ƒ Definition precipitation and types of rainfall

ƒ Measurement of Rainfall Depth

ƒ Establish Rainfall Intensity
ƒ Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve
ƒ Rainfall Data Analysis
o Filling in Missing Data
o Mean Areal Precipitation (MAP)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 2

y Any form of water falling from the clouds/atmosphere
in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail
is known as precipitation.

Drop of water of 0.5-6.0 mm diameter from the sky:

• < 2.5 mm/hour Î light rain
• 2.5 – 7.5 mm/hour Î moderate
• > 7.5 mm/hour Î heavy rain

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 3

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 4
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 5
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 6
There are three types of rainfall:

1. Relief / Orographic
2. Convectional
3. Frontal / Stratiform

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 7

1. Warm moist air from the sea
2. Forced to rise over the
mountains
3. Air cools as it is forced to rise
4. Condensation
5. Cloud formation
6. Rain

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 8

1. The sun heats the ground which
heats the air
2. Warm air rises
3. Air cools as it is forced to rise
4. Condensation
5. Cloud formation
6. Rain

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 9

1. 1. Mass of warm air meets a
mass of colder air
2. Lighter warm air rises over
heavier cold air
3. Air cools as it is forced to rise
4. Condensation
5. Cloud formation
6. Rain

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 10

Two types of raingages

• Non-recording gages
• Recording gages
⇒ Tipping bucket
⇒ Float Type
⇒ Weighing Type

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 11

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 12
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 13
 Measurement of Rainfall (Depth)

• A rain gauge (also

known as a udometer or
a pluviometer
[Pluviograph] or an
ombrometer or a cup) is
a type of instrument
used to gather and
measure the amount of
liquid precipitation
• RADAR and Remote
Sensing

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 14

 MANUAL RAIN GAUGE
• This is essentially a
circular funnel with a
special diameter which
collects the rain into a
graduated and calibrated
cylinder.
• The top of the rain gauge
is ideally 0.3 m above the
ground with no nearby
objects to alter the wind
flow.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 15

 Tipping Bucket Raingage

– The gauge registers precipitation

(rainfall) by counting small
increments of rain collected.
– When rain falls into the funnel it
runs into a container divided into
two equal compartments by a
partition
– When a specified amount of rain
has drained from the funnel the
bucket tilts the opposite way.
– The number and rate of bucket
movements are counted and
logged electronically.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 16

Tipping Bucket Raingage

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 17

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 18
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 19
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 20
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 21
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 22
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 23
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 24
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 25
Weather/climate station

• Following variables
are recorded
– Wind
velocity/direction
– Rainfall
– Relative humidity and
temperature
– Radiation

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 26

 Components of a weather station

Anemometer
Tipping bucket raingage

Radiometer

Relative humidity
and temperature
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 27
• The ground must be level and in the open and the instrument must
represent a horizontal catch surface
• The rain gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to
reduce wind effects
• The rain gauge must be set sufficiently high to prevent splashing,
flooding etc
• The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area of at
least 5.5m x 5.5m. No object must be closer to the rain gauge than
30m or twice the height of the obstruction.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 28

• Flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones
– Ideal – 1 station for 600-900 sq.km.
– Acceptable – 1 station for 900-3000 sq.km.
• Mountainous regions of temperate, Meditteranean and tropical
zones
– Ideal – 1 station for 100-250 sq.km.
– Acceptable – 1 station for 250-1000 sq.km.
• Arid and polar zones
– Ideal – 1 station for 1500-10000 sq.km.
– Depending on the feasibility.
• 10% of raingauge stations should be equipped with self recording
raingauges

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 29

 RAINFALL RECORD

• Rainfall depth

Rainfall Intensity in in/hour

• Rainfall Intensity
¾ Rainfall depth per unit time
• Rainfall hyetograph
¾ Rainfall intensity versus time
• Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve
¾ Relationship between rainfall intensity and
duration and frequency of that particular
intensity Time in mins

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 30

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 31
• An Intensity-Duration-Frequency curve (IDF Curve) is a graphical
representation of the probability that a given average rainfall intensity
will occur
• Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr), Rainfall Duration (how many hours it rained at
that intensity) and Rainfall Frequency (how often that rain storm repeats
itself) are the parameters that make up the axes of the graph of IDF
curve.
• An IDF curve is created with long term rainfall records collected at a
rainfall monitoring station.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 32

The most common form of design rainfall data required for
use in peak discharge estimation is from relationship
represented by the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF)
curves.

The IDF can be developed from the historical rainfall data

and they are available for most geographical areas in
Malaysia
Recognizing that the rainfall data used to derive IDF are
subjected to some interpolation and smoothing, it is
desirable to develop IDF curves directly from local raingage
records, if these records are sufficiently long and reliable.
The IDF development procedures involve the steps shown
in flowchart while a typical developed curves are shown in
following Figures

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 33

 STOR JPS LARKIN (MaSMA)
1000
2ARI
5ARI
10ARI
20ARI
50ARI
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)

100 100ARI

10

1
10 100 1000 10000
Duration (m in)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 34

 Sg Skudai Catchment IDF
1000
2ARI
5ARI
10ARI
20ARI
25ARI
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)

100 50ARI
100ARI

10

1
10 100 1000 10000
Duration (min)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 35

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 36
 RAINFALL INTENSITY
κ
λT
i=
(d + θ )
1
η

i = Average rainfall intensity (mm/hr);

T = Average recurrence interval - ARI (0.5 ≤ T ≤ 12 month and 2 ≤ T ≤ 100 year);
d = Storm duration (hours), 0.0833 ≤ d ≤ 72; and
λ, κ, θ, and η = Fitting constants dependent on the raingauge location (Table
2.B1 in Appendix 2.B).

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 37

 Station Constants
State No. ID Station Name
λ κ θ η
Johor 1 1437116 Stor JPS Johor Bahru 59.972 0.163 0.121 0.793
IDF CONSTANTS (Part of Table 2B1)

Pusat Kem. Pekan

2 1534002 54.265 0.179 0.100 0.756
Nenas

3 1541139 Johor Silica 59.060 0.202 0.128 0.660

4 1636001 Balai Polis Kg Seelong 50.115 0.191 0.099 0.763

5 1737001 SM Bukit Besar 50.554 0.193 0.117 0.722

6 1829002 Setor JPS Batu Pahat 64.099 0.174 0.201 0.826

7 1834124 Ladang Ulu Remis 55.864 0.166 0.174 0.810

8 1839196 Simpang Masai K. Sedili 61.562 0.191 0.103 0.701

9 1931003 Emp. Semberong 60.568 0.163 0.159 0.821

10 2025001 Pintu Kaw. Tg. Agas 80.936 0.187 0.258 0.890

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 38
 RAINFALL INTENSITY

POLYNOMIAL EQN (EQN 13.2 – MaSMA)

ln( RI t ) = a + b ln( t ) + c (ln( t )) 2 + d (ln( t )) 3

RI = the average rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for ARI and duration t
t

R = average return interval (years)

t = duration (minutes)
a to d are fitting constants dependent on ARI

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 39

 POLYNOMIAL EQN CONSTANT a TO d FOR
VARIOUS ARI
CONSTANT a TO d FOR JOHOR BAHRU

ARI (yr) a b c d
2 3.8645 1.1150 -0.3272 0.0182
5 4.3251 1.0147 -0.3308 0.0205
10 4.4896 0.9971 -0.3279 0.0205
20 4.7656 0.8922 -0.3060 0.0192
50 4.5463 1.1612 -0.3768 0.0249
100 5.0532 0.8998 -0.3222 0.0215

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 40

 Temporal Pattern

It is important to emphasize that the rainfall

temporal patterns are intended for use in
hydrograph generation design storms. They
should not be confused with the real rainfall data in
historical storms, which is usually required to
calibrate and validate hydrological and hydraulic
simulation results.

The standard time intervals recommended for

urban stormwater modelling are listed in Table 2.4.
The design temporal patterns to be used for a set
of durations are given in Appendix 2.C.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | TarmiziIsmail 41 41

 Storm Duration
No. of
Block 15-min 30-min 60-min 180-min 6-hr 12-hr 24-hr 48-hr 72-hr
2.C2 Region 2: Johor, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, Selangor and Pahang

1 0.255 0.124 0.053 0.053 0.044 0.045 0.022 0.027 0.016

2 0.376 0.130 0.059 0.061 0.081 0.048 0.024 0.028 0.023
3 0.370 0.365 0.063 0.063 0.083 0.064 0.029 0.029 0.027
4 0.152 0.087 0.080 0.090 0.106 0.031 0.033 0.033
5 0.126 0.103 0.128 0.106 0.124 0.032 0.037 0.036
6 0.103 0.153 0.151 0.115 0.146 0.035 0.040 0.043
7 0.110 0.129 0.114 0.127 0.039 0.046 0.047
8 0.088 0.097 0.090 0.116 0.042 0.048 0.049
9 0.069 0.079 0.085 0.081 0.050 0.049 0.049
10 0.060 0.062 0.081 0.056 0.054 0.054 0.051
11 0.057 0.054 0.074 0.046 0.065 0.058 0.067
12 0.046 0.042 0.037 0.041 0.093 0.065 0.079
13 0.083 0.060 0.068
14 0.057 0.055 0.057
15 0.052 0.053 0.050
16 0.047 0.048 0.049
17 0.040 0.046 0.048
18 0.039 0.044 0.043
19 0.033 0.038 0.038
20 0.031 0.034 0.035
21 0.029 0.030 0.030
22 0.028 0.029 0.024
23 0.024 0.028 0.022
24 | Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 0.020 TarmiziIsmail
0.019 42 0.01642
 ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL DATA

ο Only areal precipitation will be discussed

οThe simplest (most used) method used to fill-in missing data
and estimating mean areal precipitation are based on defining
linear combination of known data values as estimation of the
missing value.
οTwo type of analysis related to rainfall will be discussed
• Fill-in missing data
⇒ Arithmetic Average
⇒ Normal Ratio Method
⇒ Quadrant/Inverse Distance Method
• Estimating Mean Areal Precipitation (MAP)
⇒ Arithmatic-mean Method
⇒ Thiessen Polygon Method
⇒ Isohyetal Method
ο Double Mass Curve

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 43

The relationship between missing rainfall data with the
nearest surrounding station can be expressed as :

n n
Px = ∑ λi Pi ∑ λi = 1
i =1 i =1

Where
λi is weight
Px = rainfall at station with missing data
Pi = rainfall at nearest station

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 44

 ARITHMETIC AVERAGE METHOD
• Simplest method and less accurate
• Applicable for a homogeneous area
geomophologically and geographically distribution
of rainfall station
• Not applicable to a mountainous area
• Use nearby rainfall station, not limited only within
the catchment area
1
λi =
n
Where n = number of stations being used in the linear combination
Missing rainfall data;
1 n
Px = ∑ Pi
n i =1
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 45
EXAMPLE 1

Estimate rainfall depth at station X from a storm using

an arithmetic average method if the rainfall depth for
nearby stations are as;
Station Annual Rainfall Depth
Rainfall Depth from a Storm
(cm) (cm)

A 110 6.5
B 104 7.8
C 99 5.8
X 104 ?

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 46

EXAMPLE 1

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 47

NORMAL RATIO METHOD

Nx
λi =
nN i
Nx = average precipitation at station x
Ni = long term annual average precipitation at station i
n = number of station involve

Missing rainfall data;

1 nNx
Px = ∑ Pi
n i =1N i

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 48

EXAMPLE 2

Estimate rainfall depth at station X from a storm using Normal

Ratio method if the rainfall depth for nearby stations are as;

Station Annual Rainfall Depth

Rainfall Depth from a Storm
(cm) (cm)

A 110 6.5
B 104 7.8
C 99 5.8
X 104 ?

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 49

EXAMPLE 2

1 nNx
Px = ∑ Pi
n i =1N i

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 50

 QUADRANT/INVERSE DISTANCE

The previous methods do not

consider the following factors:
a)The distance between the station
b)The density of the rainfall station
c)Quadrant method is to overcome
such factors

1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
P
n ⎢D 2
i⎥
2
λi =
Di Px = ∑ ⎢ n i ⎥
n 1 i = 1⎢ 1 ⎥
∑ 2 ⎢ i∑
=
2⎥
i = 1Di ⎣ 1D i ⎦

Di = distance between missing data station and selected station i

[x(x0,y0)] {Note: Select the nearest station in each quadrant}

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 51

 Quadrant Method
D

A
C

B
G

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 52

 QUADRANT/INVERSE DISTANCE
a) Divide the catchment area with
known rainfall record (Pi) into
quadrant
b) Draw (x-x) and (y-y) ordinate in
such a way that the ordinates
intersects at station X (missing
station)
c) Determine the distance (d)
between station X and any other
station
d) For each quadrant, choose only
one station, i.e. the nearest to
Station X 1
e) Calculate the weightage for each 2
station Di
λi =
f) Multiply the weightage factor to its n 1
rainfall value (λi)(Pi) ∑ 2
i = 1Di
g) The sum of (λi)(Pi) is equal to
missing value X.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 53

EXAMPLE 3
Estimate rainfall depth at station X (located at coordinate
(0,0) using quadrant method.

Rainfall Coordinate
Quadrant Station Depth
(cm) X Y

A 10 3 9
I B 3.5 18 26
C 9.5 6 4
D 4.0 11 -8
II E 0.5 14 -26
F 2.3 -4 -22
III G 7.6 -10 -5
IV H 2.3 -21 19
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 54
EXAMPLE 3

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 55

EXAMPLE 3b

(4,4)

(-2,4)

(2,1)

(-2,-1) (4,-1)

(1,-3)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 56

EXAMPLE 3b

(4,4)

(-2,4)

(2,1)

(-2,-1) (4,-1)

(1,-3)

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 57

EXAMPLE 3b

STN X Y Di2 1/Di2 λi λiPi

A 4 4 (4-2)2 + (4-1)2 = 13 0.077 0.256 4.86
B 4 -1 (4-2)2 + (-1-1)2 = 8 0.125 0.415 10.34
C 1 -3 (1-2)2 + (-1-3)2 = 17 0.059 0.196 5.88
D -2 -1 (-2-2)2 + (-1-1)2 = 20
E -2 4 (-2-2)2 + (4-1)2 = 25 0.04 0.133 2.79
0.301 ∑λ=1 23.9mm

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 58

ο The distribution of rainfall in a catchment is important
in hydrologic analysis as most civil engineering water
related project involve area/regional development
ο Therefore, rainfall record should be in the form of
‘areal’
ο Unfortunately, rainfall record can only be obtained
through point measurement (point rainfall)
ο Thus, point value must be converted into areal value
ο This distribution can be obtained from the combination
of rainfall stations.
ο The methods (will be discussed) to estimate the mean
areal precipitation (MAP) are;
• Arithmetic-Mean Method
• Thiessen Method
• Isohyetal Method

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 59

 In general, MAP can be expressed as:
1
MAP = Pˆ = ∫ z(x )dx
AA
The value of z (x ) which is the rainfall depth for a storm is
unknown, only the rainfall depth at every raingages is known
and z(x i ) will be replaced by P i . Then,
MAP can be estimated as;
n
Pˆ = ∑ λi Pi
i =1 z(x i )

P̂
= estimator MAP
Pi = average rainfall depth at station i
λi = weighted average, where
n
∑ λi = 1
i =1

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 60

 ARITHMETIC-MEAN METHOD
• Simplest method and less accurate
• Suitable for an area with many and uniform distribution of rainfall station
• Use only rainfall station within the catchment area
• Applicable to an area with a uniform gage distribution
ο Estimated MAP is;

1
λi =
n
1 n
where
Pˆ = ∑ Pi
n i =1
Pˆ = estimated MAP
Pi = average MAP at station i
n = number of rainfall station

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 61

 ARITHMETIC-MEAN METHOD

Rainfall record for Station X is missing

PX = 1/4 (PA+PB+PC+PD)
PX is rainfall data for Station X
PA, PB, PC, PD are rainfall data for Station
A, B, C, and D
It is not accurate for large catchment
area

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 62

 EXAMPLE 4

Estimate MAP using an arithmetic average method if the

rainfall depth for rainfall in the catchment are as;

Station Rainfall Depth

(cm)
A 10.0
B 8.5
C 9.0
D 8.9
E 8.0

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 63

 EXAMPLE 4

What if;

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 64

 THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
o This method evaluates the weight λi as ratio of so called gage
influenced area, Ai to the total area AT
o For an area that has a good rainfall station distribution
o Also consider the station outside the catchment
o Assume rainfall in polygon i equals to rainfall recorded by
station i
o Polygon changes if the station changes
o Does not consider geographical topography
Ai
λi =
AT n A
P = ∑ i Pi
ˆ where
i =1 AT

Pˆ = MAP
Ai = area of polygon representing station i
AT = total catchment area
Pi = average rainfall depth at station i
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 65
• Dividing the catchment area into subarea
to form polygons
• Area of polygon representing the
weightage
• More accurate method because it takes
into account subareas represented by each
rainfall station (area distribution)
• Do not require uniform distribution of
rainfall station
• Stations outside catchment are also useful
• Less suitable for hilly area

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 66

 Procedure of Polygon Thiessen
• Plot stations in catchment
• Draw straight lines
connecting all stations
involved
• Determine bisector point
at line
• Draw perpendicular
bisector line
• Construct polygon (sub-
areas bordered by
perpendicular lines and
catchment boundary)
• Compute area of each
polygon

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 67

 A
C

F
D

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 68

Example

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 69

 Example
10
9
D = 4.5 E=2
8
7
6
5 B = 17
4
3
2
C = 1.5
1
A = 6.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 70
 Rainfall, 
Station Adj Area R, Thies
cm
A 27 6.6 5.6
B 41 17.3 22.1
C 35 1.5 1.7
D 53 4.6 7.6
E 49 2.0 3.1

Catchment Area = 32 Thiessen Rainfall = 40cm

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 71
EXAMPLE 5

Find MAP using Thiessen Polygon Method

Station Rainfall Area of Polygon

Depth (cm) (km2)

A 10.0 12.25
B 8.5 2.21
C 9.0 11.37
D 8.9 4.17
E 8.0 5.0

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 72

 EXAMPLE 5

Ai
Pi
Station Rainfall Polygon Area Area AT
Depth (cm) (km2) Fraction

A 10.0 12.25 0.350 3.50

B 8.5 2.21 0.063 0.54
C 9.0 11.37 0.325 2.93
D 8.9 4.17 0.119 1.06
E 8.0 5.0 0.143 1.140

∑ = λi = 1 ∑ = $ = 9.17cm
P

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 73

 EXAMPLE 5

Station Rainfall Area of Polygon PiAi

Depth (cm) (km2)

A 10.0 12.25 122.5

B 8.5 2.21 18.79
C 9.0 11.37 102.33
D 8.9 4.17 37.11
E 8.0 5.0 40.0

∑A T = 35
∑ = P A = 320.72
i i

P$ =
∑ PAi i
=
320 .72
= 9 .16 cm
AT 35

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 74

 EXAMPLE 5

Ai
Pi AT
Station Rainfall Area
Depth (cm) Fraction (km2)

A 10.0 0.35 3.5

B 8.5 0.063 0.54
C 9.0 0.325 2.93
D 8.9 0.119 1.06
E 8.0 0.143 1.14

∑ λi = 1 ∑ = P i
Ai
AT
= P$ = 9 .17 cm

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 75

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 76
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 77
 ISOHYETAL METHOD
• Most accurate method to estimate MAP
• Line of equal precipitation
• Considers spatial distribution
• The method can be expressed as;
Ai
λi = where Ai = Ai ,i +1
AT

Ai ,i +1 Pi + Pi +1
Pi + Pi +1
n
where Pi =
Pˆ = ∑ 2
i =1 AT 2
n A
P = ∑ i Pi
ˆ
i =1 AT
Pˆ = MAP
Ai,i+1 = area enclosed by two consecutive isohyetal lines i and i+1
AT = total catchment area
= average rainfall between two isohytal lines i and i+1
Pi

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 78

79
 ISOHYETAL METHOD
• Isohyetal is a topo map for rainfall
distribution over a catchment area
• Obtain point rainfall data for the
catchment area
• Plot rainfall stations in and outside
nearby catchment
• Draw the isohyetal of the area (line
of equal precipitation representing
similar rainfall depth) at specified
interval by interpolation
• Compute area covered between two
isohyetal lines compute mean
rainfall value between two isohyetal
lines
• Calculate mean areal rainfall

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 80

81
82
83
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 84
EXAMPLE 6a

85
EXAMPLE 6b

86
EXAMPLE 6b
ZONE AREA P (cm) PiAi
I 21.24 0.95 20.18
II 84.96 1.50 127.44
III 150.12 2.50 375.30
IV 107.28 3.50 375.48
V 24.48 4.10 100.37
VI 12.6 1.80 22.68
400.68 1021.45
∑ P xA 1021.45
P=
ˆ = = 2.55cm
AT 400.68
87
EXAMPLE 6c

88
EXAMPLE 6d

Estimate MAP using Isohyetal Method

Isohyet Area between Ave Rainfall
2 Isohyet (km2) (cm)
0.88 5*
10
1.59 15
20
2.24 25
30
3.01 35
40
1.22 45
50
0.20 53*
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 89
EXAMPLE 6d

Isohyet Area Between Ave RF Rainfall

2 Isohyet (km2) (cm) Volume
0.88 5* 4.4
10
1.59 15 23.9
20
2.24 25 56.0
30
3.01 35 105.4
40
1.22 45 54.9
50
0.20 53* 10.6

9.14 255.2

255.2
P$ = = 27.9mm
9.14

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 90

 EXAMPLE 6e
The catchment area is 120km2. Rainfall depth at P1 = 18mm, P2 = 24mm, P3
= 27mm, P4 = 33mm, P5 = 30mm, and P6 = 37mm. One grid representing
area of 1km2. Compare the Mean Areal Rainfall using simple average,
polygon Thiesen, and isohyetal method.

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 91

 = 22

= 21

= 24
= 36

=6
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 92
=1
 P1 =22 blocks

P3 =27 blocks

P1 =31 blocks P2 =25 blocks

P6 =1 block

P5 =11 blocks
STATION P (cm) SQ AREA λiPi
P1 18 22 22.6 3.4

P2 24 25 25.6 5.1

P3 27 27 27.7 6.2

P4 33 31 31.8 8.7

P5 30 11 11.3 2.8

P6 37 1 1 0.3

117 120 26.5cm

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 94

 = 14

= 34

= 20
= 28

=4 = 17

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 95

STATION P (cm) SQ AREA λiPi
I1 20 14 14.4 2.4

I2 22 34 34.9 6.4

I3 26 20 20.5 4.4

I4 30 28 28.7 7.2

I5 34 17 17.4 2.5

I6 36 4 4.1 1.2

117 120 24.1cm

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 96

97
Consistency test of rainfall record

• A consistent rainfall records are required for a

good analysis and design
• Therefore, consistency test should be conducted
in removing inconsistency in rainfall data
• Inconsistent rainfall records are due to;
o Station transfer (relocation)
o Change in surrounding
o Equipment, procedure change
• Use double mass curve analysis

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 98

 Double Mass Analysis

• The method for testing and removing the inconsistency of rainfall

record of a station
• Using rainfall record from the neighboring station as references
• Assume that precipitation measurement consistency an gage X is
suspected
• Procedures:
a) Obtain annual rainfall record for station X
b) Obtain average annual rainfall record from several
neighboring station
c) Plot a graph – Cumulative of (a) vs Cumulative of (b)
d) From the plot, identify 2 straight curves of different slopes
e) The intersection point is considered as point of change

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 99

CUMULATIVE RAINFALL FOR STATION X S*
ΔPx*

ΔPxo So

ΔPX*
= S*
ΔPA
ΔPXo
= So
ΔPA
o
S
ΔPxo = * ΔPxo
ΔPA S

CUMULATIVE RAINFALL FOR NEIGHBORING STATIONS

100
ΔPx* = ADJUSTED RECORD FOR STATION X

ΔPxo = ORIGINAL RECORD OF STATION X

So = SLOPE OF LINE AFTER THE CHANGE

S* = SLOPE OF LINE BEFORE THE CHANGE

101
1950 – 1980 [30yrs]

1981 – TO DATE [26yrs]

102
1950 – 1960 [10yrs]

1961 – TO DATE [46yrs]

103
 EXAMPLE 7a

Station X was installed in early 1979, and relocated to a new site in early
1972. Annual rainfall records for stations A, B, C, and X are summarized
in table below. Run consistency test for X during 1979 – 1981.

Cumulative Total
Year A B C X A+B+C Adjusted Cumulative
A+B+C X X X
1979 22 26 23 28 71 71 28 23.7 23.7
1980 21 26 25 33 72 143 61 28 51.7
1981 27 31 28 38 86 229 99 32.2 83.9
1982 25 29 29 31 83 312 130 31 114.9
1983 19 22 23 24 64 376 154 24 138.9
1984 24 25 26 28 75 451 182 28 166.9
1985 17 19 20 22 56 507 204 22 188.9
1986 21 22 23 26 66 573 230 26 214.9

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 104

Example 7(a)

°
ΔPx°= S ΔPx*
S*
⎡
⎢ 230 − 99 ⎤⎥
ΔPx° = 573
⎢ − 229 ⎥⎦ ΔP * 0.3808
⎣
x = ΔP *
⎢ 99 − 28 ⎥
⎡ ⎤
0.4494 x
⎢ 229 − 71⎥
⎣ ⎦

ΔPx° = 0.8474 ΔPx*

ΔPx° = 0.8474 [28]= 23.7

ΔPx° = 0.8474 [33]= 28

ΔPx° = 0.8474 [38]= 32.2

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 105

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 106
 EXAMPLE 7b

Cumulative Total
Year A B C X A+B+C Adjusted Cumulative
A+B+C X X X
1977 30 31 27 29 88 88 29 29 29
1978 33 36 32 32 101 189 61 32 61
1979 26 27 24 28 77 266 89 28 89
1980 27 26 27 29 80 346 118 29 118
1981 34 34 30 30 98 444 148 30 148
1982 31 33 31 29 95 539 177 29 177
1983 28 30 24 28 82 621 205 28 205
1984 35 34 33 39 102 723 244 35 240
1985 37 39 36 41 112 835 285 36.8 276.8
1986 34 35 35 37 104 939 322 33.2 310

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 107

Example 7(b)
°
ΔPx°= S ΔPx*
S*
⎡
⎢205 − 29 ⎤⎥
°
ΔPx = ⎡
⎢
⎣ 621 − 88 ⎥
⎦ ΔP * = 0.3303 ΔP *
x x
⎢ 322 − 205 ⎥
⎤ 0.3679
⎢ 939 − 621 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

ΔPx° = 0.89754 ΔPx*

ΔPx° = 0.89754 [39]= 35

ΔPx° = 0.89754 [41]= 36.8

ΔPx° = 0.89754 [37]= 33.2

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 108

| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 109
| Tarmizi Ismail | FKA | UTM | 110