EDU-01, EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA

UNIT – 01
FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

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Unit 1
FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

CONCEPT OF SOCIAL DIVERSITY

Social diversity is all of the ways that people within a single culture are set apart from each other.
Elements of social diversity can include ethnicity, life style, religion, languages, tastes and preferences.
Many diverse cultures contribute to the richness of our world community. Just as every culture has time
honored traditions that make its heritage unique, each of us has individual qualities and characteristics
that make us special.

ASPECTS OF DIVERSITY IN INDIAN SOCIETY

The diversity in India is unique. India presents endless varieties of physical features and cultural
patterns. It is the land of many languages it is only in India people professes all the major religions of the
world. In short, India is “the epitome of the world”. The vast population is composed of people having
diverse creeds, customs and colours. Some of the important forms of diversity in India are discussed
below.

1. Cultural Diversity

The culture of India is the way of living of the people of India.

India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food and customs differ from place to place
within the country. The Indian culture often labeled as an amalgamation of several cultures, spans across
the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old. Many elements
of India's diverse cultures, such as religions, yoga and Indian cuisine, have had a profound impact across
the world.

2. Diversity of Physical Features:

The unique feature about India is the extreme largest mountains covered with snow throughout
the year. The Himalayas or the adobe of snow is the source of the mighty rivers like Indus. Ganga and
Yamuna. These perennial rivers irrigate extensive areas in the North to sustain the huge population of the
country. At the same time Northern India contains and zones and the desert of Rajasthan where nothing
grows accept a few shrubs.

3. Linguistic Diversity:

The census of 1961 listed as many as 1,652 languages and dialects. Since most of these languages
are spoken by very few people, the subsequent census regarded them as spurious but the 8th Schedule of
the Constitution of India recognizes 22 languages. Hindi in Devanagiri script is recognized as the official
language of the Indian Union by the Constitution. Most of the languages spoken in North India belong to
the Indo- Aryan family, while the languages of the South namely Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam and
Kannada belong to the Dravidian family.

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4. Religious Diversity:

India is not religiously a homogeneous State even through nearly 80 % of the population profess
Hinduism. India is a land of multiple religions. We find here followers of various faiths, particularly of
Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism Zoroastrianism. We know it that Hinduism is
the dominant religion of India. According to the census of 2011 it is professed by 79.08% of the total
population. Next comes Islam which is practiced by 14.2 per cent. This is followed by Christianity
having a followers of 2.3 per cent, Sikhism reported by 1.7 per cent, Buddhism by 0.7 per cent and
Jainism by 0.4 per cent. The religions with lesser following are Judaism, Zoroastrianism and Bahaism.

5. Diversity of Caste and Class system:

A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status in society which
permanently determines their relation to other group. Class system is based on occupation, wealth,
education, age, sex etc. class system is classified as upper class, middle class and lower class.

India is a country of castes. Caste or Jati refers to a hereditary, endogamous status group
practicing a specific traditional occupation. It is surprising to know that there are more than 3,000 castes
in India. These are hierarchically graded in different ways in different regions. It may also be noted that
the practice of caste system is not confined to Hindus alone. We find castes among the Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs as well as other communities.

6. Racial Diversity:

A race is a group of people with a set of distinctive physical features such set skin, colour, type of
nose, form of hair etc. The Indian sub-continent received a large number of migratory races mostly from
the Western and the Eastern directions. Majority of the people of India are descendants of immigrants
from across the Himalayas. Their dispersal into sub-continent has resulted in the consequent regional
concentration of a variety of ethnic elements.

India is an ethnological museum. Dr. B.S Guha identifies the population of India into six main
ethnic groups, namely (1) the Negrito’ (2) the Proto-Australoid, (3) the Mongoloids (4) the
Mediterranean or Dravidian (5) the Western Brachycephals and (6) the Nordic. People belonging to
these different racial stocks have little in common either in physical appearance or food habits. The racial
diversity is very perplexing.

TRIBAL GROUPS IN INDIA AND THEIR RACIAL FEATURES

A large chunk of Indians belong to Tribal group (Tribal community) – Adivasis, as they are
called, they occupy distinct regions, especially in the hilly and forested areas.

Scheduled Tribes in India form the largest proportion of the total population in Lakshadweep and
Mizoram followed by Nagaland and Meghalaya. Madhya Pradesh has the largest number of Scheduled
Tribes followed by Bihar. Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh consists of largest number of Scheduled
Tribes. There are no Scheduled Tribes in Punjab, Delhi, Chandigarh, Pondicherry, Haryana and Jammu
and Kashmir. There are more than 50 tribal groups in India. Most of the tribes belong basically to the
Negrito, Australoid and Mongoloid racial stocks.

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Classification of tribal groups of India

The tribes of India are classified into different groups on the basis of geographical location,
language, race and levels of their socioeconomic development. India has the largest total tribal population
compared to any other country in the world. The large tribal population of India is not a homogeneous
group. It is composed of a number of different tribes. Anthropological Survey of India enumerated 461
tribal communities, of which 174 have been identified as sub-groups. Our Constitution recognizes 212
tribes and these tribes are found in different parts of the county. According to the Scheduled Tribes list
modification order, 1956; there are 414 tribes in India.

Racial types and features of tribes in India.

Dr. B.S. Guha has classified the Indian tribes into the following racial types.

1) The Negrito:

The Negrito racial type is characterised by the physical features comprising of very short height
pigmy stature, dark black skin colour, woolly and frizzy hair brood nose, thick lip, marked facial
prognathism and dolichocephalic head. The Andam Uralis and Kadar of South India the Onge and
Andamanese of the Andamans belong to this physical type.

2) The Proto-Austroloid:
The Characteristic feature of this racial stock are medium stature, dark brown skin colour, wavy
and curly hair, thick lip, broad nose, doilchomesocephalic head. Juang of Orissa, Kharia, Bhumij and Ho
of Singhbhum district of Bihar, Chenchu of Andhra Pradesh, the Gond of Bastar, the Bhil of Rajasthan
belong to this proto-Austroloid racial group.

3) The Mongoloid:
The tribals belonging to this racial group are characterised by medium stature, yellowish brown
skin colour, fat face, oblique eye-slit with epicanthi’s fold, Scanty beard and moustache and straight hair.

4) The Nordic Group:

This group is characterised by tall stature, rosy-white skin colour, wavy hair, prominent fine nose,
thin lip and sufficient hair on the body. The Toda of Nilgiri hills in South India belong to this category.

ROLE OF EDUCATION IN RESPECTING DIVERSITIES.

Education has a major role in respecting diversities of the nation. Education helps in unifying
countries through assimilating cultures, develops pluralism among citizens and ultimately developing a
diversity consciousness among citizens. Education would help to assimilate the cultural differences, into
the life of individual. Self-awareness is one necessary thing for respecting diversities. Education develops
self-awareness among individuals.

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ASPIRATIONS OF INDIAN SOCIETY

The major aspirations of Indian society are briefly described here.

1. Nationalism:

India is country of diversities and differences hence it is, imperative that it members are bound
together by a group consciousness. This can be termed as a feeling of nationalism that works as
cementing force between various cultures. Presently, India is being troubled by the phenomenon of
disintegration. Lack of national consciousness, growing regionalism, casteism and communalism and
lack of good leadership lead to this disintegration

2. Social order:

In India, we have a certain social structure or social order, which is more or less, a distinctive
arrangement of specialized and mutually dependent institutions. The components of Indian social order
are:

A. Family and kinship. Family has long been given a very high regard in India. It performs essential
social functions such as socialization, economic function, and moral development and so on.
Unfortunately, contemporary India is witnessing an erosion of the family values. The aspiration of
Indian society today should be to preserve and reinforce the Indian family ideal.
B. Economic order. There is a widening gap between rich and poor in Indian society, this is an
indicator of the unequal distribution of resources in the society. The Indian society has to aspire for
the alleviation of this economic inequality.
C. Political order. In a democratic country like India, political system is the prime agent for ensuring
equitable distribution of resources, respect for the rule of law, curbing of anti-social activities etc. the
present political system in India has unfortunately become less effective in maintaining a desirable
political order in the country. Thus, one of the major aspirations Indian societies has to be the
sensitizations of the political order.
D. Religious order. Religions provide peace and harmony to the society. They are essentially a set of
beliefs, customs and rituals which helps for the fulfillment of human existence. But it can also be
misused by the terrorists and communalists. India should aspire continually for the safeguard of
religious harmony and tolerance.
E. Legal order. Laws are essential for any society as rules that have been devised for the conduct of
social life. Law obedience is mandatory and violations of law are punished by the organized force of
the community or redressed by the judicial machinery. The Indian aspiration for this regard has to be
in strengthening the legal order for efficient action and early redressel.

3. Social Justice:

Society all over the world is characterized by differences and hierarchical relations. In India there is a
wide gap between rich and poor, male and female, worker and employer, young and old and so on. It is
disappointing that one talks about unequal distribution in a democracy like India, where equality is a
basic principle enshrined in its constitution. One of the most glaring inequalities in modern India is the
inequitable distribution of property, wealth and basic services. Forty percent of Indian population lives in
extreme poverty. Women of the country are unable to fulfill their basic purposes in life. Indian society

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has to aspire for the optimal pathway. The single most decisive factor in this regard is the provision of
equal opportunity to education to all children of the country.

4. Universalism:

The world today is referred to as a global village. The unprecedented expansion of information
and communication technologies has cut across geographical boundaries and cultural barriers. No nation
can shy away from being a part of this new world order, which thrives on the principles of globalization
or universalisation, where every country is a productive part of the world order. Pundit Nehru has
highlighted the need for international cooperation and peace and India's role in maintaining world peace
and security. The aspirations of future world would be the establishment of a new information order.
Networking and collaborative endeavors in the international arena for expanding the technical,
professional, educational and cultural knowledge base have to be taken up in a big way. Then India can
stand true to its ideology.

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QUESTIONS FOR REVISION
 Describe the different aspects of diversity in in Indian society.

 What is the role of education in respecting the diversities of India?

 Write a brief note on the tribal groups in India.

 What are the aspirations of Indian society?

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UNIT 2
EDUCATION AND CONTEMPORARY INDIA
EDUCATION- FUNDAMENTAL UNDERSTANDINGS

The concept of education is like a diamond which appears to be a different colour when seen
from a different angles. It is a basic to civilisation to social survival, as reproduction and nutrition is
essential to biological evolution. It is the most important invention of mankind. It is education,which
transformed man from a mere `two legged animal’ in to human. Education moulds the character and
personality of an individual. In true sense, education of man does not being at school. It beings at birth it
ends not when he graduate from the university, but on his death. Hence education is a life long process.

Meaning of Education

Narrow meaning of Education:

 Such a type of education is imparted in planned institutions like schools.(Schooling)

 It is a deliberate ,conscious and systematic influence exerted by the mature person.

 It is limitted to the teaching of ready-made materials.

 Knowledge is considered as the accumulated experiance of the human race.

 Education is regarded synonymous with instruction.

Broad Meaning of Education

'' From the broad point of view , all life thoughtfully lived is education.”

---- William H Kilpatric.----

It includes all influences, social,cultural,,political,domestic,geographical,etc.Even the soil,climate and

surroundings educate us.

" All experience is said to be educative. The bite of a mosquito, the taste of watermelon,the experience of
falling in love, of fly in an aeroplane,of being in storm in a small boat. All such experiences have a direct
educative effect on us. The child educates the parents,the pupil educates his teachers.....................in the
wider sence, life is education and education is life.”

--- Lodge ---

The wider meaning of education includes the following.

 The process of education is a life long process, from infancy to old age, from womb to tomb.

 It includes experiences gained through the various formal and informal agencies of education. We
learn from home ,school, cinema, club, press, travel,friends,physical and social environments.

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 All experience is said to be educative.

Etymological meaning of Education

There are two closely related arguments regarding the origin of the word 'Education'

1. The current english term educaion is derrived from the latin word educatum means to train

educatum  to train (Latin)

e + duco  educatum

e  from inside

duco  to draw / to lead

thus education is a process which draws from within / inside

2. The current English term education is derrived from the Middle English word Educaten. educaten
is derrived from the latin words educare formerly educere. Explanations are given below.

Education (English) - noun form of the verb educate

Education Educaten

Educaten  Educare = bring up

Educere = bring out

Ex out

Ducere to lead

ion (Suffix) a particular action or process

Thus ,education as process which 'lead a person out of ignorence' or 'bring out a persons's
innate abilities.'

SOME DEFINITIONS

''Education isthe manifestation of perfection already in man''

– Swami Vivekanandan

'' By education I mean an allround drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind and spirit.''

– Gandhiji

''The capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment.''

– Plato

''Education means natural development of organs and powers of the child from within.'' – Rousseau

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’’Education is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control
his environment and fulfill his possibilities.’’ – John Dewey

’’Education is a cultural tool for the emancipation of the oppressed.’’ – Paulo Freire

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

Major Functions

 Spread of knowledge and skill.

 Development of innate powers.

 All round development of personality.

 Development of moral character.

 Promoting social development.

 Satisfaction of needs.

 Preservation / conservation and promotion of social heritage and civilization.

 National development.

The twofold functions

1- Individual development

 Gives emphasis to the development of the individuality of the learner.

 Great educators considered individuality as the ideal of life.
 Individual aim in education is as per the natural tendencies of the child. It is an unfolding of his
latent powers.

2- Social development.
 The social aim in education is based on the assumption that the society is superior to the
individual.

 Society has a natural origin in human nature.

 The education should aim to meet the needs of the society and ensure the welfare of the state.

 Social aim of education will help to strengthen social qualities like loyalty, co-operation, sacrifice,
equity etc.

 Individual cannot live and develop in isolation from society.

 After analyzing the individual and the social aim of education we will reach in a conclusion; that
Social and Individual aim of Education is compatible.

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The individual and the society both are regarded as realities, neither of the two being absolutely
independent of the other. The individual is the product of society which the society in its own turn finds
its advancement in the development of its individual members.

AIMS OF EDUCATION

Education is a social necessity. It takes care of the changing social needs and aspirations. It is an
activity which is directed to some goals. It always acts with an aim. This aim makes it a purposeful
activity. The basic aim of education is to help each individual to progress toward the attainment of his
full potential, both as a person and as a member of society. The aims of education are integrally related to
the aims of life. In that sense the formulation of the aims of education is same as the formulation of the
aims of life. The formulation of the aims of education is big responsibility of a civilized society.

VARIOUS AIMS OF EDUCATION

Education strictly an objective based process. Different philosophies, social reformers and
educationists have formulated different aims of education for the individual and the society keeping into
considering various needs and ideals. The following are the major aims of education:

1. Knowledge aim:

Knowledge has almost been widely accepted as one of the most important aims of education.
Human progress through ages has been made possible through the increase and diffusion of knowledge.
It is a powerful agent for intellectual satisfaction and innate curiosity of man.

2. Vocational aim:

Education is meaningful only when it aims at some employment. It is the direct outcome of industrial and
scientific advancement. The modern education has placed the vocational aim in its forefront.

3. Cultural aim:

Preservation, transmission and enrichment of culture are regarded as the ultimate aim of education.
Culture as an aim of education will develop man’s aesthetic sensibilities to appreciate fine arts.
Inculcation of noble ideas, attitudes and patterns of behaviour is also comes under the cultural aim of
education.

4. Character building aim:

Development of moral character is the major aim of education.it consists in the cultivation of
values, social attitudes, ethical conduct and habits of person. The foundation of character or conduct can
be laid by teachers, through their example and influences.

5. Citizenship aim:

Education for citizenship should train the individuals to discharge his duties and make him
conscious of his rights. This aim should imply respect for the individuality each every person, provision
for free expression and fearless discussion of difference of opinion and cooperative and collaborative
decision making.

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6. Harmonious development aim:

Education is a preparation for life. Human life has many dimensions. Hence, no single aim of
education is enough. Man is born with many powers and capacities. A progressive education should aim
to develop all these powers and capacities in a harmonious manner to produce a well-balanced
personality. According to this approach, harmonious development of the various aspects of human beings
is the aim of education.

7. Spiritual aim:

Spiritual aim in education seeks to make man spiritually sound. The upholders of this aim argue
that the ethical and moral side of human life can only be preserved and enriched if the spiritual
potentialities of man are made to develop.

8. Complete living aim:

According to this approach, propounded by Herbert Spencer, the general aim of education was
training for complete living. Complete living implies living one’s life to the full in its various aspects.

9. Individual aim:

Individual aim in education gives emphasis to the development of the individuality of the learner.
The great educators of the world like Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel etc. held the central notion that
individual should be in the forefront of the educational process. They considered individuality as the
ideal of life.

10. Social aim:

The social aim in education is based on the assumption that the society is superior to the
individual. Thus the aim of education should be the good of the society. Some of the great educators say
that the society has a natural origin in human nature. Hence society is more important than individuals.
The education should aim to meet the needs of the society and ensure the welfare of the state.

11. National integration:

Education is a great force and effective means of national integration. Education should take up the
responsibility of inculcating a sense of love and devotion to one’s country and instilling the feeling of
oneness in the minds of the people. It should implant a sense of patriotism in the hearts of young
generation. It nurtures sentiments of nationhood and attempts to string together people of different
communities, different regions, different languages and different traditions and customs.

12. International Understanding:

The major aim of education is to promote the international understanding among pupils. Education
for international understanding is of unique importance in the present day world of conflicts. The whole
world is now so intimately interrelated that no nation can live alone and the development of a sense of
world citizenship has become just as important as that national citizenship.

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NATURE OF EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE

Characteristics of Education

 Education is purposive.

 Drawing out or bringing up process.

 Knowledge as well as experience.

 For the good of the Individual and the welfare of the society.

 Liberal and vocational.

 Education as a stabilizer.

 As a conservator and a tool for reconstruction.

 Education is deliberate.

 Education is planned.

 Education is a lifelong process.

 Education is bipolar and tri-polar.

 Education is psychological and social.

 Education is growth.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
1. Formal education
Formal education is the type of education which is provided in a formal way by observing all types
of official procedures. It is a pre-planned type of education, where specific aims are well fixed in
advance, methods of teaching are decided and knowledge is given to the selected pupils by the selected
teachers. Formal education is usually in school, where a person may learn basic, academic, or trade skills.
Small children often attend a nursery or kindergarten but often formal education begins in elementary
school and continues with secondary school. Post-secondary education (or higher education) is usually at
a college or university.
2. Non-formal education
The non-formal education is used to describe any organized educational activity carried on outside
the framework of the formal educational system. Non-formal education includes adult basic education,
adult literacy education or school equivalency preparation. In non-formal education an adult (or a youth
who is not in school) can learn literacy, other basic skills or job skills. There are other possibilities. Home
education, individualized instruction (suchas programmedlearning), distancelearning and computer-
assisted instruction are some of these possibilities.

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3. Informal education
Informal education is the kind of education attained by an individual naturally and incidentally. For
example, a parent teaches a child how to prepare a meal. Teacher can also get an informal education by
reading many books from a library. In this type of education there are no pre-determined aims, no
definite curriculum, no well thought methods of teaching, no qualified and trained teachers and no
definite place of education.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN FORMAL, NON-FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION

FORMAL EDUCATION INFORMAL EDUCATION NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Several formalities are It is flexible in matters of
No formalities are observed at
observed at all stages of admission, attendance, duration,
any stage of education
education. examination etc.
The scope of formal education The scope of informal
It is need based.
is limited. education is vast
It is a planned and systematic It is an unplanned and
education which is unsystematic education
It is not a time bound education
intentionally given to the unintentionally given to the
learner. learner.
There are fixed goals for No goals are fixed in informal It has flexible points of entry and
formal education. education exit.
It is given for a particular
It is life long It is always integrated with work
period.
There are no conscious efforts
Conscious efforts are made by It is characterized by self-
from the part of either the
the teacher and the learner. imposed discipline.
teacher or the learner.
It is not confined to any
It is institutionalised. It is non-institutionalised.
educational set-up.
The curriculum and subject of
There is prescribed syllabus to There is no prescribed
study and co-curricular activities
be covered within given time. syllabus and no time frame.
are varied and diversified.
In formal education, learning In informal education,
It is participatory and lenient.
is always deliberate. learning is incidental.
There is often examination There is no examination and It is more learners centered than
and certification no certification. subject centered.

LEVELS OF EDUCATION

 Pre-primary
 Primary
 Secondary
 Higher secondary
 University education

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INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF EDUCATION

Education had strong relationship with:

1. Philosophy

Philosophy considered as the mother of all sciences. Any educational programmes become
consistent only if they are built upon sound philosophy. It helps to reconstruct and readapt education to
suit the needs of the contemporary society. Philosophy influences every aspects of education, such as
aims, curriculum, text books, methods of teaching, discipline, teacher etc.

2. Sociology

Education is the process of socializing the child. Socialization of the child is nothing but training
the child to adapt himself to the society in accordance with the norm of acceptances and expectations.
Sociology is the study of a social system, while education is the function of a social system. Sociology
develops methods and technique of social interaction while education utilises the same to bring about the
desired behavioural and attitudinal changes.

3. Psychology

Psychology is the science of behaviour. Education in a narrow sense is then modification of

behaviour of children in a controlled environment. To shape the behaviour or to bring about some
changes it is necessary to study the science of behaviour. The developmental stages of children and
characteristics are very essential factors which the teacher must know in order to be a successful teacher.
If anyone wants to be a successful teacher, he must know about the science of behaviour/psychology of
the learner and the learning.

4. Economics

In the present condition, education considered as a capital investment for a better economic future
of the nation. The economical reformation of any nation can only through the better education. The
present economy is also known as the knowledge base economy. All the aspects of a nation’s economy
are decided that the innovations are made in a particular nation by the help of education.

5. History

Each and every individual should know the historical background of our nation for saving the
tradition, sovereignty and culture of the particular nation. As an Indian we have the affluence of a great
historical background. Through the effective educational practices the coming generations will realize the
rich traditions and heritage of our nation. In another side , to have a clear understanding about the
contemporary education, it is necessary to have a clear understandings about the historical aspects of
education. The history of indigenous education in India acts as a basis of all educational policies and
reforms in India. Hence the study of past education guides the future aspects of education.

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6. Politics

The political background of a nation too has very significant influence on its educational system.
The present political condition of a country will influence the present education system of that country.
For example a country followed a totalitarian administration system, the education will be directed to
secure mechanical, discipline, duty and unquestioned obedience. In a communist country will produce
textbooks, train teachers and formulation of teaching methods in order to attain the goal of socialism. In a
democratic country, education is considered as the birth right of all. The society has the responsibility to
give equal opportunity for all and provide education according to the individual tastes, abilities and
attitudes.

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QUESTIONS FOR REVISION
 Describe the etymological origin of the term education.

 ‘In the wider sense, life is education and education is life’. Explain your thoughts.

 “Education is broader than obtaining knowledge”- enumerate your views.

 Write any two definitions of education.

 Explain the broad meaning of education.

 Differentiate between the meaning, functions and aims of education.

 What are the major aims of education?

 What are the major functions of education?

 ‘Aims of education cannot be different from the aims of life’ – comment.

 Education is a tri-polar process. Explain.

 What are the major characteristics of education?

 What you mean by non-formal education?

 What are the characteristics of Formal/Non-formal/Informal education?

 Differentiate between formal education and informal education.

 Give a note on the interdisciplinary nature of education.

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UNIT 3
EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

VEDIC EDUCATION (Gurukula System of education)

The most important contribution of ancient India; not only for India but also for the world is in
the field of education. It may also be remembered that education is not an abstract term. It is manifested
in the cultural economic, individual, philosophical, scientific, social and spiritual advancement. In other
words, education is the means for developing the mind for the betterment of the individual and society.

The education system which was evolved first in India is known as the Vedic system of
education. In other words, the ancient systems of education were based on the Vedas and therefore it was
given the name of Vedic educational system. Vedic Literature was the sources of the Vedic Age
education. No study of the source of Indian culture, education, philosophy and thought is complete
without an adequate acquaintance and understanding of the ‘Vedic Literature’. Ancient education
emerged from Vedas. They are supposed to be the source of Indian philosophy of life. The term Veda
comes from the Sanskrit verbal root ‘vid’ means ‘to know’. Thus the etymological meaning of Veda is
‘knowledge’.

The Vedas are considered as the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization, and thus the
most sacred books of India. They are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, and contain spiritual
knowledge encompassing all aspects of Indian life. Generally Vedic period is divided in to two; the early
Vedic period from B.C.2000 to 1000 and the later Vedic period from B.C. 1000 to B.C. 600.

Features of Vedic education:

1. Gurukula system:

The students lived in the home of teacher called ashram along with his teacher and received
education. The student remained with the guru for 12 years, leading a life of chastity and purity, serving
the guru and gaining knowledge.

2. Education for all sectors:

During Vedic period education was offered to all categories of people on an equal footing. There
was no discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour etc.

3. Upanayana as an initiation of education:

In Vedic education, the education of a child started with a formal ceremony called Upanayana. The
word Upanayana means ‘to bring in touch with’. This ceremony was performed at the ages of 8, 11, and
12 for the Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, respectively.

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4. Compulsory Brahmacharya:

In Vedic system, every student was required to observe celibacy.

5. Individualistic education:

During Vedic period the nature of education was much more individualistic rather than joint in
groups. Every student gets the individual attention from the teacher. Education was imparted to each
student depending on his interest and ability.

6. Begging Alms:

Begging for alms was prescribed for the pupil to produce in him a spirit of humility and
renunciation.

7. Ideal of teachers:

Teachers in the Vedic period were men of the highest caliber and were held in high esteem.
Students have great respect and devotion for them. The teacher’s conduct and behaviour was model for
the students to imitate.

8. Duties of Disciples:

The students in Gurukula system must have duties and responsibilities. It includes keeping the
ashram clean and tidy, grazing cows, fetching water, collecting firewood, go out for alms etc.

9. Prominence of religious ideals:

The Vedic education was dominated by spiritual and religious ideals and values.

10. Promotion of vocational efficiency:

Vocational subjects like military science, agriculture, animal husbandry, Ayurveda, trade,
handicrafts etc. were taught depending on the Varna (Chaturvarnya system) of the student.

Aims of education in Vedic period

 Character formation

 All round development of personality

 Intellectual development

 Spiritual development

 Preparation for living

 Preserving and transmitting culture.

Curriculum of Vedic education

1. Vedic literature:

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 Rigveda

 Yajurveda

 Samaveda

 Adharvaveda

2. Vedangas (The vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines traditionally associated with the
study and understanding of the Vedas. (1) Shiksha, (2) Kalpa, (3) Vyakarana, (4) Nirukta,
(5) Chandas, (6) Jyotisha.)

3. Hetuvidya

4. Silpa vidya

5. Physical education

Methods of instruction:

 Lecturing was the important method of teaching during Vedic period.

 Discussion and recitation were also adopted appropriately.

 Instruction was verbal and it was carried out by lecture method.

 Special attention was given to pronunciation training.

 The student memorized the lessons presented orally by the teacher. The second lesson was taught
only when the first had been memorized.

 The important methods of learning include three steps;

1- Listening (Sravana - is listening to words text as they uttered by the teacher)

2- Deliberation (Manana or Chinthan - is the process of deliberation or reflection of the

topic taught.)

3- Meditation (Nididhyasana – is constant meditation, realisation and experience. Represents

the highest stage of learning.)

Paravidya & Aparavidya

The Vedas mention two types of education, namely ‘Paravidya’ and ‘Aparavidya’. The first one is
relates to spiritual or ecclesiastical knowledge and the second relating to temporal and worldly
matters.

Merits of Vedic education:

 Paid attention to the formation of character and the development of personality.

 Efforts were made for the preservation and transmission of culture.
 Education was free.
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 Begging for alms developed humility and tolerance in the students.

 Teachers enjoyed the highest social status.
 Women education was encouraged- music and dancing were also taught to girls.

Demerits of Vedic education:

 Vedic education laid stress on spiritual matters.

 The secular and material aspects of life were not given adequate importance.
 Education was not considered as the birth right of a person.

EDUCATION DURING BUDDHIST PERIOD

The monasteries were the centers of education during the Buddhist period. Besides monasteries,
there were no other organizations for imparting education. Only the Buddhist could receive religious and
other types of education. Other persons were deprived of this facility. There was no place for Yajna in the
Buddhist system. Buddhist period in Indian education roughly starts from 600 B.C and last for about
1200 years till 600A.D. During Vedic period education was mostly individualistic effort whereas during
Buddhist period institutional organization is one of the chief characteristics of education.

Buddhist education was based on the teaching of Gautama Buddha. These teachings were so
important that they remained a source of inspiration for individual as well as social development in India.
The influence of Buddhist teachings cannot be undermined even during later period.

Aims of education
The chief aims of Buddhist education had been the following:-

(1) Development of education: - The chief aim of Buddhist education was all round development of
child’s personality. This included his physical, mental, moral and intellectual development.

(2) Formation of character: - During this period, in the organization of education, special emphasis
was laid on the formation of character of the students. Student life was hard and rigorous. They observed
celibacy.

(3) Religious education: - In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was
imparted through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation of religious
feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana.

(4) Preparation for life: - In this system of education, there was a provision for imparting wordily and
practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered normal life they
may be able to earn their livelihood.

PABBAJA CEREMONY

Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means going out.
According to this ceremony the students after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his
worldly and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted to a monastery
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and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste. For Pabbaja ceremony the individual had to get
his head fully shaved and put on yellow clothes. In this shape he was presented before the presiding
Bhikshu. On presentation this individual would pray for admission to the monastery. On his prayer the
head Bhikshu would administer three basic advices:

(1) I take refuge with Buddha.

(2) I take refuge with religion.

(3) I take refuge with the order.

The aspirant for admission used to pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission was
permitted. On being admitted the individual was called a Sharman.

UPASAMPADA CEREMONY

After Buddhist monk had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony. This ceremony was different
from Pabbaja ceremony. It was after receiving education for twelve years, that it is at the age of twenty
years, Upasampada ceremony was performed. The Sharman has to present himself in front before all
other monks of the monastery. One could be admitted for this ceremony only when the majority of the
monks voted in favour of the same. After this ceremony the Sharman was regarded as full- fledge
member of the monastery. On this occasion all his worldly and family relationships ended.

Responsibility of teacher

Both the teacher and the student were responsible to the monastery or the Buddhist order. But
regarding education, clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly responsible.
The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to
bestow all the affection to his student and used to educate his through lecture and question answer
method.

Daily routine of students (Dinchariya)

The student was expected to serve his teacher with all devotion. On rising in the morning the
student will arrange everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He will cook his food and clean his
clothes and utensils. Whatever he acquired through begging alms, he would place before teacher. The
student had to prepare himself to receive education at any time whenever the teacher required him.

Curriculum

The curriculum was chiefly spiritual in nature. It was because the chief aim of education was to
attain salvation. So the study of the religious books was most important. This type of curriculum was
meant only for the monks. Besides these spinning, weaving, printing of the clothes, tailoring, sketching,
accountancy, medicines, surgery and coinage were the other subjects of Buddhist education.

Expulsion of pupils

The teachers of a Buddhist monastery were empowered to expel any student on charge of
misconduct or any type of serious disobedience. However, the student was expelled only when it was
definitely ascertained that he lacked faith and respect for the teacher and the other things related to the

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sanctity of the monastery. After the death of the teacher or when the teacher changed his religion or left
the monastery for elsewhere, the students also deserted the monastery. The education of the concerned
students ended then and there.

Method of teaching

Buddhist education aimed at purity of character. Like Vedic education it was training for moral
character rather than psychological development of the students. One has to attain the stage of
Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized. Following were the methods:-

1. Verbal education: Through the art of writing had been well developed up to Buddhist period yet, due
to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent as it was in Vedic
age. The teacher used to give lessons to the novices who learnt them by heart. The teacher used to put
questions on the learning the lesson by heart.

2. Discussion: In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was necessary
to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to satisfy the critics and opposing groups and
establish ones own cult. Thus, rules were framed for discussion.

3. Prominence of logic: The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period. The
controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was also useful in the
development of the mental power and knowledge.

4. Tours: The main of the Buddhist monks was to propagate Buddhism .Hence some Acharyas like
Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to tours for educating people.

5. Conference: Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the Buddhist
sanghas. The monks of different sanghas assembled and put forward their doubts freely. The attendance
of every monk was compulsory in such conference.

6. Meditation in solitude: Some Buddhist monks were more interested in isolated spiritual meditation in
lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely meditation who had fully
renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the sanghas and had gained the efficiency
for solitary medications.

The nature of mass education

The monasteries or Buddha Viharas were the chief centres of learning and only the Buddhist
monks could be admitted to them for education. Thus there was no planned arrangement for mass
education as such during the period. It forms this position it would be wrong to construe that the Buddhist
monks were unkindful of the education of the people in general. So at the time of begging alms the
monks used to remove the religious doubts of the people through their interesting conversation or short
and alp lectures. Thus the people in general received moral and religious education from the monks.

Women education

Women education during the Buddhist period was at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were
despised in the sense that Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised
during his regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during his life time not to admit

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women in monasteries. But after some time due to the insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had
permitted about 500 women along with his stepmother for admission in Viharas with many restriction
and reservation.

Vocation Education

Vocation education was not ignored during the Buddhist system of education. The monks of
Viharas were taught spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing requirement.
They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture enabled them to build up new Viharas or
repair the old ones. Similarly the householders following Buddhism but living outside Viharas were
given training in different type of and also earn their livelihood.

Role of Teacher in Buddhist system

Buddhist philosophy admits the possible of attaining peace here and now, though, it starts with a
pessimistic note. Teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair. Bhikshus were the teacher.
Buddhist Viharas or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and training for the apprentices. The
preceptor must give his disciple, all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance. There was
mutual esteem between the teacher and the pupil. There relations were like father and son. The teacher
was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual father of the student.

PATRONAGE OF LEARNING UNDER GUPTA, MOURYA

AND MUGHALS
SYSTEM OF EDUCATION DURING MOURYA AGE
The Mourya Empire, also known as the Mouryan Empire, was a geographically extensive Iron
Age historical power in ancient India, ruled by the Mourya dynasty from 322–185 BCE. The Empire was
founded in 322 BCE by Chandragupta Mourya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and rapidly
expanded his power westwards across central and western India, alongside Chanakya's help, taking
advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander the
Great's armies. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering
the satraps left by Alexander. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus-I, a Macedonian
general from Alexander's army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River.

The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world in its time. It was also the largest
empire ever in the Indian subcontinent. The Mouryan Kings were great patrons of the arts and literature.
Intellectuals such as Chanakya received the continued support of the kings. Ashoka did much for the
cause of Buddhist literature in his empire. The Universities of Nalanda and Taxila were set up by the
Mouryans. Fine arts were cultivated and encouraged.

The education is fairly widespread. Teaching continued to be the main job of the Brahmins. But
Buddhist monasteries also acted as educational institutions. Taxila, Ujjayini and Varanasi were famous
educational institutions. The technical education was also encouraged. It generally provided through
guilds, where pupils learnt the crafts from the early age. May, after we completing a detailed study of the
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history of Mouryan era, definitely we could say; one and half century of Mauryan rule witnessed the
growth of economy, art and architecture, education.

SYSTEM OF EDUCATION DURING GUPTA AGE

Education during Gupta age was given utmost importance. Holy places and capitals of kingdoms
were the common centers of learning. Among the capitals, Pataliputra, Valabhi, Ujjain and Padmavati
were famous centers of learning while Ayodhya, Mathura, Nasik and Kanchi were famous centers of
education. There were the Agrahara villages which had learned Brahmans who were supported by the
revenues of these villages assigned to them for maintenance by the state. The teachers were often
attracted students from far and wide. In South India centers of learning were known as Ghatikas.

In Gupta period, there were two types of teachers- `acharya` and `upadhya`. The acharyas were
entrusted with fundamental teachings of Vedas, Upanishads and Kalpasutra. The acharyas took their
work as `work of charity` and refrained from taking fees from pupils. The Upadhyas took teaching as a
profession and charged the pupils. For scholarly education, study of Dharmashastras, Smriti, itihasa-
puranas and heterodox scriptures were included in the syllabus. For non-scholarly education,
mathematics, science of warfare, astronomy, astrology and medicine were included. Education was
generally permitted to the people belonging to the upper stratum of society. Brahmins were eligible for
all types of education, while the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas were eligible only for some items of learning.
But the Sudras were deprived completely from any light of education.

The most famous centers of learning were the monastic collage founded mostly by the Buddhists.
These centers contributed to the building of a harmonious cultural life of the people. Varanasi, Ujjain and
Amravati were other famous centres of learning before the Gupta Age. University of Taxila, though had
lost its former glory due to Hun invasion, yet had maintained its standard. Vallabhi in Gujarat and
Vikramasila in Bihar were other famous centers of learning.

Technical education was also imparted by the guilds. Technical training included metallurgy,
ivory and diamond cutting, woodwork. This was usually done in the family itself as professions had
become hereditary. Sometimes artisans took outside students as trainees. Elementary education probably
commenced at the age of five and was imparted by teachers who were called Daraka-charyas. Lipisalas
or primary schools did exist in many villages. Children used to write either on wooden boards in colour
or by the finger on the ground covered with sand. Excellence in metallurgy is proved by the Iron Pillar,
Delhi of King Chandra.

Nalanda University can be considered as an epitome of education in the Gupta age. Nalanda in
Magadha was the international university and students from Asia had come there to pursue their higher
education. It was the largest of its kind in the contemporary world to which scholars of different castes,
creeds and races hailing from India and from countries like China, Japan, Korea, Java, Sumatra, Tibet,
Mongolia flocked for advanced studies. There was catholicity of method in education and curriculum was
liberal. Wide varieties of subjects were taught. The curriculum included systems of philosophies of
different religions in India as well as arts and sciences. The state provided revenues of more than hundred
villages for the upkeep of the university.

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EDUCATION DURING MUGHAL PERIOD

Under the Mughal rule special attention was given to education. Mughals introduced a new
system of education. Consequently the ancient system of education was greatly changed. In fact, the
education during the Muslim period was much inferior to that of the Hindu period. No Muslim ruler
except Akbar did commendable works in the field of education. Education in medieval India flourished
mostly during the Mughal rule from the beginning of 1526 until the end of Mughal political presence in
1848

Muslim rulers promoted urban education by bestowing libraries and literary societies. They
founded primary schools (Maktabs) in which students learned reading, writing, and basic Islamic prayers,
and secondary schools (Madrasas) to teach advanced language skills In India. The main objective of these
Madrasahs was to train and educate scholar who would become eligible for the civil service as well as
performing duties as judge.

During the Akbar’s reign important changes were introduced in the syllabus of education. The
education system was in advance of his age and made an attempt to raise the intellectual level of the
people. He encouraged education in different ways. Special buildings were also constructed for imparting
education. Their expenses were met from endowments. The principal centres of learning Were at Lahore,
Delhi, Ajmer, Sialkot, Multan, Ahmadabad, Allahabad, Lucknow, Murshidabad, Dacca. Many scholars
were attracted to these institutions from Persia and Central Asia. Students received education free of cost.
Famous scholars received fixed stipends from the royal treasury. Provisions were made for the teaching
of Persian; the official language of the government in the Maktabs. While Muslims received education in
Maktabs, Hindus had their padasalas for imparting religious instructions.

COLONIAL POLICY OF EDUCATION

BRITISH EDUCATION
The British education generally known as Western Education

Major landmarks of British education in India.

 Western education had its beginning in India with the coming of the east India Company in 1600
AD.

 In 1673 established a secondary school at Madras.

 In keeping with the charter of 1698, the company opened schools in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta
between, 1715-1731.

 Warren Hastings opened a Madrassa at Calcutta in 1781.

 Jonathan Duncan, the British resident of Banaras, established Banaras Sanskrit College in 1791.

 In 1800 Lord Wellesley established the Fort William College at Calcutta.

 The charter act of 1813 was an important landmark in the history of Indian education. The charter
made the East India Company responsible for the education in India. It also made a provision for

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an annual grant of a sum of not less than one lakh rupees for the promotion of education in India. It
also marks the beginning of the modern period in Indian education.

ORIENTAL-OCCIDENTAL CONTROVERSY

(Anglicist-Orientalist controversy.)
It was a severe debate between the orientalists and the Anglicists on the issue of the type of
education to be imparted to the Indians and the medium of instruction necessitated for the purpose. The
central point of the controversy was whether Indians should be given western education through English
language or indigenous education through Indian languages. The oriental stood for mass education,
vernacular medium and indigenous knowledge; while the occidentals for western education through the
medium of English for the spreading of European culture and knowledge.

MACAULAY’S MINUTES:
Macaulay was a famous British historian, essayist, orator and statesman. He was the
commissioner of the board of control of Indian affairs in the British Govt. in 1834; he was deputed to
India as a law member in the Governor General’s executive council and later on appointed as the
chairman of the general committee on public instruction. The major sake of his appointment was to settle
the oriental-occidental controversy.

In 1835 February-8 Macaulay presented his historical ‘Minutes on Education’. He attached importance to
the education of the higher classes and thus emphasized the theory of downward filtration.

Major observations:

 English should be the medium of instruction especially at higher levels, as it is the best vehicle of
thought and expression.

 The institutions of oriental learning should be used for the promotion of English education.

 The grants given for education should be utilized for the spread of European literature and science.

 The aim of education should be to develop such personalities who are Indian in blood and colour, but
English in taste, in opinions, in morals and intellect.

DOWNWARD FILTRATION THEORY

The downward filtration theory is the assumption that a change in the upper stratum of a
hierarchically structured society will have, in due course, its reflections in the entire lower stratum. It
means that education and modern ideas were supposed to filter downward from the upper classes to
lower classes. The British argues that they would educate only the Indian elite people or top class people
and through them the lower class people would also be benefited.

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Contributions of Macaulay:

 Macaulay’s minutes helped to windup the oriental-occidental controversy.

 Macaulay laid the foundation stone of modern education system in India.

 He contributed to the spread of science, western literature and values in India.

 The spread of English education helped Indians to become acquainted with latest developments in the
world and got inspiration for fighting for their political independence.

 His minutes encouraged the initiation of more English schools and higher education centers by
western missionaries in India.

Demerits of Macaulay’s minutes:

 Lead to the closure of Sanskrit Padasalas and Madrassas.

 Caused the setback of oriental learning.

 Neglected of local languages.

 It abandoned mass education.

 It opposed Indian culture and religion.

WOOD’S DISPATCH:
The British parliament constituted a parliamentary committee in 1853 to review the educational
developments undertaken by the company in India. Charles wood (member of the British parliament,
chairman of the board of control of the English east India Company) was the president of the committee.
The committee considered the issues of aim of education, medium of instruction, education of masses
and other aspects in depth and gave important recommendations in the shape of a dispatch on July 19,
1854. The dispatch was considered to be the ‘Magnacarta of modern education in India’. It was the first
authoritative declaration on the part of the British parliament about the educational policy to be followed
in India.

Aims of wood’s dispatch

 Mental development of the Indian and to raise their intellectual standard.

 To make the Indians aware of the western knowledge and science and to permute their material
prosperity.

 To produce proper able workers for the east India company.

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About the curriculum

 Give emphasize on oriental language and literature.

 Special place to the western knowledge and science.

 Limited permission for religious education.

Medium of instruction

 Native languages and English to be the medium of primary education.

 At higher education, suggested English as the medium of instruction.

Extension of mass education

 Downward filtration theory hereby stands rejected. Education will be made available not only for
higher classes but for everyone.

 The number of primary and secondary schools will be increased

 Scholarship will be given to the poor and meritorious students.

Women education

 Girls’ school will be given special grants.

 Individual help to women education will be encouraged.

Training of the teachers

 Teacher training in India will be organized on the pattern of teacher training in England.

 Scholarship for the teachers during their training period will be organized.

Merits of Wood’s dispatch

 Thereafter the wood’s dispatch the British govt. undertakes the responsibility of education in India.

 Established the department of education in India.

 Beginning of grant in aid system.

 Laid foundation of graded institutions.

 Give emphasize on women education.

 Give emphasize on Muslim education.

 Give emphasize on the re-arrangement of teacher education in India.

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 Emphasize on moral development of Indians.

 Laid foundation of more universities.

 Rejected the downward filtration theory.

 Emphasize on mass education.

Contributions of British education

 English education made Indians familiar with modern knowledge and Science.
 It resulted in the advancement of science and technology in India.
 It gave momentum to westernization and moderaisation in India.
 Western democratic values found a placed in Indian nationalism.
 English education helped to wipe out many superstitions and evil practices.
 It promoted technical and vocational education.
 English education popularized western literature, English medicine, European law and modern
science and technology in India.

Limitations of British education

 English education was not as per the requirements of Indians.
 It was for keeping the interest of imperialism and colonialism.
 It discarded Indian languages.
 It neglected local educational institutions.
 It resulted in an educational divide in Indian society.

COLONIAL CRITIQUE OF EDUCATION- NATIONALISTIC EDUCATION.

 The British education system deeply influenced and tries to abolish the great traditions and the rich
heritage and culture of India
 The great personalities in the history of India like, Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Dayanand Saraswathi
evolved an idea of an Indian past to meet the British challenge. This is considered as the nationalist
origin of Indian education.
 The influence western thoughts awakened the feeling of nationalism among early nationalists.
Gradually they became the strong critique of colonial educational system. Gokhale, Annie Besant,
Bala Gangadhara Tilak, Aurobindo Ghosh and Jiddu Krishnamurthy were considered as the
colonial critiques of education.
 By the leadership of above mentioned leaders; a Swadeshi movement of education was raised in
India. A number of Swadeshi educational institutions were established. The result of this Swadeshi
movement pupils started boycotting colonial system of education.
 During Gandhian era of Indian National movement, an alternate system of education was proposed
based on Gandhian idea of basic education.

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BASIC EDUCATION
(Wardha Scheme of Education)
The Wardha scheme of Education, popularly known as ‘Basic education’ occupies a unique place in the
field of elementary education in India. This scheme was the first attempt to develop an indigenous
scheme of education in British India by Mahatma Gandhi, the father of our nation. As a nationalist leader
he fully realised that the British system of education could not serve the socio-economic need of the
country. At Round Table Conference in London (1931) he pointed out the ineffectiveness of the system
of primary education in India and the alarming low percentage of literacy among Indian people. He held
the policy of the British Government responsible for this painful situation in the field of mass education.
Gandhiji said “I am convinced that the present system of education is not only wasteful but
positively harmful.” It was in this context the concept of Basic Education emerged in the mind of
Gandhiji.

WARDHA EDUCATION CONFERENCE

For the purpose of discussing different aspects of the proposed new scheme of education, an All India
Education Conference was held in Wardha on 22nd and 23rd October, 1937. The eminent educationists,
congress leaders and workers along with the Education Ministers of the seven states had attended the
conference. Gandhiji himself presided over it. After serious discussions the following four resolutions
were passed.

1. That in the opinion of this conference, free and compulsory education be provided on a nation-
wide scale.

2. That the medium of instruction be the mother tongue.

3. That the process of education through this period should centre round some form of manual
productive work suitable for the local condition.

4. That the conference expects that the system of education will be gradually able to cover the
remuneration of the teacher.

The conference then appointed a committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain to prepare a
detailed education plan and syllabus on the lines of the above resolutions.

Zakir Hussain Committee

The committee was appointed to prepare a detailed education plan and syllabus. It submitted its
reports, one in December, 1937 and the other in April, 1938. This report has since become the
fundamental document of the basic scheme and the scheme has come to be known as the Wardha Scheme
of Education. It was approved by Mahatma Gandhi and was placed before the Indian National Congress
at its Haripura session held in March, 1938.

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The first report included the basic principles of the Wardha Scheme of education, its aims,
teachers and their training, organisation of schools, administration, inspection and inclusion of craft
centered education regarding handicrafts like spinning, weaving etc. The second report dealt with
Agriculture, Metal work, Wood craft and other basic handicraft. An elaborate curriculum of all those
subjects and ways and means to establish their correlation with other subjects was also suggested.

The conference of 1945 at Sevagram characterized Basic Education as “education for life”. The
conference considered it as a radical and important revolution in social and economic structure of the
Indian society, i.e., creating a new way of life. Since then Basic education came to be known as ‘Nai
Talim’. Basic Education has finally emerged after a decade of experimentation and discussion. The
scheme of basic education formulates the following proposals—

1. Free, universal and compulsory education should be provided for all boys and girls between the ages
of 7—14.

2. This education should be imparted in the mother-tongue of the child.

3. All education should centre round some basic craft chosen with due regard to the capacity of children
and the needs of the locality

4. The selected craft should be both taught and practiced so that the children are able to produce articles
which can be used and may be sold to meet part of the expenditure on the school.

5. This craft must not be taught mechanically but its social and scientific implications were to be studied
side by side.

6. In this craft-centered education all the subjects to be taught were to be integrally related to the
selected craft or the child’s physical and social environment.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE WARDHA SCHEME OF EDUCATION/ BASIC EDUCATION

Free and compulsory education :

Gandhiji wanted education to be free and compulsory for all boys and girls between the ages of
seven to fourteen. He evolved a scheme of education which would be in harmony with the culture and
civilisation of the Indian people and which would solve the problem of mass education in a practical way.

Education through Craft:

The basic idea of this scheme is to impart education through some craft or productive work. Craft
work helps the child to acquire sensor and motor co-ordination and to appreciate the value of honest
labour. Gandhiji was of the opinion that the method of training the mind through village handicraft from
the beginning as the central focus would promote the real, disciplined development of the mind.

Medium of instruction:

One of the resolutions that were adopted at the All India National Conference at Wardha was that
education must be imparted through the mother tongue. In this connection, the Zakir Hussain
Committee’s observation was that the proper teaching of the mother tongue is the foundation of all

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education. Without the capacity to speak effectively and to read and to write correctly and lucidly, no one
can develop precision of thought or clarity of ideas.

Ideal of citizenship:

Another important feature of the basic scheme is the ideal of citizenship which is implicit in it. It
aimed at giving the citizens of the future a keen sense of personal growth, dignity and efficiency and
social services in a cooperative community. The Zakir Hussain Committee envisaged that the new
generation must at least have an opportunity of understanding their own problems and rights and
obligations.

Flexible Curriculum and free Environment:

The flexibility of the curriculum and free environment for the child to perform according to his
own capacity are another remarkable feature of basic education. Under this scheme the teachers and
students are free to work according to their interest and there is no compulsion for completing a
prescribed portion due to fear of examinations. Necessary changes may be introduced in the curriculum if
a situation demands.

CURRICULUM OF BASIC EDUCATION

Basic education is designed for children between seven and fourteen years of age and accordingly
curriculum has been suggested. For the boys, general science and for girls home science has been
emphasised. The various subjects as suggested are given below—

1. Basic Craft.

 Spinning and Weaving,

 Carpentry,

 Agriculture,

 Fruit and Flower Cultivation,

 Leather work,

 Culturing Fish,

 Pottery,

 Any handicraft according to the local need,

 Home Science for girls.

2. Mother tongue.

3. Mathematics.

4. Geography, History and Civics to be combined as Social Studies.

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5. Painting and Music.

6. P.T., Drill and Sports etc.

7. General Science comprising Physics Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Hygiene and Nature Study etc.

8. Hindi for that area in which it is not the mother tongue.

MERITS OF BASIC EDUCATION

 The scheme is financially sound and acceptable in a poor country like India, where about half of the
total illiterate people of the world reside.

 The system was able to remove class and caste distinction. It helps to bring social solidarity and
national integration.

 It also removes the barriers between the educated and the non-educated, between manual work and
intellectual work, between the rich and the poor and village and the town.

 Basic education is activity-centered education. The child is not a passive learner but an active
participant in the learning process. It fosters learning by doing.

 Basic education is child-centric. The child is the centre of activity. It primarily considered the
constructive and creative instincts of children.

 The system is based upon the cultural and social heritage of the land. As such, it inculcates social and
moral values in the minds of the students.

 It is truly an education for the whole man. It aims at a harmonious development of the body, mind
and soul.

 Basic education system recognises the dignity of labour.

 It recognises the importance of mother-tongue as the medium of instruction at the elementary stage.

 It inculcates democratic values like co-operation, responsibility, fellow-feeling in the minds of the
students, which are essential for proper functioning of a democratic social order.

DEMERITS OR CAUSES OF FAILURE OF BASIC EDUCATION

 Too much emphasis on craft had led the neglect of liberal education and thus would create an
imbalance in the educational system between vocational and intellectual education.

 Basic Education is often regarded as inferior type of education meant for the poor villagers. It has
nothing to do with the urban people, who usually sent their children to modern type of schools.

 Basic Education can in no way help in the progress of modern scientific and technological
development of the society, which was the need of the day. Rapid changes and modernization of our

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society can only be possible through the application of modern science and technology in the fields
and factories.

 Lack of finance and the absence of sound administrative policy.

 Teacher occupies the central position in Basic Education. Lack of adequate supply of efficient,
trained and sincere teachers was one the most important cause for the failure of this scheme of
education.

*********************************************
QUESTIONS FOR REVISION
 Explain the features of Vedic education.
 What are the major aims of education in Vedic period?
 What you mean by Paravidya and Aparavidya?
 Explain the merits and demerits of Vedic education.
 What you mean by Pabbaja?
 Write a note on the education during Gupta period.
 Write a note on the education during Mouryan age.
 Write a note on the education during Mughal period.
 Critically evaluate the education in India during British period.
 Give a brief history of British education in India.
 Write a note on Oriental Occidental controversy.
 Critically examine the viewpoints of Macaulay’s minutes.
 Explain downward filtration theory.
 Wood’s Dispatch is considered ‘the Magnacarta of Indian education’. How can you clarify this statement?
 What are the main features of Woods’s dispatch?
 List the major contributions of British education.
 Explain the merits and demerits of British education in India.
 List any four names of national leaders, who were known as the colonial critique of education in India.
 Write a brief note on the ‘Swadeshi movement’ in education raised in India during the British period.
 Explain the role of Basic Education as an alternative educational thought in Indian context.
 Explain the features of Basic Education.
 Who was the chairman of Wardha scheme of education?
 What are the merits and demerits of Basic Education?
 What are the contributions of Mahatma Gandhi to education? List out the merits and demerits of
basic education by Gandhi.
 Basic education is relevant to the present educational context of India. Explain your thoughts.

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UNIT - IV

CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS OF
EDUCATION

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
The constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining
fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers and duties of govt.
Institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. It is the
longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world, containing 448 articles in 25 parts, 12
schedules 5 appendices and 98 amendments(out of 120 constitution amendment bills).

LANDMARKS
 Established the constituent assembly on 1946 Dec. 6.
 Total 389 members (Finally 299 members from India)
 In 1946 Dec.13, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the Objective Resolution.(this became the pre-amble
of Indian constitution)
 1947 Jan 22 approved the Objective resolution.
 The draft committee of constitution established by the chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar on
1947 August 29.
 The constituent assembly approved the Indian constitution on 1949 Nov. 26.
 The constituent assembly members signed in the constitution on 1950 Jan. 24.
 The constitution of India implemented on 1950 Jan. 26.

Unique Features of Indian Constitution

 Written constitution

 Federal in nature

 Parliamentary system

 Fundamental duties and rights

 Directive principles of state policy

 Single integrated judicial system

 Independence of judiciary

 Single citizenship

 Universal adult franchise

 Emergency provisions

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PRE-AMPLE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

 The pre-amble is an introductory statement of our constitution which lays down the ideals it
attempts to promote.

 Nehru says about our constitution’s pre-ample as ‘The soul of Indian constitution’-

The pre-ample of Indian constitution reads as follows;

WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India in to a SOVERIGN

SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens.

JUSTICE, social, economic, and political

Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all

FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation.

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty –sixth day of November, 1949, do hereby
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

 The original draft of the constitution opened with the words ‘Sovereign Democratic Republic’ in
the first time.

 Socialist and Secular were inserted by the 42nd amendment act of 1976.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OF INDIAN CITIZEN

1- Right to equality(Article 14-18)

2- Right to freedom(Article 19-22)

3- Right against exploitation(Article 23&24)

4- Right to freedom of religion(Article 25-28)

5- Cultural and educational rights (Article 29 &30)

6- Right to constitutional remedies. (Article 32)

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES OF INDIAN CITIZEN

The Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen are discussed in Article 51(A) of Indian constitution. This
article incorporated to the constitution by the 42nd amendment in 1976. Only 10 fundamental duties at
the beginning and another one were added in 2009 with RTE Act.

1. To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the national flag and the national
anthem.

2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom.

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3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.

4. To defend country and render national service when called upon to do so.

5. To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious , linguistic and regional or sectional diversities ; to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women.

6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.

7. To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to
have compassion for living creatures.

8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform.

9. To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.

10. To serve towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity.

11. To provide opportunities for the education of children between the age of six and fourteen
years.(RTE Act 2009)

EDUCATION IN THE CONCURRENT LIST

The Constitution of India provides educational functions at three levels viz. Central, State and
Concurrent. The forty-second Amendment, 1976 brought about drastic changes in the Indian
Constitution. It affected the status of education also by putting it on the Concurrent List. Centre and the
state can legislate any aspect of education from the primary to the university level. In case of any dispute,
legislation framed by the central government will have overriding authority. By having education in the
Concurrent List, the central govt. can implement directly any policy decision in the states.

Arguments in favor of making education a concurrent subject:

(a) To Ensure Uniformity in the Education Policy:

Education pattern should be of a uniform character in the entire country. It is possible only when
education is made a concurrent subject.

(b) Better Implementation of Education Policies:

When education is on the Concurrent List, the Centre will ensure that the States implement its
decision in right earnest. With education as a concurrent subject, the states will become more serious in
implementing decisions.

(c) Better Utilisation of Funds:

When the funds are allocated by the Central Government, it is in the fitness of things that it should
have a say in their utilisation.

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(d) Quality Leadership from the Central Government:

The central govt. should provide good and effective leadership. This should not be taken as a
reflection on the intelligential in the State, but central govt. is better equipped to provide education
leadership at the national level.

(e) For Better Discipline:

The Centre should have the power to overrule the decisions of the State Government. Then general
standards of education will also improve.

(f) Improvement in Standards:

Being a concurrent subject, by education, all India level of research in the field of education will improve
and the research findings will be better utilised at the national and state levels.

Arguments against making education a concurrent subject

(a) Based on Democratic Values:

State Government has enjoyed the privilege of having education under their control. Why should
they give it up or allow the central govt. to interfere the only sphere in which states have enjoyed full
powers? Further, democracy believes in decentralisation of powers. Why then education a concurrent
subject, they ask?

(b) States have Better Appreciation of Local Needs:

The State Government knows the needs of its inhabitants better. The Centre cannot appreciate the
educational needs of a remote village school say in Rajasthan or Tamil Nadu. So let education remain in
the hands of States

If education becomes a concurrent subject, more bureaucrats will interfere with it. Perhaps the
implementation of decisions may be delayed. States will have to seek clearance from the central govt. If
we want education to be remain free from bureaucracy, let us remain it a subject of state.

(c) Sense of Security to Minorities:

Minorities are more close to the State Governments. The minorities can also progress accordingly
if education is a State subject.

(d) Unity in Diversity:

When Indian culture is "Unity in Diversity" let each State liable its own pattern of education to
preserve its identity and culture.

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DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY IN THE INDIAN

CONSTITUTION
The Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Part IV; Articles 36-51 of the Indian
constitution constitute the most interesting and enchanting part of the constitution.

The Directive Principles may be said to contain the philosophy of the constitution. The idea of
directives being included in the constitution was borrowed from the constitution of Ireland. As the very
term “Directives” indicate, the Directive principles are broad directives given to the state in accordance
with which the legislative and executive powers of the state are to be exercised.

As Nehru observed, the governments will ignore the directives “Only at their own peril.” As India
seeks to secure an egalitarian society, the founding fathers were not satisfied with only political justice.
They sought to combine political justice with economic and social justice.

The Directive Principles may be classified into 3 broad categories—

 Socialistic

 Gandhian

 Liberal-intellectual.

Socialistic Directives

Principal among this category of directives are (a) securing welfare of the people (Art. 38) (b)
securing proper distribution of material resources of the community as to best sub serve the common-
good, equal pay for equal work, protection of childhood and youth against exploitation. etc. (Art.39), (c)
curing right to work, education etc. Art. (41), (d) securing just and humane conditions of work and
maternity relief (Art. 42) etc.

Gandhian Directives

Such directives are spread over several Articles. Principal among such directives are (a) to
organize village Panchayats (Art. 40), (b) to secure living wage, decent standard of life, and to promote
cottage industries (Art.43), (c) to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to 14 years of
age (Art. 45), (d) to promote economic and educational interests of the weaker sections of the people,
particularly, the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, (e) to enforce prohibition of intoxicating drinks
and cow-slaughter and to organize agriculture and animal husbandry on scientific lines (Arts. 46-48).

Liberal intellectual directives

Principal among such directives are (a) to secure uniform civil code throughout the country
(Art.44), (b) to separate the judiciary from the executive (Art.50), (c) to protect monuments of historic
and national importance and (d) to promote international peace and security.

On the whole, Part IV contains a formidable list of directives given to the executive and the
legislatures to follow in issuing orders or making laws. The directives may be used by any party with any

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ideology. In fact, the Directive Principles are codified versions of democratic socialist order as conceived
by Nehru with an admixture of Gandhian thought.

Part IV of the constitution does not form an operative part of the constitution. The directives are
non-justiciable in character. The courts cannot compel the governments to enforce the directives. But if
there is no judicial sanction behind the directives, there are certainly political sanctions. Art. 37 make the
directives, “fundamental in the governance of the country and in… making laws.” Hence the government
cannot totally ignore them, for fear of adverse popular reaction. The opposition inevitably takes the
government to task whenever the directives are blatantly ignored, thus scoring a political point.

ARTICLES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION PERTAINING TO

EDUCATION
Some of the major constitutional provisions on education in India are as follows:

ARTICLES
Sl.No. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS &
CLAUSES
Equality before law (every citizen should enjoy equality before law
1 14
so far his education is concerned)
Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex,
2 15
place of birth.
There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters
3 16(1)
relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State.
Right to education - provide free and compulsory education to all
4 21-A
children of the age of 6 to 14 years.
Provision regarding religious education and religious worship in
5 28
educational institutions.
No religion instruction shall be provided in any educational
6 28(1)
institution wholly maintained out of State funds.
Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution which
is administered by the State but has been established under any
7 28(2)
endowment or trust which requires that religious instruction shall be
imparted in such institution.
No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution
8 maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds 29(2)
only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the
9 right to establish and administer educational institutions of their 30(1)
choice.
Provision for free and compulsory education for children The State
shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the
10 commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory 45
education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen
years.

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Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled

Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections The State shall
promote with special care the educational and economic interests of
11 46
the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social
injustice and all forms of exploitation
The constitution (86th Amendment )act,2002

12 Who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to 51(A)K

his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.
Facilities for instruction in mother tongue at the primary level of
13 350(A)
education

Directive for development of the Hindi language It shall be the duty

14 351
of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language
Values laid down in our constitution
 Democracy
 Socialism

 Secularism
 sovereignty
 Equality of opportunity
 Justice
 Liberty
 Fraternity, Dignity, Unity and Integrity

***********************************
QUESTIONS FOR REVISION
 What are the unique features of Indian Constitution?

 What are the values laid down in the Indian Constitution?

 Describe the fundamental rights of Indian citizen.

 Describe the fundamental duties of Indian citizen.

 What are the arguments in favour of making education a concurrent subject?

 List the major articles of Indian Constitution pertaining to education.

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UNIT – V

POLICY FRAMEWORK OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

IN INDIA
CURRENT ISSUES OF EDUCATION
1- UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (UEE)
 UEE means making primary education available to all children in the age group of 6 to 14 and in
class 1 to 8.it involves making elementary education widespread and reachable to all individuals
and all sections of the society.

 UEE involves three steps:

1. Universalisation of provision
2. Universalisation of enrolment
3. Universalisation of retention

Significance of UEE

 Enrichment of the life of the individual.

 Preservation and promotion of culture
 Development of basic and upgraded skills.
 Development of vocational efficiency.
 Development of leadership quality.
 Development of social and moral values.
 Combating social evils and superstition.
 Inculcation of scientific temperament.
 Constructive participation in social life, political process and national development.

Programmes for UEE in India

OBB (Operation Black Board)

The project Operation Black Board was launched in 1987. The purpose of OBB is to ensure the
provision of minimum essential material facilities in primary schools. Use of the word operation implies
that there is urgency in the programme. The OBB envisages the following minimum facilities:

 Two teachers, one of whom is a woman.

 At least two reasonably large rooms that is usable in all weather.
 Necessary toys, Black Board, games materials, maps, charts and other materials.
 In the case of schools having more than 100 students an additional classroom and a teacher can be
provided to the above mentioned facilities.

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DPEP (District Primary Education Programme)

Launched in 1993-94. The target groups of DPEP are girls, working children, children from
disadvantaged group and children from geographically isolated area. At the beginning, only 42 districts
in India are covered under this project in 1994, extended to 110 in 1998 and added more in 2000.

M.L.L (Minimum Levels of learning)

The term refers to learning competencies expected to be mastered by every child by the end of a
particular class or stage of education. It denotes expected learning outcomes defined as observable
terminal behaviours. This implies, all children, irrespective of the conditions they come from and the
condition of schools they attend, reach a minimum standards of learning before they finish primary
education, which would prepare them as permanently literate, socially useful and contributing adults in
this world.

SSA (2001)

 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is Government of India's flagship programme for achievement of
Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) in a time bound manner, as mandated by 86th
amendment to the Constitution of India making free and compulsory Education to the Children of
6-14 years age group, a Fundamental Right.
 SSA is being implemented in partnership with State Governments to cover the entire country and
address the needs of 192 million children in 1.1 million habitations.
 The programme seeks to open new schools in those habitations which do not have schooling
facilities and strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class rooms,
toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants.
 Existing schools with inadequate teacher strength are provided with additional teachers, while the
capacity of existing teachers is being strengthened by extensive training, grants for developing
teaching-learning materials and strengthening of the academic support structure at a cluster, block
and district level.
 SSA seeks to provide quality elementary education including life skills. SSA has a special focus on
girl's education and children with special needs. SSA also seeks to provide computer education to
bridge the digital divide.

Problems and issues of UEE

1. Political reasons.

2. Social problems: Social evils such as racial and caste discrimination, untouchability, child
marriage, over population etc.

3. Economic problems: poverty, unemployment, lack of parental education, malnutrition of children

etc.

4. Geographical problems: lack of proper educational accessibility due to topographical problems.

5. Administrative problems: lack of coordinating among multilevel administrative bodies.

6. Poor physical facilities in schools: the quality of education become poor

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7. Religious reasons: there are many religious factions who are not convinced the need of modern
education.

8. Linguistic issues: the linguistic minorities in each region claim for elementary education with
regional language as the medium of instruction

9. Educational issues: illiteracy of parents, low parental aspirations, low enrolment of SC, ST and
other backward sections of the society, low enrolment of girls and disabled, high rate of wastage
and stagnation, defective curriculum etc. also contributed the slow progress of UEE.

2-WOMEN EDUCATION
(in pre-independent period)

• In ancient India women were held in high respect.

• The decline women’s education began with the post Vedic period.

• Social evils like Child marriage also deprived girls of their right to receive education.

• In Buddhist era, girls education was encouraged.

• In the time of Islamic rulers girls were given only primary education.

• Missionary education/ British education promoted women education. Many girls institutions were
started with special grant in aid system.

• Activities of Lord Curzon for the promotion of women education.

Women education: After independence

• In the time of independence the condition of woman education was very poor.

• Our nation leaders realize the necessity of women education for the integral development of nation.

• The govt. and other agencies have taken effective steps to provide them equal educational
opportunity with men.

• Education commissions appointed after independence, like Uni. Edun. Commission, Kothari
Commission etc. give emphasize to the education of girls.

• NPE 1986 give stress on women’s education.

• Now, no fields of education are closed to women.

• As a result of education, in modern India, women occupy high positions in Govt., politics and
industry as well as in all professional and technological sectors.

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3- EDUCATION OF DALITS
 The social, economic and educational conditions of most of the dalit population in India continue
in worst situation.
 The ancient caste system of India, which has resulted in the social and economic oppression of
the Dalits.
 Increasing efforts to eliminate caste discrimination combined with additional attempts to increase
the accessibility and appeal for education have contributed to the slow progression of dalit
education in India.
 The 1950s saw subtle improvements in the number of schools being built in India, as well as the
amount of money being allocated towards primary education programmes.
 In the present condition, large improvements have been made to increase enrolment rates in
India.
 Statistics show that there has been little progress in decreasing the education gap between castes.

4- MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION

 Language has a very crucial role in the whole process of education.

 India is a multi-lingual country, with 1000 more mother tongues in existent condition. Many of
these are being used as their speakers do not know any other language.
 In its 8th schedule of the Indian constitution has specified 15 modern Indian languages. Of these,
Hindi has been accorded the status of the official language of India and English of an associate
language.
 The educational system of the country is therefore faced with the requirement of implementing
the constitutional obligation, on the one hand, and the specific needs of some regions, on the
other.

 Since independence, the Govt. of India has appointed various commissions to study the language
policy exclusively for or as a part of the total educational system.

 In 1957 the CABE (Central Advisory Board of Education) suggested a three language formula.

1- The regional language

2- Hindi in non-Hindi areas and any other Indian language in Hindi areas.

3- English or any other modern European language.

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 Later the education commission 1964-66 recommended a modified three language formula.
According to the modified three language formula;
 The mother tongue or the regional language is to be taught from the 1st std. to the 10th as the first
language.

 The second language could either be Hindi or English, which is to be taught compulsorily from
the 5th std. to the 10th.(At this stage a student can also offer English or Hindi as an optional
language.

 The third language, to be taught between the 8th and

 10th standards could either be Hindi or English whichever is not studied previously.

5- MULTILINGUALISM

 In line with the policy of the state governments the mother tongue of the child is generally the
medium of instruction.
 But, the majority language of the state is not the mother tongue of some students.
 If they are in sufficient number (at least 10 students in a class) and seek to be educated through
their mother tongue; that language is allowed to be used as the medium of instruction.
 Majority of the schools at all stages of school education are imparting education through one
medium only.

SHARE OF GDP TO EDUCATION

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the market value of all officially recognized final goods and
services produced within a country in a given period of time. GDP per capita is often considered an
indicator of a country's standard of living. GDP per capita is not a measure of personal income. Under
economic theory, GDP per capita exactly equals the gross domestic income (GDI) per capita.

FINANCIAL ALLOCATION FOR EDUCATION IN INDIA

Public expenditure on education includes, government spending on educational institutions (both

public and private), education administration as well as subsidies for private entities (students
/households and other private entities). The Union Budget of India is most important economic event in
the country which outlines all the economic planning of the Government of India for the next year. It is
not only important for corporate but for individuals from all sections of the society. The union budget of
India clearly lays out the expenditure on education every year. During the year 2014-15, the Central
Govt. of India has allocated Rs. 68,728 crore for the education sector. Within this allocation, major share
of Rs.28635 crore is for SSA.

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Government's commitment to increasing the share of public spending on education to 6 per cent
of GDP has been expressed in the National Common Minimum Programme. This is a very important
commitment, especially given the huge shortfalls in good quality education to the population, and has
clear implications for future growth as well. It could be argued that, 'given the current levels of public
spending on education (at 3.6 per cent of GDP) and the international average of such spending (at 5 per
cent of GDP), this is a very high figure to aim at, with unnecessary ambition at the current juncture given
the known fiscal constraints and low prevailing tax-GDP ratios. However, it can be argued that given the
inadequate state of education in the country, it may even be necessary to aim at a higher proportion than 6
per cent.

EDUCATION IN FIVE YEAR PLAN

Effective educational planning is essential for any nation as it has a major role in facilitating
social and economic progress of the country. There are two major sources of educational planning in
India. The government and private sectors in different proportions share the entire expenditure incurred
on educational activities. The public expenditure on education can be identified from the five year plans
in India. The economy of India is based in part on planning through its five-year plans, which are
developed, executed and monitored by the Planning Commission. The eleventh plan completed its term
in March 2012 and the twelfth plan is currently underway.

Education in 10th and 11th five year plans

The Tenth Five Year Plan of India (2002-2007) aims to transform the country into the fastest
growing economy of the world and targets an annual economic growth of 10%. This was decided after
India registered a 7% GDP growth consistently over the last decade. A 75 per cent hike in the fund
allocation to facilitate universalisation of elementary education (UEE) by 2010 through the year-old
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is one of the principal thrusts of the Tenth Plan (2002-07) for the
education sector. According to Planning Commission figures, elementary education sector accounts for
the biggest single chunk of resources, marking an increase from Rs 16369.59 crore allocated during the
Ninth Plan (1997-2002) to Rs 28750 crore. The plan also aims Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and
wage rates by at least 50% by 2007.

Eleventh plan is popularly known as education plan because of its high emphasis on education
especially on higher education. Eleventh Five Year Plan allocation of Rs.2, 69,873 crore has been made
available for the Ministry of Human Resource Development [Rs. 1, 84,930 crore for Department of
School Education & Literacy and 84,943 crore for Department of Higher Education]. This constitutes 4.6
fold increase over the expenditure of about Rs.58, 820 crore incurred during X Five Year Plan and 19.4%
of the, overall Central Plan allocation. The increased allocation provided during XI Five Year Plan is
proposed to be utilized for expansion of existing institutions, opening of new institutions and
improvement in the quality of education. 11t" plan also aims to reduce dropout rates of children from
elementary school from 52.2% in 2003-04 to 20% by 2011-12 and to develop minimum standards of
educational attainment in elementary school, and by regular testing effectiveness of education to ensure
quality.

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PLEBIANISATION IN INDIA
• The term originated from ancient Rome.

• In Rome there were two classes of people namely Patricians and Plebians.

• Patricians are upper crust of the society consists of wealthy people and administrative class.

• Plebeians are the common people of Rome consists the mass of population.

• After the advent of modern educational system and influence of socio religious reform movements in
the 19th century, the rigidity of caste system began to decline.

Plebianisation of educational system, which means access to quality education to common people, is the
need of the hour to safeguard the constitutional obligations and vision and principles of modern
democracy.

LIBERALISATION, PRIVATISATION, GLOBALISATION

AND THEIR IMPACTS ON EDUCATION

LIBERALISATION

The term liberalization literally means the act of making less strict. In modern economics, it
refers to the relaxation of governmental controls over business. Liberalisation, in general refers to a
relaxation of previous govt. restrictions, usually in areas of social or economic policy. According to Mr.
Scott “liberalization is the process of making policies less constraining of economic activity.”

Characteristics

 The removal of Govt. restrictions placed upon licensing, investment, import of goods, the movement
of capital etc.
 Investor friendly govt. policies.
 Increased competition through structured changes in the financial sector.
 Removal of trade and investment barriers.
 Lower tax rate for business.
 Partial or full privatization of Govt. institutions and assets.
 Less restriction on both domestic and foreign capital.

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Impacts of liberalization on Indian education

 Liberalization resulted in unleashing of the bureaucratic control over education and the Foreign
Service providers are allowed to participate in the education sector in India.
 Liberalization increased access to education in qualitative and quantitative terms that would otherwise
not be available in India.
 Liberalization reduced the cross- country disparities in education services, leading to cross
recognition of university degrees between nations.
 Trade in education services, a direct outcome of liberalization, is directly associated with language,
culture and also to some extent, ethnicity and religion. This has expedited the acculturation process,
one of the terminal goals of education.
 Liberalization of education service sector in India has led to its internationalization in terms of
composition, accreditation, recognition and quality.
 Indian education sector became modernized for a knowledge economy based on information
technologies.
 Liberalization of trade in educational services has resulted in the internationalization on educational
institutions.

PRIVATISATION

The term privatisation refers to transfer of any Govt. services or assets to the private sector
including governmental functions like revenue collection and low enforcement. According to Belfield
“privatisation as the process of transferring ownership of a business, enterprise, agency or public service
from the public sector to the private sector.”

Characteristics

 Transfer of public assets to the private sector, by sale or contracting out.

 Lifting of statutory restrictions on competition between privately and publicly owned enterprises.
 Withdrawal of state intervention from production and service sector.
 Contract operation of a public utility or service by a private entity.
 Establishment of a ‘free market’ and fostering of capitalist competition.

Impacts of Privatisation on Education

 Privatisation of higher education made it expensive such that it is beyond the reach of lower income
groups.
 Privatisation of education led to competition among institutions and subsequent enhancement in
facility and quality to win the market.
 Privatisation has led to the erosion of the age old value of education. It degraded from a sacred
activity to a profit making business.
 Privatisation has resulted in the better management of educational institutions.
 Privatisation opened the gate for foreign corporate universities in India.

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 Privatisation has resulted in inculcating a kind of ‘consumer mentality’ in students rather than
‘service mentality’’

GLOBALISATION

Simply define the term Globalisation as “the global circulation of goods, services and capital but
also of information, ideas and people”. According to IMF, Globalisation means “the growing
interdependency of countries worldwide through increasing volume and variety of cross border
transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows and also through the more rapid and
wide spread diffusion of technology.”

Characteristics

 Free flow of capital, goods and services.

 Free competitive market mechanism.
 Greater role for private sector.
 Global distribution of labor.
 Worldwide growth of market oriented societies.
 Development of global financial systems.
 International cultural exchange.
 Growing economic and social inequality among societies.

Impacts of Globalisation on Education

 Increased demand for education.

 Unifying the face of education.
 Increased quality of education.
 Expansion of women’s education.
 Expansion of university education.
 Rapid growth of private universities.
 Decentralization of education.
 Enrolment expansion.
 Standerdisation of education.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF DIFFERENT POLICY FRAME WORKS

After independence, Education was given an important priority by the Govt. of India. There have
many educational commissions are appointed to give suggestions for the qualitative improvement of the
educational system in India. The first education commission in independent India was ‘University
Education Commission’ under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, the former President of India.
Anyhow, such educational commissions gave so many important directions, make policies and decisions
for the better future of the nation through the better education.

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INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-1966)

(Kothari Commission)

 The Third Education Commission in independent India. Set up on 14th July 1964
 Chairman: Dr. D.S Kothari (former UGC Chairman)
 The purpose of the commission was to advice the Govt. on national pattern of education and on the
general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects.
 The report submitted on 29th June 1966.
 The report of the commission opens with the sentence, “The destiny of India is now being shaped in
her classrooms.”

Major Recommendations:

National Objectives of Education

Increase in productivity, strengthening of social and national integration, acceleration of the

process of modernization, enhancement of democracy, inculcation of social, moral and spiritual values
should be the national objectives of education.

Educational Pattern:
The commission suggested 10+2+3 pattern of education. This includes 10 years general school
education, 2 year higher secondary education and the first degree awarded after 3 years of college
education.

Curriculum:
Common curriculum of general education should be provided for the first 10years in non-
vocational schools. Specialization and diversification should begin at the higher secondary level.

Common Schools System:

The Education system should be open to all irrespective of caste, creed, class, community, religion
and social status.

Medium of instruction:
Regional languages should be the medium of instruction at all stages of secondary education.

Revised Three language formula

At L.P Stage only the regional language/Mother tongue should be studied compulsorily. At the U.P
stage study of the regional language and Hindi (English in Hindi areas) should be made compulsory. At
the Lower Secondary stage, in addition to the above two languages study of modern Indian or European
language (English) should be made obligatory.
Science and Mathematics Education:

Learning of science and maths should be made compulsory during the first 10 years of schooling.
The schools should be have well equipped science laboratories to promote science education.

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Social Service:
Programmes of social service ad participation in community development programmes should be
made an integral part of education at all levels.

Education for backward children:

The backward children and under achievers should be identified and remedial programmes should
be arranged for them.

Adult Education:

Adequate facilities should be given for the promotion of adult education.

The Indian Education Service:

An all India educational service should be started to make educational administration and
supervision more efficient.
Improvement of Teachers’ Conditions:

Effective programmes should be taken to the raise the economic, social and professional status of
the teachers.

NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION (NPE) 1986

National policy on education – 1986 is the plan of action (POA) Chosen by the Govt. of India on
educational matters in the country. After a nation- wide debate and through discussion at different levels,
the policy got approval of the parliament in May, 1986. The NPE – has suggested comprehensive
reforms in education from pre-primary to Uni. Stage.

MAJOR FEATURES OF NPE - 1986

1. Education according to constitutional Principles:

The education policy of 1986 was framed on the basis of the ideals and values of democracy,
socialism, secularism contained in our constitution.
2. National system of Education:
The national system of education will be based on a NCF which contains a common core along
with other components.
3. E.E.O (Equalisation of Educational Opportunity):
The nation should provide equal educational opportunity to all by ensuring educational openings to
women, SC, ST, minorities and handicapped individuals.
4. Common Educational Structure:
The policy proposes a common educational structure in the pattern of 10+2+3. This includes 10
years general school education, 2 year higher secondary education and the first degree awarded after 3
years of college education.

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5. M.L.L (MINIMUM LEVELS OF LEARNING) :

The term refers to learning competencies expected to be mastered by every child by the end of a
particular class or stage of education. It denotes expected learning outcomes defined as observable
terminal behaviours. This implies, all children, irrespective of the conditions they come from and the
condition of schools they attend, reach a minimum standards of learning before they finish primary
education, which would prepare them as permanently literate, socially useful and contributing adults in
this world.
6. Investment for education:
NPE-1986 accepts 6% investment of national income for education formulated by the policy for
achieving the targets.
7. Emphasis on Adult and continuing education.
The NPE emphasize the promotion of adult and continuing education by implementing effective
schemes and programmes throughout the nation by the help of print and electronic medias.
8. OPERATION BLACK BOARD (OBB)
The purpose of OBB is to ensure the provision of minimum essential material facilities in primary
schools. Use of the word operation implies that there is urgency in the programme. The OBB envisages
the following minimum facilities:
1.Two teachers, one of whom is a woman.
2.At least two reasonably large rooms that is usable in all weather.
3.Necessary toys, Black Board, games materials, maps, charts and other materials.
In the case of schools having more than 100 students an additional classroom and a teacher can be
provided to the above mentioned facilities.
9. Vocationalisation of education:
NPE recommends for the introduction of systematic, well-planned programmes of vocational
education to enhance individual employability and industrial development of nation.
10. Development of Language:
State Govt. should adopt and implement 3 language formula. Promote Hindi as the link language.
11. NAVODAYA VIDYALAYAS: (JAWAHAR NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA- JNV)
These schools are primarily meant for children from rural areas and hence admission of children
from urban areas is restricted to a maximum of one forth. The schools are fully financed and
administered by Govt. of India through an autonomous organization, Navodaya Vidyalaya Samithi, under
the ministry of HRD. Admission in JNV is made through the Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya Selection
Test (JNVST) at class VI. JNVs are residential school.
12. Open and Distance Education:
NPE demands for flexible system of higher education in the form of Open and Distance education
for meeting the needs of adults, dropouts and employees.
13. Evaluation:
The evaluation system of school education should be followed as Continuous and Comprehensive
evaluation.
14. Physical Education:
Sports and Physical Education should be an integral part of learning process.
15. Delinking Degrees from jobs.
The NPE emphasizes for delinking degrees from jobs in selected areas.
16. Emphasis on Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)

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The NPE demands to render and implement the effective programmes for early childhood care and
education in India.

REVIEW COMMITTEES OF NPE – 1986

 The implementation of the NPE 1986 was evaluated by two committees. Ramamurthi
Committee (1990) and Janardhana Reddy Committee (1992).
 As a result of the recommendations of these two committees, slight modifications were made in
the NPE in 1992.
 The first review committee of NPE 1986 was appointed on May 7, 1990 under the chairmanship of
Acharya Ramamurthi, and the report was tabled in the parliament on January 9, 1991.
 In 1991 the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) examined the procedure to be adopted
for consideration of the report of the Ramamurthi Review Committee and decided that a CABE
committee (Central Advisory Board on Education) be constituted to consider the
recommendations of the Ramamurthi Committee. The CABE Committee was appointed under the
Chairmanship of Sri. Janardhana Reddy on 31st July 1991.

Features of Revised NPE – 1992

1) Extent the Scope of OB:

Provide 3 teachers and 3 rooms in every primary school and to cover the U.P Schools.

2) Elementary Education:
The new thrust in Elementary education will emphasize:
 Universal access and enrolment
 Universal retention of children up to 14 years of age.
 Substantial improvement in the quality of education

3) School Pattern:
10+2 system should be followed by all the states and Union Territories. LP-5, UP-3, HS-2. The +2
should be accepted as a part of school education throughout the country.

4) Common School System:

A common School system should be developed to ensure quality and social justice in education.

5) Women Education:
Total literacy campaign should pay special attention to women in 15-35 age groups. The access of
girls to technical, vocational and professional education should be improved.

6) Education of SC, ST, & OBC:

Educational reservation for these categories should be ensured. Adequate incentives should be
given to them.

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7) Education of Handicapped:
Integrated education for the disabled, ensure the service of Educational and vocational guidance
personnel in schools, vocational training, learning materials in Braille method etc. are suggested
for the education of handicapped.

8) ECCE (Early Childhood Care and Education):

The management of ECCE centres and Anganvadies should be decentralized, Availability of
workers should be ensures.

9) Navodaya Vidyalayas:
All districts to be covered by the end of 8th plan period. It should be run by the state govt. as
residential centres.

10) Right to Education:

To reach the goals of Universalisation of Elementary Education, the right to education should be
included as a fundamental right guaranteed by constitution of India.

11) Adult and Continuing Education:

Adult education should take in to account the needs such as employment, housing, nutrition, health
etc. of adults. Vocational skills should be developed in adults.

12) Vocational Courses:

It is proposed that vocational courses cover 10% of higher secondary students by 1995 and 25% by
2000.

LEARNING WITHOUT BURDEN

(Yespal Committee Report 1993)

In March 1992, Govt. of India constituted a committee under the chairmanship of Prof.
Yespal (former UGC Chairman), to suggest ways and means to reduce academic burden on school
students.

The committee report submitted on July 15, 1993. Yespal committee identified the existence of
following academic burden in the school system.

Academic Burden:

 Early starting of Education

 Size of School Bag
 Load of homework and Tuition
 Threat of Examination system
 Joyless learning
 Tough syllabi and textbook.

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Recommendations of Yespal Committee:

 Individual competitions and awards are to be discouraged and group activities and group
achievements are to be encouraged and rewarded.
 Abolish tests and interview for admission to nursery classes.
 Text books should be treated as school property. Leave them in the school.
 No home work at primary stage.
 Home work in U.P and Secondary stage should be non-textual.
 Replace the textbook based questions of public examination at class X th and XIIth with concept
based questions.
 Reduce the curriculum load by cutting down unnecessary topics at each level.
 Reduce the teacher-pupil ratio from the existing 1:40 to 1:30.
 Minimum number of topics need be introduced that can be comfortably taught in the total
working days available in a year. Unlearnt material is the real problem.
 The committee endorses the idea of setting up of education committees at village, block and
district levels to undertake planning and supervision of schools under the jurisdiction.

PEDAGOGIC SHIFTS IN 1990s AND 2000

 After 1990s, there has been a tremendous change in the pedagogic practices at school level as
well as Higher education in India.
 Different educational commissions and committees emphasis a paradigm shift to a learner
centered approach instead the current teacher oriented education.
 The Delor’s commission (appointed by UNESCO) report ‘Learning: the treasure within’ was a
major landmark in the evolution of pedagogic practices all over the world.
 As the result of this report, member nations of United Nations began to revamp the pedagogic
practices in their country.
 In India the first of such attempt was DPEP which aims for Universalisation of elementary
education.
 The second SSA was a concentrated effort to enroll all children in India to primary education
before 2010.
 For achieving this target, the projects propose learner oriented and child friendly pedagogic
practices in school.
 NCERT put forward a NCF in 2005. It clearly indicates the theoretical and pedagogic bases of
curricular shifts in school education in India.

EFA (EDUCATION FOR ALL)

 EFA is an international commitment to bring the benefits of education to every citizen in every
society
 It is a global movement led by UNESCO, aiming to meet the learning needs of all children, youth
and adults by 2015.
 The movement was launched in 1990 at the world conference on education for all in Thailand.

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GOALS OF EFA

 Expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most
vulnerable and disadvantaged children.
 Ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, those in difficult circumstances and those
belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete, free and compulsory primary
education of good quality.
 Achieve a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for woman, and
equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.
 Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieve gender
quality in education by 2015.
 Improve all aspects of the quality education and ensure excellence of all so that recognized and
measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential
life skills.

SSA (SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN)

education for all

 SSA is Government of India's flagship programme ,introduced in 2000-2001, for the achievement
of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE)
 It is a response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
 SSA envisages opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
 A partnership programme with central, state and the local govt.
 The SSA is an effort to recognize the need for improving the performance of the school system
and to provide community owned quality elementary education in mission mode.
 SSA envisages the removal of gender, social and economic inequalities from elementary
education sector.
 The programme seeks to open new schools in those habitations which do not have schooling
facilities
 The project aim to strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class
rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants.
 SSA has a special focus on girl's education and children with special needs.

RMSA (Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan)

 This scheme was launched in March, 2009

 The objective of RMSA to enhance access to secondary education and to improve its quality.

 The implementation of the scheme started from 2009-10.

 It is envisaged to achieve an enrolment rate of 75% from 52.26% in 2005-06 at secondary stage of
implementation of the scheme by providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of
any habitation.

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 Improving quality of education imparted at secondary level through making all secondary schools
conform to prescribed norms, removing gender, socio-economic and disability barriers, providing
universal access to secondary level education by 2017.

RUSA (Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan)

 RUSA is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, launched in 2013

 It aims at providing strategic funding to eligible state higher educational institutions.

 The central funding (in the ratio of 65:35 for general category States and 90:10 for special category
states) would be norm based and outcome dependent.

 Objectives

 Improve the overall quality of state institutions by ensuring conformity to prescribed norms and
standards and adopt accreditation as a mandatory quality assurance framework.

 Ensure reforms in the affiliation, academic and examination systems.

 Ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher educational institutions and ensure
capacity building at all levels of employment.

 Create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to devote themselves to

research and innovations.

 Correct regional imbalances in access to higher education by setting up institutions in un‐served &
underserved areas.

 Improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities of higher education to

SC/STs and socially and educationally backward classes; promote inclusion of women,
minorities, and differently abled persons.

RTE ACT – 2009

• The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents
the consequential legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, means that every child has a right to
full time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school which
satisfies certain essential norms and standards.

• Article 21-A and the RTE Act came into effect on 1 April 2010

The RTE Act provides for the;

• Right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary education in a
neighborhood school.

• It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation of the appropriate government to provide
free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of
elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’ means that no child

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shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from
pursuing and completing elementary education.

• It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate class.

• It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and parents
in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and other responsibilities
between the Central and State Governments.

• It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil teacher ratio is
maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or District or Block, thus
ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings

• It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs), buildings
and infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-working hours.

• It ensures prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial
census, elections to local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.

• It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening procedures for
admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition by teachers and (e) running of schools
without recognition,

NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAME WORK – 2005

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005) is one of four National Curriculum Frameworks
published in 1975, 1988, 2000 and 2005 by the National Council of Educational Research and Training
NCERT in India.

The Framework provides the framework for making syllabi, textbooks and teaching practices
within the school education programmes in India. The NCF 2005document draws its policy basis from
earlier government reports on education as Learning without Burden and National Policy of Education
1986-1992 and focus group discussions.

Its draft document came under the criticism from the Central Advisory Board of Education
(CABE). The approach and recommendations of NCF-2005 are for the entire educational system. NCF
2005 has been translated into 22 languages and has influenced the syllabi in 17 States. The NCERT gave
a grant of Rs.10 lakh to each State to promote NCF in the language of the State and to compare its
current syllabus with the syllabus proposed, so that a plan for future reforms could be made. Several
States have taken up this challenge. This exercise is being carried out with the involvement of State
Councils for Educational Research and Training [SCERT] and District Institutes of Education and
Training [DIET].

The major purpose of the NCF is to evolve a national system of education capable of responding to
India’s diversity of cultural and geographical milieus while ensuring a common core of values along with
academic components. It is a means of modernizing the system of education.

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Guiding Principles of NCF 2005:

 Connecting knowledge to life outside the school.
 Ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods.
 Enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of children rather than remain
textbook centric.
 Making examinations more flexible and integrated into classroom life.
 Nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns within the democratic polity of the
country.
The Document is divided into five Areas:
1) Perspective of NCF
2) Learning and Knowledge.
3) Curriculum areas, school stages and assessment.
4) School and classroom environment.
5) Systematic reforms.
Major features of NCF – 2005
 The NCF covers all the stages of school education from the pre-primary to the higher secondary.
 It addresses the challenge of quality in a system that seeks to reach every child the exclusive
triangle of equality, quality and quantity.
 It takes the following aims of education in to account:
 To build a commitment to democratic value of equality, justice, freedom, secularism and
respect for human dignity and rights.
 Fostering independence of thought and action.
 Sensitivity to others’ wellbeing and feelings.
 Learning to learn and unlearn.
 Ability to work for developing a social temper.
 It focuses on the primacy of the learner.
 It recognizes the need for developing and enabling a non-threatening environment for learning.
 It recommends significant changes in Language, Maths, Natural Science and Social Sciences with
a view to reducing stress and making education more relevant to the present day and future needs
of children.
 It wants to make Environment Education as a part of every subject.
 It recommends that gender justice, sensitivity to tribal and dalit issues and minority sensibilities
should inform all sectors of Social Science.
 NCF revisits traditional notions of discipline and discuss the need for providing space for parents
and community.
 The NCF discusses curriculum, learning resources including text books, libraries, education
technology tools and laboratories etc.
Recommendations of NCF

 Ensuring availability of pre-school education to all children in the country and prohibiting formal
teaching and testing of different subjects at this level.
 Integration of environmental education with languages, mathematics and other activities in the first
two years of the primary stage.

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 Integration of art education, health and physical education and work education at the primary
stage.
 Education about religions and inherent values of all religions to be imparted at all the stages of
school education.
 Integration of Science and technology up to the secondary stage.
 Bringing Mathematics closer to life and setting up of mathematics corner in the existing science
laboratory for practical mathematics up to the secondary stage.
 Provision for wide flexibility and freedom in the choice of subjects among the courses to be
offered at the higher secondary stage.
 Providing a strong vocational stream for enhancing employability and entrepreneurship at the
higher secondary stage.
 Evolving a humane, learner friendly, error-free, responsive and transparent evaluation system.
 Use of different methods of grading scholastic and co-scholastic areas of learning.

NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHER

EDUCATION 2009 (NCFTE-2009)
The National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) has prepared the National Curriculum
Framework of Teacher Education, which was circulated in March 2009. This Framework has been
prepared in the background of the NCF, 2005 and the principles laid down in the Right of Children to
Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 which necessitated an altered framework on Teacher
Education which would be consistent with the changed philosophy of school curriculum recommended in
the NCF, 2005. The title theme of NCFTE 2009 is, “Towards Preparing professional and Humane
Teacher.”

History of the framework

The framework is an endeavour of the National Council for Teacher Education to encourage
interested parties and stakeholders to give their views on the qualitative and quantitative improvements
that could be achieved in educating teachers at school, graduate, post-graduate, doctoral and post-doctoral
levels. A previous "curriculum framework" had been developed in 1978 by the council itself (which at
that time was just a department rather than an independent body), followed by the NCERT framework for
teacher education in 1988, which subsequently led to the "first curriculum framework for quality teacher
education" by NCTE in 1998. This was succeeded in 2005 by a "teacher education curriculum
framework" by NCERT and in 2006 another "joint curriculum framework" by NCTE and NCERT.

While articulating the vision of teacher education, the Framework has some important dimensions of the
new approach to teacher education, as under:

 Reflective practice to be the central aim of teacher education;

 Student-teachers should be provided opportunities for self-learning, reflection, assimilation and

articulation of new ideas;

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 Developing capacities for self-directed learning and ability to think, be critical and to work in
groups.

 Providing opportunities to student-teachers to observe and engage with children, communicate

with and relate to children.

The Framework has highlighted the focus, specific objectives, broad areas of study in terms of
theoretical and practical learning, and curricular transaction and assessment strategies for the various
initial teacher education programmes. The draft also outlines the basic issues that should guide
formulation of all programmes of these courses. The Framework has made several recommendations on
the approach and methodology of in-service teacher training programmes and has also outlined a strategy
for implementation of the Framework. As a natural corollary to the NCFTE, the NCTE has also
developed ‘model’ syllabi for various teacher education courses.

Objectives of the framework

The following are the proposed areas to be targeted, according to the draft framework:

 Context, Concerns and Vision of Teacher Education

 Curricular Areas of Initial Teacher Education

 Sample Redesigned Schemas of Current Teacher Education Programmes

 Evaluating the Developing Teacher

 In-Service Education and Continuous Professional Development

 Preparing Teacher Educators.

PROGRAMMES FOR ALLEVIATING THE ISSUES IN INDIAN EDUCATION

Mid-Day Meal Scheme

With a view to enhancing enrolment, retention and attendance and simultaneously improving
nutritional levels among children, the National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education
(NP-NSPE) was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme on 15th August 1995.
In 2001, 2004 and 2006 the scheme was revised with desirable changes. In October 2007, the
Scheme was extended to cover children of upper primary classes (i.e. class VI to VIII) studying in 3,479
Educationally Backwards Blocks and the name of the Scheme was changed from ‘National Programme of
Nutritional Support to Primary Education’ to ‘National Programme of Mid-Day Meal in Schools’. The
nutritional norm for upper primary stage was fixed at 700 Calories and 20 grams of protein. The Scheme
was extended to all areas across the country from 1.4.2008. The Scheme was further revised in April 2008
to extend the scheme to recognized as well as unrecognized Madrasas / Maktabs supported under SSA

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Free Uniform Scheme.

Free uniform scheme is existing in the government and aided educational sector (up to secondary level) of
our country. It is a scheme to provide free uniforms to school students. This scheme aims to consider all
children as equal. There may be children who are not able to go to school because of poverty. This scheme
takes in to consider all children and provide school uniform free of cost, and motivates them to learn to
have better future.

Scholarship Scheme
A scholarship is a form of financial aid awarded to meritorious students so that they can meet the
cost and financial expenses of studying in some of the top educational institutions and universities of the
world. Both the Government and Non-Government educational institutions provide financial assistance to
students in form of scholarships in India. With the help of scholarships and schemes, students can
continue their studies without putting too much monetary burden on their families.

Schemes for Elementary Education

With the formulation of National Policy on Education, India initiated a wide range of programmes
for achieving the goal of UEE through several schematic and programme interventions, such as Operation
Black Board, District Primary Education Programme etc. Its overall goals include universal access and
retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in education and enhancement of learning levels of
children.

Schemes for Secondary Education

Secondary education is the most significant stage in the educational hierarchy as it prepares the
students for higher education and the world of work. The policy at present is to make secondary education
of good quality available, accessible and affordable to all young persons in the age group of 14-18. At
present, the following schemes targeted at secondary stage (i.e. class IX to XII) are being implemented in
the form of Centrally Sponsored Schemes:

 Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan.

 Model Schools Scheme
 Girls Hostel Scheme
 ICT at Schools
 Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage
 Scheme of Vocational Education
 National Merit-cum-Means Scholarship Scheme
 Incentives to Girls for Secondary Education
 Appointment of Language Teachers
 Quality Education in Madrasas
 Scholarship schemes for Minority students

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National Scholarships

The NCERT promotes educational development both in quantitative and qualitative terms and
makes special efforts to remove disparities and equalize educational opportunities for all students. NCERT
acknowledges and appreciates educational brilliance in students through the National Talent Search
Scheme. It also seeks to applaud artistic distinction through the Chacha Nehru Scholarships for artistic and
innovative excellence.
.
Schemes for Higher Education

The Central Government provides grants to UGC and establishes Central Universities in the
country. Meritorious students, from families with or without necessary means, need an incentive or
encouragement to keep on working hard in their studies and go to the next level of education in their
academic career. Following are some significant fellowship schemes/scholarships awarded by the various
institutions:

 National Scholarships
 Post-Doctoral Research Fellowship.
 Junior Research Fellowships for biomedical sciences.
 All India Council for Technical Education Scholarships.
 Department of Science and Technology grants and fellowships.
 DST's Scholarship Scheme for Women Scientists and Technologists.
 Biotechnology fellowships for doctoral and postdoctoral studies.
 Post-matric Scholarships for SC /ST students.
 Scholarships for Minority Students.
 Online Minority Students Welfare Scholarships System. Etc.

*******************************

QUESTIONS FOR REVISION

 Explain the current issues of education in India.
 What you mean by UEE
 Explain the significance of UEE in India.
 Explain the programmes implemented to achieve the aims of UEE in India.
 Explain OBB.
 What you mean by MLL (Minimum Levels of Learning)?
 What are the problems and issues related to UEE?
 Explain the characteristics of women education implemented in after and pre-independent period of India.
 What you mean by Plebianisation?
 Explain the characteristics of Liberalisation.
 What are the impacts of Liberalisation on Indian education?
 The Privatisation makes a tremendous change in the field of education in India. Enumerate your views.

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 Describe the characteristics of Globalisation and their impacts on education.

 What are the major recommendations of Indian education Commission/Kothari commission?
 Explain the major features of NPE 1986.
 Write a note on review committees of NPE 1986.
 Explain the features of revised NPE 1992.
 What are the goals of EFA?
 Write a note on SSA.
 Expand RMSA.
 Give the expansion of RUSA.
 What are the objectives of RUSA?
 Explain the characteristics of RTE Act 2009.
 What are the major provisions of RTE Act?
 Explain the major features of NCF 2005.
 What are the major recommendations of NCF 2005?
 Write a note on the NCFTE 2009.
 What are the programmes for alleviating the issues in Indian education?

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UNIT – 6
EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY KERALA SOCIETY

EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION IN KERALA

Kerala has occupied a prominent place on the educational map of the country. People of Kerala are
proud of the High literacy, of our state. When compared to Kerala, almost all the Indian states are far
behind in the field of education. The history of education in kerala goes back to very ancient times. Kerala
had a high level of literacy even during the sangam age and all the people have the provision for education
without any discrimination. The great Sangam poets like Kapilar & Paranar belonged to lower castes.
Female education was also encouraged at Sangham age.

SALAIS:

• In the age of the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram (800-1102 AD) education efforts received a
great impetus.

• The Aay kings established many educational centres known as ‘Salais’

• This educational centre was similar to the world famous educational centres of Nalanda and
Takshasila

• There were four such Salai, the head being at Muzhikulam

• The legend says four Brahmin students of Parasurama started at four places the Salai, including
one at Kanthalloor and the other two salais were at Thiruvalla and Parthivapuram.

• The salais were attached to temples and residential in nature.

• The salais were Vedic institutions where admission was restricted to Brahmins.

• Subjects like the study of Grammar, theology, Vedic rituals, philosophy, Law, military techniques
etc. was undertaken.

• Recitation and exposition of Puranic stories and mythologies, Chakyar Kooth, singing devotional
songs in temples by groups were choose as the method of instruction in salais.

• Libraries were attached in temples with the rich collection books on a wide variety of subjects for
the educational purpose.

• The Chola-Chera war of the 11th century led the decline of the Salais.

BUDHA VIHARAS

• The contribution of Buddhism to the spread of education in kerala was undoubtedly great.

• The Buddhist monks were devoted to popularize the education in kerala society.

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• The Buddhist Monasteries conducted schools also and hence they served as centres for the
dissemination of learning as well.

• The term ‘Pallikkoodam’ & ‘Ezhuthupalli’ are derived from the buddhist pagodas (Viharas)
named ‘Pallis’. The Buddhist educational institutions administered along with this Pallis.

• The old ‘Vanchi’ town and this nearest place ‘Thirukkana vayil kottam’ (Thrikkana mathilakam)
was the biggest educational centers at that time.

• The curriculum of these institutions were included the subjects like different philosophies and
science subjects; same as the curriculum of the great Buddhist educational institutions Nalanda and
Takshasila

OTHUPALLIS

• The ‘Othupallis’ have a necessary role in the history of the education of kerala.

• Othupallis are single teacher schools set up in neighborhood mosques.

• Othupallis or Maktabs, served as the schools of primary education; teaching the children all the
preliminary knowledge about Islam with a special emphasis on Qur’an recitation.

• The imam of the mosque also acts as the teacher of the Othupallis and gives basic Islamic
education to the children of the area.

• From the Othupallis, students learned reading, writing, and basic Islamic prayers.

KALARIS

• Kalari was an indigenous institution peculiar to Kerala.

• Ezhuthupalli took care of the purely academic aspects of education whereas the Kalari catered to
the physical education.

• The instructors belonged generally to the Kurup, Panikar etc.

• The Kalari enabled the youth to keep up physical fitness.

KUDIPALLIKOODAM

• Ezhuthupalli and Kudipallikoodam meant for the education of non-Brahmins.

• These schools were organised like formal schools.

• These traditional schools functioned as pre-primary schools even in the beginning of the 20th
century.

• Children were educated in these caste based schools, before they went to non-traditional schools.

• Transmission of knowledge in hereditary trades was the responsibility of the ‘Jati’. They
undertook to train their youngsters their respective traditional vocation.

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• The elementary school’s curriculum was secular in approach and responsive to practical needs to
rural people.

• Books and papers were not used in these schools; children wrote on sand, rice grains or, when they
were better at writing, on palm leaves.

• Traditional system of education was disrupted and dislodged in the colonial period and
supplemented by new system of education.

MADRASAHS

• Muslims established Maktabs and Madrasahs. These institutions were attached to Mosques.

• Maktab was a place where primary education. Madrasahs are secondary and Higher education
centres. Only after completing the course of study at the Maktabs, the pupils were eligible for
admission to the Madrasahs.

• Education in the Madrasahs was under two categories- religious and secular.

• Religious education consisted of the study of the Holy Quran, traditions of the prophet, Islamic law
etc.

• In secular education, Arabic grammar, prose, literature, logic, philosophy, law, arithmetic,
Astrology, medicine, agriculture etc.

• The education at Madrasahs was strictly based on religion and admission restricted to Muslim
children only.

ROLE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN EDUCATION

When the kings ruled Travancore, admission to Govt. Schools and Colleges was denied to the
backward and scheduled caste communities. The Christian missionaries who established, educational
institutions throughout the length and breadth of Kerala opened the gate of their schools and colleges for
everybody without looking into caste or creed. Thus the downtrodden section of the people of Kerala got
an opportunity to educate themselves in these institutions and they were able to secure high positions in
the society and to inspire their communities about the need of getting educated.

The growth and development of the Malayalam language is heavily indebted to the contribution of
missionaries like Herman Gundart and Nidhirickal Mani kathanar. Nasrani Deepika which is the first daily
Newspaper in Kerala is the Contribution of C.M.I. missionaries.

Major Landmarks:

• Institutionalised education began in kerala at the instance of the Christian missionaries.

• In Travancore and Cochin, several Protestant Missions started work in the early decades of the 19th
century under the patronage of the local rulers.

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• Rev. Mead from the London Mission Society(L.M.S.) was an unforgettable name in the
educational history of kerala. During the period 1817- 1873 he devoted his whole energy to
educational work.

• In 1818 an English school opened at Mattanchery by a C.M.S. missionary, Rev. V. Dawson, with
financial aid from the Cochin Govt.

• Another C.M.S. missionary Samuel Rids dale came to Cochin in 1826 and established 6 schools
for boys and 4 schools for girls.

• The missionaries started a network of primary schools in different parts of Cochin.

• In 1836 the C.M.S. started an English school at Trissur which became a high school in 1889.

• The credit for having laid the foundations of western education in the Malabar area goes to the
Basel Evangelical Mission (B.E.M).

• The B.E.M. opened a primary school at Kallai in 1848 and it developed in to the Malabar Christian
College later.

• In 1857, the B.E.M. opened at Thalasseri, the first English school in north Malabar.

• The Brennen School started in 1862 under the B.E.M at Thalasseri, was later taken over by the
Govt. and developed in to the Govt. Brennan College.

EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE IN KERALA IN THE 20th CENTURY

Chattampi Swamikal (1853-1924)
Chattampi Swamikal was born on August 25, 1853 in a Nair family at Kannanmula in Trivandrum.
He had no formal education other than customary. Chattampi Swamikal rose to be a historical personage
by waging an ideological war against Brahmanical religion. His work was mainly confined to the social
fabric of the Nair caste, for he understood that a societal initiation among them would serve as an
encouragement to the non- Brahmin castes and would set the swiftness for the great social changes in the
coming years.

Chattampi Swamikal argued that none was forbidden from taking to learning. He tried to establish
that none of the authorities along with the Vedas was against the right of Sudras and women. In his view,
many of the taboos against Sudras and women were the creation of commentators through suppression of
facts or suggestion of false meanings. In his work “Vedadhikara Nirupanam”, he made a scathing attack
on religious superstition and sacerdotal dictatorship of Brahmins. He took a very critical attitude towards
the scriptures as well as the notion that the Vedas were the sole preserve of the Brahmins. He was the first
intellect who questioned the scriptural hegemony of Brahmins.
He was an advocate of women’s equality with men. According to him man and woman are
interdependent and mutually corresponding. In fact the prosperity of family and the society depends on
woman. She suffers a lot as a wife and mother only for the wellbeing of others. The respect that she

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deserves in society is never too much. So she is to be educated and given a position of equality and respect
by man without any discrimination.
Chattampi Swamikal built up a value consciousness aimed at the regeneration of the existing social
life of Kerala. The ideological components of his thought, disseminated through his writings and disciples,
were self-respect, rationalism, equality, women’s freedom, non-violence and humanism.

Sree Narayana Guru (1855 – 1928)

Sree Narayana Guru, also known as Sree Narayana Guru, was a social reformer of India. He was
born into an Ezhava family in an era when people from such communities, which were regarded
as Avarna, faced much social injustice in the caste-ridden society of Kerala. Like Chattambi Swamiakl, he
too revolted against Brahmin ascendancy and campaigned for the mitigation of the rigors of caste. He led
a reform movement in Kerala, rejected casteism, and promoted new values of spiritual freedom and social
equality. He stressed the need for the spiritual and social uplift of the downtrodden by their own efforts
through the establishment of temples and educational institutions. In the process, he denounced the
superstitions that clouded the fundamental Hindu cultural convention of caste.

Sree Narayana Guru had a highly eclectic outlook in religious matters as is evidenced by his
famous saying “One Caste, One Religion, One God for man”. He has been hailed as “the Father of
Modern Kerala renaissance”. The SNDP Yogam came in to existence on May 15, 1903, under the
inspiration of Narayana Guru. The SNDP yogam developed in to the representative organisation of the
Ezhava community and made a substantial contribution to their educational and all-round progress of the
Ezhava community.

Vagbhatananda (1885-1939)

Vagbhatananda was a social critic and value setter. His original name was Kunhikannan. He was
born in 1885 as the son of Koran, a Sanskrit scholar and teacher, and Cheeru Amma in North Malabar. His
social life was very much associated with a cultural association called ‘Atmavidya Sangam’, founded by
him in 1917 to spread the progressive ideas aimed at reforming the Hindu mental world.
His charismatic personality and oratorical skill attracted towards him a large number of followers
including those of the Savarna castes. He denounced the concept of Varna and caste as an artificial
creation of the evil traits in man, like ego and jealousy, and propagated by some wicked fellows, as caste
could not be detected in any part or organ of the human body. The essence of his ideas can be condensed
like this: A moderate life leading to moral and material well- being of the individual and society is the
ideal one. He championed against addiction to liquor and the championed the cause of prohibition. In
1914, he started “Sivayogi Vilasam”, a journal for propagating his ideas, but it was short lived. The
teachings of Vagbhatananda helped to strengthen the base of the nationalist movement in north Kerala.

Ayyankali (1863–1941)

Ayyankali was born in 1863 in Venganoor, Trivandrum, Travancore. He was one of seven children
born to a Pulaya (caste) family. He was illiterate as were all Dalits at that time. In those days Dalits were
not allowed to walk along public roads. The Dalit women were not allowed to cover their breasts in public

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places. Ayyankali organized Dalits and fought against these discriminations. He was in the forefront of
movements against casteism. He passed through the public roads of Venganoor on a bullock cart which
was not allowed for the Dalits. Enraged by his boldness, the caste Hindus physically attacked him.
Ayyankali led the movement and defeated them.

Ayyankali demanded right for Dalit children to study in school, which was not granted. He started
a school to teach dalit children at Venganoor which was set ablaze by caste Hindus. In response to this, in
1907 he led a strike at Venganoor which lasted for more than a year. He called for boycott of agricultural
work raising certain demands.

The significance of Ayyankali lies in the fact that he could spearhead a struggle for human rights
of the untouchables raising demands which find expressions in various international human rights
documents well before their adoption. He pioneered a movement for democratizing public places and
asserting the rights of workers even before the formation of any workers organisation in Kerala. The most
amazing part of it is that he did all this in spite of his illiteracy. No wonder that Ayyankali was later
nominated to the assembly of Travancore namely, Sri Moolam Legislative Assembly, in 1910 by the then
rulers in recognition of his leadership ability.

In his efforts Ayyankali also received the support of his great contemporary Sree Narayana guru
and other social reformers. By 1900 Dalits were given the freedom to walk on the public roads, and by
1914, Dalit children were allowed to join schools. Also, Dalit women were allowed to cover their
nakedness in public through his efforts.

Vakkom Mohammed Abdul Khader Moulavi (1873 – 1932)

Vakkom Mohammed Abdul Khader Moulavi, popularly known as Vakkom Moulavi was a social
reformer, teacher, prolific writer, Muslim scholar, journalist, freedom fighter and newspaper proprietor in
Travancore. He was the founder and publisher of the newspaper Swadeshabhimani which was banned and
confiscated by the Government of Travancore in 1910 due to its criticisms against the government and the
Diwan of Travancore.

Moulavi was considered one of greatest reformers in the Kerala Muslim community, and is
sometimes referred to as the "father of muslim renaissance". He emphasised the religious and
socioeconomic aspects much more than the ritualistic aspects of religion. He also campaigned for the need
for modern education, the education of women, and the elimination of potentially bad customs among the
Muslim community. Through his publications like Muslim, AL-Islam and Deepika, he tried to teach the
Muslim community about the basic tenets of Islam. Al-Islam began publishing in April 1918 and played a
pivotal role in Muslim renaissance in Kerala.

As a result of the continuous campaigning of Moulavi throughout the State, the Maharaja's
Government introduced the teaching of Arabic in all state schools where there were Muslim pupils, and
offered them fee concessions and scholarships. Girls were totally exempted from payment of fees.
Moulavi wrote text books for children to learn Arabic, and a manual for training Arabic instructors for
primary schools.

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There were many other dubious practices in the Muslim community of the time, such as the dowry
system, extravagant expenditure on weddings, celebration of annual "urs" etc. Moulavi launched his
campaign against such practices with the help of his disciples, and with the co-operation of other learned
men who shared his views and ideals.

EDUCATION AFTER FORMATION OF MODERN KERALA

The educational scenario in Kerala is far advanced than other states of India. The Kerala model of
development owes it attributed success to the achievements in the area of education and health. Most of
the changes and development in the field of education has occurred since independence. The State had
pursued a liberal higher education policy from 1956 through mid-eighties in terms of quantitative
expansion and access to higher education. Today, it boasts other states in terms of high literacy rate of
90.86% as against 65.38% in the national level.

 After the formation of the Kerala state in 1956, the governments have taken keen interest in the
field of education.
 The first communist ministry of Kerala passed the Kerala Education Act in 1957 which enhanced
the participation of the government in the management of private schools.
 The kerala Educational Act followed by the Kerala Educational Rules (KER), formulated in 1959
and these unified the salary, leave and other service conditions of teachers.
 The first statutory board of education in India was formed in 1961 at Kerala to advise a state
government on matters concerning education.

Private secondary school scheme

This scheme introduced in 1950 aimed at improving the service conditions of teachers in schools
under private management. The revised scheme came in to effect in December 1951. This scheme laid
rules regarding the collection of fees and its distribution for the maintenance of private schools and also
the share of a teacher, management and the government towards the provident fund of a teacher.

Abolition of Fees
Abolition of Fees from primary level to secondary level was another major policy initiative that
promoted the growth of education in kerala. At present the entire school education in kerala was made
totally free.

Kerala Education Rules (KER)

Kerala education Rules of 1959 is the outcome of the Kerala Education Bill of 1957. It was a
major policy reform of the educational system in kerala. It was intended to implement nationally accepted
reforms in school administration and management. The major provisions included in the bill are:

 The government may regulate the primary and other stages of education in government and private
schools.

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 The government shall pay the salary of all teachers and non-teaching staff in aided schools direct
or through the headmaster of the school.
 All fees collected should be deposited in to the government.
 Government may pay grants to the management for maintenance and purchase of land, building,
equipment etc.
 The managers of private schools shall be deemed to have been appointed by the act and they have
to appoint teachers from the list of candidates prepared by the state PSC.
 The conditions of service of aided school teachers shall be the same as those of teachers in
government schools.
 The government may take over the management of private schools or withdraw the recognition on
reasons of mismanagement, on payment of rent or compensation.
 The government may appoint local educational authorities to satisfy local needs and constitute a
state education.

Noon Meal Programme (Mid-day Meal Programme)

For the enhancement of primary education a Mid-day meal programme was started in early 1940s.
This scheme was continued and extended after the formation of the present state of Kerala. Now with the
active support of the PTA and local bodies, the Noon meal programme is still going on with great success.
In several part of our state the govt. also initiated a breakfast scheme for students with the help of local
authorities and PTA.

Whole promotion system

For reducing the enormous dropout rate, the government decided to implement the whole
promotion policy in 1972-73 periods. Initially it was introduced in standard 1 and 2 and then later
extended to other standards of primary education. Although this policy reduced the drop-out rates, it was
highly criticized on the ground that this has led to the deterioration in the quality of school education in
the state.

Travel concessions
Travel concessions in road and water transport vehicles were introduced as early as the 1950s to
facilitate the easy travel to students to educational institutions. This has reduced the burden of the parents
on the household expenditure on education.

Curriculum Frame work for school education

(Kerala Curriculum Framework - 2007)
The curriculum revision programme in Kerala was conceptualized on the basis of the
recommendations of the NCF 2005. It was in 1997, that an effort for the formulation of a comprehensive
curriculum focusing on the process of teaching and learning was attempted in kerala. Rooted in the
emerging methodology and strategies, an integrated method of learning , a process oriented activity based
approach, viewing learner as a constructor of knowledge, recognizing the role of society in knowledge

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construction and the idea of continuous and comprehensive evaluation came in to effect. Constructivism,
critical pedagogy and issue based curriculum are the three pillars of KCF 2007.

Higher education
The status of higher education is highly flourished in kerala society. In 1957, there was only one
university in kerala named University of Kerala (Formerly known as Travancore University). Currently
there are 14 Universities in Kerala including two deemed universities, which constituted approximately
three per cent of the total universities in the country. The growth of the number of higher education
institutions indicates the enhancement of the accessibility of higher education. Universities in Kerala have
now shifted the emphasis from conventional courses to professional and technical job oriented courses
while giving sanction to new courses.

There has been a significant growth in self-financing or private unaided colleges after 1990s. The
reasons for the spread of unaided colleges are many. The most important factor is the policy of the State
Government. Amidst the widespread expansion of higher education system in kerala, the Gross Enrolment
Ratio (GER) in higher education remains below 30 percentage which is far behind to developed nations.

ROLE OF EDUCATION IN KERALA DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE

 Kerala is the small linguistic region in India. The geographical area of Kerala is only the 1.18 % of
the total geographical area of India.
 The present population rate is around 3.34 crore.
 The social situation of Kerala is highly better than in comparatively to other states of India.
 Each and every sphere of human life of Keralates is situated in very high position, such as standard
of living, literacy rate, child mortality rate, life expectancy, social justice, health awareness etc.
 The instigation of the higher achievements in the field of social system is the effective and proper
education system got the kerala society. The women education system is also reached the high
esteem in kerala society.
 But one interesting fact is behind, the Kerala’s Human Development Index (HDI) is very high, at
the same time the Per Capita Income is low.
 The human capital and social development of kerala society could not transform in to a sustainable
financial development.
 All over the India, even the world is discussed the social achievements of Kerala society as ‘Kerala
Development model.’ But now kerala society is experiencing some serious problems which act as
the hindrance for further development.

ISSUES PERTAINING TO KERALA SOCIETY

 Marginalization: Children, Women, Tribes etc.

 Decrease of agricultural productivity.
 Issues related with healthcare and education.

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 Consumerism.
 Lack of proper waste management.
 Environmental Issues.
 Over emphasis on service sector.
 Unequal distribution of GER (Gross Enrolment Ratio) in different districts.

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QUESTIONS FOR REVISION

 Describe the evolution of education in ancient Kerala.

 Explain the important role of ‘Salais’ in Kerala educational development.

 What is the role ‘Kudipallikoodam’ in the history of Kerala educational development?

 Explain the role of Christian missionaries’ in Kerala educational history.

 Briefly describe the educational renaissance in Kerala in the 20th century.

 Briefly describe the different schemes for the educational enhancement after the formation of modern

Kerala.

 Write a brief note on KCF 2007.

 Explain the role of education in Kerala development experience.

 Describe the different issues pertaining to Kerala society.

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