Soils and Foundations 2015;55(5):1270–1281

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Soils and Foundations

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Laboratory and modelling investigation of root-reinforced system for slope

stabilisation
Kreng Hav Eaba, Suched Likitlersuangc,n, Akihiro Takahashib
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
c
Geotechnical Research Unit, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
Received 23 June 2013; received in revised form 13 May 2015; accepted 23 June 2015
Available online 9 October 2015

Abstract

Most natural slope failures are induced by seepage and/or rainfall. Soil bioengineering is an environmentally friendly method which employs
vegetation to reinforce the soil in sloping terrain. The vegetation can contribute to slope stability in two ways, mechanical and hydrological. This
paper demonstrates the effect of a vegetation root matrix on a soil slope and focuses on mechanical reinforcement using an example of vetiver
grass. Vetiver grass (Vetiveria nemoralis A. Camus) specimens, grown for under a year, were used in this study. The investigation programme
includes root observations, direct shear tests and centrifuge model tests. The growing rate of the vetiver roots and the root area ratios were
observed during the tests. The cohesion and angle of internal friction of root-reinforced soils were determined from a standard direct shear
apparatus and a large direct shear apparatus. A series of centrifuge tests was carried out to demonstrate the effect of vegetation on seepage- and
rainfall-induced slope failures. The results indicate that the vetiver roots showed rapid growth within a year and that the shear strength of the root-
reinforced soil was significantly increased by the bundle of roots. The results also reveal that the bundle of root fibres in the centrifuge model tests
helped to reduce the deformation of the soil slope due to instability by increasing the shear strength of the slope.
& 2015 The Japanese Geotechnical Society. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Centrifuge modelling; Laboratory tests; Slopes; Vegetation

1. Introduction slope instability has increased especially in tropical monsoon

zones, such as Southeast Asian countries. There are several
Landslides are one of the most widespread earth processes factors that can cause natural slope failures, such as geological
which involve the failure of sloping earth material. Landslides activity, hydrological influence and human interference, but
are considered to be one of the most important problems in seepage and rainfall are the main factors. The infiltration of
geotechnical engineering. This is because landslides are rain water can cause a rise in the groundwater level and an
usually among the most costly natural disasters in terms of increase in pore water pressure or a decrease in the matric
human fatalities and economic loss. In recent years, natural suction of the soil. In addition, the physical process of rainfall
infiltration into the ground and its seepage through the soil
n
Corresponding author. layers have been studied by hydrogeologists, soil scientists and
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.H. Eab), geotechnical engineers (Ng and Shi, 1998).
[email protected] (S. Likitlersuang),
[email protected] (A. Takahashi).
To increase slope stability, several methods have been used,
Peer review under responsibility of The Japanese Geotechnical Society. such as soil nails, retaining structures, geosynthetic

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.09.025
0038-0806/& 2015 The Japanese Geotechnical Society. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281 1271

Fig. 1. (a) Vetiver specimens grown in hydroponic conditions and (b) root observation.

(Chinapan et al., 1997). Vetiver roots can penetrate deep into the
Table 1
Chemical test results of planted soil.
ground to form a net-like barrier capable of filtering silt and
containing top soil. Normally, shallow failure is a typical failure
Test Value Level mode of soil slopes in regions with prolonged and heavy
rainfall; it always occurs 1–1.5 m in depth from the surface
Alkaline–acidity (pH) 6.7 Medium
Organic (O) 12.13% High (Gray and Leiser, 1982). Hence, shallow failure of natural
Phosphorus (P) 61 mg/kg High slopes could be prevented by the rooting depth of the vetiver
Calcium (Ca) 7859 mg/kg High grass which interlocks with the soil particles. Previous research
Magnesium (Mg) 974 mg/kg High has investigated the tensile root strength properties of vetiver
Potassium (K) 1996 mg/kg Very high
grass for resisting shallow failure and superficial erosion
(Hengchaovanich and Nilaweera, 1998).
Recently, the stability of model soil slopes that were reinforced
reinforcements and shotcrete. However, these methods are
by plant roots has been investigated by Sonnenberg et al. (2010) at
costly and may not be suitable for natural slopes. In ancient
15g using a centrifuge. By continuously raising the groundwater
times, the use of vegetation in soil slopes and earthen covers
table in model slopes, contributions of mechanical root reinforce-
for landfill was well recognised, and it is still well-known that
ment were back-analysed based on observed slip surfaces at
the effect of vegetation plays an important role in increasing
failure. Takahashi et al. (2014) studied the effect of vegetation
soil slope stability. Soil bioengineering is an environmentally
structures on seepage-induced slope failure using a 50g centrifuge
friendly alternative that uses vegetation for improving slope
model. Eab et al. (2014) continued the study of Takahashi et al.
failure. There are two main contributions whereby vegetation
(2014) focusing on a root-reinforced slope subjected to rainfall
can affect slope stability, i.e., hydrological and mechanical
infiltration using a rainfall simulator in the centrifuge.
processes. Firstly, changing the soil moisture regime and
The aim of this paper is to present an investigation
drawing the water from the soil via evapotranspiration (Ali
programme of the vetiver root-reinforced system for slope
and Osman, 2008) can increase soil suction. Secondly, the
stabilisation using a laboratory technique. The shear strength
roots of vegetation can enhance slope stability by increasing
parameters of root-reinforced soils were determined using
the shear strength of the soil (Gray and Sotir, 1996; Wu et al.,
standard direct shear tests for single vetiver and large direct
1979). The role of vegetation in slope stability has been
shear tests for a group of vetiver. The growing rate of the
defined by Greenway (1978), Coppin and Richards (1990) and
vetiver roots and the root-area ratios were observed by direct
Wu (1995). In addition, this method is applied to prevent
measurement and an image processing technique, respectively.
shallow failure as well as soil surface erosion in natural slopes.
Finally, a series of centrifuge model tests using a seepage and
Vetiver grass (Vetiveria nemoralis A. Camus), was promoted
rainfall simulator to demonstrate the effectiveness of roots in
to help prevent soil erosion and water runoff or infiltration by
shallow depths against slope instability was also performed.
the World Bank in the 1980s, and is important in soil
bioengineering (Greenfield, 1996). Recently, the Chaipattana
Foundation and the Office of the Royal Development Projects
Board, Thailand, have promoted the use of vetiver grass for soil 2. Experimental investigation
and water conservation for many royal projects in Thailand.
Vetiver grass is fast growing and requires low maintenance. The In the soil bioengineering approach, the selection of suitable
length of vetiver roots has been seen to grow up to 2–3.5 m vegetation is the first important step. Vetiver grasses have been
1272 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281

selected based on the type of soil and the type of environment vetiver specimens were planted in plastic bags and placed in
which could help them survive for a long period of time. PVC tubes, having a diameter of 150 mm and a length of
Thailand’s Land Development Department (LDD, 1998) 600 mm, in preparation for the standard direct shear tests.
suggested that the roots of vetiver grass can penetrate deep Fig. 2(a) shows a schematic of planting vetiver grass for single
into the ground and that vetiver grass is suitable for arid areas. specimens. Four samples were prepared by cutting at the upper
However, research on the engineering aspects of vetiver grass part from the up–down direction with a thickness of 20 mm for
is still limited and on-going. In this study, observations of each tested sample to fit the direct shear box, as shown in
vetiver grasses have been performed in both field and Figs. 2(a) and 3(a).
laboratory tests. In the field, vetiver grasses were planted For the group specimens, the vetiver grasses were grown by
along a slope to observe the rate of growing and to make a planting them in a 300-mm3 wooden box. Nine vetiver
comparison with the vetiver specimens grown in the labora- specimens were planted with a spacing of 75 mm, as shown
tory. In the laboratory, the vetiver specimens were grown in Fig. 2(b). These group vetiver specimens were prepared for
under three conditions: (1) vetiver specimens grown under the large direct shear tests. Three samples were prepared for
hydroponic conditions; (2) a single vetiver specimen planted in the tests by trimming them to fit the large direct shear mould,
a cylindrical container; and (3) a group of vetiver specimens 300 mm
300 mm
200 mm, as shown in Fig. 3(b). In
planted in a cubic box. addition, this group of vetiver grass specimens was prepared
for image processing to define the root area ratio as well. It is
2.1. Vetiver specimen preparation noted that the group vetiver specimens were planted in the
same soil which was used for the single vetiver specimens.
In this study, the vetiver specimens were grown under three
conditions. The first condition is hydroponics. Twelve identical 2.2. Vetiver root observation
single vetiver specimens were grown in a container with a liquid
nutrient (without soil). An air pump was also installed in the Fig. 4 presents the average values for the root length and the
container to provide oxygen, as shown in Fig. 1(a). This root bundle diameter from the hydroponic vetiver specimens.
experiment was used to investigate the growing rate of vetiver The results have been observed and measured continuously for
roots without destroying the roots. Measurements were taken 2–6 months. The relationship between the length of the roots
continuously, for over 6 months, of the length of the root and the and the radius of the root bundle is shown in Fig. 4(a). The
radius of the root bundle for each specimen (Fig. 1(b)). growing rate of the roots can be determined from a plot of the
For the second and third conditions, the vetiver grasses were length of the roots with respect to time, as shown in Fig. 4(b).
grown in soil. The soil used in this study was collected from a According to the results, it is indicated that the roots of the
typical slope area. The chemical properties of the soil were grass have spread the radius of the root bundle up to 1.7 cm
tested and are reported in Table 1. The results show that the (Fig. 4(a)) and that the roots can grow up to 180 cm within
various nutrients remained relatively high and were similar to 6 months (b). The average growth rate of roots is approxi-
those used for planting purposes. In other words, this kind of mately 30 cm/month. As shown on the plot in Fig. 4(b), the
soil can be used for cultivation on agriculture land. The single current study has shown a slightly higher growth rate of

Fig. 2. Vetiver grass specimens prepared for shear tests: (a) 4-month-old single vetiver grass for standard shear tests and (b) 6-month-old group vetiver grass for
large direct shear tests.
 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281 1273

Fig. 3. Tested samples for direct shear tests: (a) 60-mm-diameter direct shear apparatus and (b) 300 mm
300 mm large direct shear apparatus.

Fig. 4. Average values for vetiver root measurements: (a) relationship between length of roots and radius of root bundle and (b) growing rate of roots.

vetiver compared to that in the data by Kaewsaeng (2000). The digital camera and transferred to binary images via the
difference is probably caused by the planting conditions and histogram function of Photoshop software. The black and
the measurement methods. The data by Kaewsaeng (2000) white pixels of the images could be distinguishably counted
were taken from the specimens planted in soil and measure- between the soil and the roots. The ratio between the pixels of
ments of the roots required the removal of the plant. the roots and the total pixels can be loosely defined as the root
Moreover, observations of the group vetiver roots can be area ratio. The results show that the average root area ratio of
defined by a root area ratio. The term root area ratio refers to the group vetiver at 4 months and 6 months are 2.44% and
the fraction of the total cross-sectional area of a soil that is 4.37%, respectively. Fig. 5(b) shows the binary image for the
occupied by roots (Gary and Sotir, 1996). The root area ratio method used to estimate the root area ratio based on the colour
plays an important role in the contribution of the root fibres to in the image. For example, the white and black colours
the shear strength when it is directly defined by the cross- represent the soil and the void space, respectively, while the
sectional area in the shear plane. However, the root area ratio grey colour represents the root area. Hence, the root area ratio
measured in the plane perpendicular to the root-growth can be determined by the total pixels of the roots and the total
direction is really difficult to determine and it varies with pixels. The root area ratio for the 6-month group vetiver root
depth. The parallel plane measurement of the root area ratio, was 4.56% (Fig. 5).
which is easier to observe and represents an average of the root
fibre contribution in the soil, was used in this study. Alsheimer 2.3. Shear strength of vetiver roots
and Hughes (2007) have reported the technique of using image
processing to observe root distribution in a large direct shear In this study, the reinforcements of the vetiver root system
specimen. Photographs of roots and soil were taken with a were studied using direct shear tests in the laboratory.
1274 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281

Fig. 5. Determination of root area ratio: (a) root photograph taken from 6-month group vetiver and (b) binary image with results of root area ratio of 4.56%.

Fig. 6. Shear strength of roots with soil: (a) 4-month-old single vetiver from direct shear tests and (b) 6-month-old group vetiver from large direct shear tests.

Laboratory tests were chosen instead of field tests; hence, the 1.5 mm/min. Normal stress rates of 10, 20, 50 and 100 kPa
vetiver sample could be simply prepared and the density and were applied for each test. All specimens were sheared until
the water content of the soil could be controlled between 20% they reached the peak point, started showing fairly constant
and 25% for the bare soil and vetiver grass specimens. This shear stress or a maximum horizontal displacement of 6 mm.
could minimise the effect of the differences in matric suction The shear strength of the four-month-old vetiver root rein-
during the tests. Two types of specimens were prepared in this forced soil and the bare soil was obtained as presented in Fig. 6
study, i.e., single and group vetiver. Four-month-old single (a). The cohesion intercept and the friction angle were
vetiver specimens (Fig. 2(a)) were prepared for the standard determined according to the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion,
direct shear tests. On the other hand, six-month-old group as presented in Table 2. The presence of the vetiver roots has
vetiver specimens (Fig. 2(b)) were prepared for the large direct improved the strength of the soil. As a result, the vetiver grass
shear tests. To observe the increase in shear strength from the was able to increase the cohesion of shear strength by almost
vetiver-root reinforcement, bare soil with the same density and 7 kPa. Ali and Osman (2008) reported the increase in cohesion
water content for the four-month and six-month specimens of the shear strength of soil by vetiver roots. The results show
were prepared for the direct shear tests as well. that the cohesion of the soil was increased to around 11 kPa
Four-month-old single vetiver grass was individually pre- from the average values for a rooted zone 1 m in depth.
pared in the cylindrical plastic bags and put into PVC tubes to Six-month-old vetiver grass was prepared as a group speci-
ensure that the roots of the vetiver could grow vertically into men in the cubic box, as shown in Fig. 2(b). The large direct
the soil, as shown in Fig. 2(a). A 60-mm-diameter cylindrical shear apparatus was chosen to perform direct shear tests for the
mould was used to perform the direct shear tests for the four- group vetiver specimens, as shown in Fig. 3(b). The tests were
month-old single specimens, as shown in Fig. 3(a). The tests performed following the ASTM D3080 (1998) standard.
were performed by following the ASTM D3080 (1998) Normal stress rates of 30, 50 and 75 kPa were applied by
(similar to JGS 0561) standard with the shear rate of the hydraulic pressure system. The side friction between the
 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281 1275

Table 2
Results of direct shear tests.

Test Specimen Shear strength Increase in

parameters cohesion (kPa)

Standard direct Bare soil c¼6.8 kPa; 6.8

shear test ϕ¼ 22.81
4-Month-old c¼13.6 kPa;
single vetiver ϕ¼ 29.71

Large direct Bare soil c¼2.5 kPa; 6.0

shear test ϕ¼ 21.81
6-Month-old c¼8.5 kPa;
group vetiver ϕ¼ 29.21

sample and the shear box was minimised by applying some oil. Fig. 7. Grain size distribution curve of Edosaki sand.
All the data from the displacement transducer and the load cell
were acquired by an automatic data logging system. All Table 3
samples were sheared to reach the maximum horizontal Properties of compacted soils used in centrifuge models.
displacement at 50 mm. The large direct shear test results are
Soil type Edosaki Edosaki Edosaki
plotted in Fig. 6(b). The friction angles were determined based sand sandþ1% sandþ2%
on the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion as presented in by mass of by mass of
Table 2. fishing line polyester
According to the results, the increase in cohesion of the soil fibre
for the single vetiver specimen was higher than the group Specific gravity, Gs 2.65 – –
specimen (see Table 2). The difference is probably caused by Maximum dry unit weight, γd (kN/m3) 12.9 13.5 12.9
the contribution of the Vetiver root loosely defined by the root Optimum water content, wopt (%) 15.2 15.8 17.3
area ratio. In addition, another difference is also caused by the Total unit weight, γt (kN/m3) 14.9 15.4 15.2
scale effect of the tests. Cerato and Lutenegger (2006) have Cohesion intercept, c (kPa) 4.8 6.2 18.9
Angle of shearing resistance, ϕ (deg) 28.6 36.5 31.5
reported the results of tests using three different specimen sizes
and the scale effect of direct shear tests on sands. Their results
indicate that the friction angle decreases as the specimen size
increases. engineering properties are described in Table 3. Two types of
fibre were used in this study: (1) a fishing line with a diameter
of 0.33 mm and a length of 10 mm and (2) polyester fibre
3. Centrifuge modelling (Teijin RA04FN, size of 17 dtex) with a diameter of 39 μm
and a length of 10 mm. In the model tests, the 1% by mass
Centrifuge modelling is a physical model test that is now (approximately 3% by volume) of the 20-mm-deep fishing
widely used in geotechnical research or design. Since slope line, mixed with sand in model scale equivalent to 1 m in
stability is a gravity-dependent problem, the major advantage prototype scale, was able to represent the 4-month-old vertiver
of using centrifuge modelling is to enable researchers to test grass, as shown in Fig. 4. Similarly, the 2% by mass (around
reduced-scale physical models at the correct stress level by 7% by volume) of the polyester fibre, with a depth of 40 mm
increasing the g-level (Taylor, 1995). The centrifuge facility at and mixed in model scale equivalent to 2 m in prototype scale,
the Tokyo Institute of Technology was used for this study. The was able to represent the 6-month-old vetiver grass. It is noted
soil slope models were prepared in a steel box. In this study, a that the values of 3–7% by volume are slightly higher than the
50g centrifugal acceleration was used to model the slope root area ratio of 4.56% observed from the 6-month-old vetiver
stability problem. Two types of tests were conducted: (1) see- group specimen. However, it is still comparable to the typical
page tests and (2) rainfall tests. A brief summary of the values for the root area ratio of 3–5% for other small
experimental details are given in the following sections. vegetations observed in literatures (Wu, 1995; Gary and
Sotir, 1996). Fig. 8 presents photos of the fishing line and
3.1. Properties of materials used in the model the polyester fibre before and after being mixed with the sandy
soil. The engineering properties of the soil mixed with 1%
According to JGS0051 (a Japan Geotechnical Society fishing line and 2% polyester fibre are also summarised in
standard), Edosaki sand is defined as a fine sand and was Table 3.
employed to prepare the slope models. The grain size The shear strength of the soils was examined by standard
distribution curve of Edosaki sand is shown in Fig. 7 and its direct box shear tests. The soil specimen was prepared in a
1276 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281

Fig. 8. Photos of fibre before and after mixing: (a) 1% by mass of finishing line and (c) 2% by mass of polyester. (a) Before mixing fishing line, (b) after mixing
fishing line, (c) before mixing polyester fibre, and (d) after mixing polyester fibre.

cylindrical shape to have a diameter of 60 mm and a height of

20 mm. The observation after the tests revealed that the fibre
was randomly oriented even after the tests. Therefore, the
effect of fibre orientation on the shear strength is small
compared to the percent of mixing and adhesion mobilised
by the fibre with the soil. In the tests, Edosaki sand with a
water content of 15% was compacted to achieve a degree of
compaction of 80%. In the case with the fishing line, a water
content of 15% was needed to mix with 1% fishing line, and in
the case with the polyester fibre, a water content of 17% was
needed to mix with 2% fibre to reach the final water content of
15%. The direct shear tests were carried out to obtain the angle
of shearing resistance (ϕ) and the cohesion intercept (c) of the
soils. Fig. 9 compares the results of the direct shear tests for
the soils. The results indicate that with 1% fishing line added,
the cohesion of the soil increased just around 2 kPa and the Fig. 9. Direct shear results of Edosaki sand, fishing line, and polyester fibre
friction angle around 81, while with 2% polyester fibre added, mixed with Edosaki sand.
the cohesion of the soil increased around 14 kPa and the
friction angle around 31. Consequently, the fibre has increased cohesion. Thus, both materials can be reasonably selected to
the cohesion of the soil by 1.4 kPa and 14 kPa for fishing line model the vetiver grass in centrifuge model tests.
and polyester fibre, respectively. The difference is likely
caused by the type and the amounts of materials, as sum-
3.2. Slope model and testing procedure
marised in Table 3. Considering the fact that the increase in the
cohesion of the soil reinforced by the real vetiver grass was 6–
In the centrifuge tests, the slope models were conducted
7 kPa, it can be said that the shear strength of the soil with
under two conditions: (1) seepage tests – the tests were
fishing line and polyester fibre exhibits similar shear behaviour
conducted to define the mechanism of slope failure during
to the soil reinforced with vetiver grass (Fig. 6), which could
the groundwater flow from the far area where the rain had
increase the shear strength of the soil mainly from the
fallen, and (2) rainfall tests – the tests were conducted to
 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281 1277

(diameter of wiring ¼ 1.3 mm). The accelerometers used are

SSK Micro Accelerometers Model A5-50 with dimensions of
5
5
15 mm3 (diameter of wiring ¼ 1.6 mm). If the wiring
of these sensors had been in the vertical direction, perhaps the
wiring could have been rainwater infiltration paths and could
have restrained the slope deformation. To avoid such condi-
tions, the wiring was extended in the horizontal direction. The
slope displacement was calculated by integrating the inclina-
tion of the accelerometers along the depth. A digital camera
was installed in front of the transparent window to observe the
displacement and/or the deformation of the slope failure during
the tests.

3.2.1. . Seepage tests

For the seepage tests, a 50-mm-wide water supply tank was
installed inside the steel box on the left side to provide seepage
flow from the upslope during the tests. A filter was installed
between the vertical side wall of the tank and the slope model
to make sure that only water could seep through to the slope
model. In addition, a laser displacement transducer was
installed on the top of the soil slope to measure the slope
displacement, and one small digital camera was installed at the
middle-top of the steel box to observe the slope surface
cracking. Therefore, the deformations of the soil slope were
clearly observed by video recording and the laser displacement
transducer as well as by the accelerometers. The model slope
consisted of two parts, one bedrock, with a length of 236 mm,
a height of 136 mm and an angle of 301, between the slope
surface and the bottom plate, and the other the soil part, as
shown in Fig. 10(a). During the centrifuge operation, the
groundwater level in the model slope was controlled by
changing the water level in the water supply tank. In the
seepage tests, two cases were conducted, i.e., (1) the case of a
Fig. 10. Schematic of centrifuge system: (a) seepage model tests and
soil slope without reinforcement, to be used as reference, and
(b) rainfall model tests. (2) the case of a soil slope reinforced at the surface by a 20-
mm fishing line. The purpose of the latter was to simulate the
examine the effect of run-off on the slope surface. These two mechanism of shallow roots at the top of surface which are
tests were carried out to simulate the mechanism of the slope similar to 4-month-old vetiver grass.
failure. The model slopes were prepared inside a steel box,
450 mm in width, 150 mm in breadth, and 270 mm in depth, 3.2.2. . Rainfall tests
and consisted of two parts, one a bedrock part that was made For the rainfall tests, heavy rainfall conditions were chosen
of aluminium plates and was placed on a 10 mm-thick acrylic to impose over the slope model. An array of pneumatic spray
plate, as shown in Fig. 10, and the other a soil part which was nozzles (H. Ikeuchi & Co., BIMV45075) was selected to
made of Edosaki sand and consisted of four layers that had a simulate the heavy rainfall in the centrifuge. The rainfall
total thickness 80 mm in height in the model scale. Fig. 10 simulator consisted of nine spray nozzles and was placed
shows the schematic system for both seepage and rainfall above the steel box at a distance of 80 mm. On the left side of
model tests. During the tests, pore-water pressure transducers the steel box, a small tank, 80 mm in width, was installed as a
(PWPs) and accelerometers (ACCs) were installed in the soil water storage tank and was used as a rain gauge to estimate the
layers during compaction to measure the pore water pressure precipitation on the slope. In addition, one small digital camera
and the soil slope displacement, respectively. In the seepage was installed at the top-right side of the steel box to observe
cases, 10 PWP transducers and 4 accelerometers were installed the slope failure at the toe. After soil compaction was
in the model tests and, in rainfall cases, 8 PWP transducers and complete, Japanese noodles were installed between the model
6 accelerometers were installed in the model tests. The slope and the front transparent window so that the deformation
locations of the PWP transducers and the accelerometers are of the slope could be clearly observed. Thus, the soil
presented in Fig. 10. The pore water pressure transducers used displacements were measured by both the accelerometers and
are SSK Micro Pore Water Pressure Transducers Model the video recording taken through the front transparent
P303AV-2 with a diameter of 6 mm and a length of 8.5 mm window of the steel box. The bedrock part of this model is
1278 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281

Fig. 11. Variation in phreatic lines: (a) unreinforced slope under seepage; (b) 20-mm root-reinforced slope under seepage; (c) unreinforced slope under rainfall; and
(d) 40-mm root-reinforced slope under rainfall.

165 mm in length, 76 mm in height and the slope angle of 251, slope was not fully saturated. The results of the centrifuge
as shown in Fig. 10(b). The surface of the model bedrock was model showed that small soil erosions were observed at the
roughened by attaching sand paper to it. During the tests, near failure stage only in the un-reinforced case and that no
rainfall intensity of 1000 mm/h (20 mm/h in the prototype) runoff or soil erosion was observed in the reinforced case.
was used by spraying rain drops over the slope surface. Two Hence, the effect of runoff and soil erosion could not account
cases were performed for these rainfall tests, i.e., (1) an for the slope surface in this study.
unreinforced soil slope used for reference and (2) a soil slope Fig. 12 shows digital snapshots of the slopes after the tests
reinforced at the surface by 40-mm polyester fibre. The 40-mm together with the slip surface formation timing in terms of the
fibre-reinforced model is similar to the case of the six-month- pressure head near the toe. In the seepage tests, the slope
old vetiver grass. failure started in the toe area when the pressure head at the toe
has approximately reached 30 mm for both the unreinforced
3.3. Results of centrifuge model tests and the root-reinforced cases (Fig. 12(a) and (b)). By present-
ing the 20-mm root-reinforced case in the soil slope, there is no
Fig. 11 shows the variations in phreatic lines within the soil slip surface in the middle of the slope (Fig. 12(b)). Deforma-
slope. The positions of the phreatic lines are calculated from tion is limited around the toe in the root-reinforced case, while
the pore-water pressure measured by the PWPs at the toe in it is extended to the middle in the unreinforced case (Fig. 12
both seepage and rainfall tests. According to these results, the (a)). This is attributed to the effects of the root fibres on the soil
phreatic lines for the seepage tests (Fig. 11(a) and (b)) were surface. In the rainfall tests, the slope started to collapse from
approximately parallel to the slope between the boundary of the toe and progressively moved upward until the pressure
the soil and the bedrock. In contrast, the phreatic lines in the head near the toe reached around 40 mm (Fig. 12(c)). There is
rainfall tests (Fig. 11(c) and (d)) were raised at the toe. In no slip surface beside the small deformation at the toe slope in
addition, the phreatic lines for the rainfall tests in the root- the 40-mm root-reinforced case in the soil slope (Fig. 12(d)).
reinforced case decreased. This decrease may have been The displacements of the soil slope can be calculated from
caused by the polyester fibres which helped prevent the rising the accelerometers, as presented in Fig. 13. The plots show the
up of the groundwater table. Moreover, the results from PWPs horizontal displacement of each accelerometer, where the
in the rainfall case (Fig. 11(c) and (d)) indicate that the soil values in the legend represent the pressure head near the toe
 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281 1279

Fig. 12. Variation in slip surface lines: (a) unreinforced slope under seepage; (b) 20-mm root-reinforced slope under seepage; (c) unreinforced slope under rainfall;
and (d) 40-mm root-reinforced slope under rainfall.

slope. In the seepage tests (Fig. 13(a) and (b)), the slope in cohesion for the single vetiver specimen is higher than that
present a large displacement around 16 mm once the pressure for the group specimen due to the scale effect of the specimen
head near the toe reaches around 50 mm in the unreinforced size. The results in Fig. 6 show that the friction angle and
case, as depicted in Fig. 13(a). For the root-reinforced case in cohesion decreased due to the increase in specimen size.
Fig. 13(b), the slope displacement decreases to 8 mm with a In addition, the centrifuge results indicate that the presence
high pressure head of 60 mm. On the other hand, the slope of root fibre on the surface of a soil slope was able to enhance
collapsed due to the heavy rainfall condition, as shown in the slope stability in both seepage and rainfall-induced slope
Fig. 13(c). The displacement in the rainfall case reached failure problems. In the seepage tests, the root reinforcement
15 mm when the pressure head near the toe reached 30 mm. was able to improve the soil slope by preventing cracks on the
By applying fibre reinforcement on the top surface, the slope surface. Moreover, the results for the root-reinforced
deformation of soil was reduced less than 3 mm without slope in the rainfall tests show a small deformation of the soil
collapse as depicted in Fig. 13(d). Table 4 summarises the slope at the toe of the slope without collapses.
comparison of slope displacements for each tests. The results from this study indicate that the length and the
radius of the root bundle are important parameters which can
help prevent slope instability by increasing the cohesion of the
4. Result and discussions soil. Therefore, vetiver roots are seen to have a great effect on
the strengthening of the surface soil where the root length and
According to the root observation results, the growth rate of the radius of root bundle are generally high.
vetiver roots is relatively high compared to others (Lyr and
Hoffmann, 1967). The maximal depth of development of
vetiver root systems can go up to 200 cm in the first year 5. Concluding remarks
and the average daily increment in roots is approximately
10 mm. The direct shear test results indicate that vetiver roots According to the concepts of soil bioengineering and the
significantly enhance the shear strength of soil especially the observation results for vetiver grass, vegetation roots can
cohesion of the soil. These results agree well with the increase the shear strength of soil by mechanical reinforce-
observation by Ali and Osman (2008). However, the increase ment. The present research confirms a significant contribution
 1280 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281

Fig. 13. Soil displacement calculated from ACCs: (a) unreinforced slope under seepage; (b) 20-mm root-reinforced slope under seepage; (c) unreinforced slope
under rainfall; and (d) 40-mm root-reinforced slope under rainfall.

Table 4
Summary of centrifuge test.

Tests Model case Real case Displacement (mm) Slope deformation

Seepage
1 Un-reinforced Bare soil 16 Collapsed
2 Fishing line with 20-mm-deep reinforced zone 1-m-deep vetiver grass (4 months old) 8 Collapsed; fewer cracks on surface

Rainfall
1 Unreinforced Bare soil 15 Collapsed
2 Polyester fibres with 40-mm-deep reinforced zone 2-m-deep vetiver grass (6 months old) 3 Small deformation; without collapse

of the vegetation root to slope stability. A series of centrifuge (2) The centrifuge model tests illustrated that slope failure due
model tests on a slope whose surface is reinforced by model to seepage and heavy rainfall is triggered by the rising of
roots was conducted to understand the mechanism of the the water table and starts around the toe of the slope. The
vegetation reinforcement against seepage and rainfall-induced rise in the water table causes the effective stress to decrease
shallow failure. The conclusions of this study are as follows: and results in a decrease in the shear strength of the soil.
(3) It was confirmed from the centrifuge model tests that the
(1) The results from direct shear tests confirmed that the roots presence of root fibres on the slope surface helps prevent
significantly increased the shear strength of the soil. The cracking on the soil slope.
shear strength of the root-reinforced soil depended on the (4) The centrifuge model with rainfall simulator tests demon-
root length and the root area ratio. strated an important role of vegetation roots in slope
 K.H. Eab et al. / Soils and Foundations 55 (2015) 1270–1281 1281

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