12 EC

TE
D
PA

Continuous
G

probability
E
PR
O
FS
O
distributions
R
R
O
C

12.1 Kick off with CAS

N

12.2 Continuous random variables and probability functions

U

12.3 The continuous probability density function

12.4 Measures of centre and spread
12.5 Linear transformations
12.6 Review

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 452 23/08/15 6:58 PM

 12.1 Kick off with CAS
To come

FS
O
O
PR
E
G
PA
D
TE
EC
R
R
O
C
N
U

Please refer to the Resources tab in the Prelims section of your eBookPlUs for a comprehensive
step-by-step guide on how to use your CAS technology.

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 453 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 12.2 Continuous random variables
and  ­probability functions
Continuous random variables
Discrete data is data that is finite or countable, such as the number of soft-centred
chocolates in a box of soft- and hard-centred chocolates.
A continuous random variable assumes an uncountable or infinite number of possible
outcomes between two values. That is, the variable can assume any value within a
given range. For example, the birth weights of babies and the number of millimetres
of rain that falls in a night are continuous random variables. In these examples, the
measurements come from an interval of possible outcomes. If a newborn boy is

FS
weighed at 4.46 kilograms, that is just what the weight scale’s output said. In reality,
he may have weighed 4.463  279 .  .  . kilograms. Therefore, a possible range of outcomes

O
is valid, within an interval that depends on the precision of the scale.
Consider an Australian health study that was conducted. The study targeted young

O
people aged 5 to 17 years old. They were asked to estimate the average number of

PR
hours of physical activity they participated in each week. The results of this study are
shown in the following histogram.
Physical activity

E
y

G
400 364
350 347
PA
300
Frequency

250
200 156
150
D

100 54
50 32
TE

10 7
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
  Hours
EC

Remember, continuous data has no limit to the accuracy with which it is measured.
In this case, for example, 0 ≤ x < 1 means from 0 seconds to 59 minutes and
R

59 seconds, and so on, because x is not restricted to integer values. In the physical
activity study, x taking on a particular value is equivalent to x taking on a value in an
R

appropriate interval. For instance,

O

Pr(X = 0.5) = Pr(0 ≤ X < 1)

C

Pr(X = 1.5) = Pr(1 ≤ X < 2)

N

and so on. From the histogram,

U

Pr(X = 2.5) = Pr(2 ≤ X < 3)

156
=
(364 + 347 + 156 + 54 + 32 + 10 + 7)
= 156
970

In another study, the nose lengths, X millimetres, of 75 adults were measured. This
data is continuous because the results are measurements. The result of the study is
shown in the table and accompanying histogram.

454  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 454 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 Nose length Frequency
27.5 < X ≤ 32.5 2
32.5 < X ≤ 37.5 5
37.5 < X ≤ 42.5 17
42.5 < X ≤ 47.5 21
47.5 < X ≤ 52.5 11
52.5 < X ≤ 57.5 7
57.5 < X ≤ 62.5 6

FS
62.5 < X ≤ 67.5 5
67.5 < X ≤ 72.5 1

O
O
y Nose length

PR
35
30
25
20
Frequency

E
15
10

G 5
0
PA
x
27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5
  Length in mm
D
TE

It is possible to use the histogram to find the number of people who have a nose
length of less than 47.5 mm.
EC

2 + 5 + 17 + 21
Pr(nose length is < 47.5) =
75
R

= 45
R

75

= 35
O
C

It is worth noting that we cannot find the probability that a person has a nose length
which is less than 45 mm, as this is not the end point of any interval. However, if we
N

had a mathematical formula to approximate the shape of the graph, then the formula
U

could give us the answer to this important question.

In the histogram, the midpoints at the top of each bar have been connected by line
segments. If the class intervals were much smaller, say 1 mm or even less, these line
segments would take on the appearance of a smooth curve. This smooth curve is of
considerable importance for continuous random variables, because it represents the
probability density function for the continuous data.
This problem for a continuous random variable can be addressed by using calculus.

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  455

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 455 23/08/15 7:15 PM

 For any continuous random variable, X, the probability density function is
such that

Pr(a < X < b) = 3 f(x)dx

b

which is the area under the curve from x = a to x = b.

f (x)

FS
O
O
PR
0 x
a b

A probability density function must satisfy the following conditions:

• f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b]

E
• 3 f(x)dx = 1; this is absolutely critical.
b

G
PA
a
D

Other properties are:

• Pr(X = x) = 0, where x ∈ [a, b]
TE

• Pr(a < X < b) = P(a ≤ X < b) = Pr(a < X ≤ b) = Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = 3 f(x)dx

b
EC

• Pr(X < c) = Pr(X ≤ c) = 3 f(x)dx when x ∈ a, b and a < c < b.

c
R

a
R

Units 3 & 4
O

AOS 4
Probability density functions
C

Topic 3
Concept 1 In theory, the domain of a continuous probability density function is R, so that
N

3 f(x)dx = 1.
Probability
U

density functions
Concept summary
Practice questions −∞

However, if we must address the condition that

3 f(x)dx = 1,
b
Interactivity
Probability density
functions a
int-6434
then the function must be zero everywhere else.

456  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 456 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 WOrKeD Sketch the graph of each of the following functions and state whether each
eXaMpLe 1 function is a probability density function.
2(x − 1), 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
a f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
0.5, 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
b f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
2e−x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
c f(x) = e
0, elsewhere

FS
tHinK WritE/draW
a 1 Sketch the graph of f(x) = 2(x − 1) a f(x)

O
over the domain 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, giving an 2 (2, 2)
x-intercept of 1 and an end point of (2, 2).

O
Make sure to include the horizontal f(x) = 2(x – 1)

PR
lines for y = 0 either side of this graph.
Note: This function is known as a
triangular probability function because

E
of its shape.

G 0 (1, 0) (2, 0) x
PA
2 Inspect the graph to determine if the Yes, f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values.
function is always positive or zero, that is,
D

f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b].

TE

3 Calculate the area of the shaded region to Method 1: Using the area of triangles

determine if 32(x − 1)dx = 1.

2
Area of shaded region = 12 × base × height
EC

1 = 12 × 1 × 2
=1
R

Method 2: Using calculus

R

Area of shaded region = 3 2(x − 1)dx

2
O
C

= 3 (2x − 2)dx
2
N
U

1
2
= 3 x2 − 2x 4 1
= (22 − 2(2)) − (12 − 2(1))
=0−1+2
=1
4 Interpret the results. f(x) ≥ 0 for all values, and the area under the
curve = 1. Therefore, this is a probability density
function.

topic 12 COntInuOus prObabILIty DIstrIbutIOns 457

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 457 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 b 1 Sketch the graph of f(x) = 0.5 for b f(x)
2 ≤ x ≤ 4. This gives a horizontal line,
with end points of (2, 0.5) and (4, 0.5).
Make sure to include the horizontal lines
for y = 0 on either side of this graph. f(x) = 0.5
0.5 (2, 0.5) (4, 0.5)
Note: This function is known as a uniform
or rectangular probability density function
because of its rectangular shape. (2, 0) (4, 0)
0 x

FS
2 Inspect the graph to determine if the Yes, f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values.
f­ unction is always positive or zero, that

O
is, f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b] .

O
3 Calculate the area of the shaded region Again, it is not necessary to use calculus to find

to determine if 30.5dx = 1.
4
the area.

PR
Method 1:
2 Area of shaded region = length × width
= 2 × 0.5

E
=1

G
Method 2:
PA
Area of shaded region = 30.5dx
4

2
4
D

= 3 0.5x 4 2
= 0.5(4) − 0.5(2)
TE

=2−1
=1
EC

4 Interpret the results. f(x) ≥ 0 for all values, and the area under the
curve = 1. Therefore, this is a probability density
R

function.
R

c 1 Sketch the graph of f(x) = 2e−x for c f(x)

O

0 ≤ x ≤ 2. End points will be (0, 2)

and (2, e–2). Make sure to include the (0, 2)
C

horizontal lines for y = 0 on either side of

N

f(x) = 2e–x
this graph.
U

(2, –e2) 2

(0, 0) x
(2, 0)

458  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 458 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 2 Inspect the graph to determine if the Yes, f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values.
function is always positive or zero, that
is, f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b] .

32e dx = 2 3 e dx
2 2

3 Calculate the area of the shaded region −x −x

to determine if 32e−xdx = 1.
2
0 0
2
= 2 3 −e−x 4 0
0
= 2(−e−2 + e0)
= 2(−e−2 + 1)
= 1.7293

FS
4 Interpret the results. f(x) ≥ 0 for all values. However, the area under
the curve ≠ 1. Therefore this is not a probability

O
density function.

O
PR
WOrKeD Given that the functions below are probability density functions, find the
eXaMpLe 2 value of a in each function.

E
a(x − 1) 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 ae −4x, x > 0
a f(x) = e
0, G
elsewhere
b f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
PA
tHinK WritE

3f(x)dx = 1
4
D

a 1 As the function has already been defined as a a

TE

probability density function, this means that the 0

3a(x − 1) dx = 1
4
area under the graph is definitely 1. 2
EC

a3 (x − 1) 2dx = 1
4
R

2 Remove a from the integral, as it is a constant.

R

0
O

a3 (x − 1) 2dx = 1
4

3 Antidifferentiate and substitute in the terminals.

C

0
N

4
(x − 1) 3
ac d =1
U

3 0
3
33 (−1)
ac − d =1
3 3
4 Solve for a. a a 9 + 13 b = 1
28
a× 3
=1
3
a = 28

topic 12 COntInuOus prObabILIty DIstrIbutIOns 459

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 459 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 3 f(x)dx = 1
∞

b 1 As the function has already been defined as a b

p­ robability density function, this means that the 0
∞

3 ae
area under the graph is definitely 1.
−4x
dx = 1
0

2 Remove a from the integral, as it is a constant. a 3 e−4xdx = 1

0

FS
k

3 To evaluate an integral containing infinity as one a × lim 3 e−4xdx = 1

O
k→∞
of the ­terminals, we find the appropriate limit. 0

O
k

a × lim 3 e−4xdx = 1

PR
4 Antidifferentiate and substitute in the terminals.
k→∞
0
k
1
a × lim c − e−4x d = 1

E
k→∞ 4 0

G a × lim a−
e−4k 1
4
+ b=1
4
PA
k→∞

e−4k 1
a × lim a− + b=1
k→∞ 4 4
D

1 1
a × lim a− + b=1
TE

k→∞ 4e4k 4
1
a a0 + b = 1
EC

5 Solve for a. Remember that a number divided

4
by an ­extremely large number is effectively a
=1
1 4
zero, so lim a 4k b = 0.
R

k→∞ e a=4
R
O

Exercise 12.2 Continuous random variables and ­probability functions

C
N

1 WE1 Sketch each of the following functions and determine whether each one is a
PRactise
probability density function.
U

Work without CAS 1 2x 0.25, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2

e , 0 ≤ x ≤ loge 3
a f(x) = • 4 b f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
0, elsewhere
2 Sketch each of the following functions and determine whether each one is a
probability density function.
1 π π 1 1
cos(x), − ≤ x ≤ , ≤x≤4
a f(x) = • 2 2 2 b f(x) = • 2 !x 2
0, elsewhere 0, elsewhere

460  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 460 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 3 WE2 Given that the function is a probability density function, find the value of n.
n(x3 − 1), 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
4 Given that the function is a probability density function, find the value of a.
−ax, −2 ≤ x < 0
f(x) = • 2ax, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
0, elsewhere
5 A small car-hire firm keeps note of the age and kilometres covered by each of the
Consolidate
cars in their fleet. Generally, cars are no longer used once they have either covered

FS
Apply the most
appropriate
350  000 kilometres or are more than five years old. The following information
mathematical describes the ages of the cars in their current fleet.

O
processes and tools
Age Frequency

O
0<x≤1 10 Age of rental car
y

PR
1<x≤2 26 30
25
2<x≤3

Frequency
28
20
3<x≤4 20 15

E
10
4<x≤5 11
5<x≤6 4
G 5
0 x
PA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6<x≤7 1    Age in years

a Determine:
D

i Pr(X ≤ 2) ii Pr(X > 4).

b Determine:
TE

i Pr(1 < X ≤ 4) ii Pr(X > 1│X ≤ 4).

6 The battery life for batteries in television remote controls was investigated
EC

in a study.
Remote battery life
y
R

35
Hours of life Frequency
R

30
Frequency

25
0 < x ≤ 15 15
O

20
15 < x ≤ 30 33 15
C

10
30 < x ≤ 45 23
5
N

45 < x ≤ 60 26 0 x
U

0 15 30 45 60 75
60 < x ≤ 75 3 Battery life in hours

a How many remote control batteries were included in the study?

b What is the probability that a battery will last more than 45 hours?
c What is the probability that a battery will last between 15 and 60 hours?
d A new battery producer is advocating that their batteries have a long life
of 60+ hours. If it is known that this is just advertising hype because these
­batteries are no different from the batteries in the study, what is the probability
that these new batteries will have a life of 60+ hours?

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  461

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 461 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 7 A number of experienced shot-putters were asked to aim for a line
10 metres away.

FS
After each of them put their shot, its distance from the 10-metre line was

O
measured. All of the shots were on or between the 8- and 10-metre lines. The
results of the measurements are shown, where X is the distance in metres from the

O
10-metre line.

PR
Metres Frequency Shot‐puts
y
0 < x ≤ 0.5 75 80
70
0.5 < x ≤ 1 63

E
60

Frequency
1 < x ≤ 1.5 45 50
1.5 < x ≤ 2 17 G 40
30
PA
20
10
0 x
D

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
   Distance in metres
TE

a How many shot-put throws were measured?

b Calculate:
i Pr(X > 0.5)
EC

ii Pr(1 < X ≤ 2)
c A guest shot-putter is visiting the athletics club where the measurements are
being conducted. His shot-putting ability is equivalent to the abilities of the club
R

members. Find the probability that he puts the shot within 50 cm of the 10-metre
R

line if it is known that he put the shot within 1 metre of the 10-metre line.
8 Sketch each of the following functions and determine whether each function is a
O

probability density function. Note: Use CAS where appropriate.

C

1 π 3π
− , −e ≤ x ≤ −1 cos(x) + 1, ≤x≤
4 4
N

a f(x) = • x b f(x) = •
0, elsewhere
U

0, elsewhere
1 1
sin(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ π , 1<x≤2
c f(x) = • 2 d f(x) = • 2 !x − 1
0, elsewhere 0, elsewhere
9 The rectangular function, f , is defined by the rule
c, 0.25 < x < 1.65
f(x) = e .
0, elsewhere
Find the value of the constant c, given that f is a probability density function.

462  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 462 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 10 The graph of a function, f , is shown.
y

(0, z)

(5, 0)
(–1, 0) 0 x

If f is known to be a probability density function, show that the value of z is 13.

FS
11 Find the value of the constant m in each of the following if each function is a
probability density function.

O
m(6 − 2x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 me−2x, x ≥ 0
a f(x) = e b f(x) = e

O
0, elsewhere 0, elsewhere

PR
me2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ loge 3
c f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
12 Let X be a continuous random variable with the probability density function

E
x2 + 2kx + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
f(x) = e
0, G elsewhere
PA
Show that the value of k is −11
9
.
13 X is a continuous random variable f(x)
D

such that
(a, –12 log (a))
TE

e
1 x 1 log (a)
–
loge a b, 2 ≤ x ≤ a 2 e
f(x) = • 2 2
EC

0, elsewhere

and 3f(x)dx = 1. The graph of this

a
R

0 (2, 0) (a, 0) x
2
R

function is shown.
O

Find the value of the constant a.

C

14 X is a continuous random
N

variable such that

U

−x, −1 ≤ x < 0
f(x) = • x, 0 ≤ x ≤ a
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant.
Y is another continuous random variable such that
1
, 1≤y≤e
f(y) = • y .
0, elsewhere

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  463

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 463 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 a Sketch the graph of the function for X and find 3 f(x)dx.
a

−1

b Sketch the graph of the function for Y and find 3f(y)dy.

e

c Find the value of the constant a if 3 f(x)dx = 3f(y)dy.

a e

−1 1

15 X is a continuous random variable such that

Master
π
n sin(3x) cos(3x), 0 < x <

FS
12 .
f(x) = •
0, elsewhere

O
If f is known to be a probability density function, find the value of the constant, n.

O
16 A function f is defined by the rule

PR
loge (x), x > 0
f(x) = e .
0, elsewhere
a

a If 3 f(x)dx = 1, find the value of the real constant a.

E
1
G
PA
b Does this function define a probability density function?

12.3 The continuous probability density function

D

As stated in section 12.2, if X is a continuous random variable, then

TE

Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = 3f(x)dx.
b f (x)
EC

a
Units 3 & 4
AOS 4 In other words, by finding the area between
R

Topic 3 the curve of the continuous probability

function, the x-axis, the line x = a and the
R

Concept 2

Calculating line x = b, providing f(x) ≥ 0, then we are

O

probabilities finding Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b). It is worth noting

Concept summary x
C

Practice questions that because we are dealing with a 0 a b

continuous random variable, Pr(X = a) = 0,
N

and consequently:
U

Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = Pr(a < X ≤ b) = Pr(a ≤ X < b) = Pr(a < X < b)

Also,
Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = Pr(a ≤ X ≤ c) + Pr(c < X ≤ b), where a < c < b.

This property is particularly helpful when the probability density function is a hybrid
function and the required probability encompasses two functions.

464  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 464 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 WORKED A continuous random variable, Y, has a probability density function, f ,
EXAMPLE 3 defined by
−ay, −3 ≤ y ≤ 0
f(y) = • ay, 0<y≤3
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant.
a Sketch the graph of f . b Find the value of the constant, a.
c Determine Pr(1 ≤ Y ≤ 3). d Determine Pr(Y < 2│Y > −1)

THINK WRITE/DRAW

FS
a The hybrid function contains three sections. a f(−3) = 3a and f(3) = 3a
The first graph, f(y) = −ay, is a straight f (y)

O
line with end points of (0, 0) and (–3, 3a). (3, 3a)
(–3, 3a) 3a
The second graph is also a straight line

O
and has end points of (0, 0) and (3, 3a).
Don’t forget to include the f(y) = 0 lines

PR
for x > 3 and x < −3.
(–3, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0)
3 y

E
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2

b Use the fact that 3 f(y)dy = 1 to solve

G
3

b 3 f(y)dy = 1
PA
for a. −3 −3

Using the area of a triangle, we find:

D

1
× 3 × 3a + 12 × 3 × 3a =1
TE

2
9a 9a
+ =1
2 2
EC

9a =1
a = 19
3

c Pr(1 ≤ Y ≤ 3) = 3 f(y)dy. Identify the part c Pr(1 ≤ Y ≤ 3) = 3 f(y)dy

3
R
R

1 1
O

of the function that the required y-values

= 3 a 91 y b dy
3
sit within: the values 1 ≤ Y ≤ 3 are within
C

1
the region where f(y) = ay = y. 1
N

9 3
1 2
= c y d
U

18
1
1 1
= 18 (3) 2 − 18 (1) 2
8
= 18
= 49
Note: The method of finding the area of a
trapezium could also be used.

Topic 12 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS 465

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 465 23/08/15 7:19 PM

 Pr(Y < 2 ∩ Y > −1)
d 1 State the rule for the conditional d Pr(Y < 2 ∣ Y > −1) =
probability. Pr(Y > −1)
Pr(−1 < Y < 2)
=
Pr(Y > −1)
2 Find Pr(−1 < Y < 2). As the interval is Pr(−1 < Y < 2) = Pr(−1 < Y < 0) + Pr(0 ≤ Y < 2)
across two functions, the interval needs
to be split.
0 2

3 −9 ydy + 319 ydy

1
3 To find the probabilities we need to find =
the areas under the curve.

FS
−1 0

= − 3 19 ydy + 319 ydy

0 2

O
−1 0

O
1 2 0 1 2 2
4 Antidifferentiate and evaluate after = − c 18 y d + c
18
y d

PR
−1 0
­substituting the terminals.
1 1 1 1
= − a 18 (0) 2 − 18 (−1) 2 b + 18 (2) 2 − 18 (0) 2
1 4
= + 18

E
18
5
=

5 Find Pr(Y > −1). As the interval is G

18

Pr(Y > −1) = Pr(−1 < Y < 0) + Pr(0 ≤ Y ≤ 3)

PA
across two functions, the interval needs
to be split.
D

0 3

3 −9 ydy + 319 ydy

1
6 To find the probabilities we need to
TE

=
find the areas under the curve. As −1 0
Pr(0 ≤ Y ≤ 3) covers exactly half the 0

= − 3 19 ydy + 12
EC

area under the curve, Pr(0 ≤ Y ≤ 3) = 12.

(The entire area ­under the curve is always −1
1 for a probability ­density function.)
R

0
R

1 2
7 Antidifferentiate and evaluate after = − c 18 y d + 12
−1
substituting the terminals.
O

1 1
= − a18 (0) 2 − 18 (−1) 2 b + 12
C

1 9
= 18 + 18
N

= 10
U

18

= 59
Pr(−1 < Y < 2)
8 Now substitute into the formula to find Pr(Y < 2 ∣ Y > −1) = Pr(Y > −1)
Pr(−1 < Y < 2)
Pr(Y < 2 ∣ Y > −1) = . 5
= 18 ÷
5
Pr(Y > −1) 9
5 9
= 18 × 5
= 12

466  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 466 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 Exercise 12.3 The continuous probability density function
1 WE3 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function given by
PRactise
−z + 1, 0≤z<1
Work without CAS
f(z) = • z − 1, 1≤z≤2
0, elsewhere.
a Sketch the graph of f .
b Find Pr(Z < 0.75).
c Find Pr(Z > 0.5).
2 The continuous random variable X has a probability density function given by

FS
4x3, 0≤x≤a
f(x) = e

O
0, elsewhere

O
where a is a constant.
a Find the value of the constant a.

PR
b Sketch the graph of f .
c Find Pr(0.5 ≤ X ≤ 1).

E
3 Let X be a continuous random variable with a probability density function
Consolidate
Apply the most
defined by
G
PA
appropriate 1
mathematical sin(x), 0≤x≤π
processes and tools f(x) = e 2
.
0, elsewhere
D

a Sketch the graph of f .

π 3π
TE

b Find Pra < X < b.

4 4
π 3π
EC

c Find PraX > │X < b.

4 4
4 A probability density function is defined by the rule
R

k(2 + x), −2 ≤ x < 0

R

f(x) = • k(2 − x), 0≤x≤2

O

0, elsewhere
C

where X is a continuous random variable and k is a constant.

N

a Sketch the graph of f .

U

1
b Show that the value of k is 4.

c Find Pr(−1 ≤ X ≤ 1).

d Find Pr(X ≥ −1│X ≤ 1).

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  467

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 467 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 5 The amount of petrol sold daily
by a busy service station is a
uniformly distributed probability (18, k) (30, k)
density function. A minimum k
of 18  000 litres and a maximum

Frequency
of 30  000 litres are sold on any
given day. The graph of the
function is shown.
a Find the value of the constant k.
b Find the probability that
between 20  000 and

FS
25  000 litres of petrol are sold
on a given day. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Petrol sold (thousands of litres)

O
c Find the probability that as
much as 26  000 litres of petrol

O
were sold on a particular day,

PR
given that it was known that at
least 22 000 litres were sold.
6 The continuous random variable X has a uniform rectangular probability density
function defined by

E
1
1≤x≤6
f(x) = u5
,
0, G
elsewhere
.
PA
a Sketch the graph of f . b Determine Pr(2 ≤ X ≤ 5).
7 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function defined by
1
D

, 1 ≤ z ≤ e2
f(z) = • 2z .
TE

0, elsewhere e2

a Sketch the graph of f and shade the area that represents 3 f(z)dz.
EC

e2

b Find 3 f(z)dz. Explain your result.

1
R

1
R

The continuous random variable U has a probability function defined by

e4u, u ≥ 0
O

f(u) = e .
0, elsewhere
C

c Sketch the graph of f and shade the area that represents 3 f(u)du, where a is
a
N

a constant.
U

0
e2

d Find the exact value of the constant a if 3 f(z)dz is equal to 3 f(u)du.

a

1 0

8 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function defined by

1 π π
cos(z), − ≤ z ≤
f(z) = • 2 2 2  .
0, elsewhere

468  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 468 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 a Sketch the graph of f and verify that y = f(z) is a probability density function.
π π
b Find Pra− ≤ Z ≤ b.
6 4
9 The continuous random variable U has a probability density function defined by
1
1 − (2u − 3u2), 0 ≤ u ≤ a
f(u) = • 4
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant. Find:
a the value of the constant a b Pr(U < 0.75)
c Pr(0.1 < U < 0.5) d Pr(U = 0.8).

FS
10 The continuous random variable X has a probability density function defined by
3 2

O
x, 0≤z≤2
f (x) = • 8

O
.
0, elsewhere

PR
Find:
a P(X > 1.2)
b P(X > 1│X > 0.5), correct to 4 decimal places

E
c the value of n such that P(X ≤ n) = 0.75.

G
11 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function defined by
PA
z
e−3, 0≤z≤a
f(z) = c
0, elsewhere
D

where a is a constant. Find: a

a the value of the constant a such that 3 f(z)dz = 1

TE

0
EC

b Pr(0 < Z < 0.7), correct to 4 decimal places

c Pr(Z < 0.7│Z > 0.2), correct to 4 decimal places
d the value of α, correct to 2 decimal places, such that Pr(Z ≤ α) = 0.54.
R

12 The continuous random variable X has a probability density function given as

R

3e−3x, x≥0
O

f(x) = e .
0, elsewhere
C

a Sketch the graph of f .

N

b Find Pr(0 ≤ X ≤ 1), correct to 4 decimal places.

c Find Pr(X > 2), correct to 4 decimal places.
U

13 The continuous random variable X has a probability density function defined by

Master
loge (x2), x≥1
f(x) = e .
0, elsewhere
Find, correct to 4 decimal places:

a the value of the constant a if 3 f(x)dx = 1

a

b Pr(1.25 ≤ X ≤ 2). 1

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  469

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 469 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 14 The graph of the probability function
1
f(z) =
π(z + 1)
2
is shown.
f (z)
(0, 1–π )
1
f (z) = —
π(z2 + 1)

FS
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 z

O
O
a Find, correct to 4 decimal places, Pr(−0.25 < Z < 0.25).
Suppose another probability density function is defined as

PR
1
, −a ≤ x ≤ a
f(x) = • x2 +1 .

E
0, elsewhere
b Find the value of the constant a.
G
PA

12.4 Measures of centre and spread

D

The commonly used measures of central tendency and spread in statistics are the
mean, median, variance, standard deviation and range. These same measurements are
TE

appropriate for continuous probability functions.

Units 3 & 4
EC

Measures of central tendency

AOS 4
Topic 3
The mean
Remember that for a discrete random variable,
R

Concept 3

E(X) = μ = a xnPr(X = xn).

x=n
R

Mean and median

Concept summary
x=1
O

Practice questions
This definition can also be applied to a continuous random variable.
C

We define E(X) = μ = 3 xf(x)dx.

N

Interactivity
−∞
U

Mean
int-6435

If f(x) = 0 everywhere except for x ∈ [a, b], where the

function is defined, then

E(X) = μ = 3xf(x)dx.
b

470  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 470 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 Consider the continuous random variable, X, which has a probability density function
defined by
x2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
For this function,
E(X) = μ = 3xf(x)dx
1

= 3x(x2)dx
1

FS
0

= 3x3dx
1

O
0

O
1
x4
= c d

PR
4 0
1 4
= −0
4

E
1
=
4
G
PA
Similarly, if the continuous random variable X has a probability density function of
7e−7x, x ≥ 0
f(x) = u
0, elsewhere,
D

then
TE

E(X) = μ = 3 xf(x)dx
EC

= lim 37xe−7xdx
k
R

k→∞
0
R

= 0.1429
O

where CAS technology is required to determine the integral.

The mean of a function of X is similarly found.
C
N

The function of X, g(x), has a mean defined by:

∞

E(g(x)) = μ = 3 g(x)f(x)dx.
U

−∞

So if we again consider
x2, 0≤x≤1
f(x) = e
0, elsewhere

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  471

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 471 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 then
1

E(X2) = 3x2 f(x)dx

0

= 3x4dx
1

0
1
x5
= c d
5 0

FS
15 0
−=
5
1

O
=
5

O
This definition is important when we investigate the variance of a continuous
random variable.

PR
Median and percentiles
Interactivity The median is also known as the 50th percentile, Q2, the halfway mark or the middle

E
Median and
percentiles
value of the distribution.
int-6436
G
For a continuous random variable, X, defined by the probability
PA
m

function f, the median can be found by solving 3 f (x)dx = 0.5.

−∞
D
TE

Other percentiles, which are frequently calculated, are the 25th percentile or lower
quartile, Q1, and the 75th percentile or upper quartile, Q3.
EC

The interquartile range is calculated as:

IQR = Q3 − Q1
R

Consider a continuous random variable, X, that has a probability density function of

R

−3 ≤ x ≤ 5
2
0.21e2x−x ,
f(x) = e .
O

0, elsewhere
C

To find the median, m, we solve for m as follows:

3
m
N

f(x)
= 0.5
2
0.21e2x−x dx
U

−3

The area under the curve is equated to 0.5,

giving half of the total area and hence the
50th percentile. Solving via CAS, the result
is that m = 0.9897 ≃ 1. f (x) = 0.21e2x – x
2

This can be seen on a graph as follows.

0.5

0 x=1 x
–3 5

472  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 472 23/08/15 6:59 PM

 Consider the continuous random variable X, which has a probability density
function of
x3
f(x) = 4 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
•
0, elsewhere.
The median is given by Pr(0 ≤ x ≤ m) = 0.5:
m

3 4 dx = 0.5
x3

0
m
x4 1

FS
c d =
16 0 2
m4

O
1
−0=
16 2

O
m4 = 8

PR
4
m = ±" 8
m = 1.6818 (0 ≤ m ≤ 2)
To find the lower quartile, we make the area under the curve equal to 0.25. Thus the

E
lower quartile is given by Pr(0 ≤ x ≤ a) = 0.25:
a
G
3 dx = 0.25
x3
PA
4
0
a
x4 1
d =
D

c
16 0 4
TE

a4 1
−0=
EC

16 4
a4 = 4
R

4
a = ±" 4
R

a = Q1 = 1.4142 (0 ≤ a ≤ m)
O

Similarly, to find the upper quartile, we make the area under the curve equal to 0.75.
Thus the upper quartile is given by Pr(0 ≤ x ≤ n) = 0.75:
C

3 4 dx = 0.75
N

x3
U

0
n
x4 3
c d =
16 0 4
n 3
−0=
16 4
n = 12
4
n = ±" 12
n = Q3 = 1.8612 (m ≤ x ≤ 2)

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  473

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 473 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 So the interquartile range is given by Q3 − Q1 = 1.8612 − 1.4142
= 0.4470.
These values are shown on the following graph.
f (x)
x3
f (x) = —
(2, 2)
2 4

Upper quartile
x = 1.8612 Median
x = 1.6818
Lower quartile
x = 1.4142

FS
(0, 0) (2, 0) x

O
O
PR
WOrKeD A continuous random variable, Y, has a probability density function, f ,
4

E
eXaMpLe defined by
ky, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1
f( y) = e
G
0, elsewhere
PA
where k is a constant.
a Sketch the graph of f .
D

b Find the value of the constant k.

TE

c Find:
i the mean of Y
EC

ii the median of Y.
d Find the interquartile range of Y.
R

tHinK WritE/draW
R

a The graph f(y) = ky is a straight line with end points a f (y)

(1, k)
O

at (0, 0) and (1, k). Remember to include the lines k

f(y) = 0 for y > 1 and y < 0.
C
N
U

(0, 0) (1, 0) y

474 Maths Quest 12 MatheMatICaL MethODs VCe units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 474 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 1

b Solve 3 ky dy = 1 to find the value of k. 3 ky dy = 1

1

b
0 0
1

k3 y dy = 1
0

y2 1
kc d =1
2 0

k(1) 2
−0=1

FS
2
k
=1
2

O
k=2

O
Using the area of a triangle also enables
you to find the value of k.

PR
1
×1×k=1
2
k
=1

E
2
k=2
G μ = 3 y(2y)dy
1
PA
c i 1 State the rule for the mean. c i
0

= 3 2y2dy
1
D
TE

1
2
2 Antidifferentiate and simplify. = c y3 d
EC

3 0
2(1) 3
= −0
R

3
R

2
=
3
O

ii 3f(y)dy = 0.5
C

ii 1 State the rule for the median.

N

0
m

32ydy = 0.5
U

0
2 Antidifferentiate and solve for m. Note that 3 y2 4 m
0 = 0.5
m must be a value within the domain of the m − 0 = 0.5
2

function, so within 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
m =± 1
Å2
1
m = (0 < m < 1)
"2

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  475

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 475 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 1
3 Write the answer. Median =
"2
a

d i 1 State the rule for the lower quartile, Q1. d 3 f(y)dy = 0.25
0

3 2ydy = 0.25
a

0
a
2 Antidifferentiate and solve for Q1. 3 y2 4 0 = 0.25
a2 − 0 = 0.25

FS
a = ±!0.25

O
1
a = Q1 = 0.5 a0 < Q1 < b
!2

O
n

3 f(y)dy = 0.75

PR
3 State the rule for the upper quartile, Q3.
0
n

3 2ydy = 0.75

E
G 0
PA
n
4 Antidifferentiate and solve for Q3. 3 y2 4 = 0.75
0
n2 − 0 = 0.75
n = ±!0.75
D

1
TE

n = Q3 = 0.8660 a0 < Q3 < b

!2
5 State the rule for the interquartile range. IQR = Q3 − Q1
EC

6 Substitute the appropriate values and simplify. = 0.8660 − 0.5

= 0.3660
R
R

Measures of spread
O

Variance, standard deviation and range

Units 3 & 4
C

AOS 4
The variance and standard deviation are important measures of spread in statistics.
From previous calculations for discrete probability functions, we know that
N

Topic 3

Var(X ) = E(X2) − [E(X )] 2 and SD(X ) = !Var(X )

U

Concept 4

Variance and
standard deviation For continuous probability functions,
Concept summary
∞

Var(X) = 3 (x − μ)2f(x) dx
Practice questions

−∞
∞

= 3 (x2 − 2xμ + μ2)f(x)dx

Interactivity
Variance, standard
deviation and range
int-6437 −∞

476  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 476 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 ∞ ∞ ∞

= 3 x2f(x)dx − 3 2xf(x)μdx + 3 μ2f(x)dx

−∞ −∞ −∞
∞ ∞

= E(X ) − 2μ 3 xf(x)dx + μ2 3 1f(x)dx

2

−∞ −∞

= E(X2) − 2μ × E(X) + μ2
= E(X2) − 2μ2 + μ2
= E(X2) − μ2

FS
= E(X2) − [E(X)] 2
∞ ∞

Two important facts were used in this proof: 3 f(x)dx = 1 and 3 xf(x)dx = μ = E(X).

O
−∞ −∞

O
Substituting this result into SD(X) = !Var(X) gives us

PR
SD(X) = "E(X2) − 3 E(X) 4 2 .

The range is calculated as the highest value minus the lowest value, so for the

E
1
, 1≤x≤6
G
probability density function given by f(x) = • 5 , the highest possible
PA
0, elsewhere
x-value is 6 and the lowest is 1. Therefore, the range for this function = 6 – 1
= 5.
D
TE

WOrKeD For a continuous random variable, X, with a probability density function, f ,

eXaMpLe 5
defined by
EC

1
x + 2, −4 ≤ x ≤ −2
f(x) = 2
•
0, elsewhere
R

find:
R

a the mean b the median

O

c the variance d the standard deviation, correct to 4 decimal places.

C

tHinK WritE
N

−2

a μ = 3 xf(x)dx
U

a 1 State the rule for the mean and simplify.

−4
−2

= 3 xa12x + 2bdx
−4
−2

= 3 a12x2 + 2xbdx
−4

topic 12 COntInuOus prObabILIty DIstrIbutIOns 477

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 477 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 1 3 −2
2 Antidifferentiate and evaluate. = c x + x2 d
6 −4

= a 1 (−2) +
3
(−2) 2 b − a
1 (−4) 3 + (−4) 2 b
6 6
= 4
+ 4 + 32 − 16
3 3

= −223

3 f(x)dx = 0.5
m

b 1 State the rule for the median. b

−4

3 a 2x + 2 b dx = 0.5
m

FS
1

−4
1 2 m

O
2 Antidifferentiate and solve for m. c x + 2x d = 0.5
4 −4
The quadratic formula is needed

O
1 2 (−4) 2
as the quadratic equation a
4
m + 2m b − a
4
+ 2(−4) b = 0.5

PR
formed cannot be factorised. 1 2
m + 2m + 4 = 0.5
4
Alternatively, use CAS to solve for m.
m + 8m + 16 = 2
2

m2 + 8m + 14 = 0

E
So m =
G
−8 ± "(8) 2 − 4(1)(14)
2(1)
PA
−8 ±!8
m=
2
= −4 ± "2
D

∴ m = −4 + "2 as m ∈ 3 −4, 2 4
TE

The median is −4 + "2.

3 Write the answer. The median is −4 + "2.
EC

c 1 Write the rule for variance. c Var (X) = E (X2) − [E (X)]2

= 3x2f(x)dx
b
R

2 Find E(X2) first. E(X2)

R

a
−2

= 3 x2 a 12 x + 2 b dx
O
C

−4
−2

= 3 a 12 x3 + 2x2 b dx
N
U

−4
−2
1
= c 8 x4 + 23 x3 d
−4
1 2 1
= a (−2)
8
4 + 3
(−2) 3 b − a
8
(−4) 4 + 23 (−4) 3 b

= 2 − 16
3
− 32 + 128
3

= −30 + 112
3
= 22
3

478  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 478 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 3 Substitute E(X) and E(X2) into the rule Var(X) = E(X2) − 3 E(X) 4 2
for variance. 2
= 22
3
− a −83 b
= 22
3
− 64
9
= 66
9
− 64
9
= 29

d 1 Write the rule for standard deviation. d SD(X) = !Var(X)

2
2 Substitute the variance into the rule =
Ä9

FS
and evaluate.
= 0.4714

O
O
Exercise 12.4 Measures of centre and spread

PR
1 WE4 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function of
PRactise
1
Work without CAS , 1≤z≤a
Question 1 f(z) = • !z

E
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant.
G
PA
a Find the value of the constant a.
b Find:
i the mean of Z ii the median of Z.
D

2 The continuous random variable, Y, has a probability density function of

TE

!y, 0≤y≤a
f(y) = e
0, elsewhere
EC

where a is a constant. Find, correct to 4 decimal places:

a the value of the constant a b E(Y)
R

c the median value of Y.

R

3 WE5 For the continuous random variable Z, the probability density function is
e
2 loge (2z), 1 ≤ z ≤
O

2
f(z) = •
C

0, elsewhere.
N

Find the mean, median, variance and standard deviation correct to

U

4 decimal places.
4 The function
3e−3x, x≥0
f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
defines the probability density function for the continuous random variable, X.
Find the mean, median, variance and standard deviation of X.

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  479

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 479 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 5 Let X be a continuous random variable with a probability density function of
Consolidate 1
, 0≤x≤1
f(x) = • 2 !x
Apply the most .
appropriate
mathematical
processes and tools 0, elsewhere
a Prove that f is a probability density function.
b Find E(X).
c Find the median value of f .
6 The time in minutes that an individual must wait in line to be served at the local
bank branch is defined by
f(t) = 2e−2t, t ≥ 0

FS
where T is a continuous random variable.
a What is the mean waiting time for a customer in the queue, correct to
1 decimal place?

O
b Calculate the standard deviation for the waiting time in the queue, correct to

O
1 decimal place.
c Determine the median waiting time in the queue, correct to 2 decimal places.

PR
7 The continuous random variable Y has a probability density function defined by
y2 3
, 0≤y≤" 9

E
f(y) = • 3 .

G
0, elsewhere
Find, correct to 4 decimal places:
PA
a the expected value of Y
b the median value of Y
c the lower and upper quartiles of Y
D

d the inter-quartile range of Y.

TE

8 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function defined by

a
, 1≤z≤8
f(y) = • z
EC

0, elsewhere
where a is a constant.
R

a Find the value, correct to four decimal places, of the constant a.

R

b Find E(Z) correct to 4 decimal places.

O

c Find Var(Z) and SD(Z).

d Determine the interquartile range for Z.
C

e Determine the range for Z.

N

9 X is a continuous random variable. The graph of the f (x)

probability density function
U

2 1
f (x) = –
1 –
π π (sin(2x) + 1)
f(x) = (sin(2x) + 1) for 0 ≤ x ≤ π
π
is shown.
(0, –π1 ) (π, –π1)
a Show that f(x) is a probability density function.
b Calculate E(X) correct to 4 decimal places.
c Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
0 x
i Var(X) 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
ii SD(X).
d Find the median value of f correct to 4 decimal places.

480  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 480 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 10 The continuous random variable X has a probability density function defined by
ax − bx2, 0≤x≤2
f(x) = e
0, elsewhere.
Find the values of the constants a and b if E(X) = 1.
11 The continuous random variable, Z, has a probability density function of
3
, 1≤z≤a
f(z) = • z2
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant.

FS
3
a Show that the value of a is 2.
b Find the mean value and variance of f correct to 4 decimal places.
c Find the median and interquartile range of f .

O
12 a Find the derivative of "4 − x2.

O
b Hence, find the mean value of the probability density function defined by

PR
3
, 0 ≤ x ≤ !3
f(x) = • π"4 − x2 .
0, elsewhere

E
13 Consider the continuous random variable X with a probability density function of

G
h(2 − x), 0≤x≤2
PA
f(x) = • h(x − 2), 2<x≤4
0, elsewhere
where h is a constant.
D

a Find the value of the constant h.

TE

b Find E(X).
c Find Var(X).
EC

14 Consider the continuous random variable X with a probability density function of

k, a ≤ x ≤ b
f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
R

where a, b and k are positive constants.

R

a Sketch the graph of the function f .

O

1
b Show that k = .
b−a
C

c Find E(X) in terms of a and b.

N

d Find Var(X) in terms of a and b.

U

15 The continuous random variable Y has a probability density function

Master
y
0.2 loge a b, 2 ≤ y ≤ 7.9344
f( y) = • 2 .
0, elsewhere
a Verify that f is a probability density function.
b Find E(Y) correct to 4 decimal places.
c Find Var(Y) and SD(Y) correct to 4 decimal places.
d Find the median value of Y correct to 4 decimal places.
e State the range.

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  481

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 481 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 16 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function
!z − 1, 1≤z≤a
f(z) = e
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant.
a Find the value of the constant a correct to 4 decimal places.
b Determine, correct to 4 decimal places:
i E(Z) ii E(Z2)
iii Var(Z) iv SD(Z).

12.5 Linear transformations

FS
Sometimes it is necessary to apply transformations to a continuous random variable.

O
A transformation is a change that is applied to the random variable. The change may
consist of one or more operations that may involve adding or subtracting a constant or

O
multiplying or dividing the variable by a constant.

PR
Suppose a linear transformation is applied to the continuous random variable X to
create a new continuous random variable, Y. For instance
Y = aX + b

E
It can be shown that E(Y) = E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
and Var(Y) = Var(aX + b) = a2Var(X).
G
PA
First let us show that E(Y) = E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b.
∞

Since E(X) = 3 xf(x) dx,

D

−∞
∞

then E(aX + b) = 3 (ax + b)f(x) dx.

TE

−∞
EC

Using the distributive law, it can be shown that this is equal to

∞ ∞

E(aX + b) = 3 axf(x) dx + 3 bf(x) dx

R

−∞ −∞
∞ ∞

= a 3 xf(x) dx + b 3 f(x) dx
R
O

−∞ −∞
∞

But E(X) = 3 xf(x) dx, so

C
N

−∞
∞

E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b 3 f(x) dx.

U

−∞
∞

Also, 3 f(x) dx = 1, so
−∞

E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b.

Also note that E(aX) = aE(X) and E(b) = b.

Now let us show that Var(Y) = Var(aX + b) = a2Var(X).

482  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 482 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 Since Var(X) = E(X2) − 3 E(X) 4 2,
then
Var(aX + b) = E 1 (aX + b) 2 2 − 3 E(aX + b) 4 2
∞

= 3 (ax + b) 2f(x) dx − 1 aE(X) + b 2 2

−∞
∞

= 3 (a2x2 + 2abx + b2)f(x) dx − 3 a2 3 E(X) 4 2 + 2abE(X) + b2 4

−∞
Using the distributive law to separate the first integral, we have
∞ ∞ ∞

Var(aX + b) = 3 dx + 3 2abxf(x) dx + 3 b2f(x) dx − a2 3 E(X) 4 2

FS
a2x2f(x)
−∞ −∞ −∞

O
− 2abE(X) − b2

O
∞ ∞ ∞

= a 3 x f(x) dx + 2ab 3 xf(x) dx + b 3 f(x) dx − a2 3 E(X) 4 2

PR
2 2 2

−∞ −∞ −∞

− 2abE(X) − b2
∞ ∞ ∞

E
But E(X) = 3 xf(x) dx, E(X2) = 3 x2f(x) dx and 3 f(x) dx = 1 for a probability
−∞
G
−∞ −∞
PA
density function. Thus,
Var(aX + b) = a2E(X2) + 2abE(X) + b2 − a2 3 E(X) 4 2 − 2abE(X) − b2
= a2E(X2) − a2 3 E(X) 4 2
D

= a2 (E(X2) − 3 E(X) 4 2)
TE

= a2Var(X)
Thus,
EC

E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
R

and
Var(aX + b) = a2Var(X).
R
O
C

WOrKeD A continuous random variable, X, has a mean of 3 and a variance of 2. Find:

eXaMpLe 6
a E(2X + 1) b Var(2X + 1)
N

c E(X2)
e E(X2 − 5).
U

d E(3X2)

tHinK WritE
a Use E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b to find E(2X + 1). a E(2X + 1) = 2E(X) + 1
= 2(3) + 1
=7
b Use Var(aX + b) = a2Var(X) to find Var(2X + 1). b Var(2X + 1) = 22Var(X)
=4×2
=8

topic 12 COntInuOus prObabILIty DIstrIbutIOns 483

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 483 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 c Use Var(X) = E(X2) − 3 E(X) 4 2 to find E(X2). c Var(X) = E(X2) − 3 E(X) 4 2
2 = E(X2) − 32
2 = E(X2) − 9
2
E(X ) = 11
d Use E(aX2) = aE(X2) to find E(3X2). d E(3X2) = 3E(X2)
= 3 × 11
= 33
e Use E(aX2 + b) = aE(X2) + b to find E(X2 − 5). e E(X2 − 5) = E(X5) − 5
= 11 − 5
=6

FS
O
It may also be necessary to find the expected value and variance before using the facts
that E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b and Var(aX + b) = a2Var(X).

O
PR
WOrKeD The graph of the probability density function for the continuous random
eXaMpLe 7 variable X is shown. The rule for the probability density function is given by
3kx, 0≤x≤1

E
f (x)
f(x) = e 3k
(1, 3k)
0, elsewhere
where k is a constant. G
PA
a Find the value of the constant k.
b Calculate E(X) and Var(X).
D

c Find E(3X − 1) and Var(3X − 1).

TE

(0, 0) (1, 0) x
d Find E(2X2 + 3).
tHinK WritE
EC

a Solve 3kx dx = 1 to find k, or alternatively use the a Method 1:

1
R

33kxdx = 1
0
R

formula for the area of a triangle to find k.

O

0
1
3kx2
d =1
C

c
2 0
N

3k(1) 2
−0=1
U

2
2
k= 3
Method 2:
1
2
× 1 × 3k = 1
3k
2
=1
3k = 2
2
k= 3

484 Maths Quest 12 MatheMatICaL MethODs VCe units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 484 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 1

b 1 Write the rule for the mean. b E(X) = 3 xf(x)dx

0

= 3 (x × 2x)dx
1

= 3 (2x )dx
1
2

2 3 1
=

FS
2 Antidifferentiate and evaluate. c
3
x d
0

= 23 (1) 3 − 0

O
= 23

O
3 Write the rule for the variance. Var(X) = E(X2) − [E(X)] 2

PR
1

4 Find E(X2). E(X2) = 3 x2f(x)dx

E
0

= 3 2x3dx
1

G
PA
0
1 4 1
= c
2
x d
0

= 12 (1)4 − 0
D
TE

= 12
5 Substitute the appropriate values into the Var(X) = E(X2) − [E(X)] 2
EC

2
variance formula. = 12 − 2
a b
3
1 4
= −
R

2 9
9 8
= −
R

18 18
1
=
O

18
c 1 Use the property c E(3X − 1) = 3E(X) − 1
C

E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b to work out = 3 a 23 b − 1

E(3X − 1).
N

=2−1
=1
U

2 Use the property Var(3X − 1) = 32Var(X)

Var(aX + b) = a2Var(X) to calculate 1
= 9 a 18 b
Var(3X − 1).
= 12

d Use the property d E(2X2 + 3) = 2E(X2) + 3

E(aX2 + b) = aE(X2) + b to calculate = 2 a 12 b + 3
E(2X2 + 3).
=4

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  485

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 485 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 Exercise 12.5 Linear transformations
1 WE6 If the continuous random variable Y has a mean of 4 and a variance of 3, find:
PRactise
a E(2Y − 3) b Var(2Y − 3) c E(Y 2) d E(Y(Y − 1))
Work without CAS
Questions 1–3 2 Two continuous random variables, X and Y, are related such that Y = aX + 5
where a is a positive integer and E(aX + 5) = Var(aX + 5). The mean of X is 9
and the variance of X is 2.
a Find the value of the constant a. b Find E(Y) and Var(Y).
3 WE7 The continuous random variable X has a f (x)
probability density function defined by
−kx, −2 ≤ x ≤ 0

FS
(–2, 2k) (2, 2k)
2k
f(x) = • kx, 0<x≤2

O
0, elsewhere
where k is a constant. The graph of the

O
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
function is shown.

PR
a Find the value of the constant k.
b Determine E(X) and Var(X).
c Find E(5X + 3) and Var(5X + 3).

E
d Find E((3X − 2) 2).

G
4 The continuous random variable X has a probability density function defined by
−cos (x),
π
≤x≤π
PA
f(x) = • 2 .
0, elsewhere
D

a Sketch the graph of f and verify that it is a probability density function.

b Calculate E(X) and Var(X).
TE

c Calculate E(3X + 1) and Var(3X + 1).

d Calculate E((2X − 1)(3X − 2)).
EC

5 For a continuous random variable Z, where E(Z) = 5 and Var(Z) = 2, find:

Consolidate
a E(3Z − 2) b Var(3Z − 2)
Apply the most
R

appropriate 1
mathematical c E(Z2) d E a 3Z 2 − 1 b .
R

processes and tools

6 The mean of the continuous random variable Y is known to be 3.5, and its
O

standard deviation is 1.2. Find:

C

Y Y
a E(2 − Y) b Ea b c Var(Y) d Var(2 − Y) e Vara b.
2 2
N

7 The length of time it takes for an electric

U

kettle to come to the boil is a continuous

random variable with a mean of 1.5 minutes
and a standard deviation of 1.1 minutes.
If each time the kettle is brought to the boil
is an independent event and the kettle is
boiled five times a day, find the mean and
standard deviation of the total time taken for
the kettle to boil during a day.

486  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 486 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 8 The probability density function for the continuous random variable X is
mx(2 − x), 0≤x≤2
f(x) = e
0, elsewhere
where m is a constant. Find:
a the value of the constant m b E(X) and Var(X)
c E(5 − 2X) and Var(5 − 2X).
9 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function given by
2
, 0≤z≤a
f(z) = • z + 1

FS
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:

O
a the value of the constant a

O
b the mean and variance of Z
c i E(3Z + 1) ii Var(3Z + 1) iii E(Z 2 + 2).

PR
10 The continuous random variable X is transformed so that Y = aX + 3 where a is
a positive integer. If E(X) = 5 and Var(X) = 2, find the value of the constant a,
given that E(Y) = Var(Y). Then calculate both E(Y) and Var(Y) to verify this

E
statement.

G
11 The continuous random variable Y is transformed so that Z = aY − 3 where a is
PA
a positive integer. If E(Y) = 4 and Var(Y) = 1, find the value(s) of the constant
a, given that E(Z) = Var(Z). Then calculate both E(Z) and Var(Z) to verify this
statement.
D

12 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function given by

TE

3
, 1≤z≤a
f(z) = • !z
EC

0, elsewhere
where a is a constant.
R

a Find the value of the constant a.

b Calculate the mean and variance of Z correct to 4 decimal places.
R

c Find, correct to 4 decimal places:

O

i E(4 − 3Z) ii Var(4 − 3Z).

C

13 The daily rainfall, X mm, in a

particular Australian town has a
N

probability density function

U

defined by
x x
sina b, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3π
f(x) = • kπ 3
0, elsewhere
where k is a constant.
a Find the value of the constant k.
b What is the expected daily rainfall, correct to 2 decimal places?
c During the winter the daily rainfall is better approximated by W = 2X − 1.
What is the expected daily rainfall during winter, correct to 2 decimal places?

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  487

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 487 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 14 The mass, Y kilograms, of flour sold in bags labelled as 1 kilogram is known to
have a probability density function given by
k(2y + 1), 0.9 ≤ y ≤ 1.25
f(y) = e
0, elsewhere
where k is a constant.
a Find the value of the constant k.
b Find the expected mass of a bag of flour, correct to 3 decimal places.
c On a particular day, the machinery packaging the bags of flour needed to be
recalibrated and produced a batch which had a mass of Z kilograms, where
the probability density function for Z was given by Z = 0.75Y + 0.45. What

FS
was the expected mass of a bag of flour for this particular batch, correct to
3 decimal places?

O
15 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function defined by
Master
5 loge (z)

O
, 1≤z≤a
f(z) = • !z

PR
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant. Determine, correct to 4 decimal places:
a the value of the constant a

E
b E(Z) and Var(Z)
c E(3 − 2Z) and Var(3 − 2Z).
G
PA
16 A continuous random variable, X, is transformed so that Y = aX + 1, where a is
a positive constant. If E(X) = 2 and Var(X) = 7, find the value of the constant
a, given E(Y) = Var(Y). Then calculate both E(Y) and Var(Y) to verify this
statement. Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places.
D
TE
EC
R
R
O
C
N
U

488  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 488 23/08/15 7:00 PM

 ONLINE ONLY 12.6 Review www.jacplus.com.au

the Maths Quest review is available in a customisable • Extended-response questions — providing you with
format for you to demonstrate your knowledge of this the opportunity to practise exam-style questions.
topic. a summary of the key points covered in this topic is
the review contains: also available as a digital document.
• short-answer questions — providing you with the
opportunity to demonstrate the skills you have
developed to efficiently answer questions without the REVIEW QUESTIONS
use of CAS technology

FS
Download the Review questions document from
• Multiple-choice questions — providing you with the the links found in the Resources section of your
opportunity to practise answering questions using eBookPLUS.

O
CAS technology

O
PR
Activities
E
ONLINE ONLY
to access eBookPlUs activities, log on to GstudyON is an interactive and highly visual online
PA
tool that helps you to clearly identify strengths
www.jacplus.com.au and weaknesses prior to your exams. You can
then confidently target areas of greatest need,
D

enabling you to achieve your best results.

Interactivities
TE

A comprehensive set of relevant interactivities

to bring difficult mathematical concepts to life
can be found in the Resources section of your Units 3 & 4 Continuous probability
EC

eBookPLUS. distributions
R

Sit topic test

R
O
C
N
U

topic 12 COntInuOus prObabILIty DIstrIbutIOns 489

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 489 23/08/15 7:01 PM

 12 Answers
9
Exercise 12.2 5 a      i  25
1 a f (x) 4
ii  25
37
f (x) = –14 e2x b      i  50
9
–
4
(
loge 3, –94 ) 37
ii  42
29 41 3
6 a 100 b  100   c  50     
d  100
( )

FS
0, –1 7 a 200
4
5
(0, 0) (loge 3, 0) x b      i  8
31

O
ii  100
This is a probability density function as the 21
c

O
area is 1 unit2. 46

b f (x) 8 a f (x)

PR
(–1, 1)
f (x) = – –1x 1

f (x) = 0.25
0.5
(–e, –1e )

E
(–2, 0.25) (2, 0.25)
(–1, 0) 0 x

G
(–e, 0)
PA
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
This is a probability density function as the
area is 1 unit2.
This is a probability density function as the b f (x)
D

area is 1 unit2.
2 a ( 𝜋
4,
– 1.71 )
TE

f (x)

f (x) = cos (x) + 1

EC

f (x) = 0.5 cos(x)

( 3𝜋 ,
––
4
0.29 )
𝜋 x
R

0
(– –π2, 0) (–π2 , 0) ( 0)𝜋
4,
–
( 0)
3𝜋
––
4
,
R

0 x
– 3π
– – –π – –π π
–
π
–
3π
– This is not a probability density function as the
2 2 4 4 2 2
π
area is units2.
O

This is a probability density function as the 2

c
C

area is 1 unit2. f (x)

b f(x)
N

1
f(x) = –
1 2x
U

1
f (x) = –
2
sin(x)
(0.5, 0.71)
(4, 0.25)

0 (0.5, 0) (4, 0)x

(0, 0) 𝜋
–
(𝜋, 0) x
2
This is not a probability density function as the
area is 1.2929 units2. This is a probability density function as the
1 area is 1 unit2.
3 n = 18
1
4 a = 11

490  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 490 23/08/15 7:01 PM

 d f(x) 1 b f (y)
f (x) = ––––– (1, 1)
2 x–1
f (y) = –1y

(2, 0.5)
(e, )1
–
e

0 (1, 0) (2, 0) x
0 (1, 0) (e, 0) 𝜋 y

This is a probability density function as the area e

3 y dy = 1
is 1 unit2. 1
5
9 c = 7

FS
1
5
c a = 1
10   3 f(z)dz = 1 15 n = 12

16 a = e. As f(x) ≥ 0 and 3 f(x)dx = 1, this is a probability

e

O
−1
Atriangle = 1

O
1
1 density function.
2
bh =1

PR
1
2
×6×z=1
3z = 1 Exercise 12.3
1
z= 3
1 a f (z)
f (z) = –z + 1

E
1
11 a m = (0, 1) (2, 1)
8
b m = 2
c m =
1
G f (z) = z – 1
PA
4
3 (1, 0)

12   3 (x2 + 2kx + 1)dx = 1

(0, 0) (2, 0) z
D

15
0 b
3 32
1 3
x + kx2 + x d = 1 5
TE

c c
3 0 8

a
1
(3) 3 + k(3) 2 + 3 b − 0 = 1 2 a a = 1
3
b f (x)
EC

9 + 9k + 3 = 1 (1, 4)
9k + 12 = 1 4
9k = −11 f (x) = 4x3
k = −11
R

9
13 a = 2e
R

14 a f (x)
(–1, 1)
O

f(x) = –x (a, a) (0, 0) (1, 0) x

C

15
f (x) = x c
N

16
3 a y
U

(–1, 0) (0, 0) (a, 0) x

1 sin(x)
y =–
1 2
0 a –
2

3 −xdx + 3xdx =
a2 + 1
2
−1 0

(0, 0) (𝜋, 0) x

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  491

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 491 23/08/15 7:01 PM

 "2 c f (u)
b
2 f (u) = e4u
c 2"2 − 2
4 a f (x)
(a, e4a)

(0, 2k)
f (x) = k(2 + x) f (x) = k(2 – x) (0, 1)

(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
(0, 0) (a, 0) u
1

FS
b A = bh
2
1
1 = × 4 × 2k

O
d 3 e4udu = 4 e4a −
a
2
1 1
1 = 4k 4
and a = 14 loge 5

O
0
1
k =

PR
4 8 a f (z)
3
c 4
6
d 7

E
5 a
1
12
(0, –12 ) f (z) = –12 cos(z)

G
5
b 12
PA
1
c 2
0 z
6 a f (x) (– –π2 , 0) (–π2 , 0)
1
D

(1, 0.2) f (x) = – (6, 0.2)

5 π
2

3 2 cos(z)dz =
TE

π
1 1
c
2
sin(z) d 2 π
−2
π
−2
π π
EC

0 (1, 0) (6, 0)x

= 12 sina b − 12 sina− b
2 2
3
b = 12 + 12
5
R

7 a f (z) =1
This is a probability density function as the area
R

1 ­under the curve is 1 and f(z) ≥ 0 for all values of z.

f (z) = –
O

2z
(1, 0.5) "2 + 1
(e , –
2e )
0.5 2 1 b
4
C

183
0 z 9 a a = 1 b
N

(1, 0) (e2, 0)
256
c 0.371 d 0
U

b 3 dz = 1. As f(z) ≥ 0 and 3 f(z)dz = 1, this is a

e2 e2
1
98 8
2z 10 a b
1 1 125 9
probability density function.
1

c 63
3
11 a a = 3 loge a 2 b b 0.6243

c 0.5342 d 0.60

492  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

c12ContinuousProbabilityDistributions.indd 492 23/08/15 7:01 PM

 12 a f (x) 8 a a = 0.4809
(0, 3) b 3.3663
c VAR(Z ) = 3.8195, SD(Z ) = 1.9571
d 3.0751
e 7
π π

9 a 3 (sin(2x) + 1)dx = 3 (sin(2x) + 1)dx

1 1
π π
0 0
1 π
f (x) = 3e–3x = c −12 cos(2x) + x d
π 0
0 x
1
= a a −12 cos(2π) + π b − a −12 cos(0) + 0 b b

FS
b 0.9502 π
c 0.0025 1
= a −12 + π + 12 b
13 a a = 2.1555 b 0.7147 π

O
=1
1
14 a 0.1560 b a = tan a b ≈ 0.5463 As f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values, and the area under the

O
2
curve is 1, f(x) is a probability density function.

PR
Exercise 12.4 b 1.0708

1 a a =
9 c   i  0.5725
4
19 ii  0.7566
b   i       ii  1.5625 or 25
d m = 0.9291

E
12 16

2 a 1.3104 3 3
10 a = 2, b =
b 0.7863
G
11 a  3
a
4
PA
c Median = 0.8255 3
dz = 1
3 E(Z ) = 0.7305, m = 1.3010, Var(z) = 0.3424, z2
SD(Z ) = 0.5851 1
a

33z dz = 1
1 1 1
4 E(X ) = 3 , m = 0.2310, Var(X ) = 9, SD(X ) = 3
D

−2
1 1

5 a 32 !x dx = 32 x dx
TE

1
1 1 2 1
3 −3z−1 4 a1 = 1
0 0
1 a
3
EC

23
1 − 1 c− d = 1
= x 2dx z 1
0 3 3
1 − + =1
R

1 2 1 a 1
= 2
c 2x d
0
3
− +3=1
R

= 12 (2!1 − 2!0) a
3
O

= 12 × 2 − = −2
a
=1
C

3 = 2a
As f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values, and the area under the 3
N

curve is 1, f(x) is a probability density function. a=

2
1
U

b b E(Z ) = 1.2164, Var(Z ) = 0.0204

3
c m = 0.25 6 8
c m = 5 , interquartile range = 33
6 a 0.5 min
x 3
b 0.5 min 12 a − b
"4 − x2 π
c m = 0.35 min
1
7 a 1.5601 13 a h = 4

b m = 1.6510 b 2

c Q1 = 1.3104, Q3 = 1.8899 c 2

d 0.5795

Topic 12  Continuous probability distributions  493

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 π

3 (−cos(x))dx = c −sin(x) d π
14 a f (x) π

2
π
π
= −sin(π) + sina b
2

(a, k) (b, k) 2
k
f (x) = k
=0+1
=1

As f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values and the area under the

curve is 1, f(x) is a probability density function.
0 (a, 0) (b, 0) x b E(X ) = 2.5708, Var(X ) = 0.1416
c E(3X + 1) = 8.7124, Var(3X + 1) = 1.2743
3 k dx = 1
b

b d E((2X − 1)(3X − 2)) = 24.5079

FS
a
5 a 13 b 18
3 kx 4 ba = 1
c 27 d 8
kb − ka = 1

O
6 a –1.5 b 1.75
k(b − a) = 1
c 1.44 d 1.44

O
1
k= e 0.36
b−a

PR
7 E(5T ) = 7.5 minutes, SD(5T ) = 5.5 minutes
b+a
c 3
2 8 a m = 4
(a − b) 2 b E(X ) = 1, Var(X ) = 0.2
d

E
12 c E(5 − 2X ) = 3, Var(5 − 2X ) = 0.8

G9 a a = 0.6487
7.9344 7.9344

3 f(y)dy = 3 0.2 loge a2 b dy = 1

y
15 a b E(Z ) = 0.2974, Var(Z ) = 0.0349
PA
2 2 c   i  1.8922 ii 0.3141 iii 2.1234
b 5.7278 10 a = 3, E(Y ) = 18, Var(Y ) = 18
c Var(Y ) = 2.1600, SD(Y ) = 1.4697 11 a = 1 or 3, E(Y ) = 1 or 9, Var(Y ) = 1 or 9
D

d m = 3.9816 12 a a =
49
36
TE

e 5.9344 b E(Z ) = 1.1759, Var(Z ) = 0.0109

16 a 2.3104 c   i  0.4722 ii 0.0978
b   i  1.7863 ii 3.3085 13 a k = 9 b 5.61 mm c 10.21 mm
EC

iii 0.1176 iv 0.3430 14 a k = 0.9070 b 1.081 kg c 1.261 kg

400
15 a a =
Exercise 12.5 441
R

1 a 5 b 12 b E(Z ) = 1.4921, Var(Z ) = 0.0361

R

c 19 d 15 c E(3 − 2Z ) = 0.0158, Var(3 − 2Z ) = 0.1444

2 a a = 5 16 a = 0.5469, E(Y ) = 2.0938, Var(Y ) = 2.0938
O

b E(Y ) = 50, Var(Y ) = 50

C

1
3 a k = 4
b E(X ) = 0, Var(X ) = 2
N

c E(5X + 3) = 3, Var(5X + 3) = 50
U

d E((3X − 2) 2) = 22
4 a f (x)
(π, 1)
1

f (x) = –cos(x)

(––π2, 0)
(π, 0)
0 π x

494  Maths Quest 12 MATHEMATICAL METHODS  VCE Units 3 and 4

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 FS
O
O
PR
E
G
PA
D
TE
EC
R
R
O
C
N
U

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