INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATIONS

COURSE no. 10

Assoc. Prof. Luminiţa SCRIPCARIU

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 FROM THE PREVIOUS COURSE

 Non-Linear Analog Modulations (FM, PM)

 Spread Spectrum Modulation (DSSS, FHSS)

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 QUESTION 1
What is value of the period of a PRBS
generated by a LFSR with 5+1 feedback
connection?
 7
 15
 31
 63

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 QUESTION 1
What is value of the period of a PRBS
generated by a LFSR with 5+1 feedback
connection?
 7
 15
 31
 63

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 QUESTION 2
What type of modulator is used to
generate a FHSS signal?
 amplitude
 phase
 frequency
 pulse position

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 QUESTION 2
What type of modulator is used to
generate a FHSS signal?
 amplitude
 phase
 frequency
 pulse position

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 QUESTION 3
What is the value of the spreading gain of
a FHSS modulator if the bandwidth is 16
times spread?
 4 dB
 12 dB
 16 dB
 32 dB

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 QUESTION 3
What is the value of the spreading gain of
a FHSS modulator if the bandwidth is 16
times spread?
 4 dB
 12 dB
 16 dB
 32 dB

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 QUESTION 4
Let us consider a DSSS modulator that
generates the sequence 1110100 in a period.
The input data sequence of the modulator is
1010. Each data bit corresponds to one PR
bit. Which is the output sequence of the
modulator?
 0100
 0101
 1010
 1110
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 QUESTION 4
Let us consider a DSSS modulator that
generates the sequence 1110100 in a period.
The input data sequence of the modulator is
1010. Each data bit corresponds to one PR
bit. Which is the output sequence of the
modulator?
 0100
 0101
 1010
 1110
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 QUESTION 5
What are the advantages of the spread
spectrum modulations?
 They use a larger transmission bandwidth.
 They minimize the effects of additive
jamming noise.
 They are used to ensure multiple access
by the communication channel.
 They simplify the receiver structure.

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 QUESTION 5
What are the advantages of the spread
spectrum modulations?
 They use a larger transmission bandwidth.
 They minimize the effects of additive
jamming noise.
 They are used to ensure multiple access
by the communication channel.
 They simplify the receiver structure.

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 CHAPTER 4
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS (CC).
PHYSICAL MEDIA

• Transmission Line
• Twisted-Pair Cables (UTP, FTP, STP)
• Coaxial Cables
• Optical Fiber. Optical cable
• Wireless Medium

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 Transmission Line (TL)
• A transmission line is a distributed electrical
circuit.
(Its parameters are measured per length unit.)
• The value of the line length is comparable or
greater than the wavelength and it is much
greater than the transversal size of the line.

Example:  / 2;  / 4; 3; 10

• The end-to-end delay can be significant and QoS
is affected by it.

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 Examples
 = c / f c = 3108 m / s; l>>d
• 50 kHz
l =  / 2 = 3108 / 2 * 50000 = 3000 m = 3 km

• 100 MHz
l =  / 2 = 3108 / 2 * 100* 106 = 1,5 m

• 5 GHz
l =  / 2 = 3108 / 2 * 5* 109 = 0,03 m = 3 cm
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 Transmission Line Model

ZS – load impedance;
Zin – input impedance;
11-12: input port;
21-22: output port (TL is modelled as a series of two-port circuits);
u(x,t), i(x,t) – instantaneous values of voltage and current at x
distance from the input port, at the time moment t.
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 Line Characteristic Parameters
• R – characteristic resistance per unit length (/m);
• L – characteristic inductance per unit length (H/m);
• G – characteristic conductance per unit length (S/m);
• C – characteristic capacitance per unit length (F/m).
Circuit Diagram of a transmission line:

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 Line Secondary Parameters

R  jL
 R  jLG  jC    j ZC 
G  jC

•  - propagation constant (function)

•  - attenuation: =Re ;
•  - phase constant: =Im .
• ZC – line (characteristic) impedance.

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 Heaviside’s Condition
 C
  R  constant
 L
   LC  linear phase

The propagation speed and the propagation time:
 1 1
vg    constant,  g   LC  constant
 LC vg

 R 
L   j
R  j L  L  L
ZC     RC
G  j C  G  C
C   j
 C 
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 Reflection Factors
Voltage and current are reflected in
any unmatched section of the TL:

• Open line or shorted line produces total reflections

of the transmitted wave.
• Multiple reflections may occur when the signal is
reflected at each port of the line.
• No reflections occur when the load impedance
matches the line impedance or the signal frequency
is high (free-loss behaviour).
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 Level Diagram
The signal level is estimated along each line
section based on:
Line attenuation: (dB/km)
Length of line sections l1, l2, .. (km)
Line repeaters’ gains.

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 Example
Design the level diagram of a TL with 3 identical
sections having the following parameters:
l = 20 km;
 = 0.5 dB/km;
Gin = 6 dB;
GR = 8 dB;
Gout = 8dB;
a = 2 dB.

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22
 Proposed Exercise
Design the level diagram of a TL with 3
identical sections having the following
parameters:
l = 5 km;  = 2 dB/km;
Gin = 8 dB; GR = 10 dB; Gt = 5 dB; a = 3 dB.

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23
 Physical Transmission Media
• UTP – Unshielded Twisted Pair
• FTP - Foiled Twisted Pair
• STP – Shielded Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• OC – Optical Cable
• WM - Wireless Medium

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 Twisted Pair Cables
1-2 – insulated wire;
3 – e.m. shield;
4 - coat;
5* - cover.

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 Twisting

• Wire twisting aims to reduce the capacitive

and inductive coupling between the wires
inside an electrical cable.

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 UTP Characteristics
• One pair line impedance is about 100 Ohms.
• The exterior diameter of UTP cable is about 4 mm.
• Wired phone systems use 2-pair cables or 3-pair
cables.
• 4-pair UTP cable is used by computer networks.
• The length of a UTP cable segment is at most
100 m.

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 Connectors
• RJ-45 (Registered Jack - 45): 8 inputs
• RJ-11: 4 inputs
• RJ-12: 6 inputs
• With or without
metallic shield

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 Coaxial Cables
• Electrical wire
• Insulation layer
• shield
• coat
• cover*

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 Connectors
• BNC (Bayonet Nut Connector).

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 Notations
• RG-n (Radio Guide)
• Thin coaxial cables (thinnet)
RG – 58 5 mm, 50 Ohms
RG – 59 6.15 mm, 75 Ohms
RG – 62 6.15 mm, 92 ohms.
• Thick coaxial cables (thicknet)
RG-6 8.5 mm, 75 Ohms
RG-8 10.287 mm, 50 Ohms

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 Remark
• The length of a thin coaxial cable is at
most 200 m.

• Thick cables length is at most 500 m.

• After a cable segment, a communication

equipment is inserted on the line to rebuild
the signal.
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 Line impedance of coaxial
cables
• It depends on the ratio D/d:
• D – shield diameter D
Z  60 ln
d
• d – wire diameter

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 Proposed exercise
Calculate the line impedance for a coaxial
cable described by the ratio d/D =1.2/2.8
mm.
Round the resulted value to a standard
value of the impedance (50, 75, 92, 150,
300 Ohms).

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 Optical Fiber
• Transparent core (1) transparent coat (2).
• Refraction index is constant or variable.
• Uni-mode fiber (SMF)
• Multi-mode fibers (MMF)

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 Single-Mode Light Propagation

• SMF – Single Mode Fiber

• One-way transmission
• Low transmission time;
• No reflections
• Minimum wave attenuation;
• LASER diode
• High-cost manufacturing.
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 Multi-mode Light Propagation

• MMF – MultiMode Fiber

• 62.5/125 mm, 50/100 mm.
• Increased propagation time
• Higher wave attenuation
• Low-cost
• LED
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 Optical Cable
• OC - n
• One or more optical fibers
• Kevlar Reinforcing Material
• Increased mechanical robustness by a stainless
steel wire
• Outer Jacket – plastic material.

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 Optical Communication System
• Light source:
 LED – Light Emitting Diode
 diodă LASER – Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emissions of Radiations
• Optical Medium
• Light Detector: photodiode or phototransistor.

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 Transmission Bands

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 Proposed exercise
• Calculate the corresponding frequency of
an optical system transmitting the
wavelength of about 1.5 mm?
Use a proper multiple to express the value
of the frequency (K, M, G, T).

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 Advantages / Disadvantages
• The widest frequency band
• No EMI (ElectroMagnetic Interference)
• Maximum security
• Low attenuation: 0,1 - 0,004dB/km;
• Longer cable segments in comparison to
electrical wires.
• Higher manufacturing costs
• Plastic fibers get older and must be replaced
after a number of years resulting a higher
maintenance costs.
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 Remark

• In an area with strong EMI, shielded

electrical cables and optical cables must
be used.

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 WIRELESS MEDIUM

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 What are wireless communications
used for?
• Broadcasting Systems (DVB-T – Terrestrial -
Digital Video Broadcasting)
• Wireless computer networks
• Mobile communications (CDMA, GSM – Global
System for Mobile Communications; UMTS –
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, 3G
– Third Generation, 4G – Fourth Generation, LTE -
Long-Term Evolution)
• RADAR - RAdio Detection And Ranging
• Satellite communication
• Navigation systems (i.e. GPS) etc.
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 How does a radio wave
propagate?

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How do we classify radio waves?
c
• frequency and wavelength 
f

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 Literal notations of frequency bands

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 What is an antenna?
• An emitting antenna
(EA) is an electrical
wire, with an electric
current passing
through it, which
radiates electro-
magnetic (e.m.)
waves.
• An electric wire
capturing electro-
magnetic waves
becomes a receiving
antenna (RA).
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 E.M. Field
• It can be described in polar
coordinates.
• In the far region, only two
components are significant and the
field propagates as a plane wave.

E , H , P  E  H
The vector product (P) is called the
Poynting vector (energy flux density
W/m2)

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 Polarization
• The electric field
behavior defines the
polarization of the
antenna.
Polarization types:
• elliptical polarization
• circular polarization
• linear polarization

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 Polarization Loss
• If the radiating antenna and the receiving
antenna are linearly polarized and the angle
between their electric field is not null (F),
then a power loss occurs, expressed by the
polarization loss factor (PLF):

PLF  cos (F) 2

• Circular polarization: E-field has two equal

and orthogonal components.
Right Hand Circularly Polarized (RHCP) i.e. GPS
devices
Left Hand Circularly Polarized (LHCP)

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 Examples
1. The angle between two linearly polarized
antennas (Tx and Rx) is 30 degrees, PLF =0.75
which means 25% power is lost caused by bad
orientation of the antennas.

2. The angle between two linearly polarized

antennas (Tx and Rx) is 10 degrees. PLF =0.97
which means a power loss of 3% caused by
wrong orientation of the antennas.
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 About the electric field

• The intensity of the electric field radiated

by the antenna is given by:
60P
E   exp j  t  kR
R
• The wave number k of a plane wave:
2 
k 
 c

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 Dipole Antenna

 
l  2lc  ; ;  ;3
10 2
• short dipole
• half-wavelength dipole
• full-wavelength dipole
• long wire antenna
• monopole

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 Antenna Parameters
• physical length (l) or dimensions

• electric length (dimensionless): l

n

• frequency of the radiated field: c
f 

• impedance (Zin)

• bandwidth B [Hz]

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 Example
• half-wavelength dipole
antenna
• f = 3 MHz
• lambda= 100 m
• L =50 meters long.
• ‘mast radiator’ or
'radiating tower'

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 Radiation Pattern
Plotting the radiated power on all directions:
A. Isotropic
B. Omni-directional
dP
C. Directional dPrel   sin 2 ( )
dPmax

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 Omnidirectional
Antennas
• Biconical antenna
• Umbrella antenna
• Helical antenna
• Mast radiator
• Monopole antenna
• Whip antenna

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 Radiation Pattern (continued)
• Main lobe (beam
lobe)
• Side lobes
• Rear lobes
• Beamwidth
• Directivity function
• Directivity (D)

dP( , )radiated by the directional antenna

D( , ) 
dPi radiated by the isotropicantenna in solidangle unit
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 Short dipole antenna 120
90 1.5
60

150 30
0.5

D( , )  1.5  sin2 ( ) 180 0

210 330

240 300
270

D = 1.5 (dimensionless) or 1.76 dBi.

The directivity of the directional antenna is

calculated in comparison with the transmitted
power of the isotropic antenna, at the same
input power so D value is measured in dBi.
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 Rayleigh - Carson Reciprocity
Principle
• Antenna properties are identical no matter
it receives or it transmits radio waves.

• Antennas do not have distinct transmitting

and receiving radiation patterns.

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 Directional
Antennas
• Dipole antenna
• Parabolic antenna
• Cassegrain antenna
• Microstrip antenna
• Patch antenna
• Turnstile antenna
• Phased array.
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 Impedance match
• reflection coefficient:
• Power efficiency: Pout

Pin
• Example: If the antenna has an impedance of 60
Ohms and the coaxial cable is equal to 50 Ohms,
then the voltage reflection coefficient is 9%. So 91 %
of the input voltage is transferred to the antenna and
the output power is about 83 % of the input power,
with a power loss of 17 %.
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 Input Impedance
• It relates the voltage to the current at the input of the
antenna.
Example:
• Let us consider an antenna with a coaxial cable of
50 Ohm and the input power of 100 mW.
• What is the input voltage and the current intensity
on the antenna?
• The input resistance of the antenna must be 50
Ohm to match the cable impedance.
• Based on Ohm’s Law, the voltage is:
U =sqrt(Pin*Rin) = sqrt(0.1*50)=2.23V
IA=U/Rin=2.23V/50 Ohm = 44.72mA.
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 VSWR
• Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR):
1 
VSWR 
1 
• It may be quoted dimensionless or in decibels.
Example:
• If the antenna has an input resistance of 60 Ohm
and the cable is a coaxial of 50 Ohm, the absolute
value of the voltage reflection coefficient is about
0.09 and VSWR is 1.1978 or 0.78 dB of mismatch
loss.
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 Antenna Efficiency
• input power (PE)
• radiated power (P)
• power loss (Pp)
• antenna efficiency - the radiated power-to-
input power ratio:

Example: If the efficiency is 0.7 than 70 % of

the input power is radiated by the antenna
with -1.55 dB loss.
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 Radiation Resistance

• IA - maximum value of the current.

• Radiation resistance, loss resistance and
efficiency:
P Pp
R  2 , R p  2
IA IA
2
2  l 
• Short dipole radiation resistance: R  80     
 
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Dipole Radiation Resistance & Directivity

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 Example

• Short dipole with a total length:


l  2lc 
8
• Its radiation resistance is equal to
12.34 Ohm.

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 Antenna Parameters (continued)
• Gain:
G   D G (dB )  D(dB )   (dB )
• Radiated power on main beam direction:
P  G  PE
• Aperture = the equivalent receiving
surface of the antenna (m2):
 2 2
E
A  G  (1   ) PR  A( ,  )  P  A( ,  ) 
4 240
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 Example
Half-wavelength dipole: D = 2.4
perfect impedance match (0),
Efficiency = 70 %
f =100 MHz ,  = 3m,
G = 0.7*2.4 = 1.68
G(dB)=10*log10(1.68) = 2.25 dBi
2
A  G  (1   )
4
A = 1.2 m2
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 Antenna Noise
• Antenna Noise Temperature (TA)
• The noise power produced by the receiving
antenna is computed as: N= k *TA *B.
• If the receiver block has another noise
temperature (TR) then together, the antenna and
the receiver, has the equivalent noise
temperature TB = TA +TR.
• Usually Low Noise Convertors (LNC) are used.
• The ratio of the antenna gain to the antenna
noise temperature (or system temperature if a
receiver is specified) is written as G/T [dB/K] and
it is called merit figure.
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 Free-space Transmission
Relation

PR (dB)  PT (dB)  GT (dB)  GR (dB)  L(dB)  PLF (dB)

L(dB )  32.44  20 log( R(km))  20 log( f ( MHz ))

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 Example
A radio-communication system works on 0.7 GHz,
with identical radiating and receiving half-
wavelength dipole antennas, positioned at a
distance of 4 km, with an antenna efficiency of
70 %, and the input power of 100 mW, on a
bandwidth of 20 MHz (PLF = 0 dB).

Compute the free-space path power loss, the

received power and the received SNR in dB.
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 Solution
D=2.4, G = 0.7x2.4=1.68
GT = GR = 2.25dBi, PE = 0.1 W = -10 dB
L = 32.44 + 20log10(4)+20log10(700) = 101.34 dB
PR(dB) = -10 + 2.25+2.25 – 101.34 = -106.84 dB
Nin = kT0B = 1.38 * 10^(-23)*290*20*10^6=
= 8*10^(-17) W => Nin(dB)= -169 dB
SNRrec = PR(dB)- Nin(dB)=62.25 dB

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 Antenna Arrays
Increase the overall gain.
• linear array
• circular array
• grid array
• planar array
• conformal array

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 ARRAY FACTOR
• The waves radiated by the component
antennas are each multiplied by a
complex weight (wi) and then summed
together to form the phased array output
wave, Y.
• Pattern of Multiplication:

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