1.

SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

Aim: To determine Sequence Impedance i.e Positive, Negative and Zero-Sequence Impedance of a 3-
Phase Transformer.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Item Type Range Quantity

1 Transformer 3-Phase 230/230v, 1
2KVA
2 Voltmeter Digital (0-600)V 1
3 Ammeter Digital (0-10)A 1
4 Variac 3-Phase (0-440)V 1
5 Connecting Wires Needed

Theory:The sequence Impedances of an equipment or a component of power system are the positive,
negative and zero sequence impedances. They are defined as follows:

 The positive sequence impedance of an equipment is the impedance offered by the equipment to
the flow of positive sequence currents.
 The negative or zero sequence impedance of the equipment is the impedance offered by the
equipment to the flow of corresponding sequence current.
 For a 3-Phase symmetrical static circuit without internal voltages like transformers and
transmission lines, the impedances of the currents of any sequence are the same in the three
phases; also the currents of a particular sequence will produce drop of the same sequence or a
voltage of a particular sequence will be produce current of the same sequence only, which means
there is no, mutual coupling between the sequence networks.
 Since for a static device, the sequence has no significance, the positive and negative sequence
impedances are equal; the zero sequence impedance which includes the impedance of the return
path through the ground, in the general case, is different from the positive and negative sequence
impedance.

Procedure:

(A) Measurement of Positive and Negative Sequence Impedance:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Circuit Diagram
2. By using 3-Phase variac apply the rated current of the primary and note down the voltage,
current and power
 Observation:

Voltage(V)(Volts) Current(I)(Amps) Power(W)(Watts)

Calculations:

=10 ohms

=4.77 ohms

=8.98 ohms

(B) Measurement of Zero Sequence Impedance:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram
2. By using 1-Phase variac apply the rated current to the primary of the transformer and note
down the voltage, current and power

Observation:

Voltage(V)(Volts) Current(I)(Amps) Power(W)(Watts)

Calculations:

=5.76 ohms

=6.36 ohms

= i2.69 ohms

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose and wrong connections
2. Ensure that the auto transformer is at minimum position before powering the circuit.
3. Do not exceed the rated current of transformer while conduction experiment.

Result:

Sl. NO Impedance Value (Ω)

1 Positive sequence impedance
2 Negative sequence impedance
 3 Zero sequence impedance

Questions For Self Assessment:

1. Define symmetrical components.

2. What is the importance of sequence impedances?
3. The impedances of rotating machines to currents of the three sequences will generally
be a) Same for each sequence
b) Different for each sequence
4. What is the utility of three-phase three-winding transformer?
5. Why is tertiary winding connected in delta?
 2.SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF 3-PHASE ALTERNATOR

Aim: To determine experimentally Positive, Negative and Zero Sequence Impedances of 3-Phase
Alternators.

Apparatus Required:

S. No Item Type Range Quantity

1 Voltmeter MI (0-600)V 1
2 Ammeter MI (0-5)A 1
3 Ammeter MC (0-2)A 1
4 Rheostats WW 300Ohms/1.5A 3
5 Variac 1-Phase (0-270)V 1
6 Tachometer Digital (0-9999)RPM 1
7 Connecting Wires Needed
Theory:

The sequence Impedances of an equipment or a component of power system are the positive, negative
and zero sequence impedances. They are defined as follows:

 The positive sequence impedance of an equipment is the impedance offered by the equipment to
the flow of positive sequence currents.
 The negative or zero sequence impedance of the equipment is the impedance offered by the
equipment to the flow of corresponding sequence current.
 In a symmetrical rotating machines the impedances met by armature currents of a given sequence
are equal in the three phases. Since by definition the inductance, which forms a part of
impedances, is the flux linkages per ampere, it will depend up on the phase order of the sequence
current relative to the direction of rotation of the rotor; positive, negative and zero sequence
impedances are unequal in the general case.
 In fact for a rotating machine, the positive sequence impedance varies, having minimum value
immediately following the fault and then increases with time until steady state conditions are
reached when the positive sequence impedance corresponds to the synchronous impedance.
 The positive sequence impedance depends up on the working of the machine, i.e., whether it is
working under sub transient, transient or steady state condition. The impedance under steady
state condition is known as the synchronous impedance measured by the well known open circuit
and short circuit tests.

 For the measurement of Negative sequence impedance, the machine is driven at rated speed and
a reduced voltage is applied to circulate approximately the rated current. It is to be noted here
 that since negative sequence currents flow in this case, there is possibility of hunting which will
results in oscillation of the pointer of the ammeter. The mean reading may be taken.
The Negative Sequence Impedance is given by

 Zero Sequence Impedance is quite variable and depends upon the distribution i.e., the pitch and
breadth factors. If the windings were uniformly distributed so that each phase produced a
sinusoidal distribution of the mmf then the superposition of the three phases with equal
instantaneous currents cancel each other and produce zero filed and consequently zero reactance
except for slot and end-connection fluxes. In general zero sequence impedance is much smaller
than positive and negative sequence impedances. The machine must, of course, be star connected
for otherwise the term zero sequence has no significance as no zero- sequence currents can flow.
The machine is at standstill and a reduced voltage is applied. The zero sequence impedance

Procedure:

(A) Measurement of Positive Sequence Impedance(Z1):

OC(Open Circuit) Test:
1. Connect the Alternator set as shown in the circuit diagram and start the motor and adjust the
speed to the rated value
2. Switch ON the DC supply to the field of the Alternator
3. By increasing the excitation gradually note the field current If and generated voltage pf the
Alternator.
4. Record the readings and plot the OC Characteristics as shown in the Model Graph.

Tabular Column:

S.No Field Current(If) in Open Circuit Voltage(E0)

Ampere in Volts
SC(Short Circuit) Test:

1. Keeping the previous connections unchanged replace voltmeter by ammeter and short the
other two phase with neutral as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Run the Alternator set at rated speed and note down the excitation current with respect to
short circuit current.
3. Plot the curve filed current versus Short circuit current on the same graph drawn for Open
circuit test.

Tabular Column:

S.No Field Current(If) Short Circuit Current(ISC)

in Ampere in Ampere

Model Graph:

Calculations:

Positive Sequence Impedance

Measurement of Negative Sequence Impedance(Z2):

1. Connect the machine as shown in figure.
2. Run the machine at rated speed.
 3. Gradually increase the excitation such that the short circuit does not exceed full load value.
4. Note down the readings of Voltage, Current and Power

Tabular Column:

S.No Voltage (V) Current(A) Power(W)

Calculations:

Negative Sequence Impedance, =

Wattmeter reading W=VISinθ

 Sinθ=

Therefore Negative Sequence Impedance

(B) Measurement of Zero Sequence Impedance(Z0):

1. Connect the armature windings in parallel as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Short circuit the Alternator field winding.
3. In this case machine need not be in running condition
4. Apply rated current to each phase winding which are connected in parallel through a single
phase variac.
5. Take readings of voltage and current.

Tabular Column:

S.No Voltage (V) Current(A)

Calculations:

Zero Sequence Impedance =

Precautions:
1. Avoid loose and wrong connections
2. Ensure that the auto transformer is at minimum position before powering the circuit.
3. Do not exceed the rated current of transformer while conduction experiment.
Results:

Sl. NO Impedance Value (Ω)

1 Positive sequence impedance
2 Negative sequence impedance
3 Zero sequence impedance

Questions for self assessment:

1. What are symmetrical components? Why only 3 sets?
2. What is the frequency of Positive, Negative zero sequence component of current, how
they affect machine performance?
 3.SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF 3-PHASE ALTERNATOR BY FAULT ANALYSIS

Aim: To determine the Sequence Impedances of Alternator by creating different faults(without fault
impedance).

Apparatus:

S. No Item Type Range Quantity

1 Voltmeter MI (0-600)V 1
2 Ammeter MI (0-5)A 1
3 Ammeter MC (0-2)A 1
4 Rheostats WW 300/1.5 3
5 SPST Switch 1
6 Tachometer Digital (0-9999)RPM 1
7 Connecting Wires Needed
Theory:In general the faults can be classified as

(i) Shunt Faults (Short Circuits)

(ii) Series Faults ( Open Conductor)

Shunt type faults involves power conductor or conductors-to-ground or short circuit between
conductors. When circuits are controlled by fuses or any device which does not open all three phases,
one or two phases of the circuit may be opened while the other phases or phase is closed. These are
called series type of faults. These faults may also occur with one or two broken conductors. Shunt faults
are characterized by increasing in current and fall in voltage and frequency whereas series faults are
characterized by increase in voltage and frequency and fall in the faulted phases.

Shunt type of faults are classified as:

(i) Line – to – Ground Fault

(ii) Line – to – Line Fault
(iii) Double Line – to – Ground Fault
(iv) 3 – Phase Fault

Of these, the first three are the unsymmetrical faults as the symmetry is disturbed in one or two
phases. The method of symmetrical components will be utilized to analyze the unbalancing in the
system. The 3-phase fault is a balanced fault which could also be analyzed using symmetrical
components.
 The series faults are classified as:

(i) One open conductor, and

(ii) Two open conductors

These faults also disturb the symmetry in one or two phases and are, therefore, unbalanced faults.
The method of symmetrical components can be used for analyzing such situations in the system.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure

2. Adjust the speed of the motor to rated speed
3. Vary the excitation of alternator to minimum position and close the Alternator MCB switch
4. Slowly increase the excitation until the fault current is equal to rated current of alternator and
note down the line and phase voltages.
5. The above procedure is repeated for different types of faults.

Tabulation:

Type of Fault Ia Ib Field Prefault

Current(If) Voltage(Ea)
LG
LLG
LL

Model Calculations:

From LLG Fault:

=
 From LL Fault:

= --------------------(1)

From LG Fault:

100+ =58.57,
Z1*Z0+Z1Z2+Z2Z0=6.67*(Z2+Z0)-------------------------(2)

From equation 1 &2,

Z2=
Z1=Precautions:
1. Pre fault voltage should be low.
2. Do the connections properly at fault analyzer

Result: Various faults have been created in an unloaded Alternator and Sequence Impedances can be
determined.

Sl. NO Impedance Value (Ω)

1 Positive sequence impedance
2 Negative sequence impedance
3 Zero sequence impedance
Questions For Self Assessment:
1. What are different types of faults? Give classification
2. Which one is severe fault?
3. What are symmetrical components? Why only 3 sets?
4. How do you recognize a type of fault from given sequence component?
5. What is the frequency of Positive, Negative zero sequence component of current, how
they affect machine performan
 4.Determination of A,B,C,D constants of short, medium and long lines.

Aim:
To determine A,B,C,D constants of transmission lines for R=4 OHMS, L=80mH, C=0.44 µf.

Apparatus:

1. Digital Ammeter, 20A, AC - 02 Nos.

2. Digital Voltmeter, 0-600V, AC – 02 Nos.
3. Connecting Wires
4. ABCD Parameters of Transmission line kit

Procedure:

Short transmission line:

Open circuit test:

 Make connections as per circuit diagram.

 Switch ON the trainer.
 Set the input voltage as 40 volts by adjusting Variac
 Note down the readings of VS, VR and IS in the digital meters.

short circuit test:

 Now short the output terminals of the transmission line.

 Switch ON the trainer.
 Set the input voltage as 10 volts by adjusting Variac
 Note down the readings of VS, IS and IR in the digital meters.

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:

SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE

=

So A=1 and B=Z

C=0 and D=1
Z=R+Jx
R=Transmission line resistance + internal resistance of Inductor
R=
AC equivalent resistance=

Z=[R2+(L)2]1/2
B=

MIDIUM TRANSIMISSION LINE

I=IR+IC1
IS=I+IC2
VS=VR+IZ
=VR+(IZ+IC1)Z
=VR+IRZ+VR Z
VS=VR +IRZ
A=1+ZY/2 and B=Z
Z=
Y=2 =
Y=
A=1+((44.11)(1.38*10^-4)/2)=
A=D=1+(ZY/2)=
B=
IS=I+IC2
IS=IR+IC1+IC2
IS=IR+VR(Y/2)+VS(Y/2)
IS=IR+(VSY/2)+(VRY(1+(YZ/2))+(IRZ))Y/2
IS=IR(1+(YZ/2))+VRY(1+(YZ/4)
SO C=Y(1+(ZY/4))
=1.38*10^-4(1+((44.11)(1.38*10^-4)/4))
=

AS 2 CIRCUITS ARE CASCADED

=
 Observation:

OC test on short transmission line

Sl. No Vs (V) Vr (V) Is (A) A C
Sl. No
SC test on short transmission line

Sl. No Vs (V) Is (A) Ir (A) B D

short
transmiss
ion
line:Sl. OC test on Medium transmission line
NoSl. No Vs (V) Vr (V) Is (A) A C
Sl. No

SC test on Medium transmission line

Sl. No Vs (V) Is (A) Ir (A) B D

short
transmiss
ion
line:Sl.
NowNorepeat the above procedure (i.e conducting OC test and SC test) for medium distance transmission
line and long distance transmission line.

RESULT:

Transmission line type

Sl. No Parameter
Medium Short
1 A
2 B
3 C
4 D
 5. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH OF TRANSFORMER OIL
Aim:
To learn the measurement of the dielectric strength of the oil using HT testing kit.

Apparatus required:

Sl. No. Name of the apparatus Type Range Quantity

HT testing kit,
1 Input : 240 V,50 HZ, --- --- 1
Output :0-80 kV (2 kv/sec)
2 Measuring scale --- 2 mm 1

Theory:
The oil transformer kit is used to determine the dielectric strength of oil these are
generally used in transformers. It contains two electrodes of a small gap between there
when ever break down voltage occurs there will be a spark is observed at the high voltage
side of the transformer. For calibration the gap in between the two electrodes is 4 mm. the
voltage that is obtained when flash over occurs is rapidly applied voltage.
Oil test set is basically consists of a double wound high voltage transformer with
the H.T. end brought out and terminated on an epoxy insulation. The
lower end of the H.T winding is at earth potential and is also brought out. The
intermediate circuitry included in series with the primary of H.T transformer, if the current
through the test coil exceeds a predetermined value.
The low voltage winding of the main transformer is rated for 230 V or as specified
.It is energized by means of an auto transformer through a fuse link and an intermediate
contactor /relay, the provision of an auto transformer enables gradual application of high
voltage to the oil under test.
A voltmeter is provided on the panel to indicate the applied high voltage. The
voltmeter is connected on the low voltage side of the main transformer but it is calibrated
to read H.T voltage directly .When the failure of the test oil occurs, the supply to the
voltmeter is maintained although the supply to the H.V transformer is instantly cut off.
The voltmeter therefore indicates the voltage at which the oil under test has failed.
(1
The test method consists of subjecting the oil contained in a special apparatus to
an AC 2.5
electric field with continuously increasing voltage till the oil breaks down. The -
electrodes 13
are made of brass-bronze or stainless steel. The brass is an alloy of copper and zinc m
and m
the bronze is an alloy of copper and nickel. The polished electrodes are spherical dia
 meter). The electrodes are mounted 2.5 cm apart with an accuracy of 0.1 mm.

Procedure:
1. This test consists of applying to the electrodes an increasing ac voltage of frequency
40-60 Hz, the rate of increase of voltage being uniform and equal to 2kv/sec, starting
from zero up to the value producing breakdown.
2. The test shall be carried out six times on the same cell filling.
3. The first application of voltage is made as quickly as possible after the cell has been
filled, provided there are no longer air bubbles and the oil and at the latest 10 min after
filling, after each break down.
4. The oil is gently stirred between the electrodes by means of a clean, dry glasses
avoiding as far as possible production of air bubbles for the subsequent flue tests the
voltage is re applied one minute after the disappearance of air bubbles that may have
been formed if the observation of the disappearance of air bubbles.
Parts:
1. Main switch
2. Fuse
3. Main pilot lamp L1
4. HT off push button
5. Motor control switch
6. HT on pilot lamp
7. Kilo voltmeter
8. L & N reserve pilot lamp
9. Earth open pilot lamp
Observation:
Table-6.2: Dielectric strength of transformer oil

Dielectric strength (kV/mm)

Sl. No
Manual mode (voltage) Distance between electrodes

Average=
Dielectric strength=
Precautions:
1. In motoring mode, the coupling between motor and autotransformer should be
properly done.
2. In manual mode, motor and autotransformer should be recouped.
Result:
Hence the dielectric strength of oil is tested using HT testing kit in manual mode.
Dielectric strength=

Questions for self assessment:

1. What are the different types of insulating materials?
2. What do you mean by dielectric strength?
3. What is difference between insulator and dielectric?
4. What is difference between breakdown voltage and dielectric strength?
5. What are the different types of insulating oils?
6. What is the dielectric strength of ideal oil?
 6. TONG TESTER CALIBRATION

Objective:
To Calibrate the tong tester and determine the Percentage of error
Apparatus required:
Sl. No. Name of the apparatus Type Range Quantity
1 Auto transformer 1-Ф 230V/(0-270)V, 8A 1
2 Current transformer --- Precision- 10/5 , 10/1 1
3 Voltmeter DMM (0-600) V 1
4 Ammeter DMM (0-20A) 1
5 TongTester DMM (0-400A) 1

THEORY:
In Power system it is often necessary to measure the high currents in current carrying bus
bars (or) feeders to know the temperature, heating effect and loading permitted.
In many cases, however, it is difficult to find a suitable location where a practical circuit
can be conveniently broken for measuring current and, of course, a ‘live’ circuit will need
to be de-energised before we can break the circuit to insert the ammeter. This requires the
load to be temporarily taken out of service while the ammeter is inserted, which might not
be convenient or practical.
For alternating current, these difficulties can be overcome by using an instrument called a
clamp-on ammeter or clamp-on multimeter (sometimes known as ‘tong testers’). The
accuracy of a current reading taken with a clamp-on ammeter will not be as accurate as a
conventional ammeter but, usually, a great degree of accuracy is unnecessary for those
applications where such an ammeter is used. A clamp-on ammeter can, of course, only
measure alternating current flowing in an individual conductor (e.g the line or the neutral
conductor); it cannot measure the currents flowing in a multicore cable, because the
magnetic fields set up by currents flowing in opposite directions in, say, the line and
neutral conductors act to cancel each other! Similarly, the phasor-sum of identical line
currents in a three-phase cable is zero.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the Figure 7.2.
2. Apply 1-phase 230 V, 50Hz AC supply to variac.
3. Now connect the tong tester (Clamp on meter).
4. Now by using the variac apply different voltages and note down the corresponding
tong tester and ammeter reading.
5. Calculate the percentage error.
Observation:

Sl. Applied current Voltmeter reading Tong tester reading Error(%) Calibration
No (A) (V) (A)
1
2

Calibration = Tong tester current – Applied current.

Error: (Tong tester current – Applied current)/(Applied current)

Result:
Calibration and % error are calculated for given tong tester.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT:

1.What is the difference between multimeter and Tong tester?

2.What is a clamp on ammeter?
3. What are the advantages of Tong Tester?
 7. TRANSIENT STABILITY OF SINGLE MACHINE CONNECTED TO
INFINITE BUS BY POINT BY POINT METHOD

Aim: To determine transient stability of single machine connected to infinite bus by point by
point method
Apparatus: MATLAB software with PC compatibility
THEORY:
Stability of power system is its ability to return to normal or stable operating conditions after
having been subjected to some form of disturbance. Increase in load is a kind of disturbance.
Causes for disturbances are
 Change in load
 Loss of excitation
 Switching operation
 Fault conditions

PROBLEM:
A 20 MVA ,50 HZ generator delivers 18MW over a double circuit line to an infinite bus. The
generator has kinetic energy of 2.52MJ/MVA at rated speed. The generator transient
reactance is X1d =0.35PV. Each transmission circuit has R=0 and reactance of 0.2Pu on a
20MVA base. |E1|=1.1Pu and infinite bus voltage(v)= 1.0<00. A 3-ø short circuit occurs at
midpoint of one of transmission lines. Plot swing curve for 0.25cycles.

CALCULATION:
Base MVA =
Inertia constant M(Pu) = H/180f = /elec.degree
Pre fault:
XL=
Pe1`=pmax1sinδ
=
Pre fault power transfer=
Initial power angle is given by

δ0 =
During fault:
X11 =
Pe11 = pmax11 sin δ
=
Past fault:
X111 = Pe111 = pmax111 sin δ
=
Let us choose ∆t = 0.05S
Pa (n-1) = Pm - Pmax sin δ (n-1)

∆δn =∆δn-1 + (∆t)2/m Pa (n-1)

δn =δn-1 +∆δn

Pa for first interval

Pa(O) =∆Pu and Pa (o+) =
Pa(oavg) =

PROGRAM:

% Point by Point method

clear
t=0
tf=0
tfinal=0.5
tc=0.125
tstep=0.05
m=2.52/(180*50)
i=2
delta=21.64*pi/180
ddelta=0
time(1)=0
ang(1)=21.64
pm=0.9
pmaxbf=2.44
pmaxdf=0.88
pmaxaf=2.00
while t<tfinal,
if(t==tf)
paminus=0.9-Pmaxbf*sin(delta)
paplus=0.9-pmaxaf*sin(delta)
 paav=(paminus+pa)/2
pa=paav
end
if(t==tc)
paminus=0.9-pmaxdf*sin(delta)
paplus=0.9-pmaxaf*sin(delta)
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2
pa=paav
end
if(t>tf&t<tc),
pa=pm-pmaxdf*sin(delta)
end
if(t>tc)
pa=pm-pmaxaf*sin(delta)
end
t,pa
ddelta=ddelta+(tstep*tstep*pa/m)
delta=(delta*180/pi+ddelta)*pi/180
deltadeg=delta*180/pi
t=t+tstep
pause
time(i)=t
ang(i)=deltadeg
i=i+1
end
axis=([0.06 0 160])
plot(time,ang,'ko-')

APPLICATIONS:
 Stability of power system is done by some sessions. So, these sessions need this sort of
analysis for fast operation.
 Torque (or) load angle adjustment (or) control uses these in stability (or) transient
analysis of the power system.

TABULAR FORM:
t(sec) Pmax(pu) sinδ Pe= Pmsinδ(Pu) Pa=0.9-Pe (∆t)2/m Pa ∆δ Δ
(Pu) (deg) (deg)

RESULT:
Swing curve for the given problem is observed using MATLAB software program
Swing equation, M d2δ/dt = Pa
 8. LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL WITHOUT CONTROL

OBJECTIVE:
To find frequency deviation for a single area case without control.
OUTCOME:
After doing this experiment student will be able to student will be able to determine dynamic
response of frequency for a step change in load

Software used: MATLAB/SIMULINK

THEORY:
Let us consider the problem of controlling the power output of the generators of a closely knit
electric areas o as to maintain the scheduled frequency. All the generators in such an area
constitute a coherent group so that all the generators speed up and slow down together
maintaining their relative power angles. Such an area is defined as coherent area.
The boundaries of a control area will generally coincide with that of an individual Electricity
Board Company.
To understand the load frequency control problem, let us consider a single turbo-generator
system supplying an isolated load.
Model of speed governing system: Block diagram of speed governing system is given
below in the Figure 8.1.

Fig: 8.1 Block diagram representation of speed governor system

Where, ∆PC(s) – Laplace transform of commanded increase in power (pu MW),
Ksg – Gain of speed governor,
Tsg – Time constant of speed governor (Second),
R – Speed regulation of governor (Hz/pu MW),
∆YE – Change in steam valve setting,
∆F – Change in frequency
Turbine Model: Block diagram of turbine model is given in the figure 3.2
Where,

∆Pt(s) – Laplace transform of change in turbine power (pu MW),

Kt – Gain of turbine,
Tt – Time constant of turbine (Second),
∆YE – Change in steam valve setting.
Generator and Load model: Block diagram of Generator – Load model is given below
in the Figure 3.3.

Fig: 8.3. Block diagram representation of generator-load model

Where,
∆PG(s) – Laplace transform of incremental generator output (pu MW),
∆PD(s) – Laplace transform of load incremental (pu MW),
Kps – Power system gain,
Tps – Power system time constant (Second),
∆F – Change in frequency.
Complete block diagram representation of Load – Frequency control of a single area
system: A complete block diagram representation of a single area system comprising turbine,
generator, governor and load is easily obtained by combining the individual components i.e. by
combining Figs. 8.1, 8.2, 8.3. The complete block diagram with feedback is shown below in the
Figure 8.4.

Fig: 8.4. Block diagram model of load frequency control (isolated powers system)

Dynamic response: To obtain the dynamic response giving the change in frequency as function
of the time for a step change in load, we must obtain the Laplace inverse of ∆F(s). The
characteristic equation being of third order, dynamic response can only be obtained for a specific
numeric case. However the characteristic equation can be approximated for first order by
examining the relative magnitudes of time constants involved. Typical values of the time
constants of load frequency control system are related as, Typically Tg = 0.4 Sec, Tt = 0.5 Sec
and Tps = 20 Sec, Kt=0.1.
First order approximation block diagram: Letting Tsg = Tt = 0 Sec and Ksg*Kt = 1,
complete block diagram of single area system reduces to the Figure 8.5.

Fig: 8.5. First order approximate block diagram of load frequency control of an isolated area
Dynamic response of change in frequency for a step change in load with ∆P D = 0.01 pu, Tg = 0.4
Sec, Tt = 0.5 Sec, Tps = 20 Sec, Kps = 100 and R = 3, Kg=10 is given in the Figure 3.6.

Fig: 8.6. Dynamic response of change in frequency

Sample Problem: The parameters for load frequency control of a single area are:

Sl. No Parameter Value

1 Speed governor gain Ksg=10
2 Time constant of speed governor Tsg=0.4
3 Speed regulation of speed governor R=3
4 Gain of turbine Kt=0.1
5 Time constant of turbine Tt=0.5
6 Gain of power system Kps=100
7 Time constant of power system Tps=20
8 Changes in the load ∆PD=0.01 pu
PROCEDURE:
1. Open Matlab-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model.
2. Open Simulink Library and browse the components.
3. Connect the components as per circuit diagram.
4. Set the desired voltage and required frequency.
5. Simulate the circuit using MATLAB.
6. Plot the waveforms.

Theoretical calculations:

Δf│steady state ΔPc=0= S*ΔF(s)= -( R*KPS /(R+KPS* Kt* Kg))*ΔPD

Δf (t)=[-R*KPS /(R+KPS)]*[1-exp(-t/Tps(R/(R+Kps)))]* ΔP
Steady state frequency drop is =

QUESTIONS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT:

1. Define regulation?
2. What is steady state error?
3. What is dynamic response?
4. Why steady state error is not zero in single area system without control?
 9. LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL WITH CONTROL
OBJECTIVE:
To find frequency deviation for a single area case with control.
OUTCOME:
After doing this experiment student will be able to determine dynamic response of frequency for
a step change in load with integral controller.
Software used: MATLAB/SIMULINK
THEORY:
Control Area Concept: It is possible to divide an extended power system (say, national grid)
into subareas (may be, State Electricity Boards) in which the generators are tightly coupled
together so as to form a coherent group, i.e. all the generators respond in unison to changes in
load or speed changer settings. Such a coherent area is called a control area in which the
frequency is assumed to be the same throughout in static as well as dynamic conditions. For
purposes of developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can be reduced to a single speed
governor, turbo-generator and load system. All the control strategies discussed so far are,
therefore, applicable to an independent control area.

Proportional plus integral control: It is seen that with the speed governing system installed on
each machine, the steady load frequency characteristics for a given speed changer setting has
considerable droop. System frequency specifications are rather stringent and, therefore, so much
change in frequency cannot be tolerated. In fact, it is expected that the steady change in
frequency will be zero. While steady state frequency can be brought back to the scheduled value
by adjusting speed changer setting, the system could undergo intolerable dynamic frequency
changes with changes in load. It leads to the natural suggestion that the speed changer setting be
adjusted automatically by monitoring the frequency changes. For this purpose, a signal from ∆f
is fed through an integrator to the speed changer resulting in block diagram configuration shown
in the Figure 9.1. The system now modifies to a proportional plus integral controller, which, as is
well known from control theory, gives zero steady state error, i.e. ∆f| steady state = 0.
 Fig: 9.1. Proportional plus integral load frequency control
Where Ki – Gain of integral controller.
The signal ∆Pc(s) generated by the integral control must be of opposites sign to ∆F(s) which
accounts for negative sign in the block for integral controller.

Now, Obviously, ∆f| steady state = 0.

We find that the steady state change in frequency has been reduced to zero by the addition
of the integral controller. This can be argued out physically as well. ∆f reaches steady state
(a constant value) only when ∆Pc = ∆PD = Constant. Because of integrating action of the
controller, this only possible if ∆f=0.
The dynamics of the proportional plus integral controller can be studied numerically only,
the system being of fourth order the order of the system has increased by one with the addition of
the integral loop. The dynamic response of the proportional plus integral controller with Ki =
0.09 for a step load disturbance of 0.01 pu obtained through digital computer. For the sake of
comparison the dynamic response without integral control action is also represented on the same
figure.
Dynamic response of change in frequency for a step change in load with ∆P D = 0.01 pu,
Tsg = 0.4 Sec, Tt = 0.5 Sec, Tps = 20 Sec, Kps = 100, R = 3 and Ki = 0.09 is given in the
Figure 4.2.
 Fig: 9.2. Dynamic response of change in frequency
Exercise: The parameters for load frequency control of a single area are:

Sl. No Parameter Value

1 Speed governor gain Ksg=10
2 Time constant of speed governor Tsg=0.4
3 Speed regulation of speed governor R=3
4 Gain of turbine Kt=0.1
5 Time constant of turbine Tt=0.5
6 Gain of power system Kps=100
7 Time constant of power system Tps=20
8 Changes in the load ∆PD=0.01 pu
9 Gain of integral controller Ki = 0.09
PROCEDURE:
1. Open Matlab-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model.
2. Open Simulink Library and browse the components.
3. Connect the components as per circuit diagram.
4. Set the desired voltage and required frequency.
5. Simulate the circuit using MATLAB.
6. Plot the waveforms.
Theoretical calculations:

ΔF(S)= [-S*KPS*R*(1+S* τsg)(1+ S* τt)/(s*(1+ S* τps)(1+ S* τsg) *(1+ S* τt)R+ KPS*)(S+ R* Kt))]* ΔPD/S
Δf│steady state = S*ΔF(s)=0
QUESTIONS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT:
1. What is area control error?
2. Why negative feedback is given for integral controller?
3. How can we improve the dynamic response of a single area system with controller in
terms of speed of response?
 10.ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH WITHOUT LOSSES
OBJECTIVE:
To find economic dispatch of generation of the given set of generators for the given
power demand using Lambda iteration method without considering transmission line loss.
OUTCOME:
Student will be able to determine economic dispatch of generation of the given set of
generators for the given power demand using Lambda iteration method without
considering transmission line loss.
Software used: MATLAB/SIMULINK

THEORY:
Power is allowed to vary within certain limits so as to meet a particular load demand with
minimum fuel cost. This is called the optimal power flow (OPF) problem. The OPF is
used to optimize the power flow solution of large scale power system. This is done by
minimizing selected the same distance from the Centre of loads and their fuel costs are
different. Also under normal operating conditions, the generation capacity is more than
the total load demand and losses. Thus, there objective functions while maintaining an
acceptable system performance in terms of generator capability limits and the output of
the compensating devices. The simplest economic dispatch problem is the case when
transmission line losses are neglected. This is the problem model does not consider
system configuration and line impedances. In essence, the model assumes that the system
is only one bus with all generation and loads connected to it as shown in figure below

Since transmission losses are neglected, the total demand PD is the sum of all generation.
A cost function Ci is assumed to be known for each plant. The problem is to find the realpower
generation for each plant such that the objective function as defined by the
equation,
is minimum, subject to the constraint,

Where, Ct is the total production cost, Ci is the production cost of ith plant, Pi is generation
of the ith plant, PD is the total demand and ng is the total number of despicable generating
plants.
A rapid solution is obtained by the use of the gradient method (Lambda iteration).
Let f(2) = PD
Expanding the left hand side of the above equation in Taylor’s series about an operating
point 2k and neglecting the higher-order terms result in,

Algorithm:

1. Start the program.

2. Read the input data values
3. Start the iteration counter.
4. Check the test for convergence.
5. iter=iter+1
6. Calculate P,delp, J, deltambda and lambda.
7. Display the above values.
8. To find the total cost = sum(alpha+beta.*P+gamma.*P.∆2
9. Print the value of total cost.
10. Stop the program
PROCEDURE:

1. Enter into the command window of MATLAB software.

2. Create a new M-file by selecting ‘File -> New -> Blank M-File’.
3. Type the program code in the editor window and save program with extension ‘.m’.
4. Execute the program by clicking ‘Run’ icon or press the function key ‘F5’ in the
editor window or by typing file name without ‘.m’ extension at the command prompt
and pressing ‘Enter’ key.
5. View the results displayed in the command window.
Exercise:
The fuel cost fuctions for three thermal plants is $/h are given by,
Point of comparison/Result Generator no Theoretical Simulated
1
Output (MW) of generator 2
3
Total
1
Cost of generation (Rs/Hr) 2
3
Total
Incremental fuel cost (Rs/MWHr)

Result analysis:
Questions for self assessment:
1. What is economic load dispatch?
2. What is incremental production cost
3. How incremental production cost affects the economic dispatch?
4. Write the Lagrangian equation for economic load dispatch without considering
transmission line loss.
5. What could be the optimum value of incremental production cost for optimal
scheduling of generators?