Defence mechanisms

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Psychoanalysis

Outside the Sigmund Freud Museum (Vienna).

In Freudian psychoanalytic theory, defence mechanisms (or defense mechanisms) are

psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind[1] to manipulate, deny or
distort reality (through processes including, but not limited to, repression, identification, or
rationalization),[2] to defend against feelings of anxiety and unacceptable impulses to maintain
one's self schema.[3]

Healthy persons normally use different defences throughout life. An ego defence mechanism
becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behaviour such that
the physical and/or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. The purpose of ego
defence mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety and/or social sanctions
and/or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope.[4]

Defence mechanisms are unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by
threats from unacceptable impulses.[5]

Defence mechanisms are sometimes confused with coping strategies.[6]

One resource used to evaluate these mechanisms is the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-
40).[7][8]

Structural model: Id, ego, and superego

The concept of id impulses comes from Sigmund Freud’s structural model. According to this
theory, id impulses are based on the pleasure principle: instant gratification of one's own
desires and needs. Sigmund Freud believed that the id represents biological instinctual
impulses in humans, such as aggression (Thanatos or the Death instinct) and sexuality (Eros
or the Life instinct).

For example, when the id impulses (e.g. desire to have sexual relations with a stranger)
conflict with the superego (e.g. belief in societal conventions of not having sex with unknown
persons), unsatisfied feelings of anxiousness or feelings of anxiety come to the surface. To
reduce these negative feelings, the ego might use defence mechanisms (conscious or
unconscious blockage of the id impulses).

Freud believed that conflicts between these two structures resulted in conflicts associated
with psychosexual stages.

The iceberg metaphor is often used to explain the psyche's parts in relation to one another.

Definitions of individual psyche structures

Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality:

 Id: The id is the unconscious reservoir of the libido, the psychic energy that fuels
instincts and psychic processes. It is a selfish, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the
personality with no ability to delay gratification.

 Superego: The superego contains internalised societal and parental standards of

"good" and "bad", "right" and "wrong" behaviour. They include conscious
appreciations of rules and regulations as well as those incorporated unconsciously.
  Ego: The ego acts as a moderator between the pleasure sought by the id and the
morals of the superego, seeking compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as the
individual's "sense of time and place".

Primary and secondary processes

In the ego, there are two ongoing processes. First there is the unconscious primary process,
where the thoughts are not organised in a coherent way, the feelings can shift, contradictions
are not in conflict or are just not perceived that way, and condensations arise. There is no
logic and no time line. Lust is important for this process. By contrast, there is the conscious
secondary process, where strong boundaries are set and thoughts must be organised in a
coherent way. Most conscious thoughts originate here.

The reality principle

Id impulses are not appropriate in civilised society, so society presses us to modify the
pleasure principle in favour of the reality principle; that is, the requirements of the external
world.

Formation of the superego

The superego forms as the child grows and learns parental and social standards. The superego
consists of two structures: the conscience, which stores information about what is "bad" and
what has been punished, and the ego ideal, which stores information about what is "good"
and what one "should" do or be.

The ego's use of defence mechanisms

When anxiety becomes too overwhelming, it is then the place of the ego to employ defence
mechanisms to protect the individual. Feelings of guilt, embarrassment and shame often
accompany the feeling of anxiety. In the first definitive book on defence mechanisms, The
Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936),[9] Anna Freud introduced the concept of signal
anxiety; she stated that it was "not directly a conflicted instinctual tension but a signal
occurring in the ego of an anticipated instinctual tension".[9]

The signaling function of anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biologically adapted to
warn the organism of danger or a threat to its equilibrium. The anxiety is felt as an increase in
bodily or mental tension and the signal that the organism receives in this way allows it the
possibility of taking defensive action regarding the perceived danger. Defence mechanisms
work by distorting the id impulses into acceptable forms, or by unconscious or conscious
blockage of these impulses.[9]

Vaillant's categorization of defence mechanisms

Vaillant's levels are:

 Level I - pathological defences (i.e. psychotic denial, delusional projection)

 Level II - immature defences (i.e. fantasy, projection, passive aggression, acting out)
  Level III - neurotic defences (i.e. intellectualization, reaction formation, dissociation,
displacement, repression)
 Level IV - mature defences (i.e. humour, sublimation, suppression, altruism,
anticipation)

Level 1: Pathological

The mechanisms on this level, when predominating, almost always are severely pathological.
These six defences, in conjunction, permit one to effectively rearrange external experiences
to eliminate the need to cope with reality. The pathological users of these mechanisms
frequently appear irrational or insane to others. These are the "psychotic" defences, common
in overt psychosis. However, they are found in dreams and throughout childhood as well.

They include:

 Delusional Projection: Delusions about external reality, usually of a persecutory

nature.
 Conversion: the expression of an intrapsychic conflict as a physical symptom; some
examples include blindness, deafness, paralysis, or numbness. This phenomena is
sometimes called hysteria.[18]
 Denial: Refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening; arguing against
an anxiety-provoking stimulus by stating it doesn't exist; resolution of emotional
conflict and reduction of anxiety by refusing to perceive or consciously acknowledge
the more unpleasant aspects of external reality.
 Distortion: A gross reshaping of external reality to meet internal needs.
 Splitting: A primitive defence. Negative and positive impulses are split off and
unintegrated.
 Extreme projection: The blatant denial of a moral or psychological deficiency, which
is perceived as a deficiency in another individual or group.
 Superiority Complex: A psychological defence mechanism in which a person's
feelings of superiority counter or conceal his or her feelings of inferiority.
 Inferiority Complex: A behaviour that is displayed through a lack of self-worth, an
increase of doubt and uncertainty, and feeling of not measuring up to society's
standards.

Level 2: Immature

These mechanisms are often present in adults. These mechanisms lessen distress and anxiety
provoked by threatening people or by uncomfortable reality. Excessive use of such defences
is seen as socially undesirable in that they are immature, difficult to deal with and seriously
out of touch with reality. These are the so-called "immature" defences and overuse almost
always leads to serious problems in a person's ability to cope effectively. These defences are
often seen in major depression and personality disorders.

They include:
  Acting out: Direct expression of an unconscious wish or impulse in action, without
conscious awareness of the emotion that drives that expressive behaviour.
 Fantasy: Tendency to retreat into fantasy in order to resolve inner and outer conflicts.
 Wishful thinking: Making decisions according to what might be pleasing to imagine
instead of by appealing to evidence, rationality, or reality
 Idealization: Unconsciously choosing to perceive another individual as having more
positive qualities than he or she may actually have.[19]
 Passive aggression: Aggression towards others expressed indirectly or passively such
as using procrastination.
 Projection: Projection is a primitive form of paranoia. Projection also reduces anxiety
by allowing the expression of the undesirable impulses or desires without becoming
consciously aware of them; attributing one's own unacknowledged
unacceptable/unwanted thoughts and emotions to another; includes severe prejudice,
severe jealousy, hypervigilance to external danger, and "injustice collecting". It is
shifting one's unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulses within oneself onto
someone else, such that those same thoughts, feelings, beliefs and motivations are
perceived as being possessed by the other.
 Projective identification: The object of projection invokes in that person precisely
the thoughts, feelings or behaviours projected.
 Somatization: The transformation of negative feelings towards others into negative
feelings toward self, pain, illness, and anxiety.

Level 3: Neurotic

These mechanisms are considered neurotic, but fairly common in adults. Such defences have
short-term advantages in coping, but can often cause long-term problems in relationships,
work and in enjoying life when used as one's primary style of coping with the world.

They include:

 Displacement: Defence mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses to a

more acceptable or less threatening target; redirecting emotion to a safer outlet;
separation of emotion from its real object and redirection of the intense emotion
toward someone or something that is less offensive or threatening in order to avoid
dealing directly with what is frightening or threatening. For example, a mother may
yell at her child because she is angry with her husband.
 Dissociation: Temporary drastic modification of one's personal identity or character
to avoid emotional distress; separation or postponement of a feeling that normally
would accompany a situation or thought.
 Hypochondriasis: An excessive preoccupation or worry about having a serious
illness.
 Intellectualization: A form of isolation; concentrating on the intellectual components
of a situation so as to distance oneself from the associated anxiety-provoking
emotions; separation of emotion from ideas; thinking about wishes in formal,
 affectively bland terms and not acting on them; avoiding unacceptable emotions by
focusing on the intellectual aspects (e.g. isolation, rationalization, ritual, undoing,
compensation, magical thinking).
 Isolation: Separation of feelings from ideas and events, for example, describing a
murder with graphic details with no emotional response.
 Rationalization (making excuses): Where a person convinces him or herself that no
wrong was done and that all is or was all right through faulty and false reasoning. An
indicator of this defence mechanism can be seen socially as the formulation of
convenient excuses - making excuses.
 Reaction formation: Converting unconscious wishes or impulses that are perceived
to be dangerous or unacceptable into their opposites; behaviour that is completely the
opposite of what one really wants or feels; taking the opposite belief because the true
belief causes anxiety. This defence can work effectively for coping in the short term,
but will eventually break down.
 Regression: Temporary reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather
than handling unacceptable impulses in a more adult way. (ex. Using whining as a
method of communicating despite already having acquired the ability to speak with
appropriate grammar)[20]
 Repression: The process of attempting to repel desires towards pleasurable instincts,
caused by a threat of suffering if the desire is satisfied; the desire is moved to the
unconscious in the attempt to prevent it from entering consciousness; [21] seemingly
unexplainable naivety, memory lapse or lack of awareness of one's own situation and
condition; the emotion is conscious, but the idea behind it is absent.[citation needed]
 Undoing: A person tries to 'undo' an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening
thought by acting out the reverse of unacceptable. Involves symbolically nullifying an
unacceptable or guilt provoking thought, idea, or feeling by confession or atonement.
 Withdrawal: Withdrawal is a more severe form of defence. It entails removing
oneself from events, stimuli, interactions, etc. under the fear of being reminded of
painful thoughts and feelings.
 Upward and downward social comparisons: A defensive tendency that people use
as a means of self-evaluation. These individuals will look to another individual or
comparison group who are considered to be worse off in order to dissociate
themselves from perceived similarities and to make themselves feel better about their
self or personal situation.

Level 4: Mature

These are commonly found among emotionally healthy adults and are considered mature,
even though many have their origins in an immature stage of development. They have been
adapted through the years in order to optimise success in life and relationships. The use of
these defences enhances pleasure and feelings of control. These defences help us to integrate
conflicting emotions and thoughts, whilst still remaining effective. Those who use these
mechanisms are usually considered virtuous.
They include:

 Humility: A quality by which a person considering his own defects, has a humble
opinion of himself .
 Mindfulness: Adopting a particular orientation toward one’s experiences in the
present moment, an orientation that is characterised by curiosity, openness, and
acceptance
 Acceptance: A person's assent to the reality of a situation, recognizing a process or
condition (often a negative or uncomfortable situation) without attempting to change
it, protest, or exit. Religions and psychological treatments often suggest the path of
acceptance when a situation is both disliked and unchangeable, or when change may
be possible only at great cost or risk.

 Gratitude: A feeling of thankfulness or appreciation, involves appreciation of a wider

range of people and events. People who feel more gratitude are much more likely to
have higher levels of happiness, and lower levels of depression and stress. Throughout
history, gratitude has been given a central position in religious and philosophical
theories.
 Altruism: Constructive service to others that brings pleasure and personal
satisfaction.
 Toleration: The practice of deliberately allowing or permitting a thing of which one
disapproves.
 Mercy: Compassionate behavior on the part of those in power
 Forgiveness: Cessation of resentment, indignation or anger as a result of a perceived
offence, disagreement, or mistake, or ceasing to demand punishment or restitution.
 Anticipation: Realistic planning for future discomfort.
 Humour: Overt expression of ideas and feelings (especially those that are unpleasant
to focus on or too terrible to talk about) that gives pleasure to others. The thoughts
retain a portion of their innate distress, but they are "skirted round" by witticism, for
example Self-deprecation.
 Identification: The unconscious modelling of one's self upon another person's
character and behaviour.
 Introjection: Identifying with some idea or object so deeply that it becomes a part of
that person.
 Sublimation: Transformation of negative emotions or instincts into positive actions,
behaviour, or emotion. (ex. Playing a heavy contact sport such as football or rugby
can transform aggression into a game)[20]
 Thought suppression: The conscious process of pushing thoughts into the
preconscious; the conscious decision to delay paying attention to an emotion or need
in order to cope with the present reality; making it possible to later access
uncomfortable or distressing emotions whilst accepting them.
 Emotional self-regulation: The ability to respond to the ongoing demands of
experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable