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Appendix 1 Styles of referencing

Preferred styles of referencing differ both between universities and between departments
within universities. Even styles that are in wide use such as ‘Harvard’ vary in how they are used
in practice by different institutions. When this is combined with the reality that some lecturers
apply an adopted style strictly, whilst others are more lenient, it emphasises the need for you
to use the precise style prescribed in your assessment criteria. Within business and manage-
ment, two referencing styles predominate, the Harvard style and the American Psychological
Association (APA) style, both of which are author-date systems. The alternative, numeric sys-
tems, are used far less widely.
Four points are important when referencing:
• Credit must be given when quoting or citing other’s work.
• Adequate information must be provided in the reference to enable that work to be located.
• References must be consistent and complete.
• References must be recorded using precisely the style required by your university.

Author-date systems
The Harvard style
Referencing in the text
The Harvard style is an author-date system, a variation of which we use in this book. It appears
to have its origins in a referencing practice developed by a professor of anatomy at Harvard
University (Neville 2007) and usually uses the author’s name and year of publication to iden-
tify cited documents within the text. All references are listed alphabetically at the end of the
text. Common variations within the Harvard style which are applied consistently include
(Neville 2007):
• Name(s) of authors or organisations may or may not be in UPPER CASE.
• Where there are more than two authors, the names of the second and subsequent authors
may or may not be replaced by et al. in italics.
• The year of publication may or may not be enclosed in (brackets).
• The title of the publication may be in italics or may be underlined.
The style for referencing work in the text is outlined in Table A1.1.

Referencing in the references or bibliography

In the references or bibliography the publications are listed alphabetically by author’s name,
and all authors’ surnames and initials are normally listed in full. If there is more than one work
by the same author, these are listed chronologically. The style for referencing work in the refer-
ences or bibliography is outlined in Table A1.2. While it would be impossible for us to include

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Appendix 1

Table A1.1 Using the Harvard style to reference in the text

To refer to Use the general format For example

A single author (Surname year) (Saunders 2007)
Dual authors (Surname and Surname year) (Saunders and Thornhill
2006)
More than two authors (Surname et al. year) (Lewis et al. 2004)
Work by different authors (Surname year, Surname (Cassell 2004, Dillman 2000,
generally year) in alphabetical order Robson 2002)
Different authors with the (Surname Initial year) (Smith J 2008)
same surname
Different works by the (Surname year, year) in (Saunders 2004, 2005)
same author ascending year order
Different works by the (Surname year letter), make (de Vita 2006a)
same author from the sure the letter is consistent
same year throughout
An author referred to by (Surname year, cited by (Granovetter 1974, cited
another author where the Surname year) by Saunders 1993)
original has not been read
(secondary reference)
A corporate author (Corporate name year) (Harley-Davidson Inc. 2008)
A newspaper article with (Newspaper name year) (The Guardian 2008)
no obvious author
Another type of work with (Publication title year) (Labour Market Trends 2005)
no obvious author
An Internet site (Source organisation year) (Financial Times 2008)
A television or radio (Television or radio programme (Today Programme 2008)
programme series title year)
A commercial DVD or video (DVD or video series (The Office Series 1 and 2
that is part of a series title year) 2005)
A commercial DVD or video (DVD or video title year) (One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s
that is not part of a series Nest 2002)
A work for which the year (Surname or Corporate name (Woollons nd)
of publication cannot nd), where ‘nd’ means no year
be identified (Surname or Corporate name c. (Hattersley c. 2004)
year) where ‘c.’ means circa
A direct quotation (Surname or Corporate name, ‘Whenever an employee’s
year, p. ###) where ‘p.’ means job ceases to exist it is
‘page’ and ### is the page potentially fair to dismiss
in the original publication on that person.’ (Lewis et al.
which the quotation appears 2003, p. 350)

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Styles of referencing

Table A1.2 Using the Harvard style to reference in the references or bibliography
To reference Use the general format For example
Books, chapters Book (first edition) Surname, Initials. and Surname, Berman Brown, R. and Saunders, M.
in books and Initials. (year). Title. Place of (2008). Dealing with statistics:
brochures publication: Publisher. What you need to know. Maidenhead:
Open University Press.

Book (other than Surname, Initials. and Surname, Morris, C. (2003). Quantitative
first edition) Initials. (year). Title. (# edn) approaches to business studies.
Place of publication: (6th edn). London: Financial Times
Publisher. Pitman Publishing.

Book (no obvious Corporate name or Publication Mintel Marketing Intelligence. (1998).
author) name. (year). Title. Place of Designerwear: Mintel marketing
publication: Publisher. intelligence report. London: Mintel
International Group Ltd.

Chapter in a book Surname, Initials. and Surname, Robson, C. (2002). Real World Research.
Initials. (year). Title. Place of (2nd edn). Oxford: Blackwell. Chapter 3.
publication: Publisher. Chapter #.

Chapter in an edited Surname, Initials. (year). King, N. (2004). Using templates in the
book containing a Chapter title. In Initials. thematic analysis of text. In C. Cassell
collection of articles Surname and Initials. Surname and J. Symon (eds) Essential guide to
(sometimes called (eds) Title. Place of publication: qualitative methods in organizational
a reader) Publisher. pp. ###-###. research. London: Sage. pp. 256–270.

Dictionary and Surname, Initials. (year). Title. Vogt, W.P. (2005). Dictionary of
other reference (# edn). Place of Publication: statistics and methodology: a
books where is an Publisher. pp. ###–###. nontechnical guide for the social
author or editor sciences. (3rd edn). Thousand Oaks,
and referring to CA: Sage. pp. 124–5.
particular entry

Dictionary and Title. (year). (# edn). Place The right word at the right time.
other reference of Publication: Publisher. (1985). Pleasantville, NY: Readers
books where no pp. ###–###. Digest Association. pp. 563–4.
author or editor
and referring to
particular entry

Brochure Corporate name or Publication Harley-Davidson Europe. (2007).

name. (year). Title. Place of 2008 make every day count. Oxford:
publication: as for author. Harley-Davidson Europe.

Republished book Surname, Initials. and Surname, Marshall, J.D. (1981). Furness and the
Initials. (year). Title. Place of industrial revolution. Beckermont:
publication: Publisher (originally Michael Moon (originally published
published by Publisher year). by Barrow Town Council 1958).

Journal and Journal article Surname, Initials. and Surname, Storey, J., Cressey, P., Morris, T. and
magazine (originally printed Initials. (year). Title of article. Wilkinson, A. (1997). Changing
articles but same as found Journal name. Vol. ##, No. ##, employment practices in UK banking:
online) pp. ###–####. case studies. Personnel Review. Vol. 26,
No. 1, pp. 24–42.

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Appendix 1

Table A1.2 (continued)

To reference Use the general format For example
Journal article only Surname, Initials. and Illingworth, N. (2001). The Internet
published online Surname, Initials. (year). Title matters: exploring the use of the
of article, Journal name, Internet as a research tool. Sociological
Vol. ##, No. ##, pp. ###–###. Research Online, Vol. 6, No. 2. Available
Available at http:// www. at http://www.socresonline.org.uk/6/2/
remainderoffullInternetaddress/ illingworth.html [Accessed 20
[Accessed day month year]. Mar. 2002].

Journal article for Surname, Initials. and Yang, D. (2008). Pendency and grant
which corrected Surname, Initials. (year). Title ratios on invention patents: A
proofs are available of article, Journal name. Comparative Study of the US and
online but which is Available at http://www. China, Research Policy. Available at
still to be published fulldoiInternetaddress/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2008.
[Accessed day month year]. 03.008 [Accessed 14 May 2008].

Magazine article Corporate name or Publication Quality World. (2007). Immigration

(no obvious author) name. (year). Title of article. abuse. Quality World. Vol. 33,
Magazine name. Vol. ##, No 12, p. 6.
No. ## (or day month), p. ###.

Government Parliamentary papers Country of origin. (year) Title. United Kingdom. (2005). The
publications including acts and Place of publication: Publisher. Prevention of Terrorism Act. London:
bills The Stationery Office.

Others (with As for books As for books

authors)

Others (no obvious Department name or Department of Trade and Industry.

authors) Committee name. (year). Title. (1992). The Single Market: Europe
Place of publication: Publisher. Open for Professions, UK
Implementation. London: HMSO.

Newspapers, Newspaper article Surname, Initials. and Surname, Hawkes, S. Umbro slashes England
including Initials. Title of article. shirt production. The Times. 24 Nov.
CD-ROM Newspaper name, day month 2007, p. 63.
databases year, p. ## (where known).

Newspaper article Newspaper name. Title of The Times. Business big shot Steve
(no obvious author) article, day month year, p. ## Mankin, 24 Nov. 2007, p. 63.
(where known).

Newspaper article Newspaper name. Title of Financial Times. Recruitment: lessons in

(from CD-ROM article, day month year, [CD- leadership: moral issues are increasingly
database, no ROM]. p. ## (where known). pertinent to the military and top
obvious author) corporate ranks, 11 Mar. 1998.
[CD-ROM]. p. 32.

Other CD-ROM CD-ROM Surname, Initials. and surname, Friedman, M., Friedman, R. and
publications initials. (year). Title of CD-ROM. Adams, J. (2007). Free to chase.
[CD-ROM]. Place of publication: [CD-ROM]. Ashland, OR: Blackstone
Publisher. Audiobooks.

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Styles of referencing

Table A1.2 (continued)

To reference Use the general format For example
CD-ROM, no Title of CD-ROM. (year). Encarta 2006 Encyclopaedia.
obvious author [CD-ROM]. Place of publication: (2005). [CD-ROM]. Redmond, WA:
Publisher. Microsoft.

Unpublished Surname, Initials. and Surname, Saunders, M.N.K., Thornhill, A. and

conference Initials. (year). Title of paper. Evans, C. (2007). Conceptualising trust
papers Unpublished paper presented at and distrust and the role of boundaries:
‘Conference name’. Location of an organisationally based exploration.
conference, day month year. Unpublished paper presented at ‘EIASM
4th Workshop on Trust Within and
Between Organisations’. Amsterdam,
25–26 Oct. 2007.

Letters, Letter Sender’s Surname, Sender’s Saunders, J. (2008). Unpublished

personal emails Initials. (year). Unpublished letter letter to M.N.K. Saunders re. French
and electronic to Recipient’s Initials. Recipient’s Revolution, 10 Sept. 2008.
conferences/ Surname re. Subject matter, day,
bulletin month, year
boards
Personal email Sender’s surname, Sender’s McPartlin, A. (2008). Email to M.N.K.
initials. (year). Email to Saunders re. Reviewers’ feedback,
recipient’s initials. recipient’s 23 Nov. 2008.
surname re. Subject matter, day
month year.

Blog Owner’s Surname, Owner’s Bonham-Carter, D. (2007) Career

Initials. (year of posting). Specific Change Questionnaire. David’s life
subject. Title of Blog. Day coaching blog. 10 Dec 2007. Available
Month Year (of posting). at http://www.davidbonham-carter.com/
Avalable at http://www. 2007/12/career-change-questionnaire
remainderoffullInternetaddress/ .html [Accessed 11 Dec. 2007].
[Accessed day month year].

Discussion list email Sender’s Surname, Sender’s Manno, D.F. (2007). Re. I got an email
(where emailer Initials. (year of posting). Re. solicitation. Posted 6 Dec 2007. Survey
known) Subject of discussion. Posted Pro or Con? [email protected]
day month year. Sender’s email [Accessed 10 Dec. 2007].
address. [Accessed day month
year].

Internet site/specific Source organisation. (year). Title European Commission. (2007).

site pages of site or page within site. Eurostat – structural indicators. Available
Available at http://www. at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/
remainderoffullInternetaddress/ portal/page?_pageid=1133,47800773,
[Accessed day month year]. 1133_47802558&_dad=portal&_
schema=PORTAL [Accessed 27 Nov.
2007].

Internet reports and Surname, Initials. and Surname, Browne, L. and Alstrup, P. (eds.) (2006).
guides Initials. (year). Title of report. What exactly is the Labour Force Survey?
Available at http://www. Available at http://www.statistics.gov.uk/
remainderoffullInternetaddress/ downloads/theme_labour/
[Accessed day month year]. What_exactly_is_LFS1.pdf [Accessed
25 Dec. 2007].

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Appendix 1

Table A1.2 (continued)

To reference Use the general format For example
Internet reports Organisation name. Department for Transport. (2007).
and guides (no (year). Title of report. Adding capacity at Heathrow airport:
author) Available at http://www consultation document. Available at
.remainderoffullInternetaddress/ http://www.dft.gov.uk/consultations/
[Accessed day month year]. open/heathrowconsultation/
consultationdocument/ [Accessed
25 Dec. 2007].

Audio-visual Television or radio Programme title. (year of The Today Programme. (2008). British
material programme production). Transmitting Broadcasting Corporation Radio
organisation and nature of broadcast, 6 Apr. 2008.
transmission, day month year
of transmission.

Television or radio Series title. (year of production). The Money Programme. (2007).
programme that is Episode. episode title. Episode. Last orders for Guinness.
part of a series Transmitting organisation and British Broadcasting Corporation
nature of transmission, day Television broadcast, 11 Dec. 2007.
month year of transmission.

Commercial DVD DVD title. (Year of production). Bruce Springsteen Live in New York
[DVD]. Place of publication: City (2003). [DVD]. New York: Sony.
Publisher.

Commercial DVD DVD series title (Year of The Office Complete Series 1 and 2
that is part of a production) Episode. Episode and the Christmas Specials. (2005).
series title. [DVD]. Place of Episode. Series 1 Christmas Special.
publication: Publisher. [DVD]. London: British Broadcasting
Corporation.

Audio CD Surname, Initials. or Artist. or Goldratt, E.M. (2005). Beyond the goal.
Group. (year). Title of CD. [Audio CD]. Buffalo NY: Goldratt’s
[Audio CD]. Place of Marketing Group.
Publication: Publisher.

Notes: Where date is not known or unclear, follow conventions outlined towards the end of Table A1.1.
Email addresses should not be included except when they are in the public domain. Even where this is the case, permission should be obtained
or the email address replaced by ‘. . .’ after the fourth character, for example: ‘[email protected]’.

an example of every type of reference you might need to include, the information con-
tained in this table should enable you to work out the required format for all your refer-
ences. If there are any about which you are unsure, Colin Neville’s (2007) book The
Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism is one of the most comprehensive
sources we have found.
For copies of journal articles from printed journals that you have obtained electroni-
cally via the Internet it is usually acceptable to reference these using exactly the same for-
mat as printed journal articles (Table A1.2), provided that you have obtained and read a
facsimile (exact) copy of the article. Exact copies of journal articles have precisely the
same format as the printed version, including page numbering, tables and diagrams. They
are usually obtained by downloading the article via the Internet as a .pdf file that can be
read on the screen and printed using Adobe Acrobat Reader. The Adobe Acrobat Reader
can be downloaded free of charge from: http://www.adobe.com/

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Styles of referencing

Finally, remember to include a, b, c etc. immediately after the year when you are ref-
erencing different publications by the same author from the same year. Do not forget to
ensure that these are consistent with the letters used for the references in the main text.

The American Psychological Association (APA) style

The American Psychological Association style or APA style is a variation on the author-
date system. Like the Harvard style it dates from the 1930s and 1940s, and has been
updated subsequently. The latest updates are outlined in the latest edition of the
American Psychological Association’s (2005) Concise rules of the APA style, which is
likely to be available for reference in your university’s library.
Relatively small but significant differences exist between the Harvard and APA styles,
and many authors adopt a combination of the two styles. The key differences are outlined
in Table A1.3.

Table A1.3 Key differences between Harvard and APA styles of referencing

Harvard style APA style Comment

Referencing in the text
(Lewis 2001) (Lewis, 2001) Note punctuation
(Williams and Saunders 2006) (Williams & Saunders, 2006) ‘&’ not ‘and’
(Saunders et al. 2005) (Saunders, Skinner & For first occurrence if three
Beresford, 2005) to five authors
(Saunders et al. 2005) (Saunders et al., 2005) For first occurrence if six or
more authors
(Saunders et al. 2005) (Saunders et al., 2005) For subsequent occurrences;
note punctuation
Referencing in the references or bibliography
Berman Brown, R. and Berman Brown, R. & Note use of ‘and’ and ‘&’
Saunders, M. (2008). Saunders, M. (2008).
Dealing with statistics: Dealing with statistics: What
What you need to know. you need to know.
Maidenhead: Open Maidenhead: Open
University Press. University Press.

Numeric systems
Referencing in the text
When using a Numeric system such as the Vancouver style, references within the project
report are shown by a number that is either bracketed or in superscript. This number
refers directly to the list of references at the end of the text, and it means it is not neces-
sary for you to include the authors’ names or year of publication:
‘Research1 indicates that . . .’

1
Ritzer, G. The McDonaldization of Society. (revised edn). Thousand Oaks, CA, Pine Forge Press; 1996.

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Appendix 1

Referencing in the references

The references list sequentially the referenced items in the order they are referred to in
your project report. This means that they are unlikely to be in alphabetical order. When
using the Numeric system you need to ensure that:
• The layout of individual references is that prescribed by the style you have adopted.
This is likely to differ from both the Harvard and APA styles (Table A1.3) and will be
dependent upon precisely which style has been adopted. The reference to Ritzer’s book
in the previous sub-section follows the Vancouver style. Further details of this and other
numeric styles can be found in Neville’s (2007) book.
• The items referred to include only those you have cited in your report. They, therefore,
should be headed ‘References’ rather than ‘Bibliography’.
• Only one number is used for each item, except where you refer to the same item more
than once but need to refer to different pages. In such instances you use standard bib-
liographic abbreviations to save repeating the reference in full (Table A1.4).

Table A1.4 Bibliographic Abbreviations

Abbreviation Explanation For example

Op. cit. Meaning ‘in the work cited’. This refers to a work Robson (2002)
(opere citato) previously referenced, and so you must give the op. cit.
author and year and, if necessary, the page pp. 23–4.
number.

Loc. cit. Meaning ‘in the place cited’. This refers to the Robson (2002)
(loco citato) same page of a work previously referenced, and loc. cit.
so you must give the author and year.
Ibid. (ibidem) Meaning ‘the same work given immediately before’. Ibid. p. 59.
This refers to the work referenced immediately
before, and replaces all details of the previous
reference other than a page number if necessary.

References
American Psychological Association (2005) Concise Rules of the APA Style. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
Neville, C. (2007) The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism. Maidenhead: Open
University Press.

Further Reading
American Psychological Association (2005) Concise Rules of the APA Style. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association. The most recent version of this manual contains full details
of how to use this form of the author–date system of referencing as well as how to lay out tables,
figures, equations and other statistical data. It also provides guidance on grammar and writing.
Neville, C. (2007) The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism. Maidenhead:
Open University Press. This book provides a comprehensive, up-to-date discussion of the layout
required for a multitude of information sources including those from the Internet. It includes guid-
ance on the Harvard, American Psychological Association, numerical and other referencing styles
as well as a chapter on plagiarism.
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