250300 .

while using the proposed methodology the LS is reduced to:

LSTV = [[0.1], [0.142, 0.175], [0.15, 0.167]]

This results in a shorter LS consisting of five values instead of 900 values.

2.4. Load Signatures of Agreggated Measurements

The core concept of the NILM methodologies relies on the following question:

• Given a measurement of the total instantaneous current at the main feeding panel of the residence
at time t, i.e., It , how could we identify the operating appliances in time t? Thus, the challenge
here is to efficiently disaggregate the measured value to its components parts of certain loads.

In this work, the disaggregation procedure assumes that a measured aggregated current value at
time t (minimum resolution for t is 1 s), results from the summation of the current values of each of the
individual operating appliances. This simple linear approach is valid for the fundamental frequency of
50 Hz, i.e., the first part of the LS of each appliance. For the higher order harmonic currents the present
analysis relies on the following:
A current harmonic magnitude (order h) concerning aggregated appliances may be determined
by a generic law [28] as follows: r
Mh = w ∑ Mhiw (2)
i

where Mh is the aggregated current harmonic at order h, Mhi is the current harmonic at order h of each
appliance i, and w is an exponent that depends on the harmonic order. For h ≤ 5, w = 1. Hence, in this
case, the aggregated harmonic current at order 3 or 5 is the sum of the respective harmonic currents
injected by the appliances (i.e., linear approach). For higher harmonic orders the phase of the harmonic
currents cannot be ignored, meaning that the harmonic currents should be formed as vectors. In this
latter case, voltage measurements should also be performed and synchronized with the measurement
of the instantaneous current in order to obtain the phase of each harmonic. The proposed methodology
is simpler, since it relies only on current amplitudes measurements under a simpler measurement
setup and data processing.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 12 of 21

The LS of an aggregated measurement is formed under the same procedure that has been utilized
for the LS database formulation in Section 2. Thus, for a given aggregated measured current value at
time t, its load signature LSt is formed as follows:
• Apply FFT to the measured instantaneous current values within time t
• Determine the current amplitudes for frequencies of 50 Hz, 150 Hz and 250 Hz
• The recorded values at time t is the mean of the current amplitudes
The LSt is in the form that follows:

LSt = [ I50t , I150t , I250t ] (3)

3. Proposed Methodology towards NILM Implementation

3.1. Disaggregation and NILM Algorithm

For the proposed NILM algorithm the identification of the unknown operating appliances could
be summarized in the following problem:
Problem: Given a LSt at any t, find the correct set of appliances for which the summation of the
respective parts of the LSs best matches the corresponding part of LSt . The mathematical formulation
of this problem is as follows:
For i appliances (ap1 , . . . ,api ) in the database find set X with x appliances X = { ap1 , ..., ap x }:
minimize target function f (min f )
where
x h     i
f = ∑ I50ap j − I50t  + I150ap j − I150t  + I250ap j − I250t  and x ≤ i (4)
     
j =1

In order to decrease the computational burden of the disaggregation procedure, the solution space
is cut down by applying the following procedure. The aim here is to filter/search the database in order
to quickly determine the most possible candidate sets and then to define the correct set by applying
(4) for the appliances it contains. Therefore, initially the sets X, Y, Z should be computed under the
following constraints:
 
 x 
X = { ap1 , ..., ap x } with x appliances ( x ≤ i ) :  ∑ I50j − I50t  ≤ ε 1
a
(5)
 
 j =1 
 
 y 
with y appliances (y ≤ i ) :  ∑ I150j − I50t  ≤ ε 2
b

Y = ap1 , ..., apy (6)
 
 j =1 
 
 z 
Z = { ap1 , ..., apz } with z appliances (z ≤ i ) :  ∑ I250j
c
− I50t  ≤ ε 3 (7)
 
 j =1 

The correct set with the identified appliances should be set X:

( )
min f
.
X ⊇ Y ⊇ Z or X ⊇ Z ⊇ Y

Set X should always be a superset of sets Y and Z because current values have been recorded
at 50 Hz for all appliances under steady state operation but not necessarily for 150 Hz and 250 Hz.
It should be clarified that in this analysis ε1 = ε2 = ε3 = 0.5.

3.2. Disaggregation Results

The combinations that have been examined are presented in Table 1. The first combination
(comb#1) consists of three appliances: (a) vacuum cleaner; (b) hair dryer; (c) resistive heater.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 13 of 21

The appliances were activated in sequential order at time steps of 1 min, in order to facilitate
the demonstration of the disaggregation procedure. The latter has been applied to all examined
combinations in this section. This combination has been selected due to the following reasons:
Energies 2017, 10, 538 13 of 21

1. Each appliance displaysthat

The combinations a relatively
have beenconstant
examinedoperational
are presentedmode with1.smooth
in Table The firstvariations
combination regarding
the(comb#1)
recorded current
consists values.
of three appliances: (a) vacuum cleaner; (b) hair dryer; (c) resistive heater. The
2. Dueappliances
to thewere
highactivated in sequential
fundamental orderofat each
current time steps of 1 min,
appliance in order
(i.e., I50 ), towhen
facilitate
theytheoperate
demonstration of the disaggregation procedure. The latter has been applied to all examined
simultaneously the variations of the aggregated fundamental current values could be higher
combinations in this section. This combination has been selected due to the following reasons:
than the current of small rated appliances. In this case the algorithm may incorrectly identify
not1. operating
Each appliance displays
appliances. a relatively
Usually, constant
such small ratedoperational
appliancesmode with
(e.g., TV smooth
or laptop)variations
are not linear
regarding the recorded current values.
loads with significant 3rd and 5th order harmonic currents. Hence, in this case the OOHCs are
2. Due to the high fundamental current of each appliance (i.e., I50), when they operate
expected to contribute
simultaneously theby excluding
variations these
of the appliances
aggregated from the
fundamental identification
current values couldprocedure.
be higher
than the current of small rated appliances. In this case the algorithm may incorrectly identify
The loads are connected-activated
not operating appliances. Usually,sequentially
such small rated inappliances
order to (e.g.,control
TV or the duration
laptop) are notof appliances
linear
operating simultaneously
loads with significant (i.e.,3rd
toand
know whenharmonic
5th order each load has been
currents. Hence, activated
in this case and
the for howare
OOHCs long it is
operating). expected
The latter to contribute
is crucial by excluding
during these appliances from
the disaggregation schemethe identification
since it enables procedure.
the checking of the
performance of loads
The the identification mode. When
are connected-activated the second
sequentially in orderloadto is activated,
control the first
the duration of one is still active,
appliances
thus resulting
operating in simultaneously
two appliances operating
(i.e., to know when simultaneously.
each load has After
beenthe activation
activated and for of how
the third
long itload,
is three
loads areoperating).
operating Thesimultaneously,
latter is crucial during
and thethedisaggregation
same happens scheme
for thesince it enables of
activation thethe
checking
fourthof load.
the
performance of the identification mode. When the second load is activated, the first one is still active,
The second combination (comb#2) consists of the following three appliances: (a) resistive
thus resulting in two appliances operating simultaneously. After the activation of the third load,
heater-coffee maker; (b) electric iron; (c) toaster. This set has been selected due to the fact that
three loads are operating simultaneously, and the same happens for the activation of the fourth load.
the operation of all appliances
The second combination in the combination
(comb#2) consists isofruled by thermostats.
the following Thus, it is
three appliances: (a)highly
resistiveexpected
to record overlapping
heater-coffee time
maker; (b)periods regarding
electric iron; the activation-deactivation
(c) toaster. This set has been selected due of the appliances.
to the fact that the
Theoperation of all appliances(comb#3)
third combination in the combination
consistsisof ruled
thebyfollowing
thermostats.four Thus,appliances:
it is highly expected to
(a) refrigerator;
record
(b) coffee maker;overlapping
(c) mixer;time(d)
periods regarding
toaster. the activation-deactivation
This appliance set has been selected of the appliances.
because it constitutes an
The third combination (comb#3) consists of the following four appliances: (a) refrigerator; (b)
excellent example of usual morning appliance operation related to breakfast preparation.
coffee maker; (c) mixer; (d) toaster. This appliance set has been selected because it constitutes an
Finally, theexample
excellent fourthofcombination
usual morning (comb#4) consistsrelated
appliance operation of five appliances,
to breakfast namely (a) PC; (b) TV;
preparation.
(c) vacuum Finally,
cleaner; the(d) heater
fourth and (e) iron.
combination (comb#4)Theconsists
interesting
of fivefact is that namely
appliances, they all(a)have OOHCs
PC; (b) TV; (c) in their
LSs andvacuum
constitute a mix
cleaner; of small
(d) heater andand large
(e) iron. rated
The appliances.
interesting fact is that they all have OOHCs in their LSs
In and constitute
Figures 5a–ca and
mix of6a–c
smalltheandrecorded
large ratedcurrent
appliances.
values for comb#1 and comb#2 are presented.
In Figures 5a–c and 6a–c the recorded
It is clarified that the current values for the combinations current values for comb#1 and comb#2
are recorded per are presented.
second and Ittheis NILM
clarified that the current values for the combinations are recorded per second and the NILM
algorithm is applied accordingly. It should also be noted that the overlapping time periods regarding
algorithm is applied accordingly. It should also be noted that the overlapping time periods
the activation-deactivation of the comb#2
regarding the activation-deactivation of the is evident
comb#2 in Figure
is evident in Figure6a 6a forforthe
the current values
current values at at the
fundamental frequency.
the fundamental frequency.

40 vacuum+hair dryer+heater
35
Current amplitude [A]

30
25 vacuum+hair dryer
20
15 vacuum
10
5
0
0 30 60 90 120 150
sec

recorded I50 for comb#1

(a)

Figure 5. Cont.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 14 of 21

1.6

Energies 2017, 10, 5381.5

Current amplitude [A]

14 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 538 14 of 21
1.4

1.3 1.6

1.5

Current amplitude [A]

1.2
1.4
1.1
1.3
1
1.2
0 30 60 90 120 150
1.1 sec
1
0 30 60 I150 for
recorded 90 comb#1120 150
sec
(b)
recorded I150 for comb#1
0.6
(b)
0.5
Current amplitude [A]

0.6
0.4 0.5
Current amplitude [A]

0.3 0.4

0.2 0.3

0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0
0 30 60 90 120 150
0 30 60 90 120 150
sec
sec

recorded
recorded I250 forcomb#1
I250 for comb#1

(c)
(c)
Figure 5. (a) Recorded current values I50 for comb#1; (b) Recorded current values I150 for comb#1; (c)
Figure 5. (a)
(a) Recorded
Recorded
Recorded current
current
current values I250values
values I50
I50for
for comb#1. forcomb#1;
comb#1;(b)(b)
Recorded current
Recorded values
current I150I150
values for for
comb#1; (c)
comb#1;
Recorded
(c) current
Recorded values
current I250Ifor
values comb#1.
250 for comb#1.

30
Current amplitude [A]

30
25
Current amplitude [A]

25 20

20 15

15 10
0 50 100 150 200
sec
10
0 50 100
recorded I50 for comb#2 150 200
sec
(a)
recorded I50 for comb#2

(a)

Figure 6. Cont.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 15 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 538 15 of 21

0.2

Current amplitude [A]

0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200
sec

recorded I150 for comb#2

(b)
0.6
Current amplitude [A]

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200
sec

recorded I250 for comb#2

(c)
Figure 6. (a) Recorded current values I50 for comb#2; (b) Recorded current values I150 for comb#2; (c)
Figure 6. (a) Recorded current values I50 for comb#2; (b) Recorded current values I150 for comb#2;
Recorded current values I250 for comb#2.
(c) Recorded current values I250 for comb#2.

In Figures 7a,b and 8a–c the recorded current values for comb#3 and comb#4 are also presented.
In Figure
It should 7a,b and
be clarified Figure
that 8a–c the
for comb#3 therecorded
recordedcurrent
currentvalues
valuesfor
forcomb#3
the 3rdand comb#4
harmonic are also
order was
presented.
negligible. It should be clarified that for comb#3 the recorded current values for the 3rd harmonic
order was negligible.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 16 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, x 16 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, x 16 of 21

10
9
10

[A[ [A[
8
9
7
amplitude
8
amplitude 67
56
45
Current

34
Current

23
12
01
0 0 50 100 150 200 250
0 50 100 sec 150 200 250
sec
recorded I50 for comb#3
recorded I50 for comb#3
(a)
0.12 (a)
0.12
0.1
[A[ [A[

0.1
amplitude

0.08
amplitude

0.08
0.06
0.06
Current

0.04
Current

0.04
0.02
0.02
0
0 0 150 50 200100 250
0 sec 150 50 200100 250
sec
recorded I250 for comb#3
recorded I250 for comb#3
(b)
(b)
Figure 7. (a) Recorded current values I50 for comb#3; (b). Recorded current values I250 for comb#3.
Figure 7. (a) Recorded current values I50 for comb#3; (b). Recorded current values I250 for comb#3.
Figure 7. (a) Recorded current values I50 for comb#3; (b). Recorded current values I250 for comb#3.
40
40
35
[A][A]

35
30
amplitude

30
25
amplitude

25
20
20
15
Current

15
10
Current

10
5
05
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0 50 100 150sec 200 250 300
sec
recorded I150 for comb#4
recorded I150 for comb#4
(a)
(a)

Figure 8. Cont.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 17 of 21

Energies 2017, 10, x 17 of 21

3.5
3

Current amplitude [A]

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
sec

recorded I150 for comb#4

(b)
1
0.9
Current amplitude [A]

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
sec

recorded I250 for comb#4

(c)
Figure 8. (a) Recorded current values I50 for comb#4; (b) Recorded current values I150 for comb#4; (c)
8. (a) Recorded
FigureRecorded current values I50 for comb#4; (b) Recorded current values I150 for comb#4;
current values I250 for comb#4.
(c) Recorded current values I250 for comb#4.
In Table 4 the performance of the proposed NILM approach for the identification of the
appliances
In Table 4 theforperformance
comb#1–comb#4 is illustrated.
of the The performance
proposed NILM approach foris evaluated in terms of
the identification of successful
the appliances
identification for each appliance per second. The latter is challenging since it could be considered to
for comb#1–comb#4 is illustrated. The performance is evaluated in terms of successful identification
implement near real-time load identification. This is due to the fact that the NILM methodology is
for each appliance per second. The latter is challenging since it could be considered to implement
applied every second and the disaggregation scheme is performed in less than 1 s (the time varies
near real-time loadless
but is always identification. This
than 1 s). Thus, theisalgorithm
due to the
is fact that thetoNILM
fast enough methodology
identify the operatingisappliances
applied every
secondwithin
and the
the disaggregation
time frame of 1 s.scheme is performed in less than 1 s (the time varies but is always less
than 1 s). Thus, the algorithm is fast enough to identify the operating appliances within the time frame
of 1 s.
Energies 2017, 10, 538 18 of 21

Table 4. Disaggregation results and NILM performance.

comb#1
Appliance Time Activated (s) Correctly Identified (s) NILM Performance Min and Max Value of f
Vacuum 157 157 100%
Hair dryer (hot) 109 108 99% 0.044 0.423
Resistive heater 52 49 94%
comb#2
Resistive heater 215 208 97%
Coffee maker 78 78 100%
0.010 0.233
Electric iron 19 19 100%
Toaster 56 56 100%
2 times (at seconds 105 and 174) the algorithm identifies hairdryer-discarded.
comb#3
Refrigerator 243 195 80%
Coffee maker 97 97 100%
0.053 0.152
Blender 135 66 49%
Toaster 83 83 100%
failure to identify mixer is several cases—no irrelevant appliances proposed by the algorithm.
comb#4
PC (desktop) 300 163 54%
TV 240 0 0%
Vacuum 192 192 100% 0.015 0.850
Resistive heater 132 0 0%
Electric iron 24 24 100%
failure to identify TV (low current at 50 Hz falls within the variation ranges);
failure to identify resistive heater due to the fact that Equation (2) was not valid for the aggregated current values of the
3rd and 5th harmonic currents.

3.3. Results Evaluation

The basic conclusions derived by the results of Table 4 concerning the efficiency of the proposed
LSs towards the NILM implementation are summarized below:

• The methodology for the LSs formulation could provide few and still representative current
values that adequately cover the steady state operation of the appliances. A sensitivity analysis
about the predefined SD threshold for each frequency could provide the optimal number of
utilized current values for the formulation of the three parts of each LS.
• The proposed NILM scheme could be considered suitable for near real-time load identification.
A NILM scheme with such high successful identification resolution could yield a detailed
disaggregation of the consumption behavior of a residence and is highly appreciated by the retail
energy providers. For example, the more detailed the knowledge of the consumption behavior of
the customers the more efficiently demand response schemes can be designed and implemented.
• The identification approach performs almost flawlessly for combinations that include high
consuming appliances without significant harmonic content. The latter is quite evident in comb#1
and comb#2 since Equation (2) is valid for the short LSs.
• For combinations with many appliances that present significant harmonic currents, the efficiency
of Equation (2) is limited when only the harmonic current amplitudes are considered. In this
case, the phase angle of each harmonic current should be also considered (using the fundamental
voltage phase angle as the angular reference) because the aggregation should refer to vectors
and not just amplitudes. For example, comb#4 includes five appliances that all present harmonic
behavior. The summation of the harmonic current amplitudes shows high deviations from
the considered recorded aggregated value of the combination. The latter explains the poor
identification rate of the Resistive-heater appliance, since the algorithm identifies the Coffee-maker
and Hair-dryer appliances instead. The problem here is that the contribution of the 5th harmonic
Energies 2017, 10, 538 19 of 21

current of the Resistive-heater is not identified in the aggregated recorded value. The TV appliance
is not identified due to the same reason as well. Based on measurements in [29] the phase angle
Energies 2017, 10, 538 19 of 21
between the 5th harmonic currents of an LCD TV and a desktop PC is approximately 330◦ , thus
the amplitudes should be almost subtracted concerning the aggregated respective amplitude
TV and a desktop PC is approximately 330°, thus the amplitudes should be almost subtracted
under simultaneous operation.
concerning the aggregated respective amplitude under simultaneous operation.
In
InFigure
Figure9 simple
9 simple version of the
version offlowchart regarding
the flowchart the disaggregation
regarding scheme ofscheme
the disaggregation the proposed
of the
NILM algorithm is illustrated.
proposed NILM algorithm is illustrated.

START

Apply FFT to measured values (sampling frequency 50,000 samples/

sec)
Current amplitudes for 50 Hz, 150 Hz and 250 Hz are computed.

Data acquisition under a recording

frequency of 1 value/sec
3 data sets – each set contains 1 current
values of respective frequency
LSt =  I 50 t , I150t , I 250 t 

Scan the LS database in order to find

appliance sets X, Y and Z so that:

For set X find the appliances for which the For set Y find the appliances for which the For set Z find the appliances for which the
summation of their current at the 1st summation of their current at the 2nd summation of their current at the 3rd
harmonic order is the closest to I50t harmonic order is the closest to I150t harmonic order is the closest to I250t

The identified appliances are the one in set X

subject to: min f  Target function f describes the lowest distance
  of the identified appliance set from the
 X ⊇ Y ⊇ Z or X ⊇ Z ⊇ Y  recorded current values that have deen
disaggregated:
x
f =   I 50 ap j − I 50 t + I150ap j − I150 t + I 250 ap j − I 250 t 

j =1  
Database with identified
appliances under a disaggregation
rate per sec

END

Figure 9. Flowchart for the disaggregation scheme of the proposed NILM algorithm.
Figure 9. Flowchart for the disaggregation scheme of the proposed NILM algorithm.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this paper a novel approach regarding the implementation of a near real-time NILM
In this paper a novel approach regarding the implementation of a near real-time NILM algorithm
algorithm is presented. The proposed methodology consists of two main parts: the first one analyzes
is presented. The proposed methodology consists of two main parts: the first one analyzes the LS
the LS formulation and the second one the disaggregation scheme. For the former, only the current
formulation and the second one the disaggregation scheme. For the former, only the current amplitudes
amplitudes at the fundamental frequency and the 3rd and 5th harmonic orders are utilized, while for
at the fundamental frequency and the 3rd and 5th harmonic orders are utilized, while for the latter a
the latter a simple disaggregation scheme is proposed. The analysis proposes the processing of the
simple disaggregation scheme is proposed. The analysis proposes the processing of the measured data
measured data of each appliance when operating individually in order to determine the most
of each appliance when operating individually in order to determine the most representative ones to
representative ones to be included in the LS.
be included in the LS.
Measurements have been performed under a developed measurement setup at the main
Measurements have been performed under a developed measurement setup at the main feeding
feeding panel of a Low Voltage residence. Measurements included the stand-alone operation of the
panel of a Low Voltage residence. Measurements included the stand-alone operation of the appliances
appliances for the formulation of the LS database, and four combinations concerning simultaneous
operation of up to five appliances. For the four examined scenarios, involving different appliance
combinations, the efficiency of the proposed methodology in terms of both the LS formulation and
the disaggregation mode has been promising, even when the application rate is per second. More
combinations should be examined in order to verify this finding. The disaggregation scheme follows
Energies 2017, 10, 538 20 of 21

for the formulation of the LS database, and four combinations concerning simultaneous operation of
up to five appliances. For the four examined scenarios, involving different appliance combinations, the
efficiency of the proposed methodology in terms of both the LS formulation and the disaggregation
mode has been promising, even when the application rate is per second. More combinations should
be examined in order to verify this finding. The disaggregation scheme follows a linear approach,
thus, it is quite fast and appropriate for near real-time applications. The efficiency of the appliance
identification is affected when the combinations include appliances with significant harmonic content.
The problem in this case is that harmonic currents should be considered as vectors in order to properly
account for their combined interaction in an aggregation mode. Therefore, in order to properly consider
the summation of the harmonic currents we will examine the formulation of more efficient LSs under
the consideration of the phase angles for the harmonic currents in a future work.

Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the financial sponsoring of the Special Account for Research Funds
of the Western Macedonia University of Applied Sciences.
Author Contributions: Aggelos S. Bouhouras and Georgios C. Christoforidis conceived the research and designed
the measurement procedure; Evangelos Panagiotou performed the measurements; Konstantinos C. Chatzisavvas
analyzed the data; Paschalis A. Gkaidatzis contributed analysis tools; Nikolaos Poulakis developed
the measurement setup; Aggelos S. Bouhouras wrote the paper, Georgios C. Christoforidis and
Konstantinos C. Chatsisavvas edited the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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