NATIONAL TRAINING COURSE ON ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)

LEVEL 2 as per ISO 9712

April 2019

“REAWAKENING OF TECHNOLOGY FOR SECURE TOMORROW”

5/6/2019 1
 TERMINOLOGY,
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES & FUNDAMENTALS
OF ULTRASONIC

Sanjaya Perera (B.Sc(Maths).Sp(Hons))

Scientific Officer/ OIC-UT
RT, PT and MT Level 3(As per ISO 9712/CBNDT, Sri Lanka)
UT Level 2(As per ISO 9712/CBNDT, Sri Lanka)
PT, MT, UT, RT Level 2(As per SNT-TC-1A/ISNT-NCB, India)
DIR Level 2(As per ISO 9712/JPK, Malaysia/BAM, German/IAEA)
ET, VT & TT Level 2(As per ISO 9712/Russia/ IAEA)
[email protected]
• Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method in which
high frequency sound waves are introduced into the material
being inspected.

• Most ultrasonic inspection is done at frequencies between

0.1 and 20 MHz, well above the range of human hearing
which is about 20 Hz to 20kHz. (Subsonic<Audible range<Ultrasonic)

• The sound waves travel through the material with some loss
of energy (attenuation) due to material characteristics. The
intensity of sound waves is either measured, after reflection
(Pulse echo) at interfaces (or flaw) or is measured at the
opposite surface of the specimen (Pulse transmission). The
reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the
presence and location of flaws.
UT/Introduction/MWSP 02
• History of Ultrasonic Testing...
– Firstly introduced “Sonic Testing” using high frequency acoustic
waves in railway industry. A hammer was used to produce the
sound.
– In 1880, Curie brothers discovered that Quartz crystals cut in a
certain way produce an electric potential when subjected to
pressure. (piezo electric effect)
– In 1881, Lippman theorized that the effect might work in reverse.
– When the Titanic sank in 1912, the Admiralty tried to find a way of
locating icebergs by sending out sound waves.
– Marine echo sounding was developed during Second war.
– In 1929, Russian physicist Sokolov experimented with techniques of
passing vibrations through metals to find flaws.
– In 1930, CRT was developed.
– In 1942, first flaw detector was made by D. O. Sproule- Scottish.
Similar work was done by USA and German physicists.

UT/Introduction/MWSP 02
• Ultrasonic testing method is:
1) Mostly used for detection of flaws in materials.
2) Widely used for thickness measurement.
3) Used for the determination of mechanical properties
and grain structure of materials.
4) Used for the evaluation of processing variables on
materials.

UT/Introduction/MWSP 03
Physical Principles

UT/Physical principles/MWSP
𝑽𝑽 = 𝒇𝒇𝝀𝝀
𝝀𝝀 = 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽

𝑻𝑻
𝑽𝑽 =
𝝀𝝀

𝑽𝑽 = 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 05
 𝑽𝑽 = 𝒇𝒇𝝀𝝀
• Sound waves are mechanical vibrations of particles in a
material.
• The velocity of propagation of longitudinal, transverse,
and surface waves depends on the elastic modulus and
the density of the material, and in the same material it
is independent of the frequency of the waves and the
material dimensions.

• The velocity of propagation of Lamb waves depends

not only on the material density but also on the type
of wave itself and on the frequency of the wave.
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 06
 E= Young’s modulus of elasticity
𝑬𝑬 P= Density of the material
𝑽𝑽𝒍𝒍 =
𝝆𝝆

E= Modulus of rigidity
𝑮𝑮
𝑽𝑽𝒕𝒕 = P= Density of the material

𝝆𝝆
𝑽𝑽𝒔𝒔 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝑽𝑽𝒕𝒕
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 07
 𝑽𝑽𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝑽𝑽𝒍𝒍 ; for Steel
• Acoustic Impedance(Z)
The resistance offered to the propagation of
an ultrasonic wave by a material is known as
the acoustic impedance.

𝒁𝒁 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 08
• Reflection and Transmission of ultrasonic
waves depend on the difference between
the Z values of the two mediums.
 At steel/ air interface 99% of the energy
reflects back.
 We can use transmitted or reflected
wave. But 90%, we use reflected wave
for UT.
 We use steel/air interface for UT. Reflection
from a flaw/ back-wall reflection is high if
there is any s/a interface.
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 09
 𝟒𝟒𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐
𝑻𝑻 = ; Transmission coefficient
(𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 +𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )𝟐𝟐

(𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 −𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 ) 𝟐𝟐
𝑹𝑹 = ; Reflection coefficient
(𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 +𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )𝟐𝟐
• If (𝑍𝑍1 −𝑍𝑍2 ) / mismatch is high then the
reflection is high.
• We select couplant such that mismatch is
law. Then high transmission exists.
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 10
 𝐼𝐼1
𝒏𝒏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 log 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 ; Intensity level in
𝐼𝐼2
decibels

• Exercise 01
1. Show that T=1-R
2. Find the Reflection coefficient for steel/air
interface.
3. Find the decibel drop when 100%FSH echo
was dropped to 50%FSH.
4. Find the decibel drop when 100%FSH echo
was dropped to 20%FSH.
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 11
Some amount of ultrasonic energy is reflected at the interface
between two different materials as a sound beam passes from one to
the other.
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 12
• Two types of UT methods;
1. Pulse Echo Technique (PET)
Use reflected wave for detection
2. Through Transmission Technique (TTT)
Use transmitted wave for detection

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 13
 Types of Ultrasonic Waves
Ultrasonic waves are classified on the basis of
the mode of vibration of the particles of the
medium with respect to the direction of
propagation of the waves.
1. Longitudinal/ Compressional waves
2. Transverse/ Shear waves
3. Surface/ Rayleigh waves
4. Lamb/ Plate waves

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 14
 Longitudinal Waves
• Vibration of the particles is in the same direction as the
propagation of the sound wave.
• Because of its easy generation and detection, this type of
ultrasonic wave is most widely used in ultrasonic testing.
• Almost all of the ultrasonic energy used for the testing
of materials originates in this mode and is then
converted to other modes for special test applications.
• This type of wave can propagate in solids, liquids and
gases.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 15
 Transverse Waves
• The direction of particle displacement is at right angles
or transverse to the direction of wave propagation.
• For all practical purposes, transverse waves can only
propagate in solids.
• The velocity through any given media is about half of
the longitudinal wave velocity.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 16
 Surface Waves
• Surface waves travel along the free boundary (surface) of
a solid. These are also referred to as Rayleigh waves.
• Used to inspect very smooth surfaces for fine cracks and
scratches.
• Requires a clean, smooth surface.
• Quickly attenuated by liquids or contamination on the
surface of the test object.
• Penetrates into the material about 1 wavelength.
• Will travel only in solids.
• Will travel about 90% of the shear wave. (The velocity of
a surface wave through mild steel is 2.9 km/s.)

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 17
 Lamb Waves
• The fourth wave mode is the Lamb wave or plate wave.
There are two types of Lamb waves.

Asymmetrical Symmetrical
• A Lamb wave is a special surface wave generated when
the part thickness is less than one wavelength (typically
less than 0.1 in. thick).
• Applications:
 Thin walled tubing.
 Thin sheet or plate materials.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 18
 Attenuation
• High frequency ultrasonic waves passing through a
material are reduced in power (loss of energy), or
attenuated, by reflection and scattering of the beams
at the grain boundaries within the material.
• This loss is proportional to the grain volume in the
material and the wavelength of the beam.
• Scattering losses are greatest where the wavelength is
less than one-third of the grain size.
 As the frequency is lowered and the wavelength
becomes greater than the grain size, attenuation is
caused mainly by damping of the wave.
 Damping occurs when the wave energy is lost through
heat caused by friction of the vibrating particles.
• Beam spread is also affected to attenuation.
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 19
 Reflection
• Ultrasonic waves are reflected from both the
discontinuity and the back surface of the test object as
echoes. The echo from the discontinuity is received
before the back surface reflection is received.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 20
 Refraction & Mode Conversion
• If ultrasonic waves strike a boundary at an oblique angle,
then the reflection and transmission of the waves become
more complicated than that with normal incidence.

• At oblique incidence the phenomena of mode conversion

(i.e. a change in the nature of the wave motion) and
refraction (a change in the direction of wave propagation)
occur.
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 21
Refraction & Mode Conversion

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 22
 Snell’s Law

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷𝒕𝒕

= =
𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝑽𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐

Snell’s law states that the sine of the angle of incidence in the
first medium is to the sine of the angle of refraction in the
second medium as the velocity of sound in the first medium is to
the velocity of sound in the second medium

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 23
 First Critical Angle
• As the angle of incidence is increased, the first critical angle
is reached when the refracted longitudinal beam angle
reaches 90º. At this point, only shear waves exist in the
second medium.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 24
 Second Critical Angle
• As the angle of incidence is increased further, the second
critical angle is reached when the refracted shear beam
angle reaches 90º. At this point, shear waves moves along
the interface between two mediums.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 25
• Exercise 02
1. If it is desired that a shear wave travels into
steel at 60 degrees, what would be the
incident angle on the Perspex wedge?
2. An angle probe gives a beam angle of 55
degrees in steel. What is its beam angle
when used to inspect Aluminum?
3. Find the first critical angle and second critical
angle for Perspex / Steel interface.
4. What should be the smallest probe angle
which exist in market? Explain your answer.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 26
 Piezoelectric Effect
• Ultrasonic transducers convert electrical energy into
ultrasonic energy and vice versa by utilizing a
phenomenon known as the piezoelectric.

• Direct piezoelectric effect;

 Mechanical vibration converts into electrical signal.
 The direct piezoelectric effect is used in the detection.

• Inverse piezoelectric effect;

 Electrical potential converts into mechanical vibration.
 The inverse piezoelectric effect is used in the
generation.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 27
 Types of Piezoelectric Transducers
• Piezoelectric transducers can be classified into two
groups.
a) If the transducers are made from single crystal materials
in which the piezoelectric effect occurs naturally, they are
classified as piezoelectric crystal transducers.
 Ex: Quartz, Lithium Sulphate, Barium Titanate

b) The transducers which are made from polycrystalline

materials in which the piezoelectric effect has to be
induced by polarization, are termed as polarized ceramic
transducers.
 Efficient generators
 Used for high temperature applications
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 28
 Quartz

Least efficient generator

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 29
 Lithium Sulphate
• Lithium Sulphate is another piezoelectric crystal which is
commonly used for the manufacture of ultrasonic
transducers.
 Most efficient receiver

Barium Titanate
• Best material to use as a transmitting crystal (generator).

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 30
 Transducer
• In ultrasonic testing, the essential sensor of the system is
the transducer. It performs several functions, all
centering around the piezoelectric element.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 31
Angle probes
 Sensitivity
• The sensitivity of a transducer is its ability to detect
echoes from small discontinuities.
• A transducer’s sensitivity is rated by its ability to detect
a flat-bottomed hole of a given size at a specific depth
in a standard reference block.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 32
 Resolution
• The resolution or resolving power of a transducer refers
to its ability to separate the echoes from two reflectors
close together in time.
• The resolution of the transducer is directly related to
the damping time.
– Damping time refers to the time required for the crystal to
quit vibrating after excitation

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 33
 Transducer Selection
• Frequency:
An operator may choose a given frequency
transducer based on the sensitivity that a project
specification requires.
 Sensitivity is related to wavelength:
 the higher the frequency, the shorter the
wavelength
 the shorter the wavelength, the higher the
sensitivity.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 34
 Transducer Selection
• Crystal thickness:
Transducer frequency and crystal thickness are
integrally related:
 the thinner the crystal, the higher the frequency
 the thicker the crystal, the lower the frequency.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 35
 Transducer Selection
• The higher the frequency of a transducer, the tighter the
sound beam (due to a lower beam spread) and the
greater the sensitivity and resolution, but attenuation is
greater and penetration is poor.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 36
 Transducer Selection
• For any frequency, the larger the transducer, the tighter
the sound beam (less beam spread) but the less
sensitivity.
• Coarse-grained cast metallic materials require
frequencies no greater than 1 to 2.25 MHz to penetrate
to the opposite surface.
• Wood and concrete require frequencies down to 200
kHz.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 37
 Near Field & Far Field
• Two distinct regions of the beam exist and are classified
as near field (Fresnel zone) and far field (Fraunhofer
zone).

1N 3N

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 38
 Near Field & Far Field
• The intensity passes through a number of maxima and
minima. The last minima occurs at N/2 while the last
maxima occurs at N where N denotes the near field
length.
• After one near field length the intensity decreases
continuously

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 39
 Near Field & Far Field
• From a distance of approximately three near field lengths the
sound pressure on the central axis of the beam is reduced
proportional to the inverse distance and the sound beam
diverges with a constant angle of divergence. We call this
area the far field.
• The area from 1 N to approximately 3 N is referred to as the
transition zone where the divergence angle still changes and
is not constant.

1N 3N

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 40
 Near Field (N)

𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝐟𝐟
𝐃𝐃 𝐃𝐃 N= Near field length
𝐍𝐍 = 𝐍𝐍 = D= Diameter of the probe
𝟒𝟒𝛌𝛌 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 f= Probe frequency

• Flaws appearing in the near field must be carefully

interpreted because a flaw occurring in this region can
produce multiple indications.
• The near field problem can be reduced or even completely
overcome by the use of plastic shoes in front of the crystals
generating ultrasound.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 41
 Far Field
• The region beyond the near field is known as the far field.
• The wave front of ultrasonic waves in the far field beyond a
distance of three near field lengths from the transducer is
spherical as compared to the wave front in the near field
which is planar.
• The region in the far field between one near field length and
three near field lengths is known as the transition region
because transition in shape of the wave front from planar to
spherical occurs in this region.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 42
 Far Field
• If the flaw is larger than the beam then the reflected intensity
follows the inverse proportional law, i.e. intensity of
reflection a 1/distance.
• If the size of the flaw is smaller than the beam dimensions
then the reflected intensity varies inversely as the square of
the distance, i.e. Intensity a 1/(distance)2.

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝑰𝑰 𝜶𝜶 𝑰𝑰 𝜶𝜶 𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 43
 Beam Divergence

−𝟏𝟏
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 k= Constant
𝜸𝜸 = sin D= Diameter of the probe
𝑫𝑫 𝝀𝝀= Wave length

• A smaller transducer has a greater beam spread angle

than a larger diameter transducer.

UT/Physical principles/MWSP 44
 Attenuation Coefficient
• Absorption (sound energy converts to the thermal energy),
Scattering (due to the inhomogeneity of the medium) &
Beam spread (due to divergence of the beam) are major 03
reasons for attenuation.
• Attenuation per unit distance travelled by the beam called
attenuation coefficient.
• Attenuation in UT is expressed in terms of echo height drop.
h1 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 − 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 = 𝜟𝜟𝒉𝒉 = 𝜟𝜟𝒉𝒉𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 + 𝜟𝜟𝒉𝒉𝑺𝑺 + 𝜟𝜟𝒉𝒉𝑨𝑨
h2
𝜟𝜟𝒉𝒉 − 𝜟𝜟𝒉𝒉𝑩𝑩𝑺𝑺 = 𝜟𝜟𝒉𝒉𝑺𝑺 + 𝜟𝜟𝒉𝒉𝑨𝑨

𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 − 𝚫𝚫𝒉𝒉𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩
𝜶𝜶 =
IP 1st BW 2nd BW 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
UT/Physical principles/MWSP 45