We provide information and advice to our customers

to the best of our knowledge and ability, but without

obligation or liability. Existing laws and regulations are
to be observed in all cases by our customers.
This also applies in respect to any rights of third parties.
Our information and advice do not relieve our customers
of their own responsibility for checking the suitability of
Lab Tools
our products for the envisaged purpose. Table for laboratory use

Tables for laboratory use

Lab Tools
W.280111
060605
Merck KGaA
64271 Darmstadt
Germany
Fax 0049 (0) 151 72-6080
For any further information E-Mail [email protected]
please contact your local agent Inernet www.merck-chemicals.com
Merck at a glance
Two major business sectors - Pharmaceuticals and Chemicals

Approximately 33.000 employees in 60 countries

Total revenues in 2008: EUR 7.558 million

Headquarters: Darmstadt / Germany

The world´s oldest pharmaceutical and chemical company,

with roots dating back to 1668

Merck KGaA is listed on the Frankfurter Stock Exchange and

is a DAX® 30 company

Around 30% of the total capital is publicly trated. The Merck

family, indirectly holds around 70%

Merck invests in R&D: Pharmaceuticals business sector: 20%

of sale Chemicals business sector: 6.7% of sales

For more information, please visit our website

www.merck-chemicals.com

2
Chemicals

Performance & Life Science Chemicals

Focus on specialty chemicals solutions for cosmetic, pharmaceutical

and biopharmaceutical applications

Focus on effects pigments for cosmetics, coating, plastics and printing,

food and pharma

Laboratory supply

Liquid Crystals

Focus on innovation in disply technologies to sustain market leadership

Liquid Crystals, OLEDs, materials for solar cells

Pharmaceuticals

Merck Serono

Focus on specialist and innovative prescription drugs

Oncology, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Autoimmune and Inflammatory

Diseases, Fertility, Endocrinology, CardioMetabolic Care

Consumer Health Care

Focus on over-the-counter pharmaceutical products for four health

themes: Mobility, Everyday Health Protection, Woman´s and Children´s
Health, Cough and Cold

3
Content

Safety in the laboratory page

Proper behaviour inside a laboratory 08

Hazard cautionary 10
Hazard symbols 16
Risk phrases 18
Safety phrases 24
Incompatible chemicals 30

Chemical and physical properties of elements

and inorganic compounds

Table of elements 34
Hardness scale according to MOHS 38
Electrochemical series of some nonmetals 39
Covalent single-bond radiuses 39

Solutions - aqueous systems

General mixing formulas for liquids 42

Conversion table for water hardness 43
Mixture rule 44
Preparation of dilute solutions 44
Solubility of inorganic compounds in water in relation to temperature 45
Solubility products of slightly soluble inorganic compounds 54
Sample preparation 57
Acids Sulfuric acid 58
Phosphoric acid 60
Hydrochloric acid 60
Nitric acid 62
Sodium hydroxide solution 63
Potassium hydroxide solution 65
Ammonia 68
Commercially available concentrations
of some acids and alkalis 69

Indicators and buffers

pH indicators 72
Buffer solutions 76
Chromatography page

Analytical HPLC 82
Thin-layer Chromatography 84
Specification of column sorbents 86
LC Troubleshooting 90
Sample preparation 95

Organic solvents

Organic solvents - Properties and drying 98

Ethanol-water mixtures 102
Drying agents 103
Vapour pressure of water 103
LiChrosolv® - Solvents for chromatography 104

Physical Methods for the determination of elements

Flame photometry 108

Wavelength and wave number 108
Photometry: Transmission rate and absorbance 108
Calculation of the standard deviation 108
Direct-current polarography 109
Cathode ray polarography 109

Mass and weight

Energy dimensions - conversion factors 112

Pressure dimensions - conversion factors 112
Decimal multiples and parts of units 113
Concentration values 113
Basic units 113
Derived units 114
US and British measures units 118

Other useful tables

Physical constants 122

Establishment of constant humidity in closed vessels 123
Greek alphabet 124
Greek numerals / Roman numbers 125
Freezing mixtures 126
Extran® 126
Particle sizes 128
NMR: Carbon (13C) chemical shifts 130
NMR: Proton chemical shifts 132
Miscibility table 134
Stoichiometry formulary 136
Safety in the laboratory
Proper behaviour inside a laboratory 08
Hazard cautionary 10
Hazard symbols 16
Risk phrases 18
Safety phrases 24
Incompatible chemicals 30
Proper behaviour inside the laboratory

Chemistry is a fascinating thing for many beginners in related jobs.

Handling chemicals is not only fascinating, but also risky, especially if

processes are not performed adequately due to insufficient knowledge of the
properties of the used substances. Therefore it is absolutely necessary
to inform oneself prior to its first use about any possible hazards of a certain
chemical.

Each manufacturer of laboratory reagents is obliged to label reagents in

accordance with the Global Harmonized System (GHS) and provide the
respective material safety data sheets (MSDS).

Laboratory chemicals are neither intended nor approved for use in humans
or animals! Specifically tested pharmaceutical chemicals are available for such
purpose.

The handling of hazardous chemicals demands special know-how, carefulness

and adequate precautions. All use has to be performed in such a way that
hazardous gases, vapors or suspended particles are - as far as technically possible -
not released into the environment.

If necessary, appropriate measures have to be taken. When reaching the

specific occupational exposure limits, special safety measures become
necessary such as safe and practical personal protective equipment (PPE).
The following rules apply to provide safety during the working process:

1. When working in a laboratory or a warehouse wear safety glasses, special

working clothes or lab coat, suitable lab shoes and, where necessary,
suitable gloves.

2. In any case avoid contact with skin, eyes and mucous membranes.

3. In case of contact with a chemical, rinse off any splashes on the skin
with plenty of cold water; in the case of lipophilic substances rinse off
with polyglycol. Due to the danger of absorption, never use other
organic solvents. In doubt consult a physician as soon as possible.

4. Thoroughly rinse chemically burned eyes under a gentle stream of

water or with a special eye shower. Rinse with your eyes wide open
and roll your eyes in all directions. Subsequently, an eye examination
must be performed. It is absolutely necessary to inform the eye
specialist of the chemical used. It is also recommended to state its
hazardous properties in order to decide on adequate treatment.

5. Take off immediately any clothing contaminated with chemicals.

6. In case of accidents or if you feel unwell, consult a physician and state the
cause of accident including the name of the chemical involved.

7. Do not smoke, eat and drink in laboratory rooms or while working with
chemicals.

8
What is a hazardous material?

In accordance with OSHA a hazardous material is any item or agent (biological,

chemical, physical) which has the potential to cause harm to humans, animals, or
the environment, either by itself or through interaction with other factors including
materials which are carcinogens, toxic agents, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers; agents
which act on the hematopoietic system; agents which damage the lungs, skin, eyes,
or mucous membranes; chemicals which are combustible, explosive, flammable,
oxidizers, pyrophorics, unstable-reactive or water-reactive; and chemicals which in
the course of normal handling, use, or storage may produce or release dusts, gases,
fumes, vapors, mists or smoke which may have any of the previously mentioned
characteristics.

Safety in the laboratory

Acids in Safebreak bottles

Acids in glass bottles have hazard potential:

glass can break! Our solution is the Merck
Safebreak bottle - a PE-coated glass bottle.
In case of a breakage the acid and any
sherds are reliably held together and can be
disposed easily. The bottle protects the lab
staff from getting injured by the acid as well
as the glass splinters. Empty bottles can be
recycled as glass.

9
Hazard cautionary

H200 Unstable explosives.

H201 Explosive; mass explosion hazard.
H202 Explosive, severe projection hazard.
H203 Explosive; fire, blast or projection hazard.
H204 Fire or projection hazard.
H205 May mass explode in fire.
H220 Extremely flammable gas.
H221 Flammable gas.
H222 Extremely flammable aerosol.
H223 Flammable aerosol.
H224 Extremely flammable liquid and vapour.
H225 Highly flammable liquid and vapour.
H226 Flammable liquid and vapour.
H228 Flammable solid.
H240 Heating may cause an explosion.
H241 Heating may cause a fire or explosion.
H242 Heating may cause a fire.
H250 Catches fire spontaneously if exposed to air.
H251 Self-heating: may catch fire.
H252 Self-heating in large quantities; may catch fire.
H260 In contact with water releases flammable gases which may
ignite spontaneously.
H261 In contact with water releases flammable gases.
H270 May cause or intensify fire; oxidiser.
H271 May cause fire or explosion; strong oxidiser.
H272 May intensify fire; oxidiser.
H280 Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
H281 Contains refrigerated gas; may cause cryogenic burns or injury.
H290 May be corrosive to metals.
H300 Fatal if swallowed.
H301 Toxic if swallowed.
H302 Harmful if swallowed.
H304 May be fatal if swallowed and enters airways.
H310 Fatal in contact with skin.
H311 Toxic in contact with skin.
H312 Harmful in contact with skin.
H314 Causes severe skin burns and eye damage.
H315 Causes skin irritation.
H317 May cause an allergic skin reaction.
H318 Causes serious eye damage.
H319 Causes serious eye irritation.
H330 Fatal if inhaled.
H331 Toxic if inhaled.
H332 Harmful if inhaled.
H334 May cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing difficulties
if inhaled.
H335 May cause respiratory irritation.
H336 May cause drowsiness or dizziness.
H340 May cause genetic defects state route of exposure if it is
conclusively proven that no other routes of exposure cause the
hazard.
H341 Suspected of causing genetic defects state route of exposure
if it is conclusively proven that no other routes of exposure cause
the hazard.
H350 May cause cancer state route of exposure if it is conclusively
proven that no other routes of exposure cause the hazard.

10
H351 Suspected of causing cancer state route of exposure if it is
conclusively proven that no other routs of exposure cause
the hazard.
H360 May damage fertility or the unborn child state specific effect
if known state route of exposure if it is conclusively proven that
no other routes of exposure cause the hazard.
H361 Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child state specific
effect if known state route of exposure if it is conclusively proven
that no other routes of exposure cause the hazard.
H362 May cause harm to breast-fed children.
H370 Causes damage to organs or state all organs affected, if known
state route of exposure if it is conclusively proven that no other
routes of exposure cause the hazard.
H371 May cause damage to organs or state all organs affected, if known
state route of exposure if it is conclusively proven that no other
routes of exposure cause the hazard.

Safety in the laboratory

H372 Causes damage to organs or state all organs affected, if known
through prolonged or repeated exposure state route of exposure if
it is conclusively proven that no other routes of exposure cause
the hazard.
H373 May cause damage to organs or state all organs affected, if known
through prolonged or repeated exposure state route of exposure
if it is conclusively proven that no other routes of exposure cause the
hazard.
H400 Very toxic to aquatic life.
H410 Very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects.
H411 Toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects.
H412 Harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects.
H413 May cause long lasting harmful effects to aquatic life.

EU hazard cautionary

EUH001 Explosive when dry.

EUH006 Explosive with or without contact with air.
EUH014 Reacts violently with water.
EUH018 In use may form flammable/explosive vapour-air mixture.
EUH019 May form explosive peroxides.
EUH044 Risk of explosion if heated under confinement.
EUH029 Contact with water liberates toxic gas.
EUH031 Contact with acids liberates toxic gas.
EUH032 Contact with acids liberates very toxic gas.
EUH066 Repeated exposure may cause skin dryness or cracking.
EUH070 Toxic by eye contact.
EUH071 Corrosive to the respiratory tract.
EUH059 Hazardous to the ozone layer.
EUH201 Contains lead. Should not be used on surfaces liable to be chewed
or sucked by children.
EUH201A Warning! Contains lead.
EUH202 Cyanoacrylate. Danger. Bonds skin and eyes in seconds. Keep out
of the reach of children.
EUH203 Contains chromium (VI). May produce an allergic reaction.
EUH204 Contains isocyanates. May produce an allergic reaction.
EUH205 Contains epoxy constituents. May produce an allergic reaction.
EUH206 Warning! Do not use together with other products.
May release dangerous gases (chlorine).

11
EU hazard cautionary

EUH207 Warning! Contains cadmium. Dangerous fumes are formed during

use. See information supplied by the manufacturer. Comply with the
safety instructions.
EUH208 Contains <name of sensitising substance>. May produce an
allergic reaction.
EUH209 Can become highly flammable in use.
EUH209A Can become flammable in use.
EUH210 Safety data sheet available on request.
EUH401 To avoid risks to human health and the environment, comply with
the instructions for use.

Precautionary

P101 If medical advice is needed, have product container or label at hand.

P102 Keep out of reach of children.
P103 Read label before use.
P201 Obtain special instructions before use.
P202 Do not handle until all safety precautions have been read and
understood.
P210 Keep away from heat/sparks/open flames/hot surfaces. — No smoking.
P211 Do not spray on an open flame or other ignition source.
P220 Keep/Store away from clothing/…/combustible materials.
P221 Take any precaution to avoid mixing with combustibles…
P222 Do not allow contact with air.
P223 Keep away from any possible contact with water, because of violent
reaction and possible flash fire.
P230 Keep wetted with…
P231 Handle under inert gas.
P232 Protect from moisture.
P233 Keep container tightly closed.
P234 Keep only in original container.
P235 Keep cool.
P240 Ground/bond container and receiving equipment.
P241 Use explosion-proof electrical/ventilating/lighting/…/equipment.
P242 Use only non-sparking tools.
P243 Take precautionary measures against static discharge.
P244 Keep reduction valves free from grease and oil.
P250 Do not subject to grinding/shock/…/friction.
P251 Pressurized container: Do not pierce or burn, even after use.
P260 Do not breathe dust/fume/gas/mist/vapours/spray.
P261 Avoid breathing dust/fume/gas/mist/vapours/spray.
P262 Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing.
P263 Avoid contact during pregnancy/while nursing.
P264 Wash … thoroughly after handling.
P270 Do no eat, drink or smoke when using this product.
P271 Use only outdoors or in a well-ventilated area.
P272 Contaminated work clothing should not be allowed out of the
workplace.
P273 Avoid release to the environment.
P280 Wear protective gloves/protective clothing/eye protection/face
protection.
P281 Use personal protective equipment as required.
P282 Wear cold insulating gloves/face shield/eye protection.
P283 Wear fire/flame resistant/retardant clothing.
P284 Wear respiratory protection.

12
P285 In case of inadequate ventilation wear respiratory protection.
P231/232 Handle under inert gas. Protect from moisture.
P235/410 Keep cool. Protect from sunlight.
P301 IF SWALLOWED:
P302 IF ON SKIN:
P303 IF ON SKIN (or hair):
P304 IF INHALED:
P305 IF IN EYES:
P306 IF ON CLOTHING:
P307 IF exposed:
P308 IF exposed or concerned:
P309 IF exposed or if you feel unwell:
P310 Immediately call a POISON CENTER or doctor/physician.
P311 Call a POISON CENTER or doctor/physician.
P312 Call a POISON CENTER or doctor/physician if you feel unwell.
P313 Get medical advice/attention.

Safety in the laboratory

P314 Get medical advice/attention if you feel unwell.
P315 Get immediate medical advice/attention.
P320 Specific treatment is urgent (see … on this label).
P321 Specific treatment (see … on this label).
P322 Specific measures (see … on this label).
P330 Rinse mouth.
P331 Do NOT induce vomiting.
P332 If skin irritation occurs:
P333 If skin irritation or rash occurs:
P334 Immerse in cool water/wrap in wet bandages.
P335 Brush off loose particles from skin.
P336 Thaw frosted parts with lukewarm water. Do no rub affected area.
P337 If eye irritation persists:
P338 Remove contact lenses, if present and easy to do. Continue rinsing.
P340 Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a position comfortable
for breathing.
P341 If breathing is difficult, remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest
in a position comfortable for breathing.
P342 If experiencing respiratory symptoms:
P350 Gently wash with plenty of soap and water.
P351 Rinse cautiously with water for several minutes.
P352 Wash with plenty of soap and water.
P353 Rinse skin with water/shower.
P360 Rinse immediately contaminated clothing and skin with plenty of
water before removing clothes.
P361 Remove/Take off immediately all contaminated clothing.
P362 Take off contaminated clothing and wash before reuse.
P363 Wash contaminated clothing before reuse.
P370 In case of fire:
P371 In case of major fire and large quantities:
P372 Explosion risk in case of fire.
P373 DO NOT fight fire when fire reaches explosives.
P374 Fight fire with normal precautions from a reasonable distance.
P375 Fight fire remotely due to the risk of explosion.
P376 Stop leak if safe to do so.
P377 Leaking gas fire: Do not extinguish, unless leak can be stopped safely.
P378 Use … for extinction.
P380 Evacuate area.
P381 Eliminate all ignition sources if safe to do so.

13
Precautionary

P390 Absorb spillage to prevent material damage.

P391 Collect spillage.
P301/310 IF SWALLOWED: Immediately call a POISON CENTER or
doctor/physician.
P301/312 IF SWALLOWED: Call a POISON CENTER or doctor/physician if you
feel unwell.
P301/330/331 IF SWALLOWED: rinse mouth. Do NOT induce vomiting.
P302/334 IF ON SKIN: Immerse in cool water/wrap in wet bandages.
P303/350 IF ON SKIN: Gently wash with plenty of soap and water.
P302/352 IF ON SKIN: Wash with plenty of soap and water.
P303/361/353 IF ON SKIN (or hair): Remove/Take off immediately all contaminated
clothing. Rinse skin with water/shower.
P304/340 IF INHALED: Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a position
comfortable for breathing.
P304/341 IF INHALED: If breathing is difficult, remove victim to fresh air and
keep at rest in a position comfortable for breathing.
P305/351/338 IF IN EYES: Rinse cautiously with water for several minutes. Remove
contact lenses, if present and easy to do. Continue rinsing.
P306/360 IF ON CLOTHING: rinse immediately contaminated clothing and skin
with plenty of water before removing clothes.
P307/311 IF exposed: Call a POISON CENTER or doctor/physician.
P308/313 IF exposed or concerned: Get medical advice/attention.
P309/311 IF exposed or if you feel unwell: Call a POISON CENTER or
doctor/physician.
P332/313 If skin irritation occurs: Get medical advice/attention.
P333/313 If skin irritation or rash occurs: Get medical advice/attention.
P335/334 Brush off loose particles from skin. Immerse in cool water/wrap in a
wet bandages.
P337/313 If eye irritation persists: Get medical advice/attention.
P342/311 If experiencing respiratory symptoms: Call a POISON CENTER or
doctor/physician.
P370/376 In case of fire: Stop leak if safe to do so.
P370/378 In case of fire: Use … for extinction.
P370/380 In case of fire: Evacuate area.
P370/380/375 In case of fire: Evacuate area. Fight fire remotely due to the risk
of explosion.
P371/380/375 In case of major fire and large quantities: Evacuate area. Fight fire
remotely due to the risk of explosion.
P401 Store …
P402 Store in a dry place.
P403 Store in a well-ventilated place.
P404 Store in a closed container.
P405 Store locked up.
P406 Store in corrosive resistant/… container with a resistant inner liner.
P407 Maintain air gap between stacks/pallets.
P410 Protect from sunlight.
P411 Store at temperatures not exceeding … °C/…°F.
P412 Do not expose to temperatures exceeding 50 °C/122°F.
P413 Store bulk masses greater than … kg/… lbs at temperatures not
exceeding … °C/…°F.
P420 Store away from other materials.
P422 Store contents under …
P402/404 Store in a dry place. Store in a closed container.
P403/233 Store in a well-ventilated place. Keep container tightly closed.
P403/235 Store in a well-ventilated place. Keep cool.
P410/403 Protect from sunlight. Store in a well-ventilated place.

14
P410/412 Protect from sunlight. Do no expose to temperatures exceeding
50 °C/122°F.
P411/235 Store at temperatures not exceeding … °C/…°F. Keep cool.
P501 Dispose of contents/container to …

Safety in the laboratory

Chemizorb - absorbents for spilled liquids

Mishaps and accidents happen - every day and nearly in every lab!
With Chemizorb® you can remove spilled liquids quickly and safely.
Chemizorb® is capable of taking up 100 to 400 percent (depending
on the type) of their own weight in liquid material. Merck offers you
specific absorbents for each problem:
- the „allrounders“, Chemizorb® powder and granules,
- the „specialists“, Chemizorb® Alkalis, Acid, Hydrofluoric Acid, and also
- the „all-in-one“ Chemizorb® Mercury set

15
Hazard symbols

E: Explosive
Criteria: Chemicals and preparations which may react
exothermically without atmospheric oxygen and
which under defined test conditions detonate, quickly
deflagrate or upon heating explode when partially
confined.
Precaution: Avoid impact, knocks, friction, sparks, fire,
and heat.

O: Oxidizing.
Criteria: Organic peroxides which are combustible even
if not in contact with combustible materials.
Other chemicals and preparations which as a rule are not
combustible themselves, but which in contact with
combustible materials, mainly through oxygen evolution,
considerably increase the fire hazard and the intensity
of a fire.
Precaution: Avoid all contact with combustible substances.
Risk of ignition: The substance promotes fires once started
and impedes fire fighting.

F: Highly flammable.

Criteria: Liquids with a flash point below 21°C that are
not extremely flammable. Solid substances and preparations
which on brief exposure to a source of ignition may be
easily inflamed and then continue to burn and smoulder.
Precaution: Keep away from naked flames, sparks, and
sources of heat.

F+: Extremely flammable.

Criteria: Liquids with a flash point below 0 °C and
a boiling point of max. 35 °C. Gases and gas mixtures
which are flammable in air at normal pressure and
average temperatures.
Precaution: Keep away from naked flames, sparks, and
sources of heat.

T: Toxic.
Criteria: Inhalation, swallowing, or absorption through
the skin in small amounts can cause considerable damage
to health, and may sometimes be lethal. In the event of
serious evidence of severe, possiblyirreversible damage to
health by single, repeated, or prolonged absorption, especially
carcinogenic, mutagenic, and reproduction-toxic effects.
Precaution: All contact with the human body must be
avoided. If you feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately.
Particular attention is drawn to the carcinogenic,
teratogenic, or mutagenic risks associated with certain
substances. Observe special regulations when handling
these substances!

16
 T+: Very toxic.
Criteria: Inhalation, swallowing, or absorption through the
skin in very small amounts can cause considerable damage
to health, and may sometimes be lethal. In the event of
serious evidence of severe, possibly irreversible damage to
health by single, repeated, or prolonged absorption.
Criteria: All contact with the human body must be avoided.
If you feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately.

C: Corrosive.
Criteria: Total damage to living tissues or when this result
can be predicted.
Precaution: Take special measures to protect eyes, skin, and
clothes. Do not inhale vapors! In case of accident or if you
feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately.

Safety in the laboratory

Xn: Harmful.
Criteria: Inhalation, swallowing, or absorption through the
skin can cause acute or chronic damage to health. In
the event of evidence of severe, possibly irreversible damage
to health by single, repeated, or prolonged absorption,
especially in suspected carcinogenic, mutagenic, and
reproduction-toxic effects. Risk of sensitization by inhalation
(classification with R42).
Precaution: All contact with the human body must be
avoided. Particular attention is drawn to substances which
are suspected to have a carcinogenic, mutagenic, or
reproduction-toxic effect.

Xi: Irritating.
Criteria: Without being corrosive, immediate, prolonged, or
epeated contact with skin or mucous membranes may
cause inflammations. Risk of sensitization by skin contact
(classification with R43).
Precaution: Avoid contact with eyes and skin, do not inhale
vapors.

N: Dangerous for the environment.

Criteria: Liberation into the aquatic and non-aquatic
environments can have an immediate or delayed detrimental
effect upon the ecosystem through alteration of the natural
balance. Some substances or their conversion products may
simultaneously affect various constituents of the ecosystem.
Precaution: Depending on the risk potential do not allow to
enter sewerage systems. Observe special disposal regulations!

17
Risk (R) phrases

R1 Explosive when dry.

R2 Risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other sources of ignition.
R3 Extreme risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other sources
of ignition.
R4 Forms very sensitive explosive metallic compounds.
R5 Heating may cause an explosion.
R6 Explosive with or without air contact.
R7 May cause fire
R8 Contact with combustible material may cause fire.
R9 Explosive when mixed with combustible material.
R10 Flammable.
R11 Highly flammable.
R12 Extremely flammable.
R14 Reacts violently with water.
R15 Contact with water liberates extremely flammable gases.
R16 Explosive when mixed with oxidizing substances.
R17 Spontaneously flammable in air.
R18 In use, may form flammable/explosive vapour-air mixture.
R19 May form explosive peroxides.
R20 Harmful by inhalation.
R21 Harmful in contact with skin.
R22 Harmful if swallowed.
R23 Toxic by inhalation.
R24 Toxic in contact with skin.
R25 Toxic if swallowed.
R26 Very toxic by inhalation.
R27 Very toxic in contact with skin.
R28 Very toxic if swallowed.
R29 Contact with water liberates toxic gas.
R30 Can become highly flammable in use.
R31 Contact with acids liberates toxic gas.
R32 Contact with acids liberates very toxic gas.
R33 Danger of cumulative effects.
R34 Causes burns.
R35 Causes severe burns.
R36 Irritating to eyes.
R37 Irritating to respiratory system.
R38 Irritating to skin.
R39 Danger of very serious irreversible effects.
R40 Possible risk of irreversible effects.
R41 Risk of serious damage to eyes.
R42 May cause sensitization by inhalation.
R43 May cause sensitization by skin contact.
R44 Risk of explosion if heated under confinement.
R45 May cause cancer.
R46 May cause heritable genetic damage.
R48 Danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure.
R49 May cause cancer by inhalation.
R50 Very toxic to aquatic organisms.
R51 Toxic to aquatic organisms.
R52 Harmful to aquatic organisms.
R53 May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.
R54 Toxic to flora.
R55 Toxic to fauna.
R56 Toxic to soil organisms.

18
R57 Toxic to bees.
R58 May cause long-term adverse effects in the environment.
R59 Dangerous for the ozone layer.
R60 May impair fertility.
R61 May cause harm to the unborn child.
R62 Possible risk of impaired fertility.
R63 Possible risk of harm to the unborn child.
R64 May cause harm to breastfed babies.
R65 Harmful: May cause lung damage if swallowed.
R66 Repeated exposure may cause skin dryness and dizziness.
R67 Vapours may cause tiredness and lightheadedness.
R68 Possible risks of irreversible effects.

Combination of risk phrases

Safety in the laboratory

R14/15 Reacts violently with water, liberating extremely flammable gases.
R15/29 Contact with water liberates toxic, highly flammable gas.
R20/21 Harmful by inhalation and in contact with skin.
R20/21/22 Harmful by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R20/22 Harmful by inhalation and if swallowed.
R21/22 Harmful in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R23/24 Toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin.
R23/24/25 Toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin
and if swallowed.
R23/25 Toxic by inhalation and if swallowed.
R24/25 Toxic in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R26/27 Very toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin.
R26/27/28 Very toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R26/28 Very toxic by inhalation and if swallowed.
R27/28 Very toxic in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R36/37 Irritating to eyes and respiratory system.
R36/37/38 Irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin.
R36/38 Irritating to eyes and skin.
R68/20 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation.
R68/20/21 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation
and in contact with skin.
R68/20/21/22 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation,
in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R68/20/22 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation
and if swallowed.
R68/21 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects in contact with skin.
R68/21/22 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects in contact with skin
and if swallowed.
R68/22 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects if swallowed.

19
Risk (R) phrases

R37/38 Irritating to respiratory system and skin.

R39/23 Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation.
R39/23/24 Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation
and in contact with skin.
R39/23/25 Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation
and if swallowed.
R39/23/ Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through inhalation
24/25 in contact with skin and if swallowed.

R39/24 Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact with skin.
R39/24/25 Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact with skin
and if swallowed.
R39/25 Toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects if swallowed.
R39/26 Very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
inhalation.
R39/26/27 Very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
inhalation and in contact with skin.
R39/26/ Very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
27/28 inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.

R39/26/28 Very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects

through inhalation and if swallowed.
R39/27 Very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects
in contact with skin.
R39/27/28 Very toxic: danger of very serious effects in contact with skin and
if swallowed.
R39/28 Very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects if swallowed.
R40/20 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation.
R40/20/21 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation and
in contact with skin.
R40/20/ Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation,
21/22 in contact with skin and if swallowed.

R40/20/22 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation and

if swallowed.
R40/21 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects in contact with skin.
R40/21/22 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects in contact with skin and
if swallowed.
R40/22 Harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects if swallowed.
R42/43 May cause sensitization by inhalation and skin contact.
R48/20 Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
through inhalation.
R48/20/21 Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
through inhalation and in contact with skin.
R48/20/ Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
21/22 through inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R 48/20/22 Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by
prolonged exposure through inhalation and if swallowed.
R 48/21 Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by
prolonged exposure in contact with skin.
R 48/21/22 Harmful: danger of serious damage to
health by prolonged exposure in contact with
skin and if swallowed.
R 48/22 Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by
prolonged exposure if swallowed.

20
R 48/23 Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
through inhalation.
R 48/23/24 Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
through inhalation and in contact with skin.
R 48/23/ Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
24/25 exposure through inhalation, in contact with skin and if
swallowed.
R 48/23/25 Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
through inhalation and if swallowed.
R 48/24 Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
in contact with skin.
R 48/24/25 Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R 48/25 Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure
if swallowed.
R 50/53 Very toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse

Safety in the laboratory

effects in the aquatic environment.
R 51/53 Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects
in the aquatic environment.
R 52/53 Harmful to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse
effects in the aquatic environment.

Risk phrases with supplements

R E20 Also harmful by inhalation.

R E20/21 Also harmful by inhalation and in contact with skin.
R E20/21/22 Also harmful by inhalation, in contact with skin
and if swallowed.
R E20/22 Also harmful by inhalation and if swallowed.
R E21 Also harmful in contact with skin.
R E21/22 Also harmful in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R E22 Also harmful if swallowed.
R E23 Also toxic by inhalation.
R E23/24 Also toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin.
R E23/24/25 Also toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.

21
Risk (R) phrases

R E23/25 Also toxic by inhalation and if swallowed.

R E24 Also toxic in contact with skin.
R E24/25 Also toxic in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R E25 Also toxic if swallowed.
R E26 Also very toxic by inhalation.
R E26/27 Also very toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin.
R E26/27/28 Also very toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R E26/28 Also very toxic by inhalation and if swallowed.
R E27 Also very toxic in contact with skin.
R E27/28 Also very toxic in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R E28 Also very toxic if swallowed.
R E39/23 Also toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
inhalation.
R E39/23/24 Also toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
inhalation and in contact with skin.
R E39/23/ Also toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
24/25 inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.

R E39/23/25 Also toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through

inhalation and if swallowed.
R E39/24 Also toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact
with skin.
R E39/24/25 Also toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact
with skin and if swallowed.
R E39/25 Also toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects if swallowed.
R E39/26 Also very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
inhalation.
R E39/26/27 Also very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
inhalation and in contact with skin.
R E39/26/ Also very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
27/28 inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.

R E39/26/28 Also very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects through
inhalation and if swallowed.
R E39/27 Also very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact
with skin.
R E39/27/28 Also very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects in contact
with skin and if swallowed.
R E39/28 Also very toxic: danger of very serious irreversible effects if
swallowed.
R E40/20/21 Also harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation
and in contact with skin.
R E40/20/ Also harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation,
21/22 in contact with skin and if swallowed.

R E40/20/22 Also harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects through inhalation

and if swallowed.
R E40/21 Also harmful: possible risk of very serious irreversible effects in
contact with skin.
R E40/21/22 Also harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects in contact with skin
and if swallowed.
R E40/22 Also harmful: possible risk of irreversible effects if swallowed.
R E42/43 May cause sensitization by inhalation and skin contact.
R E48/20 Also harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure through inhalation.

22
R E48/20/21 Also harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure through inhalation and in contact with skin.
R E48/20/ Also harmful: danger of serious damage to health by
21/22 prolonged exposure through inhalation, in contact with skin and
if swallowed.
R E48/20/22 Also harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure through inhalation and if swallowed.
R E48/21 Also harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure in contact with skin.
R E48/21/22 Also harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R E48/22 Also harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure if swallowed.
R E48/23 Also toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure through inhalation.
R E48/23/24 Also toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged

Safety in the laboratory

exposure through inhalation and in contact with skin.
R E48/23/ Also toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
24/25 exposure through inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.

R E48/23/25 Also toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged

exposure through inhalation and if swallowed.
R E48/24 Also toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure in contact with skin.
R E48/24/25 Also harmful: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R E48/25 Also toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure if swallowed

Acid in Safebreak bottle

23
Safety (S) phrases

S 1 Keep locked up.

S 2 Keep out of reach of children.
S 3 Keep in a cool place.
S 4 Keep away from living quarters.
S 5 Keep contents under ... (appropriate liquid to be specified by the
manufactures)
S 6 Keep contents under ... (inert gas to be specified by the
manufacturer).
S 6.1 Keep under nitrogen.
S 7 Keep container tightly closed.
S 8 Keep container dry.
S 9 Keep container in a well-ventilated place.
S 12 Do not keep the container sealed.
S 13 Keep away from food, drink and animal feeding stuffs.
S 14 Keep away from ... (incompatible materials to be indicated by the
manufactures)
S 14.1 Keep away from reducing agents, heavy metal compounds, acids
and alkalis.
S 14.10 Keep away from acids, reducing agents and flammable material.
S 14.11 Keep away from flammable material.
S 14.2 Keep away from oxidizing and acidic substances as well as heavy
metal compounds.
S 14.3 Keep away from iron.
S 14.4 Keep away from water and alkalis.
S 14.5 Keep away from acids.
S 14.6 Keep away from alkalis.
S 14.7 Keep away from metals.
S 14.8 Keep away from oxidizing and acidic substances.
S 14.9 Keep away from flammable organic substances.
S 15 Keep away from heat.
S 16 Keep away from sources of ignition - No smoking.
S 17 Keep away from combustible material.
S 18 Handle and open container with care.
S 20 When using do not eat or drink.
S 21 When using do not smoke.
S 22 Do not breathe dust.
S 23 Do not breathe gas/fumes/vapour/spray
S 23.1 Do not breathe gas.
S 23.2 Do not breathe vapour.
S 23.3 Do not breathe spray.
S 23.4 Do not breathe fumes.
S 23.5 Do not breathe fumes/spray.
S 24 Avoid contact with skin.
S 25 Avoid contact with eyes.
S 26 In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of
water and seek medical advice.
S 27 Take off immediately all contaminated clothing.
S 28 After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of... (to be
specified by the manufactures)
S 28.1 After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of water.
S 28.2 After contact with skin, wash immediately with
plenty of soap and water.
S 28.3 After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of soap
and water, if possible also with polyethylene glycol 400.

24
S 28.4 After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of
polyethylene glycol 300 and ethanol (2:1) followed by plenty of
soap and water.
S 28.5 After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of
polyethylene glycol 400.
S 28.6 After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of
polyethylene glycol 400, then rinse with plenty of water.
S 28.7 After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of water
and acidic soap.
S 29 Do not empty into drains.
S 30 Never add water to this product.
S 33 Take precautionary measures against static discharges.
S 35 This material and its container must be disposed of in a safe way.
S 36 Wear suitable protective clothing.
S 37 Wear suitable gloves.
S 38 In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory

Safety in the laboratory

equipment.
S 39 Wear eye/face protection.
S 40 To clean the floor and all objects contaminated by this material
use... (to be specified by the manufacturer).
S 41 In case of fire and/or explosion do not breathe fumes.
S 42 During fumigation/spraying with wear suitable respiratory
equipment.
S 43 In case of fire, use ... (indicate the precise type of fire-fighting
equipment. If water increases risk, add -‘Never use water‘.
S 43.1 In case of fire, use water.
S 43.2 In case of fire, use water or powder extinguisher.
S 43.3 In case of fire, use powder extinguisher. Never use water.
S 43.4 In case of fire, use CO2 - never use water.
S 43.6 In case of fire, use sand - never use water.
S 43.7 In case of fire, use metal fire powder - never use water.
S 43.8 In case of fire, use sand, CO2 or powder extinguisher,
never use water.
S 45 In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek medical advice
immediately (show the label where possible).
S 46 If swallowed, seek medical advice immediately and show this
container or label.
S 47 Keep at temperature no exceeding ...°C (to be specified by the
manufacturer).
S 47.1 Keep at temperature no exceeding 20°C.

25
Safety (S) phrases

S 48 Keep wet with ... (appropriate material to be specified by the

manufacturer).
S 49 Keep only in the original container.
S 50 Do not mix with ... (to be specified by the manufacturer).
S 50.1 Do not mix with acids.
S 50.2 Do not mix with alkalis.
S 50.3 Do not mix with strong acids, strong bases, non-ferrous metals or
their salts.
S 51 Use only in well-ventilated areas.
S 52 Not recommended for interior use on large surface areas.
S 53 Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions before use.
Restricted to professional users.
S 56 Dispose of this material and its container at hazardous or special
waste collection point.
S 57 Use appropriate container to avoid environmental contamination!
S 59 Refer to manufacturer/supplier for information on recovery/recycling.
S 60 This material and its container must be disposed of as hazardous
waste.
S 61 Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions /
Safety data sheet.
S 62 If swallowed, do not induce vomiting. Seek medical advice
immediately and show this container or label.
S 63 In case of accident through inhalation: remove casually to fresh air
and kept at rest.
S 64 In case of swallowed, rinse mouth with water (only if the person is
conscious).

Combination of safety phrases

S 1/2 Keep locked up and out of the reach of children.

S 3/7 Keep container tightly closed in a cool place.
S 3/9 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place.
S 3/9/14 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from ....
(incompatible substances are to be specified by the manufacturer).
S 3/9/14.1 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from reducing agents,
heavy metal compounds, acids and alkalis.
S 3/9/14.2 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from oxidizing agents and
acidic substances as well as heavy metal compounds.
S 3/9/14.3 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from iron.
S 3/9/14.4 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from water and alkalis.
S 3/9/14.5 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from acids.
S 3/9/14.6 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from alkalis.
S 3/9/14.7 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from metals.
S 3/9/14.8 Keep in a cool, well-ventilated place away from oxidizing and acidic
substances.
S 3/9/14/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
away from ... (incompatible materials to be indicated by the
manufacturer).
S 3/9/14.1/49 Keep in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place away
from reducing agents, heavy metal compounds, acids and alkalis.
S 3/9/14.2/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
away from oxidizing and acidic substances as well as heavy metal
compounds.

26
S 3/9/14.3/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
away from iron.
S 3/9/14.4/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
away from water and alkalis.
S 3/9/14.5/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
away from acids.
S 3/9/14.6/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
away from alkalis.
S 3/9/14.7/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
away from metals.
S 3/9/14.8/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place
away from oxidizing and acidic substances.
S 3/9/49 Keep only in the original container in a cool, well-ventilated place.
S 3/14 Keep in a cool place away from ... (incompatible materials to be
indicated by the manufacturer).
S 3/14.1 Keep in a cool place away from reducing agents, heavy metal

Safety in the laboratory

compounds, acids and alkalis.
S 3/14.2 Keep in a cool place away from oxidizing and acidic substances as
well as heavy metal compounds.
S 3/14.3 Keep in a cool place away from iron.
S 3/14.4 Keep in a cool place away from water and alkalis.
S 3/14.5 Keep in a cool place away from acids.
S 3/14.6 Keep in a cool place away from alkalis.
S 3/14.7 Keep in a cool place away from metals.
S 3/14.8 Keep in a cool place away from oxidizing and acidic substances.

27
Safety (S) phrases

S 7/8 Keep container tightly closed and dry.

S 7/9 Keep container tightly closed and in a well-ventilated place.
S 7/47 Keep container tightly closed and at temperature no exceeding ...°C
(to be specified by the manufacturer).
S 20/21 When using do not eat, drink or smoke.
S 24/25 Avoid contact with skin and eyes.
S 27/28 After contact with skin, take off immediately all contaminated
clothing and wash skin with plenty of ... (to be specified by the
manufacturer).
S 29/56 Do not empty into drains; dispose of this material and its container
at hazardous or special waste collection point.
S 36/37 Wear suitable protective clothing and gloves.
S 36/37/39 Wear suitable protective clothing, gloves and eye/face protection.
S 36/39 Wear suitable protective clothing and eye/face protection.
S 37/39 Wear suitable gloves and eye/face protection.
S 47/49 Keep only in the original container at temperature no exceeding ...°C
(to be specified by the manufacturer).

Copyright © 1999 [Merck KGaA]. All rights reserved. Last update: 10.11.2009

28
GHS – the first-ever globally uniform basis

GHS stands for the Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling
of Chemicals. In December 2002, the United Nations published the GHS
in the so-called “Purple Book“ with a description of harmonised classification
and labelling criteria. The goal of GHS is to harmonise the various existing
classification and labelling systems all over the world. Because of the various
evaluation criteria, it has long been the case that one and the same
substance can be classified as poisonous, harmful to health, or even not harmful.
This leads to different levels of protection in terms of occupational health
and safety, consumer protection, and environmental protection. GHS offers the
first-ever globally uniform basis for the evaluation of substance properties.
GHS establishes the requirement for a globally high protection level for human
health and the environment.
The resulting harmonised hazard communication includes criteria for classification
and labelling as well as hazardous substance labelling and requirements for the
creation of Safety Data Sheets.

Safety in the laboratory

for more information visit

www.merck-chemicals.com/ghs

29
Incompatible chemicals

The chemicals listed below may react violently with one another. They must be kept
apart and must never come into contact with one another. The objective of this list
is to give information on how to avoid accidents in the laboratory.
Due to the great number of hazardous materials, this list includes only the most
important examples.

Substance Incompatible with

Acetylene halogen, copper, silver, mercury, air, oxidant, oxygen,

silver compound, mercury compound, copper compound
and heavy metal salts
Acetic acid chromium (VI) oxide, nitric acid, alcohols, ethylene
glycol, perchloric acid, peroxides, permanganates, alkali,
base, cyanide
Activated carbon calcium hypochlorite, oxidizing agents, alcohols, acids,
organic nitro compound and oxidant
Alkali metals water, carbon tetrachloride and other halogenated
alkanes, carbon dioxide, halogens
Aluminum alkyls water, alcohols, oxidant and acids
Ammonia (laboratory mercury (e.g. in pressure gauges), calcium hypochlo
gas or solutions) rite, hydrogen fluoride, halogen, acids, air and oxygen
Ammonium nitrate acids, powdered metals, flammable liquids, chlorates,
sulfur, fine-particulate organic or combustible
materials, alkali metals, base, oils, reducing agent, potas-
sium dichromate
Aniline nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide Oxidationsmittel, Säure

Bromine see chlorine

Chlorine ammonia, acetylene, butadiene, butane, methane,

propane, hydrogen, petroleum benzine, benzene,
powdered metals, phosphor
Chlorates ammonium salts, acids, powdered metals, sulfur,
fine-particulate organic or combustible substances, azide,
picrate and picric acid
Chromium (VI) oxide acetic acid, naphthalene, camphor, glycerol, petroleum
benzine, alcohols, flammable liquids
Copper acetylene, hydrogen peroxide
Cumene hydroperoxide acids, both organic and inorganic
Cyanides acids

Flammable liquids ammonium nitrate, chromium (VI) oxide, hydrogen

peroxide, nitric acid, sodium peroxide, halogens, oxidant
Fluorine extremely aggressive; store separately!

Hydrocarbon fluorine, chlorine, bromine, (butane, propane, chromium

(VI) oxide, sodium peroxide benzene etc.)
Hydrogen fluoride ammonia (laboratory gas or solutions), alkali metals, base
Hydrogen peroxide copper, chromium, iron, metals and metal salts, alcohols,
acetone, organic substances, aniline, nitro-methane,
combustible substances (solid or liquid), manganese
dioxid, permanganate, ether
Hydrogen sulfide fuming nitric acid, oxidizing gases, oxygen

30
Iodine acetylene, ammonia (laboratory gas or solutions), alkali
metals and ammonium compound
Mercury acetylene, ammonia, aluminium

Nitric acid acetic acid, aniline, chromium (VI) oxide,prussic acid,

(concentrated) hydrogen sulfide, flammable liquids and
gases, flammable substances, dichloromethane, organic
solvents

Oxalic acid silver, mercury, oxidant, alkalis

Perchloric acid acetic anhydride, bismuth and its alloys, alcohols,

paper, wood, flammable and organic substances, dichlo-
romethane and organic solvents
Phosphorus sulfur, compounds containing oxygen, e.g. chlorates,
oxidant and chlorate
Potassium see alkali metals
Potassium chlorate see chlorate

Safety in the laboratory

Potassium perchlorate see chlorate
Potassium glycerol, ethylene glycol, benzaldehyde, sulfuric acid
permanganate

Silver acetylene, oxalic acid, tartaric acid, ammonium

compounds, acetylide and azide
Sodium see alkali metals
Sodium peroxide methanol, ethanol, glacial acetic acid, acetic
anhydride, benzaldehyde, carbon disulfide, glycerol,
ethylene glycol, ethyl acetate, methyl acetate,
furfural, flammable substances, metals in powder form
and acids
Sulfuric acid chorate, perchlorate, potassium permangangate, cyanide,
permanganate, alkali metals, alkali compounds and base

31
Chemical and physical properties
of elements and
inorganic compounds
Table of elements 34
Hardness scale according to MOHS 38
Electrochemical series of some nonmetals 39
Covalent single-bond radiuses 39
 Table of elements

Element Sym- Ordinal- Atomic Density Melting-

name bol number mass** 20° point [°C]
4°
Actinium Ac 89 227.028 10.1 1050
Aluminium Al 13 26.98154 2.70 660.37
Americium Am 95 (243) 11.7 994 ± 4
Antimony Sb 51 121.76 6.68 630.74
Argon Ar 18 39.948 *1.784 –189.2
Arsenic As 33 74.9216 5.73 817 (28 bar)
Astatine At 85 (210) – 302
Barium Ba 56 137.33 3.7 725
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) – –
Beryllium Be 4 9.01218 1.86 1278 ± 5
Bismuth Bi 83 208.9804 9.80 271.3
Boron B 5 10.81 2.34 2300
Bromine Br 35 79.904 3.14 –7.2
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41 8.64 320.9
Cesium Cs 55 132.9054 1.90 28.40 ± 0.01
Calcium Ca 20 40.078 1.55 839 ± 2
Californium Cf 98 (251) – –
Carbon C 6 12.011 2.25 ~ 3550
Cerium Ce 58 140.115 6.8 798 ± 3
Chlorine Cl 17 35.4527 *3.214 –100.98
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 7.19 1857 ± 20
*** Earth's crust

Cobalt Co 27 58. 9332 8.83 1495

Copper Cu 29 63.546 8.93 1083.4 ± 0.2
Curium Cm 96 (247) – 1340 ± 40
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 8.54 1409
Einsteinium Es 99 (254) – –
Erbium Er 68 167.26 9.05 1522
Europium Eu 63 151.96 5.26 822 ± 5
** longest-lived isotope in brackets

Fermium Fm 100 (257) – –

Fluorine F 9 18.9984 *1.70 –219.62
Francium Fr 87 (223) – (27)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 7.90 1311 ± 1
Gallium Ga 31 69.723 6.0 29.78
Germanium Ge 32 72.61 5.36 937.4
Gold Au 79 196.966 19.3 1064.4
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 13.3 2227 ± 20
Helium He 2 4.00260 *0.178 –272.2
Holmium Ho 67 164.93 8.80 1470
Hydrogen H 1 1.00794 *0.0899 – 259.14
Indium In 49 114.82 7.31 156.61
* Gases in [g/ l] at °C and normal pressure

Iod I 53 126.9045 4.94 113.5

Iridium Ir 77 192.22 22.6 2410
Iron Fe 26 55.847 7.86 1535
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 *3.708 –156.6
Lanthanum La 57 138.9055 6.1 920 ± 5
Lawrencium Lr 103 (260) – –
Lead Pb 82 207.2 11.4 327.5
Lithium Li 3 6.941 0.53 180.54
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 9.84 1656 ± 5
Magnesium Mg 12 24.305 1.74 648.8 ± 0,5
Manganese Mn 25 54.93805 7.3 1244 ± 3

34
Boiling- Occurrence of Atomic Ionic radiuses Electro-

Chemical and physical properties of elements and inorganic compounds

point [°C] the elements*** radiuses [pm] negativity
[%] [pm]
3200 ± 300 – – 118 (III) 1.00
2467 8.1 143 51 (III) 1.47
2607 – – 107 (III), 92 (IV) ~ 1.2
1750 0.0001 145 76 (III), 62 (V) 1.82
-185.7 – 191 – –
613 (sub.) 0.0005 125 58 (III), 46 (V) 2.20
337 – – 62 (VII) 1.96
1640 0.025 217 134 (II) 0.97
– – – – ~ 1.2
2970 (5 mm) 0.0006 112 35 (II) 1.47
1560 ± 5 0.00002 155 96 (III), 74 (V) 1.67
2550 (sub.) 0.0003 97 23 (III) 2.01
58.78 0.00016 119 196 (–I), 47 (V), 39 (VII) 2.74
765 0.000015 149 97 (II) 1.46
678.4 0.0007 262 167 (I) 0.86
1484 3.6 196 99 (II) 1.04
– – – – ~ 1.2
4827 0.03 77 16 (IV) 2.50
3257 0.0046 182 107 (III), 94 (IV) 1.06
–34.6 0.031 107 181 (–I), 34 (V), 27 (VII) 2.83
2672 0.02 125 63 (III), 52 (VI) 1.56
2870 0.0023 125 72 (II), 63 (III) 1.70
2567 0.007 128 96 (I), 72 (II) 1.75
– – – – ~ 1.2
2335 0.00045 – 92 (III) 1.10
– – – – ~ 1.2
2510 0.00025 – 89 (III) 1.11
1597 0.00011 – 124 (II), 98 (III) 1.01
– – – – ~ 1.2
–188.14 0.03 71 133 (–I), 8 (VII) 4.10
(677) – – 180 (I) 0.86
3233 0.00064 – 97 (III) 1.11
2403 0.0015 – 62 (III) 1.82
2830 0.0007 – 73 (II), 53 (IV) 2.02
2807 0.00000005 144 137 (I), 85 (III) 1.42
4602 0.00045 – 78 (IV) 1.23
–268.934 0.00000003 145 – –
2720 0.00012 – 91 (III) 1.10
–252.87 0.14 46 154 (–I) 2.20
2080 0.00001 – 81 (III) 1.49
184.35 0.00003 136 220 (–), 62 (V), 50 (VII) 2.21
4130 0.00000001 – 68 (IV) 1.55
2750 5.0 124 74 (II), 64 (III) 1.64
–152(3) – – – –
3454 0.0018 – 114 (III) 1.08
– – – – –
1740 0.0016 175 215 (–II), 120 (II), 84 (IV) 1.55
1347 0.0065 152 68 (I) 0.97
3315 0.00008 – 85 (III) 1.14
1090 0.21 160 66 (II) 1.23
1962 0.1 118 80 (II), 66 (III), 60 (IV), 46 (VII) 1.60

35
 Table of elements

Element Sym- Ordinal- Atomic Density Melting-

name bol number mass** 20° point [°C]
4°
Mendelevium Md 101 (258) – –
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 13.55 – 38.87
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 10.2 2617
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 7.0 1010
Neon Ne 10 20.1797 *0.90 – 248.7
Neptunium Np 93 237.0482 19.5 640±1
Nickel Ni 28 58.69 8.90 1453
Niobium Nb 41 92.9064 8.5 2468 ± 10
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 *1.251 – 209.86
Nobelium No 102 (259) – –
Osmium Os 76 190.23 22.5 3045 ± 30
Oxygen O 8 15.9994 *1.429 – 218.4
Palladium Pd 46 106.42 12.0 1552
Phosphorous, white P 15 30.97376 1.83 44.1
Platinum Pt 78 195.08 21.45 1.772
Plutonium Pu 94 (244) 19.7 641
Polonium Po 84 (209) 9.32 254
Potassium K 19 39.0983 0.86 63.65
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.908 6.7 931 ± 4
Promethium Pm 61 (145) – ~ 1080
Protactinium Pa 91 231.036 – < 1600
*** Earth's crust

Radium Ra 88 226.0254 ~6 700

Radon Rn 86 (222) *9.96 – 71
Rhenium Re 75 186.207 20.9 3180
Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 12.4 1966 ± 3
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678 1.53 38.89
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 12.4 2310
Samarium Sm 62 150.36 7.5 1072 ± 5
** longest-lived isotope in brackets

Scandium Sc 21 44.9559 3.0 1539

Selenium Se 34 78.96 4.8 217
Silver Ag 47 107.8682 10.5 961.93
Silicium Si 14 28.0855 2.4 1410
Sodium Na 11 22.98977 0.97 97.81± 0.03
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 2.6 769
Sulphur S 16 32.066 2.0 112.8
Tantalum Ta 73 180.9479 16.7 2996
Technetium Tc 43 (97) 11.5 2172
Tellurium Te 52 127.60 6.2 449.5 ± 0.3
Terbium Tb 65 158.92534 8.3 1360 ± 4
Thallium Tl 81 204.3833 11.85 303.5
* Gases in [g/ l] at °C and normal pressure

Thorium Th 90 232.0381 11.7 1750

Thulium Tm 69 168.9342 9.33 1545 ± 15
Tin Sn 50 118.71 7.3 231.9681
Titanium Ti 22 47.88 4.51 1660 ± 10
Tungston W 74 183.84 19.30 3410 ± 20
Uranium U 92 238.029 19.1 1132.3±0.8
Vanadium V 23 50.9415 6.1 1890 ± 10
Xenon Xe 54 131.29 *5.89 – 111.9
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04 6.5 824 ± 5
Yttrium Y 39 88.90585 4.5 1523 ± 8
Zinc Zn 30 65.39 7.2 419.58
Zirkonium Zr 40 91.224 6.5 1852 ± 2
36
Boiling- Occurrence of Atomic Ionic radiuses Electro-

Chemical and physical properties of elements and inorganic compounds

point [°C] the elements*** radiuses [pm] negativity
[%]
– ~ 1.2
356.58 0.00005 150 110 (II) 1.44
4612 0.0015 – 70 (IV), 62 (VI) 1.30
3127 0.0024 – 104 (III) 1.07
– 246.05 – – – –
3902 – – 110 (III), 95 (IV), 71 (VII) 1.22
2732 0.008 124 69 (II) 1.75
4742 0.0024 – 74 (IV), 69 (VI) 1.23
– 195.8 0.0046 71 16 (III), 13 (V) 3.07
– – – – –
5027±100 0.00000001 – 67 (IV), 69 (VI) 1.52
– 182.962 46.6 65 132 (–II), 10 (VI) 3.50
3140 0.0000001 – 80 (II), 65 (IV) 1.35
280 1.2 – 44 (III), 35 (V) 2.06
3827 0.00000005 138 80 (II), 65 (IV) 1.44
3232 – – 108 (III), 93 (IV) 1.22
962 – – – 1.76
774 2.6 231 133 (I) 0.91
3212 0.00055 – 106 (III), 92 (IV) 1.07
– – – 106 (III) 1.07
– – – 113 (III), 98 (IV), 89 (V) 1.14
1140 – – 143 (II) 0.97
– 61.8 – – – –
– 0.00000001 – 72 (IV), 56 (VII) 1.46
3727±100 0.00000001 – 68 (III) 1.45
688 0.03 243 147 (I) 0.89
3000 0.00000001 – 67 (IV) 1.42
1778 0.00065 – 100 (III) 1.07
2832 0.0005 – 81 (III) 1.20
684.9±1.0 0.000009 – 191 (–II), 83 (III), 50 (IV), 42 (VI) 2.48
2212 0.00001 144 126 (I), 89 (II) 1.42
2355 27.7 117 221 (–IV), 42 (IV) 1.74
882.9 2.8 186 97 (I) 1.01
1384 0.03 – 112 (II) 0.99
444.674 0.05 104 174 (–II), 37 (IV), 30 (VI) 2.44
5425±100 0.00021 – 68 (V) 1.33
4877 – – 56 (VII) 1.36
989.8±3.8 0.00000002 – 211 (–II), 70 (IV), 56 (VI) 2.01
3041 0.00009 – 93 (III), 89 (IV) 1.10
1457±10 0.00006 – 147 (I), 95 (III) 1.44
ca. 4790 0.0012 – 102 (IV) 1.11
1727 0.00002 – 87 (III) 1.11
2270 0.004 140 294 (–IV), 93 (II), 71 (IV) 1.72
3287 0.45 – 80 (II), 76 (III), 68 (IV) 1.32
5660 0.007 136 70 (IV), 62 (VI) 1.40
3818 0.0004 138 97 (IV), 80 (VI) 1.22
3380 0.015 – 88 (II), 74 (III), 63 (IV), 59 (V) 1.45
– 107.1±3 – – – –
1193 0.00027 – 86 (III) 1.06
3337 0.0028 – 92 (III) 1.11
907 0.013 133 74 (II) 1.66
4377 0.022 – 79 (IV) 1.22
37
Hardness scale acc. to MOHS

Hardness Mineral Formula

1 Talcum Mg3 [(OH)2 / Si4O10]
2 Gypsum CaSO4 · 2H2O
3 Calcite CaCO3
4 Fluorspar CaF2
5 Apatite Ca5 [(F, CI, OH) / (PO4)3]
6 Feldspar KAISi3O8
7 Quartz SiO2
8 Topaz AI2 [F2 / SiO4]
9 Corundum AI2O3
10 Diamond C

Infotext zu Element

Infotext zu Element

38
 Chemical and physical properties of elements and inorganic compounds
Electrochemical series of some nonmetals (alkaline solution)

Red ⇄® Ox + e e° (Volt) Red ⇄® Ox + e e° (Volt)

Te2– ⇄ Te + 2e – 1.14 2 I–⇄ I2 + 2e + 0.54
Se2– ⇄ Se + 2e – 0.92 2 Br–⇄ Br2 + 2e + 1.07
S2– ⇄ S + 2e – 0.48 2 CI–⇄ Cl2 + 2e + 1.36
2 F–⇄ F2 + 2e + 2.87

Covalent single-bond radiuses (in PM)

H* 28 O 66

C 77 S 104
Si 117 Se 117
Ge 122 Te 137
Sn 140 F 64
N 70 CI 99
P 110 Br 114
As 121 I 133
Sb 141

* Determined from H-X bond distances

Infotext zu Element

39
Solutions - aqueous systems
General mixing formulas for liquids 42
Conversion table for water hardness 43
Mixture rule 44
Preparation of dilute solutions 45
Solubility of inorganic compounds in water
in relation to temperature 46
Solubility products of slightly soluble inorganic compounds 54
Sample preparation 57
Acids Sulfuric acid 58
Phosphoric acid 60
Hydrochloric acid 60
Nitric acid 62
Sodium hydroxide solution 63
Potassium hydroxide solution 65
Ammonia 68
Commercially available concentrations
of some acids and alkalis 69
General formulas for mixing liquids

C (a – c) B (a – b)
A = c – b B= C=
a – b a–c

With:

A = weight of the original liquid a = its content in % by weight

B = weight of the diluent b = its content in % by weight
C = weight of the prepared mixture c = its content in % by weight
For water as diluent: b = 0

Example

10 l of battery sulfuric acid with a density of

D20°
4° = 1.28. 1.28 is required. Available: concentrated

sulfuric acid with a density of D20°

4° = 1.84 (= 97.5 weight %).

How much sulfuric acid and how much water are needed to
prepare 10 l (= 12.8 kg) of battery sulfuric acid?

Calculation

In the table 'Sulfuric acid‘ on page 52 we find:

D20°
4° = 1.28 equivalent to 37.36 weight%.

C (a – c) 12.80 (97.50 – 37.36)

B = a – b =
97.50 – 0 = 7.895 kg diluent
(water)

Consequently, 4.905 kg (= 2.666 l) of concentrated sulfuric acid with a

density of D20°4° = 1.84 must be added to 7.895 kg (= l) of water to yield

10 l of battery acid with a density of D20° = 1.28.
4°

42
Convention table for water hardness units

Alkaline Alkaline German English French

earth ions earth ions degree ppm degree degree
mmol/l mval/l °d CaCO3 °e °f
1 mmol/l 1.00 2.00 5.60 100.00 7.02 10.00
Alkaline earth ions
1 mval/l 0.50 1.00 2.80 50.00 3.51 5.00
Alkaline earth ions
1 German degree 0.18 0.357 1.00 17.80 1.25 1.78

1 ppm CaCO3 0.01 0.020 0.056 1.00 0.0702 0.10

1 English degree 0.14 0.285 0.798 14.30 1.00 1.43

Solutions - aqueous systems

1 French degree 0.10 0.200 0.560 10.00 0.702 1.00

With Merckoquant® Total Hardness strips you can

easily and quickly check the water hardness in the
following ranges:
< 3 – 21°d
< 5 – 25°d
soft – medium - hard

43
Mixture rules

Example

Sulfuric acid with a density of D20°

4° = 1.520 is to be prepared

from sulfuric acid with a density of D20°
4° = 1.435 and sulfuric

20°
acid of D 4° = 1.824.

1.435 ↖

1.520
↙
1.824

Calculation

The table 'Sulfuric acid' (p. 56) informs that sulfuric acid with a density

of D20° = 1.435 = 54.00 weight% H2SO4 contains sulfuric acid with

4°

a density of D20° = 1.824 = 92.00 weight% H2SO4 and that of
4°
D20° = 1.520 = 62.00 weight% H2SO4.
4°
From this, form the mixing cross:

54 ↖
↗ 30
62
↙ ↘
92 8

i.e. 30 parts by weight of 54.00 % sulfuric acid must be mixed with 8 parts by

weight of 92.00 % sulfuric acid to yield sulfuric acid of 62.00 weight% H2SO4,

equivalent to D 20° = 1.520.

4°

44
Preparation of dilute solutions

Slowly stir the stated quantity of concentrated solution or solid KOH or NaOH,
respectively, into water.

Caution! Strong development of heat may occur! Cool to room temperature,

then make up to 1 liter with water. Store alkaline solutions in polyethylene bottles,
because they attack glass. As a rule of thumb, more concentrated solutions can
be prepared by taking a multiple of the stated quantity.

Solutions - aqueous systems

Example

6 mol/l HNO3 from 6/2 x 140 ml = 420 ml 65 % HNO3.

Solution to be prepared Original quantity to prepare

1 l of dilute solution
Weight% Density mol/l Weight% ml
Acetic acid 12 1.01 2 100 115
Nitric acid 12 1.07 2 65 140
Hydrochloric 7 1.03 2 36 165
acid

Sulfuric acid 9.5 1.06 1 96 56

Ammonia 3.5 0.98 1 30 115
Potassium 10.5 1.09 2 113 g solid KOH (85%)
hydroxide
solution

Sodium 7.5 1.08 2 80 g solid NaOH (100%)

hydroxide
solution

45
Solubility of inorganic compounds in water

Name Cat. No. Formula

A Aluminum ammonium sulfate dodecahydrate 101031 AINH4(SO4)2 · 12H2O

Aluminum chloride hexahydrate 101084 AICI3 · 6H2O

Aluminum nitrate nonahydrate 101063 AI(NO3)3 · 9H2O
Aluminum potassium sulfate dodecahydrate 101047 AIK(SO4)2 · 12H2O

Aluminum sulfate octadecahydrate 101102 AI2(SO4)3 · 18H2O

Ammonium bromide 101125 NH4Br
Ammonium chloride 101145 NH4CI
Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate 101126 NH4H2PO4
Ammonium hydrogen carbonate 101131 NH4HCO3
di-Ammonium hydrogen phosphate 101207 (NH4)2HPO4

Ammonium iron(II) sulfate hexahydrate 103792 (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2 · 6H2O

Ammonium monovanadate 101226 NH4VO3
Ammonium nitrate 101188 NH4NO3
Ammonium sulfate 101217 (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium thiocyanate 101213 NH4SCN
Antimony(III) chloride 107838 SbCI3
B Barium acetate 101704 Ba(CH3COO)2
Barium chloride dihydrate 101719 BaCI2 · 2H2O
Barium hydroxide octahydrate 101737 Ba(OH)2 · 8H2O
Barium nitrate 101729 Ba(NO3)2
di-Boron trioxide 100163 B2O3
Boric acid 100165 H3BO3
C Cadmium sulfate hydrate 102027 3CdSO4 · 8H2O
Calcium acetate 109325 Ca(CH3COO)2
Calcium chloride dihydrate 102382 CaCI2 · 2H2O
Calcium nitrate tetrahydrate 102121 Ca(NO3)2 · 4H2O
Calcium sulfate dihydrate 102161 CaSO4 · 2H2O
Cesium chloride 102038 CsCI
Cesium nitrate 102856 CsNO3
Chromium(VI) oxide 100229 CrO3

Cobalt chloride 802540 CoCI2

Cobalt chloride hexahydrate 102539 CoCl2 · 6H2O
Cobalt nitrate hexahydrate 102536 Co(NO3)2 · 6H2O
Cobalt sulfate heptahydrate 102556 CoSO4 · 7H2O
Copper(I) chloride 102739 CuCl

Copper(II) chloride dihydrate 102733 CuCl2 · 2H2O

Copper(II) nitrate trihydrate 102753 Cu(NO3)2 · 3H2O
Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate 102790 CuSO4 · 5H2O
Copper sulfate 102791 CuSO4
I Iron(III) chloride 803945 FeCl3
Iron(III) chloride hexahydrate 103943 FeCl3 · 6H2O

46
 in relation to temperature

Solubility in g/100 g H2O at °C Content of Density of

the total the total
solution at solution at
0 20 40 60 80 100 20 °C. in % 20 °C. in %
2.6 6.6 12.4 21.1 35.2 109.2 6.2 1.0459
(95 °C) (15.5 °C)
44.9 45.6 46.3 47.7 47.7 – 31.3 –
61.0 75.4 89.0 108.0 – – 43.0 –
2.96 6.01 13.6 33.3 72.0 109.0 5.67 1.053
(90 °C)
31.2 36.4 45.6 58.0 73.0 89.0 26.7 1.308
60.6 75.5 91.1 107.8 126.7 145.6 43.9 –
29.7 37.6 46.0 55.3 65.6 77.3 27.3 1.075
22.7 36.8 56.7 82.9 120.7 174.0 26.9 –
11.9 21.2 36.6 59.2 109.2 355.0 17.5 1.07
57.5 68.6 81.8 97.6 (115.5) – 40.70 1.3436

Solutions - aqueous systems

(14.5 °C)
17.8 26.9 38.5 53.4 72.0 – 21.2 1.18
– 4.8 13.2 – – – – –
118.5 187.7 283.0 415.0 610.0 1000.0 65.0 1.308
70.4 75.4 81.2 87.4 94.1 102.0 43.0 1.247
115.0 163.0 235.0 347.0 – – 62.0 –
601.6 931.5 1368.0 4531.0 – – 90.3 –
58.0 72.0 79.0 74.0 74.0 74.0 – –
30.7 35.7 40.8 46.4 52.5 58.7 26.3 1.28
1.5 3.5 8.2 21.0 – – 3.4 1.04
5.0 9.1 14.4 20.3 27.2 34.2 8.3 1.069
1.1 2.2 4.0 6.2 9.5 15.7 2.15 –
2.7 5.04 8.7 14.8 23.6 39.7 4.8 1.015
75.5 76.7 79.3 82.0 84.6 – 43.4 1.616
37.4 34.7 33.2 32.7 33.5 29.7 – –
– – 128.1 136.8 147.0 159.0 – –
101.0 129.4 196.0 – – – 56.4 –
0.18 0.20 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.16 0.20 1.001
161.0 187.0 208.0 230.0 250.0 271.0 – –
9.3 23.0 47.2 83.8 134.0 197.0 – –
163.0 166.7 171.0 176.0 189.0 199.0 62.50 1.7100
(16.5 °C)
74.5 91.9 – – – – 47.9 1.52
– 62.35 68.6 78.3 – – 38.4 1.49
– – – – 525.1 537.0 – –
41.9 53.6 69.5 – – – 34.9 –
– 1.5 – – – – 1.497 –
(25 °C) (25 °C)
70.65 77.0 83.8 91.2 99.2 107.9 43.5 1. 55
– – 160.0 179.0 208.0 (257.0) – –
14.8 20.8 29.0 39.1 53.6 73.6 17.2 1.1965
25.5 36.2 48.0 60.0 70.0 83.0 – –
25.5 36.3 49.9 – – – 26.6 –
83.5 100.0 126.0 169.5 – – 50.0 –

47
Solubility of inorganic compounds in water

Name Cat. No. Formula

I Iron(II) chloride tetrahydrate 103861 FeCl2 · 4H2O

Iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate 103965 FeSO4 · 7H2O

Iron(II) sulfate monohydrate 103967 FeSO4 · H2O
L Lead chloride 807383 PbCI2
Lead nitrate 107398 Pb(NO3)2
Lithium bromide 105669 LiBr
Lithium carbonate 105680 Li2CO3
Lithium chloride monohydrate 105677 LiCl · H2O
Lithium iodide 818287 Lil
Lithium nitrate 112230 LiNO3
Lithium sulfate monohydrate 105694 LiSO4 · H2O
M Magnesium chloride hexahydrate 105833 MgCl2 · 6H2O
Magnesium nitrate hexahydrate 105853 Mg(NO3)2 · 6H2O

Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate 105886 MgSO4 · 7H2O

Manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate 105927 MnCl2 · 4H2O

Manganese(II) chloride dihydrate 105934 MnCl2· 2H2O

Manganese(II) sulfate monohydrate 105941 MnSO4 · H2O
Mercury(II) bromide 104421 HgBr2

Mercury(II) chloride 104419 HgCl2

N Nickel chloride hexahydrate 106717 NiCl2 · 6H2O
Nickel nitrate hexahydrate 106721 Ni(NO3)2 · 6H2O
Nickel sulfate hexahydrate 106727 Ni2SO4 · 6H2O
P Potassium acetate 104820 KCH3COO
Potassium bromate 104912 KBrO3
Potassium bromide 104905 KBr
Potassium carbonate 104928 K2CO3
Potassium chlorate 104944 KClO3
Potassium chloride 104936 KCl
Potassium chromate 104952 K2CrO4
Potassium cyanide 104967 KCN

Potassium dichromate 104864 K2Cr2O7

Potassium dihydrogen phosphate 104873 KH2PO4
Potassium disulfite 105057 K2S2O5
Potassium hexachloroplatinate(IV) 119238 K2 [Pt(Cl)6]
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) trihydrate 104984 K4 [Fe(CN)6] · 3H2O
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) 104973 K3 [Fe(CN)6]
Potassium hydrogen carbonate 104854 KHCO3
di-Potassium hydrogen phosphate trihydrate 105099 K2HPO4 · 3H2O

di-Potassium hydrogen phosphate 105104 K2HPO4

Potassium hydrogen sulfate 104885 KHSO4
Potassium hydroxide monohydrate 105002 KOH · H2O

48
 in relation to temperature

Solubility in g/100 g H2O at °C Content of Density of

the total the total
solution at solution at
0 20 40 60 80 100 20 °C. in % 20 °C. in %
– – – (90.5) 100.0 107.5 – –
(56 °C)
15.6 26.6 40.3 47.6 – – 21.0 1.225
– – – – 43.8 (31.6) – –
0.67 0.99 1.45 1.98 2.6 3.3 0.98 1.007
36.4 52.2 69.4 88.0 107.5 127.3 34.3 1.40
143.0 177.0 205.0 224.0 245.0 266.0 – –
– 1.3 – – – – 1.31 –
– 82.8 90.4 100.0 113.0 (127.5) 45.3 1.29
151.0 165.0 180.0 – – 480.0 – –
48.0 76.0 – – – 227.0 – –
36.2 34.8 33.5 32.3 31.5 31.0 25.6 1.23

Solutions - aqueous systems

52.8 54.6 57.5 60.7 65.9 72.7 35.3 1.331
63.9 70.1 81.8 93.7 – – 41.2 1.388
(25 °C)
– 35.6 45.4 – – – 26.25 1.31
63.6 73.6 88.7 (106.0) – – 42.4 1.499
(58.1°C)
– – – – 110.5 115.0 – –
– – 60.0 58.6 45.5 35.5 – –
– 0.62 (0.96) 1.7 2.8 4.9 0.62 –
(25 °C) (25 °C)
4.29 6.6 9.6 13.9 24.2 54.1 6.2 1.052
51.7 55.3 – – – – 35.6 1.46
79.2 94.1 118.8 – – – 48.5 –
– – – 57.0 – – – –
217.0 256.0 323.0 350.0 – 380.0 – –
3.1 6.8 13.1 22.0 33.9 49.7 6.4 1.048
54.0 65.8 76.1 85.9 95.3 104.9 39.7 1.370
106.0 110.0 117.0 127.0 140.0 156.0 – –
3.3 7.3 14.5 25.9 39.7 56.2  6.8 1.042
28.2 34.2 40.3 45.6 51.0 56.2 25.5 1.174
59.0 63.7 67.0 70.9 75.1 79.2 38.9 1.378
(63.0) 71.6 – 81.0 (95.0) 122.0 41.73 –
(25 °C) (50 °C) (75 °C) (103.3 °C) (25 °C)
4.7 12.5 26.3 45.6 73.0 103.0 11.1 1.077
14.3 22.7 33.9 48.6 68.0 – 18.5 –
27.5 44.9 63.9 85.0 108.0 133.0 30.99 –
0.74 1.1 1.7 2.6 3.8 5.2 – –
15.0 28.9 42.7 56.0 68.9 (82.7) 22.4 1.16
29.9 46.0 59.5 70.9 81.8 91.6 31.5 1.18
22.6 33.3 45.3 60.0 – – 24.98 1.18
– 159.0 212.5 – – – 61.4 –
(50 °C) (75 °C)
– – – 266.0 – – – –
36.3 51.4 67.3 – – 121.6 33.95 –
– – 136.4 147.0 160.0 178.0 – –

49
Solubility of inorganic compounds in water

Name Cat. No. Formula

P Potassium iodate 105051 KlO3

Potassium iodide 105043 Kl
Potassium nitrate 105063 KNO3
di-Potassium oxalate monohydrate 105073 K2C2O4 · H2O
Potassium perchlorate 105076 KClO4
Potassium permanganate 105082 KMnO4
Potassium peroxodisulfate 105091 K2S2O8
Potassium sulfate 105153 K2SO4
Potassium thiocyanate 105125 KSCN
Rubidium chloride 107615 RbCl
S Sodium acetate trihydrate 106267 NaCH3COO · 3H2O

Sodium bromide 106363 NaBr

Sodium carbonate decahydrate 106391 Na2CO3 · 10H2O
Sodium carbonate monohydrate 106386 Na2CO3 · H2O
Sodium carbonate 106392 Na2CO3
Sodium chlorate 106420 NaClO3
Sodium chloride 106404 NaCl
Sodium dichromate dihydrate 106336 Na2Cr2O´7 · 2H2O
Sodium dihydrogen phosphate dihydrate 106342 NaH2PO4 · 2H2O
Sodium dihydrogen phosphate 106370 NaH2PO4
tetra-Sodium diphosphate decahydrate 106591 Na4P2O7 · 10H2O
Sodium disulfite 106528 Na2S2O5
Sodium fluoride 106449 NaF
Sodium hydrogen carbonate 106329 NaHCO3
di-Sodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate 106579 Na2HPO4 · 12H2O
di-Sodium hydrogen phosphate heptahydrate 106575 Na2HPO4 · 7H2O
di-Sodium hydrogen phosphate dihydrate 106580 Na2HPO4 · 2H2O
di-Sodium hydrogen phosphate 106586 Na2HPO4
Sodium hydroxide monohydrate 106466 NaOH · H2O
Sodium hydroxide 106498 NaOH
Sodium iodate 106525 NalO3
Sodium iodide 106523 Nal
Sodium nitrate 106537 NaNO3
Sodium nitrite 106549 NaNO2
Sodium perchlorate monohydrate 106564 NaClO4 · H2O
tri-Sodium phosphate dodecahydrate 106578 Na3PO4 · 12H2O
Sodium sulfate decahydrate 106648 Na2SO4 · 10H2O
Sodium sulfate 106649 Na2SO4
Sodium sulfite 106657 Na2SO3
di-Sodium tetraborate 106310 Na2B4O7
Sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate 106516 Na2S2O3 · 5H2O
Silver nitrate 101512 AgNO3
Silver sulfate 101509 Ag2SO4

50
 in relation to temperature

Solubility in g/100 g H2O at °C Content of Density of

the total the total
solution at solution at
0 20 40 60 80 100 20 °C in % 20 °C in %
4.7 8.1 12.9 18.5 24.8 32.3 7.5 1.064
127.8 144.5 161.0 176.2 191.5 208.0 59.1 1.71
13.3 31.7 63.9 109.9 169.0 245.2 24.1 1.16
– 35.9 – – – – 26.4 –
0.76 1.7 3.6 7.2 13.4 22.2 1.7 1.008
2.8 6.4 12.6 22.4 – – 6.0 1.04
0.18 0.5 1.1 – – – 0.468 –
7.3 11.1 14.8 18.2 21.3 24.1 10.0 1.0807
177.0 218.0 – – – – 68.55 1.42
70.6 83.6 – – – 128.0 – –
36.3 46.4 65.4 138.0 – – 31.7 1.17
(58°C) 65.9 72.7 35.3 1.331

Solutions - aqueous systems

– – – 118.0 118.3 121.2 – –
6.86 21.7 – – – – 17.8 1.1941
– – 48.9 46.2 44.5 44.5 – –
7.1 21.4 48.5 46.5 45.8 45.5 – –
80.5 98.8 115.2 (138.0) (167.0) 204.0 49.7 –
– 35.9 36.4 37.1 38.1 39.2 26.4 1.201
163.2 180.2 220.5 283.0 385.0 – 64.3 –
57.7 85.2 138.2 – – – 46.0 –
– – – 179.3 207.3 284.4 – –
2.7 5.5 12.5 21.9 30.0 40.3 5.2 1.05
– 65.3 71.1 79.9 88.7 (100.0) 39.5 –
(3.6) 4.1 – – – – 3.94 1.04
6.89 9.6 12.7 16.0 19.7 23.6 8.76 1.08
1.63 7.7 – – – – 7.2 1.08
– – 55.0 – – – – –
– – – 83.0 92.4 – – –
– – – – – 104.1 – –
– 109.2 126.0 178.0 – – 52.2 1.55
– – – – 313.7 341.0 – –
2.5 9.1 – 23.0 27.0 32.8 – –
– – – – 295.0 303.0 – –
70.7 88.3 104.9 124.7 148.0 176.0 46.8 1.38
73.0 84.5 95.7 112.3 135.5 163.0 45.8 1.33
167.0 181.0 243.0 – – – 64.4 1.757
1.5 12.1 31.0 55.0 81.0 108.0 10.8 1.106
4.56 19.2 – – – – 16.1 1.150
– – 48.1 45.3 43.1 42.3 – –
– – 37.0 33.2 29.0 26.6 – –
1.2 2.7 6.0 20.3 31.5 52.5 – –
52.5 70.1 102.6 – – – 41.2 1.39
115.0 219.2 334.8 471.0 652.0 1024.0 68.6 2.18
0.57 0.79 0.98 1.15 1.3 1.5 0.75 –

51
Solubility of inorganic compounds in water

Name Cat. No. Formula

S Strontiumchlorid-Hexahydrat 107865 SrCl2 · 6H2O

Strontiumhydroxid-Octahydrat 107876 Sr(OH)2 · 8H2O
Strontiumnitrat 107872 Sr(NO3)2
T Tin(II) chloride 818150 SnCl2

Z Zinc bromide 818631 ZnBr2

Zinc chloride 108816 ZnCl2
Zinc nitrate tetrahydrate 108833 Zn(NO3)2 · 4H2O
Zinc sulfate heptahydrate 108883 ZnSO4 · 7H2O
Zinc sulfate monohydrate 108882 ZnSO4 · H2O

Our range of Inorganic Salts EMSURE® contains

a wide assortment of inorganic salts for analytical
use in the qualitative and quantitative analysis
of various substances and substance mixtures in
the analytical laboratory.

Inorganic Salts EMSURE® are manufactured

under strictly controlled conditions at Merck KGaA
in Darmstadt, Germany.

The key feature of these salts is their analytical

purity (their assay and trace element content are
precisely known).

52
 in relation to temperature

Solubility in g/100 g H2O at °C Content of Density of

the total the total
solution at solution at
0 20 40 60 80 100 20 °C in % 20 °C in %
44.1 53.9 66.6 85.2 – – 35.0 1.39
0.35 0.7 1.5 3.1 7.0 24.2 0.69 –
– – 91.2 94.2 97.2 101.2 – –
83.9 269.8 – – – – 72.96 2.07
(15°C) (15°C)
390.0 440.0 – 620.0 640.0 670.0 – –
– – 453.0 488.0 541.0 – – –
– – 211.5 – – – – –
41.6 53.8 – – – – 35.0 1.47
– – – 76.5 66.7 60.5 – –

Solutions - aqueous systems

53
Solubility products of slightly
Soluble inorganic compounds

Solubility product
Substance Formula at given
temperature, in [mol/l]
A Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3 4.00 x 10–13 (15°)
1.50 x 10–15 (18°)
3.70 x 10–15 (25°)
Arsenic(III) sulfide As2S3 4.00 x 10–29 (18°)
B Barium carbonate BaCO3 7.00 x 10–9 (16°)
8.10 x 10–9 (25°)
Barium chromate BaCrO4 1.60 x 10–10 (18°)
2.40 x 10–10 (28°)
Barium fluoride BaF2 1.60 x 10–6 (10°)
1.70 x 10–6 (18°)
Barium oxalate BaC2O4 · 2H2O 1.20 x 10–7 (18°)
Barium sulfate BaSO4 8.70 x 10–11 (18°)
1.08 x 10–10 (25°)
1.98 x 10–10 (50°)
Beryllium hydroxide Be(OH)2 2.70 x 10–19 (25°)
Bismuth hydroxide Bi(OH)3 4.30 x 10–31 (18°)
Bismuth oxide chloride BiOCl 1.60 x 10–31 (25°)
Bismuth sulfide Bi2S3 1.60 x 10–72 (18°)
C Cadmium carbonate CdCO3 2.50 x 10–14 (25°)
Cadmium oxalate CdC2O4 · 3H2O 1.53 x 10–8 (18°)
Cadmium sulfide CdS 3.60 x 10–29 (18°)
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 4.80 x 10–9 (25°)
Calcium fluoride CaF2 3.40 x 10–11 (18°)
3.95 x 10–11 (26°)
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 5.47 x 10–6 (18°)
Calcium oxalate CaC2O4 · H2O 1.78 x 10–9 (18°)
2.57 x 10–9 (25°)
Calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 1.00 x 10–25 (25°)
Calcium sulfate CaSO4 6.10 x 10–5 (10°)
2.45 x 10–5 (25°)
Calcium tartrate CaC4H4O6 · 2H2O 7.70 x 10–7 (25°)
Cobalt(II) carbonate CoCO3 1.00 x 10–12 (25°)
Cobalt(II) sulfide CoS 1.90 x 10–27 (20°)
Copper(I) bromide CuBr 4.15 x 10–8 (18–20°)
Copper(II) carbonate CuCO3 1.37 x 10–10 (25°)
Copper(I) chloride CuCI 1.02 x 10–6 (18–20°)
Copper(II) hydroxide Cu(OH)2 5.60 x 10–20 (25°)
Copper(I) iodide Cul 5.06 x 10–12 (18–20°)
Copper(I) sulfide Cu2S 2.00 x 10–47 (18°)
Copper(II) sulfide CuS 8.00 x 10–45 (18°)
Copper(I) thiocyanate CuSCN 1.60 x 10–11 (18°)
I Iron(II) carbonate FeCO3 2.50 x 10–11 (20°)
Iron(II) hydroxide Fe(OH)2 1.64 x 10–14 (18°)
Iron(III) hydroxide Fe(OH)3 1.10 x 10–36 (18°)
L Lanthanum hydroxide La(OH)3 ~ 10–20 (25°)
Lead bromide PbBr2 3.90 x 10–5 (25°)
Lead carbonate PbCO3 3.30 x 10–14 (18°)

54
Solubility products of slightly
Soluble inorganic compounds

Solubility product
Substance Formula at given
temperature, in [mol/l]
L Lead chloride PbCl2 2.12 x 10–5 (25°)
Lead chromate PbCrO4 1.77 x 10–14 (25°)
Lead fluoride PbF2 2.70 x 10–8 (9°)
3.20 x 10–8 (18°)
Lead iodate Pb(IO3)2 5.30 x 10–14 (9.2°)
1.20 x 10–13 (18°)
2.60 x 10–13 (25.8°)
Lead iodide Pbl2 7.50 x 10–9 (15°)
1.40 x 10–9 (25°)
Lead oxalate PbC2O4 2.74 x 10–11 (18°)
Lead sulfate PbSO4 1.06 x 10–8 (18°)

Solutions - aqueous systems

Lead sulfide PbS 3.40 x 10–28 (18°)
Lithium carbonate Li2CO3 1.70 x 10–3 (25°)
M Magnesium ammonium MgNH4PO4 2.50 x 10–13 (25°)
phosphate
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 2.60 x 10–5 (12°)
Magnesium fluoride MgF2 7.10 x 10–9 (18°)
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 1.20 x 10–11 (18°)
Manganese carbonate MnCO3 8.80 x 10–10 (18°)
Manganese sulfide MnS 7.00 x 10–16 (18°)
Mercury(I) bromide Hg2Br2 1.30 x 10–21 (25°)
Mercury(I) chloride Hg2Cl2 2.00 x 10–18 (25°)
Mercury(I) chromate Hg2CrO4 2.00 x 10–9 (25°)
Mercury(I) cyanide Hg2(CN)2 5.00 x 10–40 (25°)
Mercury(I) iodide Hg2I2 1.20 x 10–28 (25°)
Mercury(II) iodide HgI2 3.20 x 10–29 (25°)
Mercury(I) oxide Hg2O 1.60 x 10–23 (25°)
Mercury(II) oxide HgO 1.70 x 10–26 (25°)
M Mercury(I) sulfide Hg2S 1.00 x 10–47 (18°)
Mercury(II) sulfide HgS 3.00 x 10–54 (18°)
N Nickel(II) carbonate NiCO3 1.35 x 10–7 (25°)
Nickel(II) hydroxide Ni(OH)2 1.60 x 10–14 (25°)
Nickel(II) sulfide NiS 1.00 x 10–26 (20°)
P Potassium K2PtCl6 1.10 x 10–5 (18°)
hexachloroplatinate (IV)
Potassium hydrogen KHC4H4O6 3.80 x 10–4 (18°)
tartrate
Potassium perchlorate KCIO4 1.07 x 10–2 (25°)
S Silver arsenate Ag3AsO4 1.00 x 10–19 (25°)
Silver bromide AgBr 4.10 x 10–13 (18°)
7.70 x 10–13 (25°)
Silver chloride AgCl 0.21 x 10–10 (4.7°)
0.37 x 10–10 (9.7°)
1.56 x 10–10 (25°)
13.2 x 10–10 (50°)
215 x 10–10 (100°)

55
Solubility products of slightly
Soluble inorganic compounds

Solubility product
Substance Formula at given
temperature, in [mol/l]
Silver chromate Ag2CrO4 1.20 x 10–12 (14.8°)
9.00 x 10–12 (25°)
Silver iodide Agl 0.32 x 10–16 (13°)
1.50 x 10–16 (25°)
Silver sulfide Ag2S 1.60 x 10–49 (18°)
Silver thiocyanate AgSCN 0.49 x 10–12 (18°)
1.16 x 10–12 (25°)
Strontium carbonate SrCO3 1.60 x 10–9 (25°)
Strontium fluoride SrF2 2.80 x 10–9 (18°)
Strontium oxalate SrC2O4 5.60 x 10–8 (18°)
Strontium sulfate SrSO4 2.80 x 10–7 (2.9°)
3.80 x 10–7 (17.4°)
T Thallium(I) bromide TlBr 3.90 x 10–6 (25°)
Thallium(I) chloride TlCl 1.90 x 10–4 (25°)
Thallium(I) iodide Tll 5.80 x 10–8 (25°)
Thallium(III) hydroxide Tl(OH)3 1.40 x 10–53 (25°)
Thallium(II) sulfide Tl2S 9.00 x 10–23 (25°)
Thallium(I) thiocyanate TlSCN 2.30 x 10–4 (25°)
Z Zinc carbonate ZnCO3 6.00 x 10–11 (25°)
Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2 1.00 x 10–17 (25°)
Zinc sulfide, alpha ZnS 6.90 x 10–26 (20°)
Zinc sulfide, beta ZnS 1.10 x 10–24 (25°)

56
Sample prepartation

The more complicated the matrix, the more important the sample preparation!
The better the sample preparation, the simpler the subsequent chromatographic
separation!

The consequence of these two statements is:

Sample preparation is a must!

Best performance with Merck products:

Digestion systems and ultrapure digestion media for more 'difficult'

dissolutions or processes to be performed in accordance with DIN*
standards

Solutions - aqueous systems

An extensive range of different reagents and solvents for improved
precipitation, distribution and extraction

The Extrelut® product range – a porous kieselguhr – and corresponding prepa-

cked columns provide not only quicker but also better results
than the conventional liquid-liquid extraction of aqueous matrices in
the separation funnel

LiChroLut® extraction columns for rapid, convenient and efficient

extractions, enrichments and selective elutions

L iChroCART® range of precolumns, which are an excellent alternative

for online sample preparation for HPLC

Inorganic membrane filters avoiding clogging of your HPLC columns

by particles

Derivatization substances for gas chromatography, i.e. for samples which are
volatile by definition

Sample preparation with Merck for reliable performance!

*DIN = Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (German Institute of Standardization)

57
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4 , M = 98.08 g/mol
Density H2SO4 content Density H2SO4 content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.000 0.2609 0.0266 1.245 33.22 4.216
1.005 0.9855 0.101 1.250 33.82 4.310
1.010 1.731 0.1783 1.255 34.42 4.404
1.015 2.485 0.2595 1.260 35.01 4.498
1.020 3.242 0.3372 1.265 35.60 4.592
1.025 4.000 0.4180 1.270 36.19 4.686
1.030 4.746 0.4983 1.275 36.78 4.781
1.035 5.493 0.5796 1.280 37.36 4.876
1.040 6.237 0.6613 1.285 37.95 4.972
1.045 6.956 0.7411 1.290 38.53 5.068
1.050 7.704 0.8250 1.295 39.10 5.163
1.055 8.415 0.9054 1.300 39.68 5.259
1.060 9.129 0.9865 1.305 40.25 5.356
1.065 9.843 1.066 1.310 40.82 5.452
1.070 10.56 1.152 1.315 41.39 5.549
1.075 11.26 1.235 1.320 41.95 5.646
1.080 11.96 1.317 1.325 42.51 5.743
1.085 12.66 1.401 1.330 43.07 5.840
1.090 13.36 1.484 1.335 43.62 5.938
1.095 14.04 1.567 1.340 44.17 6.035
1.100 14.73 1.652 1.345 44.72 6.132
1.105 15.41 1.735 1.350 45.26 6.229
1.110 16.08 1.820 1.355 45.80 6.327
1.115 16.76 1.905 1.360 46.33 6.424
1.120 17.43 1.990 1.365 46.86 6.522
1.125 18.09 2.075 1.370 47.39 6.620
1.130 18.76 2.161 1.375 47.92 6.718
1.135 19.42 2.247 1.380 48.45 6.817
1.140 20.08 2.334 1.385 48.97 6.915
1.145 20.73 2.420 1.390 49.48 7.012
1.150 21.38 2.507 1.395 49.99 7.110
1.155 22.03 2.594 1.400 50.50 7.208
1.160 22.67 2.681 1.405 51.01 7.307
1.165 23.31 2.768 1.410 51.52 7.406
1.170 23.95 2.857 1.415 52.02 7.505
1.175 24.58 2.945 1.420 52.51 7.603
1.180 25.21 3.033 1.425 53.01 7.702
1.185 25.84 3.122 1.430 53.50 7.801
1.190 26.47 3.211 1.435 54.00 7.901
1.195 27.10 3.302 1.440 54.49 8.000
1.200 27.72 3.302 1.445 54.97 8.099
1.205 28.33 3.481 1.450 55.45 8.198
1.210 28.95 3.572 1.455 55.93 8.297
1.215 29.57 3.663 1.460 56.41 8.397
1.220 30.18 3.754 1.465 56.89 8.497
1.225 30.79 3.846 1.470 57.36 8.598
1.230 31.40 3.938 1.475 57.84 8.699
1.235 32.01 4.031 1.480 58.31 8.799
1.240 32.61 4.123 1.485 58.78 8.899

58
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4 , M = 98.08 g/mol
Density H2SO4 content Density H2SO4 content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.490 59.24 9.000 1.735 80.70 14.28
1.495 59.70 9.100 1.740 81.16 14.40
1.500 60.17 9.202 1.745 81.62 14.52
1.505 60.62 9.303 1.750 82.09 14.65
1.510 61.08 9.404 1.755 82.57 14.78
1.515 61.54 9.506 1.760 83.06 14.90
1.520 62.00 9.608 1.765 83.57 15.04
1.525 62.45 9.711 1.770 84.08 15.17
1.530 62.91 9.8136 1.775 84.61 15.31
1.535 63.36 9.916 1.780 85.16 15.46
1.540 63.81 10.02 1.785 85.74 15.61
1.545 64.26 10.12 1.790 86.35 15.76
1.550 64.71 10.23 1.795 86.99 15.92

Solutions - aqueous systems

1.555 65.15 10.33 1.800 87.69 16.09
1.560 65.59 10.43 1.805 88.43 16.27
1.565 66.03 10.54 1.810 89.23 16.47
1.570 66.47 10.64 1.815 90.12 16.68
1.575 66.91 10.74 1.820 91.11 16.91
1.580 67.35 10.85 1.821 91.33 16.96
1.585 67.79 10.96 1.822 91.56 17.01
1.590 68.23 11.06 1.823 91.78 17.06
1.595 68.66 11.16 1.824 92.00 17.11
1.600 69.09 11.27 1.825 92.25 17.17
1.605 69.53 11.38 1.826 92.51 17.22
1.610 69.96 11.48 1.827 92.77 17.28
1.615 70.39 11.59 1.828 93.03 17.34
1.620 70.82 11.70 1.829 93.33 17.40
1.625 71.25 11.80 1.830 93.64 17.47
1.630 71.67 11.91 1.831 93.94 17.54
1.635 72.09 12.02 1.832 94.32 17.62
1.640 72.52 12.13 1.833 94.72 17.70
1.645 72.95 12.24
1.650 73.37 12.43
1.655 73.80 12.45
1.660 74.22 12.56
1.665 74.64 12.67
1.670 75.07 12.78
1.675 75.49 12.89
1.680 75.92 13.00
1.685 76.34 13.12
1.690 76.77 13.23
1.695 77.20 13.34
1.700 77.63 13.46
1.705 78.06 13.57
1.710 78.49 13.69
1.715 78.93 13.80
1.720 79.37 13.92
1.725 79.81 14.04
1.730 80.25 14.16

59
Phosphoric acid Hydrochloric acid
H3PO4 , M = 97.99 g/mol HCl , M = 36.47 g/mol
Density H3PO4 content Density HCl content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.0038 1 0.102 1.000 0.3600 0.09872
1.0092 2 0.206 1.005 1.360 0.3748
1.0146 3 0.312 1.010 2.364 0.6547
1.0200 4 0.416 1.015 3.374 0.9391
1.0255 5 0.523 1.020 4.388 1.227
1.0309 6 0.631 1.025 5.408 1.520
1.0365 7 0.740 1.030 6.433 1.817
1.0420 8 0.851 1.035 7.464 2.118
1.0476 9 0.962 1.040 8.490 2.421
1.0532 10 1.074 1.045 9.510 2.725
1.0590 11 1.189 1.050 10.52 3.029
1.0647 12 1.304 1.055 11.52 3.333
1.0705 13 1.420 1.060 12.51 3.638
1.0764 14 1.538 1.065 13.50 3.944
1.0824 15 1.657 1.070 14.495 4.253
1.0884 16 1.777 1.075 15.485 4.565
1.0946 17 1.899 1.080 16.47 4.878
1.1008 18 2.021 1.085 17.45 5.192
1.1071 19 2.147 1.090 18.43 5.5095
1.1134 20 2.272 1.095 19.41 5.829
1.1199 21 2.400 1.100 20.39 6.150
1.1263 22 2.529 1.105 21.36 6.472
1.1329 23 2.659 1.110 22.33 6.796
1.1395 24 2.791 1.115 23.29 7.122
1.1462 25 2.924 1.120 24.25 7.449
1.1529 26 3.059 1.125 25.22 7.782
1.1597 27 3.195 1.130 26.20 8.118
1.1665 28 3.333 1.135 27.18 8.459
1.1735 29 3.473 1.140 28.18 8.809
1.1805 30 3.614 1.145 29.17 9.159
1.216 35 4.333 1.150 30.14 9.505
1.254 40 5.118 1.155 31.14 9.863
1.293 45 5.938 1.160 32.14 10.225
1.335 50 6.811 1.165 33.16 10.595
1.379 55 7.740 1.170 34.18 10.97
1.426 60 8.731 1.175 35.20 11.34
1.476 65 9.784 1.180 36.23 11.73
1.526 70 10.90 1.185 37.27 12.11
1.579 75 12.08 1.190 38.32 12.50
1.633 80 13.33 1.195 39.37 12.90
1.689 85 14.65 1.198 40.00 13.14
1.746 90 16.03
1.770 92 16.61
1.794 94 17.20
1.819 96 17.82
1.844 98 18.44
1.870 100 19.08

60
Acids for analysis EMSURE®

Merck’s acids for analysis EMSURE®

are delivered to you with the
highest possible quality standard
and with the greatest safety.
Our products underlie strict quality
checks in ultra-modern laboratories
using the latest and most sensitive
analytic instruments.
Take advantage of our outstanding,
application-oriented quality and
of reliable and reproducible results
of your analysis.

Solutions - aqueous systems

61
Nitric acid
HNO3 , M = 63.02 g/mol
Density HNO3 content Density HNO3 content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.000 0.3333 0.05231 1.260 42.14 8.426
1.005 1.255 0.2001 1.265 42.92 8.616
1.010 2.164 0.3468 1.270 43.70 8.808
1.015 3.073 0.4950 1.275 44.48 9.001
1.020 3.982 0.6445 1.280 45.27 9.195
1.025 4.883 0.7943 1.285 46.06 9.394
1.030 5.784 0.9454 1.290 46.85 9.590
1.035 6.661 1.094 1.295 47.63 9.789
1.040 7.530 1.243 1.300 48.42 9.990
1.045 8.398 1.393 1.305 49.21 10.19
1.050 9.259 1.543 1.310 50.00 10.39
1.055 10.12 1.694 1.315 50.85 10.61
1.060 10.97 1.845 1.320 51.71 10.83
1.065 11.81 1.997 1.325 52.56 11.05
1.070 12.65 2.148 1.330 53.41 11.27
1.075 13.48 2.301 1.335 54.27 11.49
1.080 14.31 2.453 1.340 55.13 11.72
1.085 15.13 2.605 1.345 56.04 11.96
1.090 15.95 2.759 1.350 56.95 12.20
1.095 16.76 2.913 1.355 57.87 12.44
1.100 17.58 3.068 1.360 58.78 12.68
1.105 18.39 3.224 1.365 59.69 12.93
1.110 19.19 3.381 1.370 60.67 13.19
1.115 20.00 3.539 1.375 61.69 13.46
1.120 20.79 3.696 1.380 62.70 13.73
1.125 21.59 3.854 1.385 63.72 14.01
1.130 22.38 4.012 1.390 64.74 14.29
1.135 23.16 4.171 1.395 65.84 14.57
1.140 23.94 4.330 1.400 66.97 14.88
1.145 24.71 4.489 1.405 68.10 15.18
1.150 25.48 4.649 1.410 69.23 15.49
1.155 26.24 4.810 1.415 70.39 15.81
1.160 27.00 4.970 1.420 71.63 16.14
1.165 27.76 5.132 1.425 72.86 16.47
1.170 28.51 5.293 1.430 74.09 16.81
1.175 29.25 5.455 1.435 75.35 17.16
1.180 30.00 5.618 1.440 76.71 17.53
1.185 30.74 5.780 1.445 78.07 17.90
1.190 31.47 5.943 1.450 79.43 18.28
1.195 32.21 6.107 1.455 80.88 18.68
1.200 32.94 6.273 1.460 82.39 19.09
1.205 33.68 6.440 1.465 83.91 19.51
1.210 34.41 6.607 1.470 85.50 19.95
1.215 35.16 6.778 1.475 87.29 20.43
1.220 35.93 6.956 1.480 89.07 20.92
1.225 36.70 7.135 1.485 91.13 21.48
1.230 37.48 7.315 1.490 93.49 22.11
1.235 38.25 7.497 1.495 95.46 22.65
1.240 39.02 7.679 1.500 96.73 23.02
1.245 39.80 7.863 1.501 96.98 23.10
1.250 40.58 8.049 1.502 97.23 23.18
1.255 41.36 8.237 1.503 97.49 23.25

62
Nitric acid Sodium hydroxide solution
HNO3 , M = 63.02 g/mol NaOH , M = 40.01 g/mol
Density HNO3 content Density H2SO4 content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.504 97.74 23.33 1.000 0.159 0.0398
1.505 97.99 23.40 1.005 0.602 0.151
1.506 98.25 23.48 1.010 1.0455 0.264
1.507 98.50 23.56 1.015 1.49 0.378
1.508 98.76 23.63 1.020 1.94 0.494
1.509 99.01 23.71 1.025 2.39 0.611
1.510 99.26 23.79 1.030 2.84 0.731
1.511 99.52 23.86 1.035 3.29 0.851
1.512 99.77 23.94 1.040 3.745 0.971
1.513 100.0 24.01 1.045 4.20 1.097
1.050 4.655 1.222
1.055 5.11 1.347
1.060 5.56 1.474

Solutions - aqueous systems

1.065 6.02 1.602
1.070 6.47 1.731
1.075 6.93 1.862
1.080 7.38 1.992
1.085 7.83 2.123
1.090 8.28 2.257
1.095 8.74 2.391
1.100 9.19 2.527
1.105 9.64 2.664
1.110 10.10 2.802
1.115 10.55 2.942
1.120 11.01 3.082
1.125 11.46 3.224
1.130 11.92 3.367
1.135 12.37 3.510
1.140 12.83 3.655
1.145 13.28 3.801
1.150 13.73 3.947
1.155 14.18 4.095
1.160 14.64 4.244
1.165 15.09 4.395
1.170 15.54 4.545
1.175 15.99 4.697
1.180 16.44 4.850
1.185 16.89 5.004
1.190 17.34 5.160
1.195 17.80 5.317
1.200 18.25 5.476
1.205 18.71 5.636

Acids in Safebreak bottles

Acids in glass bottles have hazard potential:

glass can break!

63
Sodium hydroxide solution
NaOH , M = 40.01 g/mol
Density NaOH content Density NaOH content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.210 19.16 5.796 1.370 34.03 11.65
1.215 19.62 5.958 1.375 34.52 11.86
1.220 20.07 6.122 1.380 35.01 12.08
1.225 20.53 6.286 1.385 35.505 12.29
1.230 20.98 6.451 1.390 36.00 12.51
1.235 21.44 6.619 1.395 36.495 12.73
1.240 21.90 6.788 1.400 36.99 12.95
1.245 22.36 6.958 1.405 37.49 13.17
1.250 22.82 7.129 1.410 37.99 13.39
1.255 23.275 7.302 1.415 38.49 13.61
1.260 23.73 7.475 1.420 38.99 13.84
1.265 24.19 7.650 1.425 39.495 14.07
1.270 24.645 7.824 1.430 40.00 14.30
1.275 25.10 8.000 1.435 40.515 14.53
1.280 25.56 8.178 1.440 41.03 14.77
1.285 26.02 8.357 1.445 41.55 15.01
1.290 26.48 8.539 1.450 42.07 15.25
1.295 26.94 8.722 1.455 42.59 15.49
1.300 27.41 8.906 1.460 43.12 15.74
1.305 27.87 9.092 1.465 43.64 15.98
1.310 28.33 9.278 1.470 44.17 16.23
1.315 28.80 9.466 1.475 44.695 16.48
1.320 29.26 9.656 1.480 45.22 16.73
1.325 29.73 9.875 1.485 45.75 16.98
1.330 30.20 10.04 1.490 46.27 17.23
1.335 30.67 10.23 1.495 46.80 17.49
1.340 31.14 10.43 1.500 47.33 17.75
1.345 31.62 10.63 1.505 47.85 18.00
1.350 32.10 10.83 1.510 48.38 18.26
1.355 32.58 11.03 1.515 48.905 18.52
1.360 33.06 11.24 1.520 49.44 18.78
1.365 33.54 11.45 1.525 49.97 19.05
1.530 50.50 19.31

64
Potassium hydroxide solution
KOH , M = 56.11 g/mol
Density KOH content Density KOH content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.000 0.197 0.0351 1.160 17.29 3.58
1.005 0.743 0.133 1.165 17.81 3.70
1.010 1.295 0.233 1.170 18.32 3.82
1.015 1.84 0.333 1.175 18.84 3.945
1.020 2.38 0.4355 1.180 19.35 4.07
1.025 2.93 0.536 1.185 19.86 4.195
1.030 3.48 0.6395 1.190 20.37 4.32
1.035 4.03 0.774 1.195 20.88 4.45
1.040 4.58 0.848 1.200 21.38 4.57
1.045 5.12 0.954 1.205 21.88 4.70
1.050 5.66 1.06 1.210 22.38 4.83
1.055 6.20 1.17 1.215 22.88 4.955
1.060 6.74 1.27 1.220 23.38 5.08

Solutions - aqueous systems

1.065 7.28 1.38 1.225 23.87 5.21
1.070 7.82 1.49 1.230 24.37 5.34
1.075 8.36 1.60 1.235 24.86 5.47
1.080 8.89 1.71 1.240 25.36 5.60
1.085 9.43 1.82 1.245 25.85 5.74
1.090 9.96 1.94 1.250 26.34 5.87
1.095 10.49 2.05 1.255 26.83 6.00
1.100 11.03 2.16 1.260 27.32 6.135
1.105 11.56 2.28 1.265 27.80 6.27
1.110 12.08 2.39 1.270 28.29 6.40
1.115 12.61 2.51 1.275 28.77 6.54
1.120 13.14 2.62 1.280 29.25 6.67
1.125 13.66 2.74 1.285 29.73 6.81
1.130 14.19 2.86 1.290 30.21 6.95
1.135 14.705 2.975 1.295 30.68 7.08
1.140 15.22 3.09 1.300 31.15 7.22
1.145 15.74 3.21 1.305 31.62 7.36
1.150 16.26 3.33 1.310 32.09 7.49
1.155 16.78 3.45 1.315 32.56 7.63

65
Potassium hydroxide solution
KOH , M = 56.11 g/mol
Density KOH content Density KOH content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.000 0.197 0.0351 1.135 14.705 2.975
1.005 0.743 0.133 1.140 15.22 3.09
1.010 1.295 0.233 1.145 15.74 3.21
1.015 1.84 0.333 1.150 16.26 3.33
1.020 2.38 0.4355 1.155 16.78 3.45
1.025 2.93 0.536 1.160 17.29 3.58
1.030 3.48 0.6395 1.165 17.81 3.70
1.035 4.03 0.774 1.170 18.32 3.82
1.040 4.58 0.848 1.175 18.84 3.945
1.045 5.12 0.954 1.180 19.35 4.07
1.050 5.66 1.06 1.185 19.86 4.195
1.055 6.20 1.17 1.190 20.37 4.32
1.060 6.74 1.27 1.195 20.88 4.45
1.065 7.28 1.38 1.200 21.38 4.57
1.070 7.82 1.49 1.205 21.88 4.70
1.075 8.36 1.60 1.210 22.38 4.83
1.080 8.89 1.71 1.215 22.88 4.955
1.085 9.43 1.82 1.220 23.38 5.08
1.090 9.96 1.94 1.225 23.87 5.21
1.095 10.49 2.05 1.230 24.37 5.34
1.100 11.03 2.16 1.235 24.86 5.47
1.105 11.56 2.28 1.240 25.36 5.60
1.110 12.08 2.39 1.245 25.85 5.74
1.115 12.61 2.51 1.250 26.34 5.87
1.120 13.14 2.62 1.255 26.83 6.00
1.125 13.66 2.74 1.260 27.32 6.135
1.130 14.19 2.86 1.265 27.80 6.27

66
Potassium hydroxide solution
KOH , M = 56.11 g/mol
Density KOH content Density KOH content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
1.270 28.29 6.40 1.405 40.82 10.22
1.275 28.77 6.54 1.410 41.26 10.37
1.280 29.25 6.67 1.415 41.71 10.52
1.285 29.73 6.81 1.420 42.155 10.67
1.290 30.21 6.95 1.425 42.60 10.82
1.295 30.68 7.08 1.430 43.04 10.97
1.300 31.15 7.22 1.435 43.48 11.12
1.305 31.62 7.36 1.440 43.92 11.28
1.310 32.09 7.49 1.445 44.36 11.42
1.315 32.56 7.63 1.450 44.79 11.58
1.320 33.03 7.77 1.455 45.23 11.73
1.325 33.50 7.91 1.460 45.66 11.88
1.330 33.97 8.05 1.465 46.095 12.04

Solutions - aqueous systems

1.335 34.43 8.19 1.470 46.53 12.19
1.340 34.90 8.335 1.475 46.96 12.35
1.345 35.36 8.48 1.480 47.39 12.50
1.350 35.82 8.62 1.485 47.82 12.66
1.355 36.28 8.76 1.490 48.25 12.82
1.360 36.735 8.905 1.495 48.675 12.97
1.365 37.19 9.05 1.500 49.10 13.13
1.370 37.65 9.19 1.505 49.53 13.29
1.375 38.105 9.34 1.510 49.95 13.45
1.380 38.56 9.48 1.515 50.38 13.60
1.385 39.01 9.63 1.520 50.80 13.76
1.390 39.46 9.78 1.525 51.22 13.92
1.395 39.92 9.93 1.530 51.64 14.08
1.400 40.37 10.07

67
Ammonia
NH3 , M = 17.03 g/mol
Density NH3 content Density NH3 content
d 20° d 20°
4° weight% mol/l 4° weight% mol/l
0.998 0.0465 0.0273 0.932 17.24 9.44
0.996 0.512 0.299 0.930 17.85 9.75
0.994 0.977 0.570 0.928 18.45 10.06
0.992 1.43 0.834 0.926 19.06 10.37
0.990 1.89 1.10 0.924 19.67 10.67
0.988 2.35 1.365 0.922 20.27 10.97
0.986 2.82 1.635 0.920 20.88 11.28
0.984 3.30 1.91 0.918 21.50 11.59
0.982 3.78 2.18 0.916 22.125 11.90
0.980 4.27 2.46 0.914 22.75 12.21
0.978 4.76 2.73 0.912 23.39 12.52
0.976 5.25 3.01 0.910 24.03 12.84
0.974 5.75 3.29 0.908 24.68 13.16
0.972 6.25 3.57 0.906 25.33 13.48
0.970 6.75 3.84 0.904 26.00 13.80
0.968 7.26 4.12 0.902 26.67 14.12
0.966 7.77 4.41 0.900 27.33 14.44
0.964 8.29 4.69 0.898 28.00 14.76
0.962 8.82 4.98 0.896 28.67 15.08
0.960 9.34 5.27 0.894 29.33 15.40
0.958 9.87 5.55 0.892 30.00 15.71
0.956 10.405 5.84 0.890 30.685 16.04
0.954 10.95 6.13 0.888 31.37 16.36
0.952 11.49 6.42 0.886 32.09 16.69
0.950 12.03 6.71 0.884 32.84 17.05
0.948 12.58 7.00 0.882 33.595 17.40
0.946 13.14 7.29 0.880 34.35 17.75
0.944 13.71 7.60
0.942 14.29 7.91
0.940 14.88 8.21
0.938 15.47 8.52
0.936 16.06 8.83
0.934 16.65 9.13

68
Commercially available concentrations
of some acids and alkalis
Density Density
Name weight% d 20° (mol/l*)
4°
Acetic acid 96 1.06 17
Acetic acid (glacial acetic acid) 99 – 100 1.06 18
Acetic acid, dilute 30 1.04 5
Ammonia solution 35 0.88 18
Ammonia solution 30 0.88 15.5
Ammonia solution 25 0.91 13.5
Formic acid 98 – 100 1.22 26
Hydriodic acid 57 1.7 7.5
Hydrobromic acid 40 1.38 7
Hydrochloric acid 25 1.12 8
Hydrochloric acid, concentration (1.16) 32 1.16 10
Hydrochloric acid, concentration (1.18) 36 1.18 12
Hydrochloric acid, fuming 37 1.19 12.5

Solutions - aqueous systems

Hydrofluoric acid 48 1.16 28
Hydrofluoric acid 40 1.13 23
Nitric acid, concentration 65 1.40 14
Nitric acid, fuming 100 1.52 21
Perchloric acid 70 1.67 12
Perchloric acid 60 1.53 9
Phosphoric acid, concentration (1.71) 85 1.71 15
Phosphoric acid, concentration (1.75) 89 1.75 16
Potassium hydroxide solution 47 1.5 12.5
Potassium hydroxide solution 30 1.3 7
Sodium hydroxide solution 33 1.36 11
Sulfuric acid, concentration 95 – 97 1.84 18
Sulfuric acid, dilute 25 1.18 3

*rounded off

Baumé degrees (°Bé) and density °Bé = 145 - 145

density

Example

Sodium hydroxide solution 40 % with a density of 1.430 g/cm3

145 - 145 = 43.60 °Bé

density

69
Indicators and buffers
pH indicators 72
Buffer solutions 76
pH-indicators
0 1 2 3 4
Malachite green oxalate green green-blue
Brilliant green yellow green
Eosin Y yellow green flourescence
Erythrosin B orange red
Methyl green yellow blue
Methyl violet yellow violet
Cresol red red yellow
Crystal violet yellow blue-violet
Cresol purple red yellow
Thymol blue red yellow
2,2',2'',4,4' Pentamethoxytriphenylcarbinol red colorless
Eosin B colorless pink flourescence
Quinaldine red colorless pink
2.4-Dinitrophenol colorless
4-(Dimethylamino) azobenzenel red yellow
Bromochlorophenol blue yellow bl
Bromophenol blue yellow bl
Bromphenol blue sodium salt green yellow bl
Congo red blue
Methyl orange red yello
Methyl orange solution red yello
Bromocresol green yellow
Bromocresol green sodium salt yellow
2.5-Dinitrophenol colorless
Mixed indicator 4.5 acc. to Mortimer red
Alizarin sulfonic acid sodium salt yellow
Methyl red red
Methyl red sodium salt red
Mixed indicator 5 red-viole
Chlorophenol red yell
Bromocresol purpley
Bromophenol red yello

The pH ranges and color shades shown are approximations

For more information please visit www.merck-chemicals.com/labtools

than choose “pH-Indicator Selector”

72
 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 pH
blue colorless

orange purple

yellow purple
yellow blue

Indicators and buffers

yellow
w-orange
lue-violet
lue-violet
lue-violet
yellow-orange
ow-orange
ow-orange
blue
blue
yellow
blue
violett
d yellow-orange
d yellow-orange
et green
low purple
yellow purple
ow-orange purple

73
pH-indicators
0 1 2 3 4
4-Nitrophenol col
Bromoxylenol blue
Alizarin
Bromothymol blue sodium salt
Bromothymol blue
Phenol red
Phenol red sodium salt
3-Nitrophenol
Neutral red
1-Naphtholphthalein
Phenolphthalein
Phenolphthalein solution (1% in ethanol)
Phenolphthalein solution (0.375 % in methanol)
Thymolphthalein
Alkali blue
Alizarin yellow GG
Indigo carmine
Epsilon blue
Titan yellow

The pH ranges and color shades shown are approximations

The broad pH test range offers

you an optimal solution for
each application area. You can
easily and quickly measure
the pH without using instruments.
74
 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 pH
lorless yellow
yellow blue
yellow red red purple
yellow blue
yellow blue
yellow violet-red
yellow violet-red
colorless yellow-orange
blue-red yellow-orange
brown blue-green
colorless red-violet

Indicators and buffers

colorless red-violet
colorless red-violet
colorless blue
violet pink
light yellow brownish-yellow
blue yellow
orange violet
yellow red

75
Buffer solutions

Prepare stock and buffer solutions with distilled, boiled, CO2-free water.

Buffer- Stock solutions and their content of buffer substance Composition

solution of buffer
No. A B solution
1 Glycine 0.1 mol/l + NaCI 0.1 mol/l HCI 0.1 mol/l x parts A +
[Glycine: 7.507 g/l + NaCI: 5.844 g/l] (100-x) parts B
2 di-Sodium citrate 0.1 mol/l HCI 0.1 mol/l x parts A +
[Citric acid monohydrate: (100-x) parts B
21.014 g/l + 200 ml NaOH 1 mol/l]
3 Potassium hydrogen phthalate l HCI 0.1 mol/l 50 ml A + x ml B
0.1 mol/[C8H5KO4: 20.42 g/l make up to 100 ml*
4 As No. 3 NaOH 0.1 mol/l 50 ml A + x ml B,
make up to 100 ml*
5 As No. 2 NaOH 0.1 mol/l x parts A +
(100-x) parts B
6 Potassium dihydrogen phosphate di-Sodium hydrogen x parts A +
1/15 mol/l [KH2PO4: 9.073 g/l] phosphate 1/15 (100-x) parts B
[Na2HPO4 · 2 H2O: 11.87 g/l] mol/l
7 5.5-Diethylbarbituric acid HCI 0.1 mol/l x parts A +
sodium salt 0.1 mol/l (100-x) parts B
[Barbital-Na: 20.62 g/l]
8 Borax solution 0.05 mol/l HCI 0.1 mol/l x parts A +
[H3BO3: (100-x) parts B
12.37 g/l + 100 ml NaOH 1 mol/l]
9 As No. 1 NaOH 0.1 mol/l x parts A +
(100-x) parts B
10 Citric acid 0.1 mol/l di-Sodium hydrogen x parts A +
[Citric acid monohydrate: 21.014 g/l] phosphate 0.2 mol/l (100-x) parts B
[Na2HPO4 · 2 H2O: 35.60 g/l]
11 Sodium acetate 0.1 mol/l Acetic acid 0.1 mol/l x parts A +
[C2H3O2Na: 8.204 g/l or (100-x) parts B
C2H3O2Na · 3 H2O: 13.61 g/l]
12 Imidazole 0.2 mol/l HCI 0.1 mol/l 25 ml A + x ml B,
[C3H4N2: 13.62 g/l] make up to 100 ml*
13 Triethanolamine 0.5 mol/l + HCI 0.05 mol/l 10 ml A + x ml B,
Titriplex® III make up to 100 ml*
[C6H15NO3: 74.60 g/l +
Titriplex® III: 20 g/l]
14 Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane HCI 0.1 mol/l 25 ml A + x ml B,
0.2 mol/l [TRIS: 24.23 g/l] make up to 100 ml*
15 Sodium carbonate 0.1 mol/l (10.60 g/l) Sodium hydrogen x parts A +
[Na2CO3: 10.60 g/l] carbonate 0.1 mol/l (100-x) parts B
[NaHCO3: 8.401 g/l]

*fill up with dissolution

76
 Indicators and buffers

CertiPUR-Buffer Sachets for

calibration of pH instruments!

77
pKa values of selected
biological buffers
Buffer pKa (4°C) pKa (20°C) pKa (25°C) pKa (37°C) △pKa/°C

ACES 7.22 6.90 6.80 6.56 -0.020

ADA 6.80 6.62 6.56 6.43 -0.011
BES 7.41 7.15 7.07 6.88 -0.016
BICIN 8.64 8.35 8.26 8.04 -0.018
BIS-TRIS 6.88 6.56 6.46 6.22 -0.020
CHES 9.73 9.55 9.50 9.36 -0.011
Citrat pKa2 4.79 4.77 4.76 4.74 -0.0016
Glycin pKa2 10.32 9.91 9.78 9.47 -0.026
Gly-Gly 8.85 8.40 8.26 7.92 -0.028
HEPES 7.77 7.55 7.48 7.32 -0.014
HEPPS 8.18 8.00 7.95 7.82 -0.011
Imidazole 7.37 7.05 6.95 6.71 -0.020
MES 6.33 6.15 6.10 5.97 -0.011
MOPS 7.41 7.20 7.14 6.98 -0.013
PIPES 6.94 6.80 6.76 6.66 -0.0085
Phosphate pKa2 7.26 7.21 7.20 7.17 -0.0028
TAPS 8.02 8.31 8.40 8.62 +0.018
TES 7.82 7.50 7.40 7.16 -0.020
TRICIN 8.49 8.15 8.05 7.79 -0.021
TRIS 8.75 8.30 8.08 7.82 -0.028

78
Buffer ranges

Buffer

Glycine/HCI
Citric acid / Na-citrate
Acetic acid / Na-acetate
KH2PO4 / Na2HPO4
MES
BIS-TRIS
ADA
ACES
PIPES
Imidazole / HCL
BES

Indicators and buffers

MOPS
HEPES
TES
TRIS/HCI
HEPPS
TRICIN
Gly-Gly
BICIN
Na-borate / HCI
Glycine / NaOH
CHES
AMP / HCL
Na2CO3 / NaHCO3
Na-borate / NaOH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

79
Chromatography
Analytical HPLC 82
Thin-layer Chromatography 84
Specification of column sorbents 86
LC Troubleshooting 90
Sample preparation 95
Chromatography

Analytical HPLC

Analytical HPLC has taken on a position of central importance in research

and development, in pharmaceutical quality control and in environmental analysis.
Merck is among the major suppliers of HPLC products worldwide.
Our extensive portfolio comprises products for analytical and preparative HPLC. With
our series of very widely used HPLC sorbents, which includes LiChrosorb®, LiChros-
pher®, Superspher®, Purospher® and ZIC-HILIC, we offer you the most
suitable products for your application. With Chromolith® – an HPLC column based on
monolithic technology – we have established and maintained technology leadership
in chromatography to ideally fulfill your requirements.

Chromolith® HPLC columns provide excellent separations in a fraction of the

time that a standard particulate column will take - typically four
times faster, because they are made from highly porous monolithic rods of silica
with a bimodal pore structure. The column is no longer packed
with small particles but instead consists of a single piece of high-purity silica
gel. Longer lifetime and lower matrix sensitivity with biological samples are
additional advantages of Chromolith® columns. Multiple Chromolith® columns
coupled together provide separation efficiencies of 100,000 plates/column at
normal pressure.

82
 P urospher® HPLC columns are based upon a high-purity silica for excellent
separations with very good peak symmetry. The base material for Purospher®
high-purity HPLC columns consists of tetra-alkoxysilane.
Due to the absence of heavy metals in the silica matrix and in combination
with a complete coverage of the silica surface, this stationary phase enables
tailing-free chromatography of acidic, basic and chelating compounds. This
is of particular advantage for method development.

L iChrospher® is a reliable and versatile traditionally produced spherical silica

carrier with a particle size of 5 µm or 10 µm, providing well balanced
pressure / separation performance ratio. A broad range of modi-fications on
LiChrospher® are very widely used by HPLC-users all over the world for
a broad range of applications. LiChrospher® sorbents are available as reversed
phase derivatives (RP-8, RP-18 endcapped, RP-18, RP-18 endcapped
and RP-select B), medium polar (NH2, CN, DIOL) and polar derivatives (Si 60).
Furthermore LiChrospher® PAH is highly efficient and selective for the
separation of PAH; LiChrospher® WP is very well suited for the separation of

Chromatography
peptides and low molecular weight proteins.

IC

RPLC ZIC ®-HILIC

Fig.1
Schematic illustration demonstrating
NPLC
how ZIC®-HILIC complements other
areas of chromatography and extends
the separation capabilities.

ZIC®-HILIC HPLC columns are suitable for separation of strongly polar and
hydrophilic compounds, which often have little or no retention on
reversed phase columns. Merck´s unique ZIC®-HILIC technology is based on
a stationary phase with a covalently bonded, highly polar zwitterionic
functional group that provides higher stability and more robust HILIC sepa-
rations than conventional silica or amino phases.

83
Thin Layer Chromatography

Thin Layer Chromatography is a simple, fast and

highly versatile separation tool for both
qualitative and quantitative analysis. The field
of application covers virtually all classes of
substances including pesticides, steroids, alkaloids,
lipids, nucleotides, glycosides, carbohydrates, fatty
acids and many others.

Cheap separation method without the need for sophisticated instruments

No cumbersome sample preparation step needed because plates are
disposable
Sample components are stored on the plate allowing to repeat the analysis
several times
Multiple samples (up to 72) can be run simultaneously under identical
conditions
Easy 2 dimensional separation by using two distinct mobile phases in
different directions

Thin Layer Chromatography can be a manual method as in classical TLC,

or automated as in instrumented high-performance thin layer chromatography
(HPTLC). Furthermore, it can be easily extended to preparative scale for PLC.

Unmodified silica gel covers more than 80% of thin layer chromatography
applications for both adsorption- and partition thin layer chromatography. It
allows separating a large range of different substances such as aflatoxins,
alkaloids, anabolics, benzodiazepins, carbohydrates, fatty acids, glycosides, lipids,
mycotoxins, nucleotides, peptides, pesticides, steroids, sulfonamids, surfactants,
tetracyclines and many others making it suitable for:

In-process control in drugs

Purity checks of synthesis steps
Identity testing of pharmaceutical compounds

HPTLC Premium Purity plate is designed for high performance,

completely contamination free separations especially in demanding
pharmacopoeia applications.

Highly pure, exhibiting minimal background even with middle-polar

solvent systems
Identical separation performance as the related HPTLC plate product
Especially suited for pharmacopoeia applications

84
Bild wird in besserer
Auflösung benötigt!

Fig.XX
Guercin exer si. To dolor suscil euis ad dolobore
veliquat, commodignis amet nit ex eugait
em vent incidui blan henim vulputat irillummy
nim elit eu feugue dignibt.

Chromatography
Fig.3
Comparison of the separation of dansyl
amino acids on a
(A) classical TLC silica gel 60 plate or
(B) HPTLC silica gel 60 plate under
identical conditions. The comparison
clearly demonstrates that the HPTLC
plate delivers sharper zones with
shorter migration distances and hence
running times. In addition the HPTLC
plate allows the separation of twice
the number of samples simultaneously.

Compounds:
1. N-alpha-dansyl-L-arginine
2. alpha-dansyl-L-arginine
3. Dansyl-L-cysteic acid
4. N-Dansyl-glycine
5. Dansyl-glycine
6. N-N-Didansyl-L-tyrosine

Sample volume: TLC 4 µl; HPTLC 0,3 µl

Mobil phase: Ethyl acetat/methanol/
propionic acid (22/10/3)
Migration distance: TLC 10 cm; HPTLC 5 cm
Analysis time: TLC 42 min;
HPTLC 13 min 45 sec
Detection: UV 366

85
Specifications of column sorbents

Polar stationary phases (normal phase chromatography)

(shipping eluent: n-Heptane/Dioxane (99/1))

Designation Sorbent Characteristics Particle

Size

LiChrosorb® Si 60 irregular particles of silica 5, 7, 10 μm

LiChrosorb® Si 100 irregular particles of silica 5, 7, 10 μm

LiChrospher® Si 60 spherical particles of silica 5, 10 μm

LiChrospher® Si 100 spherical particles of silica 5, 10 μm

LiChrospher® Si 300 spherical particles of silica 10 μm

LiChrospher® Si 1000 spherical particles of silica 10 μm
LiChrospher® Si 4000 spherical particles of silica 10 μm
Aluspher® AL spherical particles of aluminia oxide 5 μm
Superspher® Si 60 spherical particles of silica 4 μm
Purospher® STAR Si spherical particles of high purity silica 5 μm
Chromolith® Si Monolithic high purity silica 2 μm

Specifications of column sorbents

Mediaum solar stationary phases

(shipping eluent: n-Heptane/Dioxane (99/1))

Designation Sorbent Characteristics Particle

Size

LiChrosorb® CN irregular particles of silica 5, 7, 10 μm

with γ-Cyanopropyl function
LiChrosorb® NH2 irregular particles of silica 5, 7, 10 μm
with γ-Aminopropyl function
LiChrosorb® DIOL spherical particles of silica 5, 7, 10 μm
with DIOL function on carbonchains
LiChrospher® CN spherical particles of silica 5, 10 μm
with γ-Cyanopropyl function
LiChrospher® NH2 spherical particles of silica 5, 10 μm
with γ-Aminopropyl function
LiChrospher® DIOL spherical particles of silica 5, 10 μm
with DIOL function on carbonchains
Purospher® STAR NH2 spherical particles of high purity silica 5 μm
with γ-Aminopropyl function

86
Pore Pore Spec. surface area Efficiency
Size volume

60 Å 0.75 ml/g 500 m2/g 55 000 N/m

15 000 N/m
100 Å 1.0 ml/g 300 m /g
2

60 Å 0.85 ml/g 700 m2/g 55 000 N/m

20 000 N/m
100 Å 1.25 ml/g 400 m /g
2
55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
300 Å 0.78 ml/g 60 m2/g 20 000 N/m
1000 Å 0.78 ml/g 30 m2/g 15 000 N/m
4000 Å 0.78 ml/g 10 m2/g 15 000 N/m

Chromatography
100 Å 170 m2/g
60 Å 0.85 ml/g 700 m2/g 100 000 N/m
120 1.1 330 50 000
130 1 ml/g 300

Pore Pore Spec. %C Surface Efficiency

Size volume surface coverage

100 Å 1.0 ml/g 300 m2/g 6.1 % 3.82 μmol/m2 40 000 N/m
15 000 N/m
100 Å 1.0 ml/g 300 m2/g 3.5 % 3.54 μmol/m2

100 Å 1.0 ml/g 300 m2/g 7.1 % 3.91 μmol/m2 25 000 N/m
10 000 N/m
100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m2/g 6.6 % 3.52 μmol/m2 40 000 N/m
15 000 N/m
100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m2/g 4.6 % 41 μmol/m2 40 000 N/m
15 000 N/m
100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m2/g 8.0 % 3.87 μmol/m2 25 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
120 1.1 330 3.5 3 50 000

87
Specifications of column sorbents

Non-polar stationary phases (reversed phase chromatography)

(shipping eluent: acetronitrile/water)

Designation Sorbent Characteristics Particle

Size

LiChrosorb® RP-8 irregular particles of silica with 5, 7, 10 μm

octyl derivative
LiChrosorb® RP-select B irregular particles of silica with 5, 7, 10 μm
octyl derivative
LiChrosorb® RP-18 irregular particles of silica with 5, 7, 10 μm
octyl derivative
LiChrospher® RP-8 spherical particles of silica with 5, 10 μm
octyl derivative
LiChrospher® RP-8 endcapped spherical particles of silica with 5, 10 μm
octyl derivative endcapped
LiChrospher® RP-select B spherical particles of silica with 5, 10 μm
octyl derivative
LiChrospher® RP-18 spherical particles of silica with 5, 10 μm
octadecyl derivative
LiChrospher® RP-18 endcapped spherical particles of silica with 5, 10 μm
octadecyl derivative endcapped
LiChrospher® WP 300 RP-18 spherical particles of silica with 5, 12, 15 μm
octadecyl derivative
LiChrospher® PAH spherical particles of silica with 5 μm
octadecyl derivative
Superspher® RP-8 spherical particles of silica with 4 μm
octyl derivative
Superspher® RP-8 endcapped spherical particles of silica with 4 μm
octyl derivative endcapped
Superspher® RP-select B spherical particles of silica with 4 μm
octyl derivative
Superspher® RP-18 spherical particles of silica with 4 μm
octadecyl derivative
Superspher® RP-18 endcapped spherical particles of silica with 4 μm
octadecyl derivative
Purospher® RP-18 spherical particles of high purity silica 5 μm
with octadecyl derivative
Purospher® RP-18 endcapped spherical particles of high purity silica 5 μm
with octadecyl derivative
Purospher® STAR RP-8 endcapped spherical particles of high purity silica 3,5 μm
with octyl derivative
Purospher® STAR RP-18 endcapped spherical particles of high purity silica 3,5 μm
with octadecyl derivative
Purospher® HC spherical particles of high purity silica 5 μm
with octadecyl derivative
Chromolith® RP-8 endcapped Monolithic high purity silica with 2 μm
octyl derivative
Chromolith® Rp-18 endcapped Monolithic high purity silica with 2 μm
octadecyl derivative

88
Pore Pore Spec. %C Surface Efficiency
Size volume surface coverage

100 Å 1.0 ml/g 300 m2/g 9.5 % 3.4 μmol/m2 55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
60 Å 0.75 ml/g 300 m /g 2
11.4 % 4.21 μmol/m 2
55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
100 Å 1.0 ml/g 300 m2/g 16.2 % 3.0 μmol/m2 55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m2/g 12.5 % 4.04 μmol/m2 55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m /g 2
13.0 % 4.44 μmol/m2 55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m

Chromatography
60 Å 0.9 ml/g 360 m2/g 11.5 % 3.55 μmol/m2 55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m /g 2
21.0 % 3.61 μmol/m2 55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m2/g 21.6 % 4.09 μmol/m2 55 000 N/m
20 000 N/m
300 Å 1.0 80 m /g
2
n.a. n.a. n.a.

150 Å n.a. 200 m2/g 20 % 4.04 μmol/m2 80 000 N/m

60 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m /g 2

12.5 % 4.44 μmol/m 2
100 000 N/m

60 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m2/g 13.0 % 3.55 μmol/m2 100 000 N/m

60 Å 0.9 ml/g 360 m /g 2

11.5 % 3.61 μmol/m 2
100 000 N/m

100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m2/g 21.0 % 4.09 μmol/m2 100 000 N/m

100 Å 1.25 ml/g 350 m2/g 21.6 % 100 000 N/m

90 Å 1.05 ml/g 480 m /g 2

17.0 % 80 000 N/m

90 Å 1.05 ml/g 480 m2/g 18.0 % 80 000 N/m

120 Å 1.1 ml/g 330 m /g 2

11.2 % 130 000 N/m
80 000 N/m
120 Å 1.1 ml/g 330 m2/g 17.0 % 3 μmol/m2 130 000 N/m
80 000 N/m
90 Å 1.05 ml/g 470 m2/g 18.0 %

130 1 300 11.0 %

130 1 300 18.0 %

89
LC Troubleshooting

Problem Possible cause

High pressure Precolumn blocked

Column head blocked

Capillary blocked
No peaks; changing peakhight No flow; leak

Sample injection is not reproducible

Noise or drift problems Column is not in equilibrium
Impurities elute slowly from the column
Enrichment of impurities

Differentces in temperature
(column or detector)
Air bubbles
Detector lamp
Electrical interferences

Ghost peaks Peaks from previous injection

Unknown sample compunds

Column contamination

Solvent impurities
Mixing problems of mobile phase
Oxidation of TFA (peptinde mapping)
Peaks with shoulders; Fronting Precolumn defective or soiled

Cavity at column head (dead-volume) or

channels in column packing
Sample dissolved in wrong solvents

Interfering compounds; Impurities

Column overload
Extra column effects
Peaks are broad Precolumn or column defective or soiled
Column overload; injection volume too large
Sample dissolved in wrong solvent
Too weak buffer
Extra column effects

90
Solution

Change precolumn
Change filter of column head; flush column;
change column
Change capillary
Checkpump; check frit; check mobil phase
composition; fix leak
Check sample injection system
Flush column
Flush colum with strong eluent
Flush column; improve sample cleanup;
use HPLC-grade solvents
Use column thermostat

Degas mobile phase; use back-pressure regulator

Chromatography
Replace UV lamp (expected life time: 1000 h)
Use voltage stabilizer; check for local
interference sources
Use longer run-time; flush column with strong
solvent after each run; improve sample cleanup;
use gradient elution
Improve sample cleanup
Flush column with strong solvent after each run;
improve sample cleanup
Use HPLC-grade solvents
Dissolve sample in mobil phase
Prepare fresh daily; use antioxidant
Change precolumn

Change column

Dissolve sample in mobil phase or (if not possible)

inject very small sample volume (1 μl)
Improve sample cleanup; check column with test
mixture; use HPLC-grade solvents
Dilute sample
Check capillary connections
Change precolumn or column
Reduce sample volume; dilute sample
Dissolve sample in mobile phase
Use higher concentration or different buffer
Check capillary connections

91
LC Troubleshooting

Problem Possible cause

Peaks are broad Leak between column and detector;

large detector cell
Too low column temperature; high mobile
phase viscosity
Too low column temperature; high mobile
phase viscosity
Too long capillary connections

Poor column efficiency

Peak tailing Column overload

Interfering peaks; Impurities

Silanol interactions

Blocked column frit

Extra column effects; dead-volume
Column void or channeling
Peak doubling or splitting Sample volume too large; column overload

Sample dissolved in wrong solvent

Column void or channeling

Blocked column frit
Unswept injector flowpath
Increasing retention times Flow rate is decreasing

Active sites on silica packing

Loss of bonded stationary phase

Mobile phase composition changing

Temperature decreasing
Decreasing retention times Flow rate is increasing
Column overload
Loss of bonded stationary phase
Mobile phase composition changing

Temperature increasing
Column ageing

92
Solution

Fix leak; use smaller cell

Increase column temperature

Increase column temperature

Use shorter capillaries with smaller i.D.;

check for dead volume
Use column with smaller particles
Decrease sample size; increase column diameter;
use higher capacity stationary phase
Improve sample cleanup; adjust mobile phase;
check column with test mixture; use HPLC-grade solvents
Use modifier (triethylamine); increase buffer or salt

Chromatography
concentration (ion-pair-chromatography); lower mobil
phase pH; use base deactivated column
Replace frit; add in-line filter; filter samples
Check capillary connections
Replace column; use less aggressive conditions
Reduce sample volume; dilute sample; inject
sample prepared in mobil phase
Dissolve sample in mobile phase or (if not possible)
inject very small sample volume (1 μl)
Replace column; use less aggressive conditions
Replace frit; add in-line filter; filter samples
Replace injecto rotor
Fix leaks; replace pump seals; remove bubbles;
check for cavitation
Use mobile phase modifier; add triethylamine;
use base-deactivated column
Keep mobile phase pH between 2 and 7.5
Check pump; check frit; avoid evaporation or
degradation of mobile phase
Use column thermostat
Check pump; check flow
Decrease sample size
Keep mobile phase pH between 2 and 7.5
Check pump; check frit; avoid evaporation or
degradation of mobile phase
Use column thermostat
Replace column; use guard column

93
 LC Troubleshooting

Problem Possible cause

Retention times changing Flow rate varying

Insufficient column equilibration

Insufficient buffer capacity

Mobile phase composition changing;
poor mixing
Column temperature varying
Contamination build up
Change in column activation

Differences in selectivity Different in mobile phase composition

Too weak solvent

Sample dissolved in wrong solvent

Decreasing column life; contamination

Temperature varying
Column to column reproducibility

Bildmaterial wird
benötigt!

94
 Solution

Fix leaks; replace pump seals; remove bubbles;

check for phase
Equilibrate with at least 10 column volume of
mobile phase
Use buffer concentration >20 mM and <50mM
Check pump; check frit; avoid evaporation or
degradation of mobile phase
Use solumn thermostat
Flush column
Condition column with initial injection of
concentrated of mobile
Check pump; check frit; avoid evaporation or degradation of mobile

Use buffer or ion-pair system

Chromatography
Dissolve sample in mobile phase or (if not possible) inject very small
sample volume (1 μl)
Replace column; improve sample cleanup;
check column with test mixture;
use HPLC-grade solvent
Use column thermostat
Replace column; check with manufacturer

Sample preparation

Routine laboratory work involves purifying, enriching or separating for

subsequent analysis. Solid, liquid and gaseous substances also have
to be purified for pro-duction-scale processes. Various chemical and physical
methods can be used for this purpose: absorption, adsorption, chroma-
tography, distillation, extraction, ion exchange, filtration, complex formation,
crystallization, drying and many more. Merck offers a wide range of
products with absorptive, adsorptive, filtration and clarification properties.
These products can be used for purification but also as reaction and
filtration aids, as fillers, additives or as carriers of active ingredients. In addition
we offer reagents for the preparation of gases, cooling mixtures or
adjusting relative humidity as well as classical laboratory auxiliaries. Products
avail-able for Sample preparation are:

LiChrolut® for solid-phase extraction

Extrelut® NT for liquid-liquid extraction

LiChrospher® ADS for LC-integrated solid-phase extraction

95
Organic solvents
Organic solvents - Properties and drying 98
Ethanol-water mixtures 102
Drying agents 103
Vapour pressure of water 103
LiChrosolv® - Solvents for chromatography 104
Organic solvents Organic solvents
properties and drying

Solvent

Acetone

Acetic acid
Acetic anhydride
Acetonitrile

Aniline
Anisole
Benzene

1-Butanol
2-Butanol
tert-Butanol
n-Butyl acetate
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetrachloride

Chlorobenzene
Chloroform

Cyclohexane

Decahydronaphthalene
(Dekalin)
Dichloromethane
(Methylene chloride)
Diethyl carbonate
Diethylene

Diethylene

Diethylene glycol
dimethyl ether
Diethyl ether

Diisopropyl ether

Dimethyl formamide

Dimethyl sulfoxide

98
Boiling 20° 20° Flash MAC (2) Drying agent (1)
D n
point 4° D point
[°C] [°C] ppm mg/m3
56 0.791 1.359 – 18 500 1200 K2CO3 Molecular sieve
0.3 nm
118 1.049 1.372 + 40 10 25 P2O5; CuSO4
136 1.082 1.390 + 49 5 20 CaCl2
82 0.782 1.344 +6 40 69 CaCl2; P2O5; K2CO3
Molecular sieve 0.3 nm
184 1.022 1.586 + 76 8 KOH; BaO
154 0.995 1.518 + 51 CaCl2; distillation; Na
80 0.879 1.501 – 10 H.A distillation
CaCl2; Na; Pb/Na
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
117 0.810 1.399 + 29 100 310 K2CO3; distillation
100 0.808 1.398 + 24 100 310 K2CO3; distillation
82 0.786 1.384 + 11 100 310 CaO; freezing

Organic solvents
127 0.882 1.394 + 33 100 480 MgSO4
46 1.263 1.626 – 30 H5 16 CaCl2; P2O5
77 1.594 1.460 non H 10 65 Distillation;
flammable B CaCl2; P2O5; Pb/Na;
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
132 1.106 1.525 + 29 10 47 CaCl2; distillation;
62 1.486 1.448 non B.10 50 CaCl2; P2O5; Pb/Na
flammable Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
81 0.779 1.426 – 17 200 700 Na; Na/Pb; LiAIH4
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
189/ 0.886 1.48 < 54 – – CaCl2; Na; Pb/Na
191
40 1.325 1.424 non B.100 350 CaCl2; Pb/Na
flammable Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
126 0.975 1.384 + 25 – – K2CO3; Na2SO4
255 0.885 1.423 + 118 – – CaCl2; Na
glycoldibutyl ether
188 0.906 1.412 + 82.5 – – CaCl2; Na
glycoldiethyl ether
155 0.945 1.407 + 70 – – CaCl2; Na
165
34 0.714 1.353 – 40 400 1200 CaCl2; Na; Pb/Na;
LiAIH4
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
68 0.726 1.368 – 23 500 2100 CaCl2; Na
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
153 0.950 1.430 + 62 H. 10 30 Distillation
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
189 1.101 1.478 + 95 – – Distillation
Molecular sieve 0.3 nm

99
Organic solvents
properties and drying

Solvent Boiling 20° 20° Flash MAC (2) Drying agent (1)
D n
point 4° D point
[°C] [°C] ppm mg/m 3

1.4-Dioxane 101 1.034 1.422 + 11.8 H.B20 73 CaCl2; Na

Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
Ethanol 79 0.791 1.361 + 12 1000 1900 CaO; Mg; MgO.
Molecular sieve 0.3 nm
Ethyl acetate 77 0.901 1.372 –4 400 1500 K2CO3; P2O5; Na2SO4.
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
Ethylene glycol 197 1.109 1.432 + 111 – – Distillation; Na2SO4
Ethylene glycol 135 0.930 1.408 + 41 H5 20 Distillation
monoethyl ether
Ethylene glycol 125 0.965 1.402 + 52 H5 15 Distillation
monomethyl
Ethyl formate 54 0.924 1.360 – 20 100 300 MgSO4; Na2SO4
Formamide 211 1.134 1.447 155 – – Na2SO4; CaO
Glycerol 290 1.260 1.475 + 176 Distillation
Hexafluoroacetone 1.685 non
(sesqui-hydrate) flammable
n-Hexane 69 0.659 1.375 – 23 50 180 Na; Pb/Na; LiAIH4.
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
Isobutanol 108 0.803 1.396 + 28 100 300 K2CO3; CaO; Mg; Ca
Isobutyl 117 0.801 1.396 + 15.5 20 83 K2CO3
methyl ketone
Methanol 65 0.792 1.329 + 11 H 200 270 Mg; CaO.
Molecular sieve 0.3 nm
Methyl acetate 57 0.933 1.362 – 10 5 20 K2CO3; CaO
1-Methyl-2- 202 1.0260 1.4684 + 95 20 80 Distillation; Na2SO4;
pyrrolidone Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
Methyl ethyl ketone 80 0.806 1.379 – 4.4 200 600 K2CO3
Nitrobenzene 211 1.204 1.556 + 92 H1 5 CaCl2; P2O5;
Distillation
n-Pentane 36 0.626 1.358 – 49 1000 3000 Na; Pb/Na
1-Propanol 97 0.804 1.385 + 15 – – CaO; Mg
2-Propanol 82 0.785 1.378 + 12 200 500 CaO; Mg;
Molecular sieve 0.3 nm
Pyridine 116 0.982 1.510 + 20 5 15 KOH; BaO;
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
Tetrahydrofuran 66 0.887 1.405 – 17.5 50 150 Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
Tetrahydronaph- 208 0.973 1.541 + 78 – – CaCl2; Na
thalene (Tetralin)
Toluene 111 0.867 1.496 +4 50 190 Distillation; Ca; CaCl2;
Molecular sieve 0.4 nm
Trichloroethylene 87 1.462 1.477 non B. – – Distillation;
flammable Na2SO4; K2CO3
Xylene 137/ ˜ 0.86 ˜ 1.50 + 25 100 440 Distillation; Na; CaCl2;
(isomeric mixture) 140 Molecular sieve 0.4 nm

100
Organic solvents
properties and drying

(1) For details of drying methods please refer to the brochure

"Drying in the laboratory and pilot plant"
(2) MAC values

S = Danger of absorption through the skin

A = This substance is definitely known to be a carcinogenic;

no MAC values can be quoted.

B = There are grounds to suppose that this substance has

carcinogenic potential.

Substances for which no MAC value is given have not been classified by the German
Senate Commission on hazardous materials, though this fact is not to be construed
as meaning that the substances carry no risk.

Organic solvents
Chemical Characteristics (Safety)
Forms explosive peroxides on
contact with air, if they become
concentrated, these peroxides
may present an explosion hazard.
Hazardous polymerization will
not occur.

101
Ethanol-water mixtures

Density % % Density % %
D 20º by weight by volume D 20º by weight by volume
20º ethanol ethanol 20º ethanol ethanol
1.00000 0 0 0.91546 50 57.8
0.99813 1 1.3 0.91322 51 58.8
0.99629 2 2.5 0.91097 52 59.8
0.99451 3 3.8 0.90872 53 60.8
0.99279 4 5.0 0.90645 54 61.8
0.99113 5 6.2 0.90418 55 62.8
0.98955 6 7.5 0.90191 56 63.8
0.98802 7 8.7 0.89962 57 64.8
0.98653 8 10.0 0.89733 58 65.8
0.98505 9 11.2 0.89502 59 66.8
0.98361 10 12.4 0.89271 60 67.7
0.98221 11 13.6 0.89040 61 68.6
0.98084 12 14.8 0.88807 62 69.9
0.97948 13 16.1 0.88574 63 70.5
0.97560 14 17.3 0.88339 64 71.5
0.97687 15 18.5 0.88104 65 72.4
0.97687 16 19.7 0.87869 66 73.3
0.97431 17 20.9 0.87632 67 74.2
0.97301 18 22.1 0.87396 68 75.1
0.97169 19 23.3 0.87158 69 76.0
0.97036 20 24.5 0.86920 70 76.9
0.96901 21 25.7 0.86680 71 77.8
0.96763 22 26.9 0.86440 72 78.6
0.96624 23 28.1 0.86200 73 79.5
0.96483 24 29.2 0.85958 74 80.4
0.96339 25 30.4 0.85716 75 81.2
0.96190 26 31.6 0.85473 76 82.1
0.96037 27 32.7 0.85230 77 83.0
0.95880 28 33.9 0.84985 78 83.8
0.95717 29 35.1 0.84740 79 84.6
0.95551 30 36.2 0.84494 80 85.4
0.95381 31 37.4 0.84245 81 86.2
0.95207 32 38.5 0.83997 82 87.1
0.95028 33 39.6 0.83747 83 87.9
0.94847 34 40.7 0.83496 84 88.7
0.94662 35 41.9 0.83242 85 89.5
0.94432 36 43.0 0.82987 86 90.2
0.94281 37 44.1 0.82729 87 91.0
0.94086 38 45.2 0.82469 88 91.8
0.93886 39 46.3 0.82207 89 92.5
0.93648 40 47.4 0.81942 90 93.2
0.93479 41 48.43 0.81674 91 94.0
0.93272 42 49.51 0.81401 92 94.7
0.93062 43 50.6 0.81127 93 95.4
0.92849 44 51.6 0.80848 94 96.1
0.92636 45 52.6 0.80567 95 96.7
0.92421 46 53.7 0.80280 96 97.4
0.92204 47 54.7 0.79988 97 98.1
0.91986 48 55.8 0.79688 98 98.7
0.91766 49 56.8 0.79383 99 99.3
0.79074 100 100.0
102
Drying agents

Name Formula Water content of

air in equilibrium,
in mg/l (at 25 °C)
Aluminium oxide Al2O3 0.003
Calcium chloride CaCl2 < 0.00001
Calcium hydride CaH2 0.14
Calcium oxide CaO 0.003
Calcium sulfate CaSO4 0.004 – 0.07
Copper sulfate CuSO4 1.4
Dessicant sachets SiO2 0.003
Magnesium oxide MgO 0.008
Magnesium perchlorate Mg(ClO4)2 0.0005 – 0.002
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 1.0
Molecular sieves – 0.0001 – 0.5
Phosphorus pentoxide P2O5 0.00002
Potassium hydroxide KOH 0.002
Sicacide® H2SO4* 0.003 – 0.3
Sicapent® P2O5* < 0.000025
Silica gel, blue gel (SiO2)x 0.003
Silica gel, orange gel SiO2 0.003

Organic solvents
Sodium hydroxide NaOH 0.002
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4 1.0
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 0.005 – 0.3

*on siliceous supporting material

Vapour pressure of water over

H2SO4 (AT 20 °C)

% H2SO4 10 20 30 40 50 55 60
p [mbar] 22,9 20,5 17,6 13,0 8,2 5,9 3,7
% H2SO4 65 70 75 80 85 90
p [mbar] 2,1 1,1 0,4 0,1 0,04 0,007

103
LiChrosolv®
Solvents for chromatography
Elutopic Cat. No. Po- Formula Molar Refrac- Boiling
series larity mass tive point
index index
acc. to
Snyder
(1)
[g/mol] 20° [°C]
n
D

n-Heptane 104390 0.2 C7H16 100.21 1.388 98.4

n-Hexane 104391 0.0 C6H14 86.18 1.375 68.9
Cyclohexane 102827 0.0 C6H12 84.16 1.427 80.7
Isooctane 104717 0.4 C8H18 114.23 1.392 99.2
Toluene 108327 2.3 C6H5CH3 92.14 1.496 110.6
Chloroform 102444 4.4 CHCl3 119.38 1.946 61.7
Dichloroethane 113713 3.7 ClCH2CH2Cl 98.97 1.445 83.4
Dichlormethane 106044 3.4 CH2Cl2 84.93 1.424 40.0
1-Butanol 101988 3.9 CH3(CH2)3OH 74.12 1.399 117.2
Acetonitrile 100030 6.2 CH3CN 41.05 1.344 81.6
2--Propanol 101040 4.3 CH3CH(OH)CH3 60.10 1.378 82.4
Ethyl acetate 100868 4.3 CH3COOC2H5 88.10 1.372 77.1
Acetone 100020 5.4 CH3COCH3 58.08 1.359 56.2
Ethanol 111727 5.2 C2H5OH 46.07 1.361 78.5
1.4-Dioxane 103132 4.8 C4H8O2 88.11 1.422 101.0
Tetrahydrofuran 108101 4.2 C4H8O 72.11 1.405 66.0
Methanol 106007 6.6 CH3OH 32.04 1.329 65.0
Water 115333 9.0 H2O 18.01 1.333 100.0

(1) acc. to L. R. Snyder, Journal of Chromatography 92, 233, (1974)

(2) Detailed solvent tables acc. to H. Halpaap can be found in:

Einführung in HPDC,
ed. R. E. Kaiser, IfC-Verlag Bad Dürkheim 1976, p. 232–233; HPTLC,
ed. A. Zlatkis, R. E. Kaiser Elsevier and IfC 1977, p. 126–127.

(3) A = This substance is definitely known to be a carcinogenic;

no MAC values can be quoted.

104
Vapor Dynamic Surface MAC Diel- Dipole ε° Flow coefficient x
pres- viscosity tension value ectric mo- against [mm2/s] DC-(silica
sure against 1998 cons- ment AL2O3 gel 60 precoated
air or mg tant acc. (1) plate) 22°C
vapor to acc. to
De- Snyder
[mPa · s] [mN/m] [ml/m3] DK bye migration distance
[mbar] (22°C) (20°C) or (20 or [mm]
(20°C) (40°C) [ppm] 25°C) 50 70 100

48 0.40 0.33 20.4 500 1.9 0 0.01 9.2 10.6 11.4

160 0.31 0.26 18.4 50 1.9 0 – 12.5 13.9 14.6
104 0.94 0.71 25.5 200 2.0 0 0.04 5.4 6.3 6.7
51 0.51 0.50 – 500 1.9 0 0.01 7.9 8.3 8.7
29 0.58 0.47 28.5 50 2.4 0.36 0.29 8.3 9.8 11.0
210 0.56 0.47 27.1 10 4.8 1.01 0.40 9.0 10.5 11.6
87 0.80 0.65 24.2 A(3) 10.6 1.75 0.44 7.6 8.4 8.9
453 0.43 0.36 26.5 100 9.1 1.60 0.42 10.1 11.8 13.2
6.7 2.95 1.78 24.6 100 17.8 1.66 – – – –
97 0.39 – 29.3 40 37.5 3.44 0.65 12.6 14.0 15.4
43 2.27 1.35 21.7 200 18.3 1.66 0.82 2.1 2.3 2.5

Organic solvents
97 0.44 0.36 23.9 400 6.0 1.78 0.58 9.2 10.9 12.1
233 0.32 0.27 23.7 500 20.7 2.70 0.56 12.7 14.7 16.2
59 1.20 0.83 22.8 1000 24.3 1.70 0.88 3.4 3.9 4.2
41 1.21 0.92 33.7 20 2.2 0.40 0.56 5.2 6.0 6.5
200 0.47 0.38 – 50 7.4 1.63 0.57 10.9 11.9 12.6
128 0.52 0.45 22.6 200 32.6 1.70 0.95 5.6 6.5 7.1
23 0.95 0.65 72.8 – 80.2 1.85 – 5.1 5.7 5.8

105
Physical methods for
the determination of elements
Flame photometry 108
Wavelength and wave number 108
Photometry: Transmission rate and absorbance 108
Calculation of the standard deviation 108
Direct-current polarography 109
Cathode ray polarography 109
Flame photometry

Important emission lines in the flame spectra of some elements

Element Wavelength l [nm]

Ag 328.1 338.3
Ba 553.6 744 (B) 873 (B)
B 452 (B) 548 (B) 345 (B)
Ca 422.7 554 (B) 622 (B)
Co 346.6 (G) 353.0 387.4
Cr 360.5 427.5 (G) 425.5
Cs 455.5 852.1 894.3
Cu 324.8 327.4 520 (B)
Fe 373.7 (G) 386.0 (G) 385.6 (G)
K 404.7 (D) 766.5 (D) 344.6 (D)
Li 670.8 460.3 323.3
Mg 285.2 371 (B) 383 (B)
Mn 403.3 (G) 543.3 279.5
Na 330.3 (D) 589.3 (D) 818.3 (D)
Ni 341.5 (G) 352.5 (G) 385.8 (G)
Pb 368.4 405.8 261.4 (D)
Rb 420.2 (D) 780.0 794.8
Sr 460.7 821 (B) 407.8
Ti 377.6 535.0 276.8

(B) = Band of the oxide

(D) = Dual line, the center point between the two lines is given
(G) = Group of lines in the region of the stated wavelength

Wavelength and wave number

Wavelength l [nm] and wave number n [cm-1]

v = 1 ; 400 nm ⩠ 25000 cm-1

λ

Photometry - transmission rate and absorbance

A = - IgT
(e.g. A = 23.6% = 0,236 → T = 0.627)

Calculation of the standard deviation

A = √∑ F2

108
Direct-current polarography

Half-wave potentials of some important metals

Metal Half-wave potential [V] Support electrolyte / concentration

Cu2+ – 0.42 NH4 CH3 COO 0.85 mol/l

Physical methods for the determination of elements

Pb2+ – 0.48 KSCN 0.0025 mol/l
Cd2+ – 0.64 “
Ni2+ – 1.00 “
Zn2+ – 1.06 “
Co2+ – 1.30 “
Fe2+ – 1.41 “
Mn2+ –1.55 “
Cu2+ – 0.32 Saturated CaCl2 solution
about 10–12 mol/l
Pb2+ – 0.52 “
Co2+ – 0.86 “
Zn2+ – 1.08 “
Mn2+ – 1.40 “

Cathode ray polarography

Peak potentials of some important metals (1)

Metal Peak potential [V] Support electrolyte / concentration Interference by

Zn2+ – 1.03 Pyridine hydrochloride 0.1 mol/l Co2+

Cd2+ – 0.63 HCI 0.2 mol/l
Cu2+ – 0.15 HCI 0.2 mol/l Sb3+
Pb2+ – 0.40 HCI 0.2 mol/l Sn2+
Ni2+ – 0.80 Pyridine hydrochloride 0.1 mol/l
Bi3+ – 0.08 HCI 0.5 mol/l Cu2+
Co2+ – 1.05 Pyridine hydrochloride 0.1 mol/l Zn2+
Sb3+ – 0.13 HCI 0.5 mol/l Cu2+
Sn2+ – 0.50 HCI 5 mol/l Pb2+, TI+
Cr6+ – 0.75 LiOH 0.5 mol/l
Cr3+ – 1.10 LiCI 0.5 mol/l Zn2+

(1) measured against a silver/silver chloride reference electrode

109
Mass and weight
Energy dimensions - conversion factors 112
Pressure dimensions - conversion factors 112
Decimal multiples and parts of units 113
Concentration values 113
Basic units 113
Derived units 114
US and British measures units 118
Energy dimensions — conversion factors

Given Required dimension with conversion factor (2)

dimension
Unit J kWh MeV mkp kcal15° erg
1J (1) 1 2.77778·10–7 6.242·1012 0.1019716 2.38920·10–4 107
1 kWh (1) 3600000 1 2.247·1019 367097.8 860.11 3.6·1013
1 MeV (1) 1.602·10–13 4.45·10–20 1 1.634·10–14 3.827·10–17 1.602·10–6
1 mkp 9.80665 2.72407·10–6 6.124·1013 1 2.34301·10–3 9.80665·107
1 kcal15° 4185.5 1.16264·10–3 2.613·1016 426.80 1 4.1855·1010
1 erg 10–7 2.77778·10–14 6.242·105 0.1019716·10–7 2.38920·10–11 1

(1) Legal measurement units

(2) Examples: 1 J = 2.38920·10–4 kcal 1 MeV = 1.602·10 –13J

Pressure dimensions — conversion factors

Given Required dimension with conversion factor (2)

dimension
Unit N · m-2 bar atm kp·m-2 Torr Ibs/sq.in.
(Pa) (mm HG) (psi)

1 N·m -2
1 10 –5
9.8692·10 -6
1.019710·10 -1
7.50062 ·10 –3
1.45038·10-4
1 Pa (1)
1 bar (1) 105 1 9.8692 10197.16 750.062 14.5038
1 atm 101325 101325 1 10332.27 759.9988 14.6960
1 kp·m2 9.80665 9.80665·10–5 9.67841·10-5 1 7.35559·10–2 1.42234·10-3
1 Torr 133.3224 1.333224·10–3 1.31579·10-3 13.5951 1 1.93368·10-2
(1 mm Hg)
10 Ibs/sq.in. (psi) 68948 0.68948 0.68046 7030.68 517.148 10

(1) Legal measurement units

(2) Examples: 1 Pa = 7.50062·10–3 Torr 10 psi = 0.68046 atm

112
Decimal units multiples and subdivisions

Prefix Symbol Prefix Symbol

1018 Exa E 10–1 Deci d

1015 Peta P 10–2 Centi c
1012 Tera T 10–3 Milli m
109 Giga G 10–6 Micro µ
106 Mega M 10–9 Nano n
103 Kilo k 10–12 Piko p
102 Hecto h 10–15 Femto f
10 Deca da 10–18 Atto a

Concentrations

Proportion Potency % ppm ppb ppt

g/kg mg/kg µg/kg ng/kg

Mass and weight

mg/g µg/g ng/g pg/g
µg/mg ng/mg pg/mg fg/mg
1 : 100 1 x 10–2 1 10 10 000
1 : 1 000 1 x 10–3 0.1 1 1 000
1 : 10 000 1 x 10–4 0.01 0.1 100
1 : 100 000 1 x 10–5 0.001 0.01 10
1 : 1million 1 x 10–6 0.000 1 0.001 1 1 000
1 : 10 million 1 x 10–7 0.000 01 0.000 1 0.1 100
1 : 100 Millionen 1 x 10–8 0.000 001 0.000 01 0.01 10
1 : 1 Milliarde 1 x 10–9 0.000 000 1 0.000 001 0.001 1 1 000
1 : 10 Milliarden 1 x 10–10 0.1 100
1 : 100 Milliarden 1 x 10–11 0.01 10
1 : 1 Billion 1 x 10–12 0.001 1

The tables on pages 96 to 101 were reprinted with permission of the Deutsches
Institut für Normung e.V. (DIN, German Institute of Standardization).
They contain excerpts from DIN 1301. Always use the most current version of
the norm to be obtained from Beuth Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstraße 4–10,
10772 Berlin, Germany.

Basic units

Dimension Basic unit

Name Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

113
Derived units
with conversion of previous units

Size SI unit Symbol Further units Relationship

Name
Name Symbol
Length, surface, volume
Length Meter m
Surface Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3 Liter l 1 l = 10–3 m3

Mass
Mass Kilogram kg
Metric
ton t 1 t = 103 kg
Atomic 1 u = 1,66053
mass unit u ·10–27 kg
Density Kilogram
per
cubic meter kg·m–3
Specific Cubic meter
volume per
kilogram m3·kg–1

Amount of substance
Amount of
substance Mole mol
Molar Mass
mass per amount
of substance kg·mol–1 g·mol–1
Concentration Amount of
of a substance substance
in given
volume
of solvent mol·m–3 mol·l–1
Molality Amount of
substance
per mass
of solvent mol·kg–1 mol·g–1

Temperature
Temperature Kelvin K
Degree °C
centigrade

114
Derived units
with conversion of previous units

Size SI unit Symbol Further units Relationship

Name
Name Symbol
Time
Time second s
Time interval
minute min 1 min = 60 s
hour h 1 h = 60 min
day d 1 d = 24 h
Frequency Hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1 s-1
Velocity Meter
per
second m·s–1
Kilometer
per

Mass and weight

hour km·h-1 1 km·h-1
= 1 m·s-1
3.6

Viscosity
Dynamic Pascal- Pa·s 1 Pa·s = 1 N·s·m-2
viscosity second = 1 kg·m-1·s-1
Poise P 1P
= 0.1 Pa·s
Centipoise cP 1 cP
= 0.01 Pa·s
= 0.001 Pa·s
= mPa·s
Kinematic Square m2·s-1 Stokes St 1 St
viscosity meters = 1 cm2·s-1
per Centistoke cSt 1 cSt
second = 1 mm2·s-1

115
Derived units
with conversion of previous units

Size SI unit Symbol Further units Relationship

Name
Name Symbol
Force, energy, power
Force Newton N 1N
= 1 kg·m·s-2
Pressure Newton N·m-2
per
square
meter
Pascal Pa 1 Pa
= 1 N·m-2
Bar bar 1 bar
= 105 Pa
Energy, work Joule J 1J
heat quantity = 1 N·m
= 1 W·s
= 1 kg·m2·s-2
Kilowatt- kW·h 1 kW·h
hour = 3,6 MJ
Power Watt W 1W
= 1 J·s-1
= 1 N·ms-1
= 1 VA

Electrical measures
Electric Ampere A
current
Electric Volt V
potential
Electric Siemens S 1S
conductance = 1 A·V-1
Electric Ohm V 1V
resistance = 1 V·A-1
= 1 S-1
Electric Coulomb C 1C
charge = 1 A·s
Ampere- Axh 1 A·h
hour = 3600 A·s
Electric Farad F 1F
capacitance = 1 C·V-1

Luminous intensity
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Luminous flux Lumen lm 1 lm = 1 cd·sr
Illuminance Lux lx 1 lx = 1 lm·m-2
1 cd·sr·m-2

116
Derived units
with conversion of previous units

Size SI unit Symbol Further units Relationship

Name
Name Symbol
Ionizing radiation
Activity Becquerel Bq 1 Bq = 1 s-1
Curie Ci 1 Ci = 37 G Bq

Enzymatic activity
Enzymatic Katal kat 1 kat
activity = 1 mol·s-1
= 60 mol·min-1
Enzyme U 1U
unit = 1 mol·s-1
= 1 μkat
60

Mass and weight

= 16.67 nkat

117
US and British measuring units
Conversion to metric units
Volume
Liters x 0.2642 = US gallons
US gallons x 3.785 = Liters
Imperial gallons x 1.201 = US gallons
Imperial gallons x 4.546 = Liters
US gallons x 0.8327 = Imperial gallons
Cubic meters x 35.31 = Cubic feet
Cubic feet x 0.0283 = Cubic meters
Cubic meters x 264.2 = US gallons
US gallons x 0.00379 = Cubic meters

Length
Meters x 3.281 = Feet
Feet x 0.3048 = Meters
Meters x 39.37 = Inches
Inches x 0.0254 = Meters
Centimeters x 0.3937 = Inches
Inches x 2.540 = Centimeters
Millimeters x 0.0394 = Inches
Inches x 25.4 = Millimeters

Weight
Kilograms x 2.2046 = Pounds
Pounds x 0.4536 = Kilograms
Tons (long) x 1016.05 = Kilograms
Tons (long) x 2240 = Pounds
Tonnes (metr.) x 1000 = Kilograms
Tonnes (metr.) x 2204.6 = Pounds
Tons (short) x 907.185 = Kilograms
Tons (short) x 2000 = Pounds
Grams x 15.432653 = Grains
Grains x 0.0647989 = Grams
Grams x 0.0352740 = Ounces (US)
Ounces (US) x 28.349527 = Grams
Ounces (troy) x 31.1035 = Grams

118
US and British measuring units
Conversion to metric units
Temperatur

given in °Centigrade required in °Fahrenheit

°Réaumur
a·8 a · 8 + 32
a° Centigrade –
10 10
b · 10 b · 10 + 32
b° Réaumur –
8 8
(c - 32) · 10 (c - 32) · 8
c° Fahrenheit –
18 18

°C °F °C °F °C °F °C °F °C °F °C °F
– 40 – 40 +5 41 50 122 95 203 140 284 185 365
– 35 – 31 10 50 55 131 100 212 145 293 190 374

Mass and weight

– 30 – 22 15 59 60 140 105 221 150 302 195 383
– 25 – 13 20 68 65 149 110 230 155 311 200 392
– 20 –4 25 77 70 158 115 239 160 320 210 410
– 15 +5 30 86 75 167 120 248 165 329
– 10 14 35 95 80 176 125 257 170 338
–5 23 40 104 85 185 130 266 175 347
0 32 45 113 90 194 135 275 180 356

119
Other useful tables
Physical constants 122
Establishment of constant humidity in closed vessels 123
Greek alphabet 124
Greek numerals / Roman numbers 125
Freezing mixtures 126
Extran® 126
Particle sizes 128
NMR: Carbon (13C) chemical shifts 130
NMR: Proton chemical shifts 132
Miscibility table 134
Stoichiometry formulary 136
Physical constants

Constant Symbol Value

Atomic mass unit mU 1.660540 · 10–27 kg
Avogadro constant NA 6.022137 · 1023 mol–1
Bohr magneton μB 9.274015 · 10–24 JT–1
Bohr radius αO 5.291771 · 10–11 m
Boltzmann constant kB 1.380662 · 10–23 JK–1
Compton wavelength (e) λCe 2.426311 · 10–12 m
Compton wavelength (n) λCn 1.319591 · 10–15 m
Compton wavelength (p) λCp 1.321410 · 10–15 m
Electric field εO 8.854188 · 10–12 Fm–1
constant in vacuo
Electron radius r
τ e
2.817941 · 10–15 m
Elementary charge e 1.602177 · 10–19 C
Faraday constant F 9.648531 · 104 Cmol–1
Fine structure constant α 7.297353 · 10–3
Gas constant R 8.31451 J mol–1K–1
Gravitation constant f 6.672590 · 10–11 Nm2kg–2
Intrinsic impedance Γ 3.767301 · 102 V
Light velocity c 2.997924 · 108 ms–1
in vacuo
Loschmidt constant NL 2.686763 · 1025 m–3
Magnetic field
constant in vacuo μO 1.256637 · 10–7
Hm–1
Molar volume of ideal nm 2.445294 · 10–2 m3mol–1
gases 298 K, 101.325 kPa
Normal acceleration of fall g 9.80665 ms–2
Planck constant h 6.626075 · 10–34 Js
Rest mass of the electron me 9.109390 · 10–31 kg
Rest mass of the neutron mn 1.674929 · 10–27 kg
Rest mass of the proton mp 1.672623 · 10–27 kg
Rotational quantum h/(2π) 1.054588 · 10–34 Js
ydberg constant R∞ 1.097373 · 107 m–1

122
Creation constant air humidity in closed vessels

Saturated aqueous % relative air humidity

solution with above the solution
considerable precipitates (at 20 °C)
di-Sodium hydrogen phosphate Na2HPO4 · 12 H2O 95
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 · 10 H2O 92
Zinc sulfate ZnSO4 · 7 H2O 90
Potassium chloride KCl 86
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 80
Sodium chloride NaCl 76
Sodium nitrite NaNO2 65
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 63
Calcium nitrate Ca (NO3)2 · 4 H2O 55
Potassium carbonate K2CO3 45
Zinc nitrate Zn (NO3)2 · 6 H2O 42
Calcium chloride CaCl2 · 6 H2O 32
Lithium chloride LiCl · H2O 15

Other useful tables

123
Greek alphabet

Letter Name Pronunciation

A α álpha a
B β béta b
Γ γ gámma g
Δ δ délta d
E ε épsilon e (short)
Z ζ zéta z
H η éta e (long)
Θ θ théta th
I ι ióta i
K κ káppa k
Λ λ lámbda l
M μ mü m
N ν nü n
Ξ ξ xi x
O ο ómicron o (short)
Π π pi p
P ρ rho r
Σ σ1, ς2 sigma s
Τ τ tau t
Υ υ ýpsilon y
Φ φ phi ph
Χ χ chi ch
Ψ ψ psi ps
Ω ω ómega o (long)

1 At the beginning and in the middle of a word

2 At the end of a word

124
Greek numbers / Roman numbers

1
⁄2 hemi –
1 mono – I
11⁄2 sesqui –
2 di –, bi – II
21⁄2 hemipenta –
3 tri – III
4 tetra – IV
5 penta – V
6 hexa – VI
7 hepta – VII
8 octa – VIII
9 nona –, ennea – IX
10 deca – X
11 hendeca –, undeca XI
12 dodeca – XII
13 trideca XIII

Other useful tables

14 tetradeca – XIV
15 pentadeca – XV
16 hexadeca – XVI
17 heptadeca – XVII
18 octadeca – XVIII
19 nonadeca – XIX
20 eicosa – XX
40 tetraconta – XL
50 pentaconta – L
60 hexaconta – LX
90 nonaconta – XC
99 IC
100 hecta – C
200 CC
400 CD
500 D
600 DC
900 CM
990 XM
1000 M

125
Freezing mixtures

Lowering
The numbers represent weight proportions temperature
from [°C] to

4 water + 1 potassium chloride + 10 –  12

1 water + 1 ammonium nitrate + 10 –  15
1 water + 1 sodium nitrate + 1 ammonium chloride +  8 –  24
3 ice ground + 1 sodium chloride    0 –  21
1,2 ice ground + 1 magnesium chloride (MgCl2 · 7 H2O)    0 –  34
1,2 ice ground + 2 calcium chloride (CaCl2 · 6 H2O)    0 –  39
1,4 ice ground + 2 calcium chloride (CaCl2 · 6 H2O)    0 –  55
Methanol or acetone + dry ice + 15 –  77
Diethyl ether + dry ice + 15 – 100

Extran® laboratory cleaning agents

Name Cat. No. Notes on use

Extran® MA 01 107555 Universal cleaning agent for heavy contamination.
alkaline / liquid For hard water even up to 40° d. For cleaning tables,
tiles, and floors in the laboratory.
Suitable for ultrasonic cleaning.
Extran® MA 02 107553 Special cleaner for precision instruments of glass,
neutral / liquid quartz and sensitive metals. Suitable for ultrasonic
cleaning.
Extran® MA 03 107550 Universal cleaning agent for heavy contamination.
phosphate-free With very hard water also usable without restrictions.
liquid Environmentally friendly as it contains no phosphate.
Suitable for ultrasonic cleaning.
Extran® MA 05 140000 Universal cleaning agent for heavy contamination. With
liquid / alkaline very hard water also usable without restrictions.
/ phosphatefree Environmentally friendly as it contains no phosphate and
concentrate NTA. Suitable for ultrasonic cleaning.
Extran® AP 11 107558 Gentle cleaning action; e.g. in the analytical laboratory.
mildly alkaline/ Cleaning action equivalent to that of AP 14 liquid.
powder
Extran® AP 12 107563 Powerful cleaning action. Particularly with starch
alkaline/powder and protein residues. Cleaning action equivalent
to that of AP 15 liquid.
Extran® AP 13 107565 Powerful cleaning action. Particularly with
alkaline with fat residues.
detergents/
powder
Extran® AP 14 107573 Gentle cleaning action for machines with liquid dosing;
mildly alkaline/ e.g. in the analytical laboratory.
liquid Environmentally friendly as it contains no phosphate.
Cleaning action equivalent to that of AP 11 powder.

126
Extran® laboratory cleaning agents

Name Cat. No. Notes on use

Extran® AP 15 107575 Powerful cleaning for machines with liquid dosing.
alkaline/liquid Environmentally friendly as it contains no phosphate.
Cleaning action equivalent to that of AP 12 powder.
Extran® AP 16 140001 Gentle cleaning action for machines with liquid dosing;
liquid / mildly e.g. in the analytical laboratory.
alkaline Environmentally friendly as it contains no phosphate and
concentrate NTA. Cleaning action equivalent to that of AP 11 powder.
Extran® AP 17 140006 Powerful cleaning for machines with liquid dosing.
acidic with Environmentally friendly as it contains no phosphate and
phosphoric acid NTA. Cleaning action equivalent to that of AP 12 powder.
liquid
Extran® AP 21 107559 First rinse in the presence of residues of carbonates,
acidic with hydroxides, proteins, amines, etc. Neutralising
phosphoric acid Neutralising final rinse. Also for a gentle main wash.
liquid Prevents the formation of calcareous deposits.

Other useful tables

Extran® AP 22 107561 Gentle prerinse or final rinse with neutralizing
acidic with action. Prevents the formation of calcareous deposits.
citric acid liquid Environmentally friendly as it contains no phosphate.
Extran® AP 31 107560 Additive for foam-forming residues: proteins, fats,
antifoam/ liquid emulsifiers of all types.
Extran® AP 33 NN Additive for foam-forming residues: proteins, fats,
liquid / anti- emulsifiers of all types. Environmentally friendly as it
foaming agent / contains no formaldehyde.
formaldehyde-
free
Extran® AP 41 107570 For medical and dental practices, anaesthetic equipment.
enzymatic/ For the removal of mucus, saliva, blood etc. Temperature:
powder 55–65 °C.

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Immediate, residue-free cleaning is prerequisite to reliable

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zu viel Text!
127
Particle sizes

Mesh size w
DIN 4188 ASTM ASTM BS Tyler
(D) E11–70 E161–70 410 : 1969
[mm] (USA) (USA) (GB)
[mesh] [µm] [µm] [mesh]
5
10
15
0.02
0.022 22
0.025
27
0.028
0.032 32
0.036
400 38 38 400
0.04
0.045 325 45 45 325
0.05
270 53 53 270
0.056
0.063 230 63 63 250
0.071
200 75 75 200
0.08
0.09 170 90 90 170
0.1
140 106 106 150
0.112
0.125 120 125 125 115
0.14
100 150 150 100
0.16
0.18 80 180 80
0.2
70 212 65
0.224
0.25 60 250 60
0.28
50 300 48
0.315
0.355 45 355 42
0.4

128
Particle sizes

Mesh size w
DIN 4188 ASTM ASTM BS Tyler
E11–70 E161–70 410 : 1969
(D) (USA) (USA) (GB)
[mm] [mesh] [µm] [µm] [mesh]

40 425 35
0.45
0.5 35 500 32
0.56
30 600 28
0.63
0.71 25 710 24
0.8
20 850 20
0.9

Other useful tables

1 18 1000 16
1.12
1.18 16 1180 14
1.25
1.4 14 1400 12
1.6
12 1700 10
1.8
2 10 2000 9
2.24
8 2360 8
2.5
2.8 7 2800 7
3.15
6 3350 6
3.55
4 5 4000 5
4.5
4 4750 4
5
5.6 3 ⁄2˝
1
5600 31⁄2

129
NMR: Carbon (13C) chemical shifts

TMS = 0 ppm 220 200 180

H3C – C - C primary
H3C – Halogen
H3C – O –
H3C – N
H3C – S –
– CH2 – C - C secondary
– CH2 – Halogen
– CH2 – O –
– CH2 – N
– CH2 – S –
CH – C - C tertiary
CH – Halogen
CH – O –
CH – N
CH – S –
–C–C- C quaternary
– C – Halogen
–C–O–
220 200 180
C–S–
–C–C- Alkanes
–C≡C– Alkynes
C=C Alkenes
C=C Aromatics
C=C Heteroaromatics
–O–C≡N Cyanates
–S–C≡N Thiocyanates
–C≡N Cyanides
C=N– Azomethines
(– CO)2O Anhydrides
– COOR Esters
(– CO)2NR Imides
– CONHR Amides
– COOH Acids
– COCI Acid Chlorides
–C=O Aldehyde
C=O Ketone

220 200 180

130
160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 –20 –40

Cl I

aliphates — cyclopropanes
Cl I

Cl I

Other useful tables

Cl I

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 –20 –40

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 –20 –40

131
NMR: Proton chemical shifts

TMS = 0 ppm 13 12 11 10
H3C – CR3 Methyl protons
H3C – Halogen
H 3C – O –
H3C – N
H3C C=C
H3C C=O
H3C – Ar
– CH2 – CR3 Methylene protons
– CH2 – Halogen
– CH2 – O –
– CH2 – N
– CH2 C=C
– CH2 C=O
– CH2 – Ar
CH – CR3 Methine protons
CH – Halogen
CH – O –
CH – N

CH C=O
CH – Ar
–C≡C–H Alkynes
C-C–H Alkenes, nonconjugated
C-C–H Alkenes, conjugated
Ar – H Aromatics
Ar – H Heteroaromatics
O-C–H Aldehydes
ROH* Alcohols, very dilute solution
ROH* Alcohols, 0.1–0.9 mol/l
RCO2H* Carboxylic acids, dimer
– SO3H Sulfonic acids
RSH* Thiols
ArSH* Thiophenols
RNH2* Amines, 0.1–0.9 mol/l
R2NH* Amines, 0.1–0.9 mol/l
ArNH-(H, R, Ar)* Aromatic amines, primary, secondary
RNH3+, R2NH2+, R3NH+ in TFA solution
ArNH3+, ArRNH2+, ArR2NH+ in TFA solution
13 12 11 10
*The chemical shifts of these groups are concentration-dependent and are shifted to lower
ppm values in more dilute solutions

132
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

F I

F I

Other useful tables

F I

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 H
(ppm)

133
Miscibility tables

Carbon tetrachloride

1.2-Dichloroethane

Dichloromethane

Diethyl ether
Cyclohexane
Acetonitrile

Chloroform
Acetone
Acetone

Acetonitrile

Carbon tetrachloride

Chloroform

Cyclohexane

1.2-Dichloroethane

Dichloromethane

Diethyl ether

Dimethyl formamide

Dimethyl sulfoxide

1.4-Dioxane

Ethanol

Ethyl acetate

Heptane

Hexane

Methanol

Methyl-tert-butyl ether

Pentane

1-Propanol

2-Propanol

Tetrahydrofuran

Toluene

2,2,4-Trimethylpentane

Water

miscible

immiscible

134
 Dimethyl formamide

Dimethyl sulfoxide

1.4-Dioxane

Ethanol

Ethyl acetate

Heptane

Hexane

Methanol

Methyl-tert-butyl ether

Pentane

1-Propanol

2-Propanol

Tetrahydrofuran

Toluene

2,2,4-Trimethylpentane

Water

135
Other useful tables
Stoichiometry formulary

Density

p = m g
v mL

Substance amount fraction

x(x) = n(x) [1]

n(x) + n(Lm)

x(x) = n(x) [1]

n(ges.)

Substance amount concentration

c(x) = n(x) mol

V(Lsg) L

n(x) = m(x) [mol]

M(x)

Substance amount concentration of the equivalent

1
n x
c 1 x = z mol
z V(Lsg) L

n 1 x = m(x)
z M 1 x mol
z

Per cent by weight

ω(x) = m(x) [1]

m(Lsg)

Mass per unit volume β

β = m(x) g
V(Lsg) L

Per cent by volume φ

φ (x) = V(x) [1]

V(x) + V(Lm)

Volume concentration σ

σ (x) = V(x) [1]

V(Lgs)

Molar volume

Vm = V L
n mol

136
Equation of mixtures

ω1 * m1 + w2 * m2 + … = ωMi * mMi

Dilution

ω1 * m1 = ωMi * mMi mMi = m1 + m2 + …

Reconcentration

ω1 * m1 = ωMi * (m1 - m2)

Equation of mixtures for the substance amount of the concentration

c1 * V1 + c2 * V2 + … = cMi * (V1 + V2 + …)

Gravimetry

ω(x) = m(Ausw) * F * 100 * VF [%]

m(Einw)

Other useful tables

F = M(ges. Stoff) [1]
M(ges. Stoff)

m(x) = m (Auswaage) * F [g]

Volumetry
mol
c(x) = c̃(x) * t(x)
L

t(x) = c(x) [1]
c̃(x)

n(x) = c̃(x) * t(x) * V(Lsg) [mol]

Recovery calculation

ω(% d.Th.) = m(P) * 100 [%]

m(T)

m(T) = m(Einw) * F

pH-value calculation

KW = c(H3O+) * c(OH-) = c2(H2O) pH = -Ig c(H3O+)

pH = -lg � KS * c(acid)

KW = 10 mol * 10-7 mol = 10-14 mol 2

-7

pOH = -lg c(OH-)
L L L L

pOH = -lg � KB * c(base)

Buffer solution

c (acid) )
pH = -lg (KS *
c(salt)
137
Notes
Notes
Periodic table of the elements
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please contact your local agent
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