the ESPecialist, vol.

28, nº 2DO(185-210)
ENSINO-APRENDIZAGEM FOCO NA 2007
FORMA: RETORNO OU RECOMEÇO ? 185
ISSN 0102-7077

THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER,

AND THE SPEAKING SKILL
A Hipótese da Produção, o Professor de L2 e a Habilidade Oral

Maria da Glória GUARÁ TAVARES (Universidade Federal de Santa

Catarina, Florianópolis, Brasil

Abstract
The present article reports on a case study with three L21 teachers, the
purpose of which was to examine teachers’ perspectives towards the
speaking skill, types of opportunities provided for speaking the target
language in the classroom, and functions of output (Swain, 1985, 1995)
mostly emphasized by teachers within the opportunities provided for
speaking. Results indicate that teachers tend to view speaking as
communication and most opportunities provided for speaking are
discussions about familiar topics. Moreover, teachers tend to emphasize
the practice function of output.

Key words: output; speaking; teacher; classroom.

Resumo
O presente artigo reporta um estudo de caso conduzido com três
professores de L2 cujo objetivo foi investigar as perspectivas dos
professores em relação à habilidade oral, as oportunidades promovidas
para a prática da habilidade oral em sala de aula e as funções da
produção (Swain, 1985, 1995) mais enfatizadas pelos professores
durante a prática da habilidade oral. Os resultados indicam que os
professores vêem a habilidade oral como comunicação e as
oportunidades para a prática oral consistem em discussões sobre tópicos
familiares. Os resultados também indicam que a função da produção
mais enfatizada pelos professores é a função da prática.

Palavras-chave: produção; habilidade oral; professor; sala de aula.

1
In the present study both foreign and second languages will be referred to as L2. Whenever it is
important to highlight the learning context, I will use the terms foreign language context and/or
second language context.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 185 24/10/2008, 21:01

 186 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

1. Introduction

According to Swain (1985, 1995), output plays a role in language

learning. Output encompasses speaking and writing. 2 As regards
speaking, Levelt (1989) claims that speaking is a complex cognitive
skill. Schmidt (1992) states that the development of a skilled behavior
involves a change from controlled to automatic processes and this change
occurs through practice. If a foreign language context is taken into
account, learners spend a few years attending classes in order to learn
an L2. As far as the development of the speaking skill is concerned,
practice happens mainly in the classroom. Thus, the ways teachers
promote opportunities for output (speaking) in the classroom may play
a role in the development of the speaking skill in a foreign language
context.
In order to investigate how speaking is treated by L2 teachers,
the present study aims at examining teachers’ perspectives towards the
speaking skill, the ways teachers provide opportunities for speaking the
L2 in the classroom, and the functions of output mostly emphasized by
teachers within the opportunities provided for speaking the L2.
In the remaining sections, I shall present a brief review of the
literature followed by the method, results, and interpretation.

2. Review of the literature

2.1. Models of L1 and L2 speech production

Levelt’s (1989) model of L1 speech production has four

specialized components: the conceptualizer, the formulator, the
articulator, and the speech comprehension system. These components
work in a highly automatic way, and automaticity is what allows the
components to work in parallel, which is, in turn, “a main condition for
the production of uninterrupted speech” (Levelt, 1989:2).

2
Although output encompasses speaking and writing, the present study will deal only with speaking.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 186 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 187

De Bot (1992) made a few adaptations to Levelt’s (1989) model

in order to account for L2 speech production. The first assumption of
De Bot’s (1992) model is that the speaker has to decide what language
to speak. This decision takes place in the conceptualizer. As regards the
formulator, De Bot (1992) proposes that it is language-specific; thus,
different procedures are applied to the grammatical encoding of L1 and
L2 speech. Finally, De Bot (1992) suggests only one articulator for
both languages. By assuming only one articulator, L1 interferences in
L2 can be explained.

2.2. The output hypothesis

Krashen (1981) claims that when output occurs, acquisition has

already taken place. On the other hand, Swain (1985, 1995) postulates
that output plays a role in fostering acquisition3 . The function of output
in the sense of practicing the language may enhance fluency (Swain,
1985), but not necessarily leads to accuracy (Schmidt, 1992). Hence,
besides this more general function of output in the sense of practicing,
Swain (1985, 1995) proposes three other functions of output, which are
related to accuracy. These functions are the noticing/triggering function,
the hypothesis-testing function, and the metalinguistic reflection
function.
The noticing/triggering function proposes that as learners need
to produce the language in order to achieve communicative goals, they
may notice gaps in their interlanguage. In other words, “In producing
the target language (vocally or sub vocally) learners may notice a gap
between what they want to say and what they can say, leading them to
recognize what they do not know or know only partially” (Swain,
1985:125). Thus, output may lead learners to raise consciousness of
what they need to learn about the target language.
The hypothesis-testing function proposes that language
production may represent learners’ hypotheses about how the target

3
In the present study, no theoretical distinction is made between learning and acquisition; thus,
both terms will be used interchangeably.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 187 24/10/2008, 21:01

 188 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

language functions. It is important to highlight that these hypotheses are

implicit, they are not conscious. In this sense, output itself is the hypothesis.
Hence, what learners speak may represent their best guesses about how
something should be said in the target language (Swain, 1985, 1995).
Swain (1985, 1995) also proposes a third function of output,
namely, conscious reflection. This function of output is more related to
explicit hypotheses. In this sense, output may also generate explicit
hypotheses about learning, which may take place as learners
communicate about the target language in class. Whenever learners
engage in communication for the purpose of discussing and reflecting
upon how the target language works, output is, then, leading learners to
generate explicit hypotheses about the language. In this sense, this third
function of output is actually a metalinguistic function.
It is important to highlight that the Output Hypothesis does not
deny the relevance of input. It complements and reinforces input-based
approaches to language acquisition (Izumi & Bigelow, 2000).

2.3. Output performance

This last section of the review of the literature will focus on two
implementation conditions of oral tasks which have shown to promote
gains in output performance: pre-task planning (Skehan, 1996, 1998)
and task repetition (Bygate, 2001a). Skehan (1996, 1998) claims that
fluency, accuracy, and complexity should be the three goals of language
learning.4 However, these goals compete for learners’ limited attentional
resources. Pre-task planning and task repetition seem to be conditions
in which attentional resources can be allocated among these three goals
in a more balanced way.
First, it is important to distinguish planning as a pre-task activity
(Skehan, 1996) from the planning stage (conceptualizer) language users

4
According to Skehan (1996, 1998), fluency is related to the temporal aspects of speech production;
accuracy is related to grammatical correctness; complexity is related to language elaboration (e.g.,
subordination).

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 188 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 189

undergo as they generate pre-verbal messages (Levelt, 1989). The former

is related to the manipulation of tasks and consists of allowing L2
speakers time to plan what they are going to say before they actually
carry out a task. It is a kind of metacognitive planning. The latter is
related to on-line planning speakers undergo during task performance.
Speaking is divided in two types of activities: planning and
execution (Clark & Clark, 1977). In L1 speech production, planning is
subconscious and highly automatic. Thus, in most situations, L1 speakers
have a considerable amount of ‘ready-made’ plans or chunks available
which contributes to reduce the processing load (Mehnert, 1998).
On the other hand, L2 speakers’‘ready-made’ plans are more
limited and L2 language users need to construct plans in most
communicative situations, which means that a high degree of cognitive
control is demanded. In this sense, planning as a pre-task activity as
proposed by Skehan (1996) may have a positive impact on L2 speech
performance for it reduces the amount of on-line planning during task
performance, thus reducing cognitive load in managing communicative
goals. Skehan (1998) claims that planned production can lead to a balance
in the goals of fluency, accuracy, and complexity. Empirical studies
carried out by Mehnert (1998), Foster & Skehan (1996), Ortega (1999)
and Kawauchi (2005) have shown that allowing learners to plan their
output may lead to gains in performance.
As regards repetition, it has been highlighted in the field of L2
acquisition as an important condition for learning (McLaughlin &
Heredia, 1996). Likewise, Schmitd (1992) claims that the development
of a skill involves a shift from controlled to automatic processes, and
practice is what makes the shift happen. Bygate (2001a) claims that
giving learners the opportunity to perform a task a second time leads to
gains in performance since it enables them to retrieve crucial information
from long-term memory. In a second encounter with a task, learners are
more cognitively prepared. Their grammar and vocabulary items are
primed by the first time the task was carried out (Bygate & Samuda,
2005). Thus, learners may generate more sophisticated output in their
second performance. Empirical studies on task repetition (e.g., Bygate,
2001a; Gass et al, 1999) have shown that repetition leads to gains in
output performance.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 189 24/10/2008, 21:01

 190 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

3. Method

3.1. Research questions

The following research questions guided this study:

1. What are teachers’ perspectives towards speaking?

2. In what ways do teachers provide learners’ with opportunities

for speaking the target language in the classroom?

3. What functions of output tend to be mostly emphasized by

teachers within these opportunities provided for speaking the
target language in the classroom?

3.2. Participants and context

Three teachers of English as an L2 at the Extracurricular

Language Course offered at Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
(UFSC) were the participants of this research. Teachers are identified
as Teachers 1, 2, and 3. They are female non-native speakers of English,
and they had 5, 20, and 10 years of language teaching experience
respectively, at the time of data collection. The classes observed were
all from intermediate levels, semesters 5, 4, and 5, and the number of
students in each class was 13, 10, and 12, respectively for these three
teachers.

3.3. Procedures

The data for the present work were collected through class
observation and semi-guided interviews. Twelve classes were observed,
four of each teacher. First, classes were audio recorded and field notes
were taken on a diary. Second, interview sessions were carried out for
the purpose of data triangulation. Finally, classes and interviews were
transcribed for further analysis.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 190 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 191

3.4. Conventions on class transcriptions

The following conventions were used on class transcriptions:

T- teacher
L1, L2 –identified learners
L –unidentified learner
LL – unidentified learners talking at the same time
(…) pauses
italic – emphasis
XXX-inaudible
(( ))- comments made by the present researcher
[ ] –overlapping speech

4. Results and discussion

The most relevant data from the observed classes provided the
following overall picture of the participants of the present study
concerning their perspectives towards speaking, the opportunities
provided for speaking in the classroom, and the functions of output
mostly emphasized within these opportunities.
The teachers observed presented a similar approach concerning
the opportunities provided for speaking in the classroom. A variety of
opportunities for speaking is given by these teachers: socializing,
correcting exercises, discussing topics, and making up dialogues. Thus,
speaking seems to be a vehicle to achieve several other goals, and most
of what is accomplished in the classroom happens through speaking.
Teacher 1 seems to provide several types of opportunities for
speaking in the classroom; she is always trying to develop conversations
with her students throughout her classes. In addition to this, whenever
speaking itself seems to be the goal, it is motivated through discussions
about topics which are usually suggested by the book.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 191 24/10/2008, 21:01

 192 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

An opportunity for speaking which does not seem to have

language production itself as the goal, but rather as a way of interacting
with the students is illustrated in excerpt 1. Before correcting the
workbook exercises, Teacher 1 asks questions about students’ feelings
concerning the exercises assigned.

EXCERPT 1:
6. T: Not very happy, not so excited about these exercises, but
(...) I mean, were the exercises difficult?

7. L2: Well (...) I think (...) they were a little so difficult that the
student’s book

8. T: Student’s book? What? ((The teacher does not seem to

hear the student very well))

9. L2: So difficult that the student’s book, teacher

10. T: Oh, they were more difficult than the student’s book.

11. L2: Ah (...) More than! A little (...) A little more difficult than the
student’s book

As it can be seen, the teacher is not pushing students to

accomplish any task or to produce any specific type of language form.
She just seems to be interacting with her students through conversation.
In lines 7 and 9, L2 presents grammatical problems concerning the use
of the comparative form. It is important to highlight that the learner did
not ask any questions concerning the comparative form. L2 simply uses
the form; hence, this may be an indication of the hypothesis-testing
function of output (Swain, 1985, 1995). Thus, the learner’s output itself
may represent learner’s best guess at how to use the comparative form
in order to convey his opinion about the exercise. The teacher provides
negative evidence by uttering the correct use of the comparative form
which, in turn, seems to be perceived by the learner, who restates the
sentence correctly. As it has been aforementioned, whenever Teacher
1’s goal seems to be speaking, such opportunities are provided by
promoting discussions around topics. These discussions are motivated
by many questions mainly coming from the teacher, as it can be seen in
the following excerpts.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 192 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 193

Teacher 1 promotes a discussion on the topic suggested by the

book unit.

EXCERPT 2:
338. T: OK. In pairs please, I’d like you to list at least five (...) jobs
that you think are hot in Brazil. You know hot? Hot jobs!!
What, what is a (...) hot job? A hot job, a hot work

339. L: A cool job?

340. T: A cool job in what sense?

341. L: cool, hot ((laughing))

342. T: What ?((laughing)) What do you have in mind when I say

hot job?

343. L: A nice job.

344. L1: Perigoso, teacher?

345. T: [A dangerous job?]

346. L1: [Yes, a dangerous job]

Teacher 1 works on making students keep talking about hot

jobs, which is the topic of the book unit. She starts by asking questions;
then, she asks learners to work in pairs. The first moment is a very open
and flexible type of speaking activity, since no specific procedures are
required: she just makes learners answer questions and give their
opinions. During this first moment, as the discussion unfolds, learners
seem to notice gaps in their knowledge, which seems to characterize
the noticing gap function of output (Swain, 1985, 1995). In line 344,
while L1 is trying to convey meaning about hot jobs, the learner realizes
that he lacks the vocabulary knowledge he needs in order to
communicate. Therefore, the learner tries to solve this problem by asking
the teacher about it. Other instances as such can be illustrated in the
next excerpt. After asking students to write a list of jobs they consider
hot, the teacher asks them to share their answers.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 193 24/10/2008, 21:01

 194 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

EXCERPT 3:
347. T: Have you finished? Come on, let’s share our ideas about hot
jobs! Which ones do you consider hot jobs?
348. L 6: [Adrenaline?]
349. T: Oh, you’re explaining the meaning of hot job.((the teacher
realizes that some students misunderstood the exercise and gave
definitions for hot jobs besides writing a list))
350. T: Ok, guys. There are many conversations going on at the same
time. Do you think that’s possible? So, the girls here are
explaining what is a hot job for them, listen. Go ahead.
351. L6: For me a hot job is when you have emotions and adrenaline
and you (...) get a good money or something illegal
352. L6: Illegal
353. T: Oh, illegal? You think illegal is hot?
354. L6: Maybe
355. T: So, Ok the girls explained their ideas about hot jobs. These
two things they said, a job that provides some emotion, maybe
dangerous and makes you take risks all the time and illegal jobs.
Ok, now tell us which ones you listed
356. L6: Drugs jobs? People who work with drugs? How we say in
English?
357. T: Oh, you mean drug dealer.
358. L6: Drug dealer, Barman.
359. T: Ok, how about you guys? Is it necessary to explain the meaning
of hot jobs?
360. L9: A hot job (…) It change you a reference
361. T: Oh, it makes you a reference, you are the reference in that
profession, it makes you a reference.
362. L9: Like a teacher could be
363. T: Sure, it is a hot profession.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 194 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 195

Again, it this excerpt, it can be seen that learners notice gaps in

their knowledge, which exemplifies the noticing gap function of output
(Swain, 1985, 1995). Learners try to solve such problem by asking the
teacher about it. In line 357, L6 tries to solve this problem by explaining
the meaning of the word for the job they want to write on their list; then,
the learner explicitly asks the teacher for help. In addition to this, in line
361, L9 presents linguistic problems when trying to get the message
across. It does not seem that the learner notices a linguistic problem
since he does not hesitate or ask for help. Hence, this may suggest that
such utterance is the learner’s best guess at how the sentence should be
said. It may be an indication of the hypothesis-testing function of output
(Swain, 1985, 1995). Teacher 1 provides negative evidence about the
student’s linguistic problem by saying the sentence correctly twice.
However, it is not possible to state that noticing might have taken place
from the part of the learner for he simply goes on talking without restating
the sentence or giving any other cues which might indicate noticing has
occurred.
It is important to highlight that Teacher 1 sometimes waits until
the discussions are over and goes to the board to emphasize the most
common mistakes students make. This can be seen in the following
excerpt:

EXCERPT 4:
T: Class, you are making some mistakes ((teacher goes to the board))
(…) Look, we don’t say: this job is a hot, Ok? Also, no ‘the’ before
my

This may indicate that Teacher 1 does so as a way not to interrupt

learners while they talk. However, she considers explicit feedback to
be relevant.
Teacher 2 also gives several opportunities for speaking in the
classroom. The following excerpts illustrate this feature. The teacher
talks to students about their holidays:

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 195 24/10/2008, 21:01

 196 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

EXCERPT 1:
121. T: So, how was Easter? Did you eat lots of chocolate eggs?
122. L1: Yes, teacher
123. T: Are you happy, then?
124. L2: happy? Tired, teacher
125. T: Tired of eating chocolate?

As can be seen, the teacher is socializing with students. It does

not seem that she has any specific objective in mind when asking these
questions. Speaking here does not seem to be the goal the teacher has in
mind. Rather, speaking, at this moment, seems to be the means of
communication between the teacher and the students.
Whenever speaking seems to be the goal, Teacher 2 seems to
propose debates, discussions around topics. This can be seen in the
following excerpt:

EXCERPT 2:
1. T: Do you remember when this war started?
2. L1: [March, 17th ]
3. LL: [March 17th]
4. T: March 17th (…) Ok (…) what (…) what do you consider this
event? A tragedy? Uh (…) A good thing? What do you think it is?
5. L1: Depends the point (…)
6. T: Ok, depends on which point of view? ((teacher does not
emphasize her correction towards what the student had just tried
to say)) In your point of view, what is it?
7. L1: Stupid (…)
8. T: A stupid thing?

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 196 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 197

9. L1: The point the Americans is a terrible (…) for the world is a
terrible (…) But (…) the population in Iraq is good because she
change the government (…) modelo de governo, teacher?
10. T: The model, the pattern, the system
11. L1: Yes, change the model of government they have in Iraq
12. T: So you think for the Americans it is a catastrophe and for Iraq is
good?
13. L1: No (…) is bad for two, but for the point of view American
people (…) no, no, for Iraq people is a new model of government

The way Teacher 2 provides opportunities for speaking is similar

to the way Teacher 1 does. Nevertheless, Teacher 2 does not provide as
much feedback, be it implicitly or explicitly, on learners’ linguistic
problems as Teacher 1. As can be seen in lines 5, 9 and 13, L1 presents
many language problems when trying to communicate. The teacher lets
the learner free to try to convey meaning. Negative evidence is provided
by the teacher only on line 6 (Depends on which point of view?).
However, it does not seem to be noticed by L1 since the learner keeps
the same problem in the attempt to communicate again in line 9 (The
point the Americans). At the end of line 9, the learner seems to realize
the lack of knowledge as he tries to communicate and asks the teacher
for help concerning vocabulary. In this way, output led the learner to
realize what he did not know about the target language, which is an
indication that the noticing gap function is at play (Swain, 1985, 1995).
As the discussion goes on, the teacher keeps asking students’ opinions
about the topic:

EXCERPT 3:
14. T: Oh, you agree that it is a chance for changing?
15. L1: It is
16. T: OK, do you agree with him?
17. LL: No

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 197 24/10/2008, 21:01

 198 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

18. T: No? What do you think, then?

19. L2: I think the Iraq people don’t want to see your (…) your relatives
dying in (…) in the war (…) It’s terrible to them
20. T: So you think it’s a catastrophe?
21. L2: Yes, for the Iraq and the (…) rest of the world
22. L3: The television show to us that (…) the Iraq like the dominion
of the United States
23. T: They like it?
24. L3: [The TV]

As can be seen in line 19, L2 makes mistakes by using the

possessive adjective ‘your’ instead of ‘their’. Again, in line 21, the
learner places the definite article before Iraq. In addition to this, the
learner also presents problems concerning the third person of the singular
in line 22, and also seems to assume that the word information is a
count noun. However, no feedback at all is provided by the teacher.
This seems to indicate that, when the goal is speaking, Teacher 2’s
main concern is meaning.
As far as Teacher 3’s opportunities for speaking are concerned,
most of what takes place in the classroom also happens through speaking:
checking exercise answers aloud, checking comprehension, discussing
topics. In the next excerpt, Teacher 3 is making questions about a
listening exercise.

EXCERPT 1:
21. T: What are some of the reasons her restaurant is successful?
22. L: Best quality and price
23. T: Yes, people go there to meet each other, to talk
24 . L2: And she talks about também (…) other places (…) Puerto Rico
25. T: yes, what did she talk about these other places?
26. L3: She talks about the theme of the restaurant people like, Latin
American

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 198 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 199

In excerpt 1, speaking is again being used as a vehicle to achieve

another goal in the classroom; in this case, listening comprehension is
being checked. Furthermore, opportunities to discuss topics present in
the book units are also provided. This can be illustrated in the following
excerpt:

EXCERPT 2:
1. T: When are we more ambitious?
2. LL: In the thirties
3. T: In our thirties, why?
4. L1: Because (…) we (…) we have more preocupações (…) and
acquire more things
5. T: We have more worries in order to acquire more things
6. L1: We want more
7. T: Oh, we have different objectives? Is that what you mean?
8. L1: Yes
9. T: Do you agree?
10. L2: XXX

11. T: Yes, but we are already ambitious, isn’t it?

Similarly to the previous teachers investigated in this study,

Teacher 3’s students also seem to notice gaps in their knowledge when
they try to meet communicative goals, suggesting that the noticing gap
function of output is at play (Swain, 1985, 1995). In line 4, L1 seems to
realize lack of knowledge concerning vocabulary and the learner does
try to solve this problem by saying the word he does not know in the
second language, in his first language. Then, the teacher provides the
vocabulary the learner does not know. Finally, the learner restates the
sentence incorporating the word provided by the teacher.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 199 24/10/2008, 21:01

 200 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

Other instances of learners realizing gaps in language knowledge

concerning vocabulary can be seen in the following excerpt. Teacher 3
is discussing another topic with her students:

EXCERPT 3:
101. T: Would you like to have your own business? L1, wake up!
((Laughing))
102. L1: My family has own business
103. T: What is it?
104. L1: It’s a hotel
105. T: Oh, a hotel! Is it here in Florianópolis?
106. L1: Yes XXX hotel
107. T: Would you like to be in the same area?
108. L1: I work in hotel for five years
109. T: Ok, what do you do there?
110. L1: In the future I think my father will aposentar and [I will]
111. T: [Retire] Ok, so you intend to manage the hotel. Some people
don’t want to be involved in the family business because they
like something else, is this your case?
112. L1: No, I like (…) The hotel como posso dizer não consume
todo seu tempo (...)
113. T: Oh, you don’t have to spend all your time in a hotel
114. L1: So, you can work in a hotel and another place
115. T: Any other business?
116. L2: No
117. T: Why not?
118. L2: I don’t like (…) when you have a business you are (…) the
boss and many preoccupations
119. T: This is a very interesting point. Let’s say when you are the
boss [you have]
120. L2: [I prefer] (…) to be (…) empregado
121. T: To be an employee

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 200 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 201

As can be seen, in lines 110, 112, and 120, learners try to solve
their problems concerning vocabulary either by asking the teacher for
help or simply by saying the words they do not know in their first
language. In both cases, the teacher provides the word learners are in
search for.
In short, all teachers investigated reveal similar approaches
concerning the opportunities provided for speaking in the classroom.
Most of the speaking activities carried out by the teachers are Topic-
based activities (Ur, 1996). Such activities “simply ask students to talk
about a subject and the discussion is clearly the main objective” (Ur,
1996:122). Despite the similarities concerning the way speaking is dealt
with by these teachers, two features seem to be peculiar. First, feedback,
be it implicit or explicit, seems to be more emphasized by Teacher 1.
Second, Teacher 1 seems to be the only one who does not view speaking
only as communication in the sense that she emphasizes both meaning
and form.
The interview sessions revealed that this tendency towards
speaking, having it either as a means to accomplish other goals, or as a
goal achieved through discussions, seems to be a pattern in the way
teachers work the speaking skill with their students.
Concerning the types of opportunities provided for speaking in
the classroom, Teacher 1 states that:
In the classroom, I think learners should use language to
communicate. In order to do that, they should be involved by
the topic or the theme of the lesson. In order to be involved they
should be motivated by the theme. Thus, the theme must be
relevant for them. Second, the theme has to be as real as possible,
I mean, the theme should belong to the learners’ real life, age,
social level and interest. The teacher should speak English as
much as possible in the classroom because the teacher is a source
of input, and if I speak English this will help them speak, too.
When students make mistakes which impair the message, I
interfere. But, if the message is conveyed I take notes on learners’
mistakes and write them on the board later on.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 201 24/10/2008, 21:01

 202 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

From the answers Teacher 1 gives, three features seem to emerge

as relevant. First the way she views the topic or theme of the lesson as
a valuable construct within the speaking skill. Second, she emphasizes
how important she considers the speaking of the target language most
of the time by herself and her students. Third, she emphasizes the value
of teachers’ feedback on learners’ speech.
Similarly, Teacher 2 states:
I make questions, I put them in pairs so that they can talk and
discuss questions, sometimes questions proposed by the book,
sometimes the ones that I bring, during listening exercises, I
make questions so that they can give me the answers that they
have understood from the listening. Also, the reading exercises
I correct orally so I, they speak. Socializing, every beginning of
class we socialize a lot.
Similarly, Teacher 2 emphasizes discussions around questions
proposed by the book or suggested by herself. In addition, she reveals
opportunities for speaking as a vehicle to achieve other goals in the
classroom such as exercise correction and socializing.
Teacher 3 also states that:
First of all, I give opportunities by bringing to classes issues
that interest them, topics that are related to their lives, to their
reality, and sometimes asking them to bring these issues to class.
Again, the main concern towards the speaking skill seems to be
the relevance the topics chosen have for learners. In short, all teachers
value the topic for discussion as a relevant variable within speaking in
the classroom. These types of opportunities provided for speaking seem
to be influenced by teachers’ goals concerning the speaking skill. Teacher
1 pursues the following goals:
Besides meaning, I worry about accuracy and fluency, too.
By pursuing such goals, Teacher 1 seems to explain why she
values topics, feedback, and the speaking of the target language as much
as possible. Since she values not only fluency but also accuracy, this

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 202 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 203

seems to justify why, besides providing opportunities for discussions,

she also provides moments to give learners feedback on form.
Teacher 2 states the following about her goals:
Well, if they are here, if they are taking the course that means
that they want to communicate in English, they want to be able
to read in English. But I know, from the papers that I’ve read,
academic readings, that most students have difficulties in
speaking. So, I encourage them to speak as often as they can so
that they get used to this action, you know, so that they can
articulate more often the sounds because some of the sounds
are not sounds that we have in our language, so they get used to
the sounds. So, this way they get used to it by doing it, by
practicing. I try to make them comfortable in a nice atmosphere,
I bring interesting topics.
Teacher 2 aims at having learners practice the language orally
as much as they can. She believes any kind of oral production, even
reading exercise answers aloud, helps speaking. Thus, such goals seem
to be in accordance with the variety of opportunities provided by her.
Teacher 3 states that her goals are:
First of all, I have to follow the topic of units of the book. I’m
not so free to create. So, I have to see what the objectives are in
a specific unit of the book and, then, I try to adapt that to these
topics that maybe will make the students feel more enthusiastic
to speak. I think of communication, always keeping that in mind.
They have to communicate.
Again, the importance attributed to topics and communication
in the classroom is revealed. In addition to this, Teacher 3 mentions
constraint related to course books and objectives of the course.
In sum, Teacher 1 pursues meaning and form during
communication in the classroom. On the other hand, Teachers 2 and 3
seem to pursue meaning over form. These goals seem to be grounded
within teachers’ perspective towards the speaking skill. Teacher 1 states
her perspectives as following:

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 203 24/10/2008, 21:01

 204 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

Speaking for me, be it in L1 or L2, is an ability which is acquired

step-by-step throughout the individual’s life. Learning how to
speak takes time and effort because cognitive and physical
processes are involved. Speaking is producing oral language to
communicate ideas, feelings, information, or speaking may be
just interacting socially without any predetermined
communicative intention.
Such perspective towards the speaking skill may suggest why
Teacher 1 is concerned not only about discussing topics, but also about
emphasizing accuracy. She views speaking as a skill which takes time
and effort to be acquired, hence, focusing solely on conveying meaning
may not be enough to develop such a complex skill.
Teacher 2 seems to view speaking as follows:
(…) Speaking, Let me see, in the classroom, as a teacher, I
consider speaking as any kind of oral production. Sometimes
when students write down an answer for a question and read it
aloud, I consider it speaking, any kind of oral production they
have in the classroom, discussions, every time they ask me
questions concerning homework, concerning any kind of
assignment I give them, this is speaking.”
Since speaking is viewed as any kind of oral production, even if
it is reading aloud, this may be the reason why Teacher 2 believes
speaking will be acquired mostly through practicing, getting used to
speaking by doing it.
Teacher 3 states the following about her perspectives:
I believe it’s the ability the student will acquire to use the
language, not only in terms of accuracy... Speaking is the ability
to use the language as natural as possible to communicate even
if they make mistakes.
This perspective Teacher 3 has towards speaking suggests that
she places meaning over form, since accuracy is mentioned, but the
ability to communicate is the key point.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 204 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 205

As can be seen throughout teachers’ reports, the way teachers

promote opportunities for speaking seems to be influenced by teachers’
goals towards the speaking skill, and these goals, in turn, seem to be
embedded in what they believe speaking is. In the next section, I draw
some considerations as regards the findings of the present study.

5. Conclusion

The present study is small and no strong claims can be made

based on such a small data set, number of classes investigated, and number
of class transcripts selected for discussion. The findings of the present
study are to be seen as modest and suggestive rather than conclusive.
Despite the limitations of the study, some considerations can be put forward
concerning the way speaking is dealt with by these teachers.
The purpose of this study was to investigate teachers’ procedures
concerning the speaking skill in terms of (1) teachers’ perspectives
towards speaking, (2) types of opportunities provided for speaking the
L2, and (3) functions of output mostly emphasized within the
opportunities provided for speaking. Results revealed that teachers
present similar pedagogical approaches for the speaking skill.
Concerning teachers’ perspectives towards speaking, Teacher
1 views speaking as a demanding skill, and she emphasizes meaning
and form when dealing with the speaking skill. Teachers 2 and 3, on the
other hand, view speaking as communication and tend to emphasize
meaning over form.
Results also showed that teachers promote several types of
opportunities for speaking in the classroom: socializing, asking students
questions, correcting exercises, checking listening and reading
comprehension. Moreover, results revealed that Teacher 1 provides
opportunities for corrective feedback. During feedback, some instances
of focus on form emerged when dealing with the speaking skill. Apart
from these instances of corrective feedback, most of the time devoted
to speaking seems to focus on meaning. It seems that teachers tend to
focus on fluency at the expense of accuracy and complexity.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 205 24/10/2008, 21:01

 206 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

As for the functions of output mostly emphasized by these

teachers, I am inclined to believe that teachers seem to emphasize the
practice function of output, which is related to fluency. They do not seem
to design activities for the purposes of leading learners to notice gaps,
test implicit hypothesis, and carry out metalinguistic reflection, which
are the functions of output related to accuracy (Swain, 1985, 1995).
Although teachers do not seem to design activities in order to
address these functions of output related to accuracy, such functions
seem to emerge from the part of the learners as they try to meet their
communicative goals. Learners seem to notice gaps in their knowledge
mainly concerning lack of vocabulary. In order to solve these problems
as they try to communicate, learners use mainly two problem-solving
mechanisms: literal translation and directed appeal for help (Dörnyei &
Kormos, 1998). Teachers, in turn, just provide the vocabulary or
grammatical forms learners need to carry on their discussions. Thus, I
may argue that the functions of output related to accuracy tend to be
treated in a random way as they emerge from the part of students.
All in all, it seems that speaking is treated randomly by these
teachers. In most of the classes observed, speaking seems to be the vehicle
of communication in the classroom. According to Larsen-Freeman
(1986:140), the language “should not only be seen as an object of study
but also as a vehicle of communication in the classroom”. However, it
seems that teachers are treating speaking in an opposite trend. In other
words, teachers seem to treat speaking as if it were only the vehicle of
communication but not also a goal or skill in its own right, which requires
specific treatment (Bygate, 2001b; D’Ely & Mota, 2004).
Whenever speaking seems to be the goal, it is usually treated
through topic-based activities (Ur, 1996). These activities simply require
that learners talk freely about familiar topics without any specific
outcome to be pursued. As claimed by Bygate (2001b), the choice of
familiar topics is relevant so that attention can focus on the selection,
assembly, and articulation of language. When topics are familiar learners
seem to feel more comfortable to talk in class. This is also relevant
since learning is likely to take place in an atmosphere in which anxiety
and inhibition are low (Williams & Burden, 1997).

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 206 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 207

However, I believe that discussing familiar topics and keeping

anxiety low are not the only variables involved in dealing with such a
complex skill as speaking. L1 speech production is highly automatic
and speakers, in most standardized communicative situations, have
ready-made plans available to them that contribute to reduce the
processing load (Levelt, 1989).
Such a high degree of automatization as in L1 does not apply to
the L2 to the same extent. For this reason, in many situations L2 learners
may need to creatively construct plans for communicative situations
since ready-made chunks may not be available, and this activation of
procedures (lexical retrieval and morphological marking) demands high
degrees of cognitive control (Mehnert, 1998). Moreover, speaking as
output may play a role in acquisition (Swain, 1985, 1995). These
complexities of the speaking skill should be taken into account in the
attempt to treat speaking in a more systematic fashion.
Bygate (2001b) claims that the paramount feature of speaking
is spontaneity. In order to help learners’ achieve automaticity and,
consequently, spontaneous L2 speech production, the speaking skill
should be worked in a controlled fashion in the classroom (Bygate,
2001b). In other words, speaking as a skill in its own right also needs to
be worked pedagogically, in a planned and systematic way in the
classroom (Bygate, 2001b; D’Ely & Mota, 2004). The key question
seems to be: How can speaking be treated in a more systematic fashion
in the L2 classroom?
Although pre-task planning and task repetition have been
operationalized mainly in experimental studies (Foster & Skehan, 1996;
Mehnert, 1998; Ortega, 1999; Gass et al, 1999; Bygate, 2001a; Bygate
& Samuda, 2005; D’Ely, 2006; just to mention a few), I believe they
can also be pedagogical tools which could be certainly implemented in
the classroom in the attempt to treat speaking and the functions of output
in a more systematic fashion.
If learners are allowed time for planning prior to the oral
discussions, this planning time could lead them to notice interlanguage
gaps beforehand. Perhaps it would give them the chance to work on the
necessary language items and have teachers’ help before actually

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 207 24/10/2008, 21:01

 208 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

carrying out the discussion. In this way, learners’ noticing of gaps would
be treated in a more systematic way and could lead to more gains in
learning (Swain, 1985, 1995). Moreover, time for planning beforehand
could give learners the chance to discuss and reflect upon the target
language, thereby emphasizing the metalinguistic function of output
(Swain, 1985, 1995) in a more controlled way.
Likewise, task repetition could also be a way to give learners a
second chance to work on vocabulary and grammatical gaps they might
have as well as lead them to reflect upon the target language within the
task being carried out a second time. Task repetition would also be a way
to emphasize the practice function of output, which is related to fluency.
Obviously, chances for speaking completely spontaneously
should also be provided along with opportunities for pre-task planning
and repetition. My suggestion is that opportunities for planning,
repetition, and improvisation seem to encompass the functions of output
(the fluency and accuracy functions) in a more balanced way and, thus,
may provide a more systematic treatment towards the speaking skill.
Recebido em: 03/2008; Aceito em: 05/2008.

References

BYGATE, M. 2001a Effects of task repetition on the structure and control

of oral language. IN: M. BYGATE, P. SKEHAN & M. SWAIN 2001
(eds.) Researching pedagogic tasks – second language learning
and testing. Longman.
_______ 2001b Speaking. IN: R. CARTER & D. NUNAN (eds.) The
Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other
languages. Cambridge University Press.
_______ & SAMUDA, V. 2005 Integrative planning through the use of
task repetition. IN: R. ELLIS (ed.) Planning and task performance
in a second language. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
CLARK, H. & CLARK, E. 1977 Psychology and language. An introduction
to psycholinguistics. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
DE BOT, K. 1992 A bilingual production model: Levelt’s speaking model
adapted. Applied Linguistics, 13.1: 1-24.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 208 24/10/2008, 21:01

 THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS, THE L2 TEACHER, AND THE SPEAKING SKILL 209

D’ELY, R.C.S.F. 2006 An investigation of learners’ metacognitive

processes of planning and rehearsal as catalysts of interlanguage
development. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Universidade Federal
de Santa Catarina.
_______ & MOTA, B.M. 2004 A teoria, o livro didático e o professor:
uma análise da implementação de tarefas orais em LE. Linguagem
& Ensino,7.2: 65-98.
DÖRNYEI, Z., KORMOS, J. 1998 Problem-solving mechanisms in L2
communication: a psycholinguistic perspective. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 20: 349- 385.
FOSTER, P. & SKEHAN, P. 1996 The influence of planning and task type
on second language performance. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 18: 299-323.
GASS, S., ALVAREZ-TORRES, M.J. & FERNÁNDEZ-GARCIA, M. 1999 The
effects of task repetition on linguistic output. Language Learning,
49.4: 549-581.
IZUMI, I. & BIGELOW, M. 2000 Does output promote noticing and second
language acquisition? Tesol Quarterly, 34. 2: 239-277.
KAWAUCHI, C. 2005 The effects of strategic planning on the oral narratives
of learners with low and high intermediate levels of L2 proficiency.
IN: R. ELLIS (ed.) Planning and task performance in a second
language. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
KRASHEN, S. 1981 Second language acquisition and second language
learning. Pergamon.
LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. 1986 Techniques and principles in language
teaching. Oxford University Press.
LEVELT, W.J.M. 1989 Speaking: from intention to articulation. The MIT
Press.
MEHNERT, U. 1998 The effects of different lengths of time for planning
on second language performance. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 20: 83-108.
MCLAUGHLIN, B. & HEREDIA, R. 1996 Information-processing approaches
to research on second language acquisition and use. IN: W.C.
RITCHIE & T.K. BHATIA (eds.) Handbook of second language
acquisition. Academic Press.
ORTEGA, L. 1999 Planning and focus on form in L2 oral performance.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21: 109-148.

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 209 24/10/2008, 21:01

 210 the ESPecialist, vol. 28, nº 2 2007

SCHMIDT , R. 1992 Psychological mechanisms underlying second

language fluency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14:
357-385.
SKEHAN, P. 1996 A framework for the implementation of the task-based
instruction. Applied Linguistics, 17.1: 38-62.
_______ 1998 A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford
University Press.
S WAIN , M. 1985 Communicative competence: Some roles of
comprehensible input andcomprehensible output in its development.
IN: S. G ASS & C. M ADDEN (eds.) Input in second language
acquisition. Newbury House.
_______ 1995 Three functions of output in second language learning.
IN: G. COOK & B. SEIDLEHOFER (eds.) Principles and practice in
applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.
UR, P. 1996 A course in language teaching: practice and theory.
Cambridge University Press.
WILLIAMS, M. & BURDEN, R. 1997 Psychology for language teachers: a
social constructivist approach. Cambridge University Press.

Maria da Glória Guará Tavares has just completed her PhD in Applied
Linguistics at Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina on a grant from
CNPq. The title of her doctoral dissertation is ‘Pre-task planning,
working memory capacity, and L2 speech performance.’ Last year, she
carried out part of her research data analysis at the University of
Auckland on a grant from CAPES. She also has an MA in Applied
Linguistics from Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina and a degree
in EFL Teaching Methodology from Universidade Federal do Ceará.
Her main research interests are: Learning styles, task-based language
learning and teaching, working memory, and L2 speech production.
[email protected]

INTEIRA_the28n2_PR2.p65 210 24/10/2008, 21:01