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Operating System

DIT

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Operating System

DIT

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Shabbir Ahmad

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SARDAR AZEEM PICT(1 | P a g e ) 03135879331

OPERATING
SYSTEM
WIN7
WINSERVER
2008
LINUX
DIT Part 1ST
By Sardar Azeem
(Pict Computer Center Link Road abbottabad)

Pre pared by: Sardar Azeem(MBA(B&F) Computer HW And Network Engineer: Pict
Computer Center Link Road Abbottabad.
Email: [email protected]/Website:www.pictcomputeratd.com
SARDAR AZEEM PICT(2 | P a g e ) 03135879331

What is an Operating System and its role in

the Computing environment?
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that manage computer hardware
resources and provide common services for application software. The operating system is
the most important type of system software in a computer system. A user cannot run an
application program on the computer without an operating system, unless the application
program is self booting.

For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating
system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware,
although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will
frequently call the OS or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on almost any
device that contains a computer—from cellular phones and video game consoles to
supercomputers and web servers.

Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, iOS, Linux, Mac OS X,
all of which have their roots in Unix, and Microsoft Windows.

Roles of operating system

• Operating systems are designed to provide uniform abstraction across multiple
applications: fair sharing of resources

• General purpose OS like Solaris in wizard.cse.nd.edu Mail, web, samba server, telnet,
emacs …Memory fs, afs, ufs …Fibre channel devices, floppy disks …

• What about applications/services such as video games, data base servers, mail servers
OS gets in the way of these applications in the name of fairness (MSDOS is the ideal
OS!!)
• Create multiple virtual machines that each user can control all to themselves
IBM 360/370 …
• Monolithic kernel: Linux One kernel provides all services.
New paradigms are harder to implement
May not be optimal for any one application
• Microkernel: Mach
Microkernel provides minimal service
Application servers provide OS functionality
• Nanokernel: OS is implemented as application level libraries
• Shared memory multiprocessor The Multics hardware architecture supports multiple
CPUs sharing the same physical memory. All processors are equivalent.
• Multi-language supportIn addition to PL/I, Multics supports BCPL, BASIC, APL,
FORTRAN,LISP, C, COBOL, ALGOL 68 and Pascal. Routines in these
languages can call each other.
• Relational database Multics provided the first commercial relational database product,
the Multics Relational Data Store (MRDS), in 1978.
• Security
Multics was designed to be secure from the beginning. In the 1980s,
the system was awarded the B2 security rating by the US government
NCSC, the first (and for years only) system to get a B2 rating.

Components of An Operating system

The components of an operating system all exist in order to make the different parts of a
computer work together. All software—from financial databases to film editors—needs
to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be as
simple as a mouse or keyboard or complex as an Internet connection.

Some major components of operating system are.

1. Kernal:

A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer.With the aid of
the firmware and device drivers, the kernel provides the most basic level of control over
all of the computer's hardware devices. It manages memory access for programs in the
RAM, it determines which programs get access to which hardware resources, it sets up or
resets the CPU's operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it organizes the
data for long-term non-volatile storage with file systems on such media as disks, tapes,
flash memory, etc.

2. Program Execution:

The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the
computer hardware, so that an application program can interact with the hardware only
by obeying rules and procedures programmed into the operating system. The operating
system is also a set of services which simplify development and execution of application
programs. Executing an application program involves the creation of a process by the
operating system kernel which assigns memory space and other resources, establishes a
priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary code into memory,
and initiates execution of the application program which then interacts with the user and
with hardware devices.

3.Interrupts:

Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an efficient way for the
operating system to interact with and react to its environment. The alternative — having
the operating system "watch" the various sources of input for events (polling) that require
action — can be found in older systems with very small stacks (50 or 60 bytes) but are
unusual in modern systems with large stacks. Interrupt-based programming is directly
supported by most modern CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of
automatically saving local register contexts, and running specific code in response to
events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow the
programmer to specify code which may be run when that event takes place.

When an interrupt is received, the computer's hardware automatically suspends whatever

program is currently running, saves its status, and runs computer code previously
associated with the interrupt; this is analogous to placing a bookmark in a book in
response to a phone call. In modern operating systems, interrupts are handled by the
operating system's kernel. Interrupts may come from either the computer's hardware or
from the running program.
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When a hardware device triggers an interrupt, the operating system's kernel decides how
to deal with this event, generally by running some processing code. The amount of code
being run depends on the priority of the interrupt (for example: a person usually responds
to a smoke detector alarm before answering the phone). The processing of hardware
interrupts is a task that is usually delegated to software called device driver, which may
be either part of the operating system's kernel, part of another program, or both. Device
drivers may then relay information to a running program by various means.

A program may also trigger an interrupt to the operating system. If a program wishes to
access hardware for example, it may interrupt the operating system's kernel, which causes
control to be passed back to the kernel. The kernel will then process the request. If a
program wishes additional resources (or wishes to shed resources) such as memory, it
will trigger an interrupt to get the kernel's attention.

4. Modes

Privilege rings for the x86 available in protected mode. Operating systems determine
which processes run in each mode.

Modern CPUs support multiple

modes of operation. CPUs with this
capability use at least two modes:
protected mode and supervisor
mode. The supervisor mode is used
by the operating system's kernel for
low level tasks that need unrestricted
access to hardware, such as
controlling how memory is written
and erased, and communication with
devices like graphics cards.
Protected mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Applications operate
within protected mode, and can only use hardware by communicating with the kernel,
which controls everything in supervisor mode. CPUs might have other modes similar to
protected mode as well, such as the virtual modes in order to emulate older processor
types, such as 16-bit processors on a 32-bit one, or 32-bit processors on a 64-bit one.

When a computer first starts up, it is automatically running in supervisor mode. The first
few programs to run on the computer, being the BIOS or EFI, bootloader, and the
operating system have unlimited access to hardware - and this is required because, by
definition, initializing a protected environment can only be done outside of one.
However, when the operating system passes control to another program, it can place the
CPU into protected mode.

In protected mode, programs may have access to a more limited set of the CPU's
instructions. A user program may leave protected mode only by triggering an interrupt,
causing control to be passed back to the kernel. In this way the operating system can
maintain exclusive control over things like access to hardware and memory.

The term "protected mode resource" generally refers to one or more CPU registers, which
contain information that the running program isn't allowed to alter. Attempts to alter
these resources generally causes a switch to supervisor mode, where the operating system
can deal with the illegal operation the program was attempting (for example, by killing
the program).

5. Memory Management:

Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible

for managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that

a program does not interfere with memory already in use by another program. Since
programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory.

6. Virtual Memory

Many operating systems can "trick" programs into using memory scattered around the
hard disk and RAM as if it is one continuous chunk of memory, called virtual memory.

The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging or segmentation) means that the
kernel can choose what memory each program may use at any given time, allowing the
operating system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks.

If a program tries to access memory that isn't in its current range of accessible memory,
but nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel will be interrupted in the same way as
it would if the program were to exceed its allocated memory. (See section on memory
management.) Under UNIX this kind of interrupt is referred to as a page fault.

When the kernel detects a page fault it will generally adjust the virtual memory range of
the program which triggered it, granting it access to the memory requested. This gives the
kernel discretionary power over where a particular application's memory is stored, or
even whether or not it has actually been allocated yet.

In modern operating systems, memory which is accessed less frequently can be

temporarily stored on disk or other media to make that space available for use by other
programs. This is called swapping, as an area of memory can be used by multiple
programs, and what that memory area contains can be swapped or exchanged on demand.

"Virtual memory" provides the programmer or the user with the perception that there is a
much larger amount of RAM in the computer than is really there.

7. Multitasking:

Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the

same computer; giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time.
Since most computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done
via time-sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer's time to
execute.

An operating system kernel contains a piece of software called a scheduler which

determines how much time each program will spend executing, and in which order
execution control should be passed to programs. Control is passed to a process by the
kernel, which allows the program access to the CPU and memory. Later, control is
returned to the kernel through some mechanism, so that another program may be allowed
to use the CPU. This so-called passing of control between the kernel and applications is
called a context switch.

An early model which governed the allocation of time to programs was called
cooperative multitasking. In this model, when control is passed to a program by the
kernel, it may execute for as long as it wants before explicitly returning control to the
kernel. This means that a malicious or malfunctioning program may not only prevent any
other programs from using the CPU, but it can hang the entire system if it enters an
infinite loop.

Modern operating systems extend the concepts of application preemption to device

drivers and kernel code, so that the operating system has preemptive control over internal
run-times as well.

The philosophy governing preemptive multitasking is that of ensuring that all programs
are given regular time on the CPU. This implies that all programs must be limited in how
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Computer Center Link Road Abbottabad.
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much time they are allowed to spend on the CPU without being interrupted. To
accomplish this, modern operating system kernels make use of a timed interrupt. A
protected mode timer is set by the kernel which triggers a return to supervisor mode after
the specified time has elapsed. (See above sections on Interrupts and Dual Mode
Operation.)

On many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking is perfectly adequate, as

home computers generally run a small number of well tested programs. The AmigaOS is
an exception, having pre-emptive multitasking from its very first version. Windows NT
was the first version of Microsoft Windows which enforced preemptive multitasking, but
it didn't reach the home user market until Windows XP (since Windows NT was targeted
at professionals).

9. Disk access and file systems:

Filesystems allow users and programs to organize and sort files on a computer, often
through the use of directories (or "folders")Access to data stored on disks is a central
feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on disks using files, which are
structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to
make better use out of the drive's available space. The specific way in which files are
stored on a disk is called a file system, and enables files to have names and attributes. It
also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a
directory tree.

Early operating systems generally supported a single type of disk drive and only one kind
of file system. Early file systems were limited in their capacity, speed, and in the kinds of
file names and directory structures they could use. These limitations often reflected
limitations in the operating systems they were designed for, making it very difficult for
an operating system to support more than one file system.

Various differences between file systems make supporting all file systems difficult.
Allowed characters in file names, case sensitivity, and the presence of various kinds of
file attributes makes the implementation of a single interface for every file system a
daunting task. Operating systems tend to recommend using (and so support natively) file
systems specifically designed for them; for example, NTFS in Windows and ext3 and
ReiserFS in GNU/Linux. However, in practice, third party drives are usually available to
give support for the most widely used file systems in most general-purpose operating
systems (for example, NTFS is available in GNU/Linux through NTFS-3g, and ext2/3
and ReiserFS are available in Windows through FS-driver and rfstool).

Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems, although
there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include
support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on file system support and on the disk
formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each file system is usually limited in
application to certain media; for example, CDs must use ISO 9660 or UDF, and as of
Windows Vista, NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed
on. It is possible to install GNU/Linux onto many types of file systems. Unlike other
operating systems, GNU/Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of
the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD,DVD...), a USB flash drive,
or even contained within a file located on another file system.

10. Device Drivers:

A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction

with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the
device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the
hardware is connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device,
and on the other end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software
applications. It is a specialized hardware-dependent computer program which is also
operating system specific that enables another program, typically an operating system or
applications software package or computer program running under the operating system
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Email: [email protected]/Website:www.pictcomputeratd.com
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kernel, to interact transparently with a hardware device, and usually provides the requisite
interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware
interfacing needs.

11.Networking

Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware,

and applications for using them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating
systems can participate in a common network for sharing resources such as computing,
files, printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can
essentially allow a computer's operating system to access the resources of a remote
computer to support the same functions as it could if those resources were connected
directly to the local computer. This includes everything from simple communication, to
using networked file systems or even sharing another computer's graphics or sound
hardware. Some network services allow the resources of a computer to be accessed
transparently, such as SSH which allows networked users direct access to a computer's
command line interface.

12.Security:

A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A

modern operating system provides access to a number of resources, which are available
to software running on the system, and to external devices like networks via the kernel.

The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should
be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While some
systems may simply distinguish between "privileged" and "non-privileged", systems
commonly have a form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity
there may be a process of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each
username may have a password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards
or biometric data, might be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the
network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading files
over a network share). Also covered by the concept of requester identity is authorization;
the particular services and resources accessible by the requester once logged into a
system are tied to either the requester's user account or to the variously configured groups
of users to which the requester belongs.

Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the
system to have private files that the other users cannot tamper with or read. Internal
security is also vital if auditing is to be of any use, since a program can potentially bypass
the operating system, inclusive of bypassing auditing.

13.User Interface:

Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a user interface. The user
interface is not actually a part of the operating system—it generally runs in a separate
program usually referred to as a shell, but is essential if human interaction is to be
supported. The user interface requests services from the operating system that will
acquire data from input hardware devices, such as a keyboard, mouse or credit card
reader, and requests operating system services to display prompts, status messages and
such on output hardware devices, such as a video monitor or printer. The two most
common forms of a user interface have historically been the command-line interface,
where computer commands are typed out line-by-line, and the graphical user interface,
where a visual environment (most commonly a WIMP) is present.

Graphical user interfaces

A screenshot of the KDE graphical user interface. Programs take the form of images on
the screen, and the files, folders (directories), and applications take the form of icons and
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symbols. A mouse is used to navigate the computer.Most of the modern computer

systems support graphical user interfaces (GUI), and often include them. In some
computer systems, such as the original implementation of Mac OS, the GUI is integrated
into the kernel.

CDI(commanad driven interface)

Provides command base access to resources of a computer.

Like Ms dos in Ms windows.

MDI(menu driven interface)

Provides interactive menus to access computer resources.

Tasks of an operating system

1.Multitasking:
Running more thenone tasks at a time
In computing, multitasking is a method where multiple tasks, also known as processes,
share common processing resources such as a CPU. In the case of a computer with a
single CPU, only one task is said to be running at any point in time, meaning that the
CPU is actively executing instructions for that task. Multitasking solves the problem by
scheduling which task may be the one running at any given time, and when another
waiting task gets a turn
2. Multiprocessing:
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a
single computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more
than one processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between them. There are many
variations on this basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary with
context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die,
multiple dies in one package, multiple packages in one system unit, etc.).

Symmetric multiprocessing
In computing, symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) involves a multiprocessor computer
hardware architecture where two or more identical processors are connected to a single
shared main memory and are controlled by a single OS instance.

Asymmetric multiprocessing
Asymmetric multiprocessing, or AMP, was a software stopgap for handling multiple
CPUs before symmetric multiprocessing, or SMP, was available.

Asymmetric multiprocessing

Multiprocessing is the use of more than one CPU in a computer system. The CPU is the
arithmetic and logic engine that executes user applications; an I/O interface such as a
GPU, even if it is implemented using an embedded processor, does not constitute a CPU
because it does not run the user's application program. With multiple CPUs, more than
one set of program instructions can be executed at the same time. All of the CPUs have

the same user-mode instruction set, so a running job can be rescheduled from one CPU to
another.

3. Multithreading:
Multithreading as a widespread programming and execution model allows multiple
threads to exist within the context of a single process.

Preemptive multithreading is generally considered the superior approach, as it allows the

operating system to determine when a context switch should occur. The disadvantage to
preemptive multithreading is that the system may make a context switch at an
inappropriate time, causing lock convoy, priority inversion or other negative effects
which may be avoided by cooperative multithreading.

Cooperative multithreading, on the other hand, relies on the threads themselves to

relinquish control once they are at a stopping point. This can create problems if a thread
is waiting for a resource to become available.

4. Multi Programming:

In multiprogramming systems, the running task keeps running until it performs an

operation that requires waiting for an external event (e.g. reading from a tape) or until the
computer's scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the CPU. Multiprogramming
systems are designed to maximize CPU usage.

5. Time Sharing:
In time-sharing systems, the running task is required to relinquish the CPU, either
voluntarily or by an external event such as a hardware interrupt. Time sharing systems
are designed to allow several programs to execute apparently simultaneously.

Types of Operating system

Real-time Operating system
A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing
real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling
algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main
objective of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events.
They have an event-driven or time-sharing design and often aspects of both. An event-
driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while
time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.
Multi-user vs. Single-user
A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system
concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable
a multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating
systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at a
time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not
make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But
for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this
capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system.
Single user operating system allows a single user to access the computer at a time. These
computers have a single processor and execute a single program. The resources such as
CPU and I/O devices are constantly available to the user in a single user operating system
for operating the system. As a result, the CPU sites idlefor most of the time and is not
utilized to its maximum.
Multi user operating system allows various users to access the different resources of a
computer simultaneously. The access is provided using a network that consists of various
presonal computers attached to a mainframe computer. These computers send and recieve
information to multi user mainframe computer system.
Multi-tasking vs. Single-tasking
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When only a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a
single-tasking system. However, when the operating system allows the execution of
multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-
tasking can be of two types: pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the
operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs.
Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking,
as does AmigaOS. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to
give time to the other processes in a defined manner. MS Windows prior to Windows
2000 and Mac OS prior to OS X used to support cooperative multitasking.
Distributed
A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes
them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that
could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing.
Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in
a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.
Embedded
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems.
They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are
able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely
efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating
systems.

File Systems

A file system (or filesystem) is a means to organize data expected to be retained after a
program terminates by providing procedures to store, retrieve and update data, as well as
manage the available space on the device(s) which contain it. A file system organizes
data in an efficient manner and is tuned to the specific characteristics of the device. There
is usually a tight coupling between the operating system and the file system. Some
filesystems provide mechanisms to control access to the data and metadata. Ensuring
reliability is a major responsibility of a filesystem. Some filesystems provide a means for
multiple programs to update data in the same file at nearly the same time.

Without a filesystem programs would not be able to access data by file name or directory
and would need to be able to directly access data regions on a storage device.

Windows makes use of the FAT and NTFS file systems.

Windows uses a drive letter abstraction at the user level to distinguish one disk or
partition from another. For example, the path C:\WINDOWS represents a directory
WINDOWS on the partition represented by the letter C.

Network drives may also be mapped to drive letters.

FAT
The family of FAT file systems is supported by almost all operating systems for personal
computers, including all versions of Windows and MS-DOS/PC DOS and DR-DOS. (PC
DOS is an OEM version of MS-DOS, MS-DOS was originally based on SCP's 86-DOS.
DR-DOS was based on Digital Research's Concurrent DOS.) The FAT file systems are
therefore well-suited as an universal exchange format between computers and devices of
most any type and age.

The FAT file system traces its roots back to an (incompatible) 8-bit FAT precursor in the
short-lived M-DOS project and Standalone disk BASIC.

Over the years, the filesystem has been expanded from FAT12 to FAT16 and FAT32.
Various features have been added to the file system including sub-directories, codepage
support, extended attributes, and long filenames. Third-parties such as Digital Research
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have incorporated optional support for deletion tracking, and volume/directory/file-based

multi-user security schemes to support file and directory passwords and permissions such
as read/write/delete/execute access rights. Most of these extensions are not supported by
Windows.

The FAT12 and FAT16 file systems had a limit on the number of entries in the root
directory of the file system and had restrictions on the maximum size of FAT-formatted
disks or partitions.

FAT32 addresses the limitations in FAT12 and FAT16, except for the file size limit of
close to 4 GB, but it remains limited compared to NTFS.

FAT12, FAT16 and FAT32 also have a limit of 8 characters for the file name, and 3
characters for the extension (such as .exe). This is commonly referred to as the 8.3
filename limit. VFAT, an optional extension to FAT12, FAT16 and FAT32, introduced in
Windows 95 and Windows NT 3.5, allowed long file names (LFN) to be stored in the
FAT filesystem in a backwards compatible fashion.

NTFS
NTFS, introduced with the Windows NT operating system, allowed ACL-based
permission control. Other features also supported by NTFS include hard links, multiple
file streams, attribute indexing, quota tracking, sparse files, encryption, compression, and
reparse points (directories working as mount-points for other file systems, symlinks,
junctions, remote storage links), though not all these features are well-documented.

exFAT
exFAT is a proprietary and patent-protected file system with certain advantages over
NTFS with regards to file system overhead.exFAT is not backwards compatible with
FAT file systems such as FAT12, FAT16 or FAT32. The file system is supported with
newer Windows systems, such as Windows 2003, Windows Vista, Windows 2008,
Windows 7 and more recently, support has been added for Windows XP. Support in other
operating systems is sparse since Microsoft has not published the specifications of the file
system and implementing support for exFAT requires a license.

Win 7 System Requirements

Windows 7 system requirements

If you want to run Windows 7 on your PC, here's what it takes:

 1 gigahertz (GHz) or faster 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor

 1 gigabyte (GB) RAM (32-bit) or 2 GB RAM (64-bit)
 16 GB available hard disk space (32-bit) or 20 GB (64-bit)
 DirectX 9 graphics device with WDDM 1.0 or higher driver

Additional requirements to use certain features:

 Internet access (fees may apply)

 Depending on resolution, video playback may require additional memory and advanced
graphics hardware
 Some games and programs might require a graphics card compatible with DirectX 10 or
higher for optimal performance
 For some Windows Media Center functionality a TV tuner and additional hardware may
be required
 Windows Touch and Tablet PCs require specific hardware
 HomeGroup requires a network and PCs running Windows 7
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 DVD/CD authoring requires a compatible optical drive

 BitLocker requires Trusted Platform Module (TPM) 1.2
 BitLocker To Go requires a USB flash drive
 Windows XP Mode requires an additional 1 GB of RAM and an additional 15 GB of
available hard disk space.
 Music and sound require audio output

Installing Windows 7
Setting up your Computer & BIOS changes ( If required)
In most cases if you do this you'll automatically boot in to the Windows 7 Installation DVD. But in some
cases if the Boot device order is changed in the BIOS it may boot in to your older OS, instead of our DVD.
In that case you'll need to change the BIOS settings to get it done.

Booting Up and First Installation Steps

Steps from here are pretty straight forward. Read the descriptions in each pages before clicking the Next
button to avoid any disasters. IF there is options to choose in these steps you may find them with each
images.

Screen 1 screen 2

screen 3 screen 4

You may choose your Language options by selecting the dropdowns 'Language to install', 'Time and
Currency format' and 'Keyboard or input method' here. I decided to leave everything to 'US' but it would be
better for selecting the correct settings here for non-english users.

This screen is where the installation wizard begins. The install now options will leads to the advanced
install options. For repairing a corrupt installation the 'Repair your computer' button located at the bottom-
left can be used. For fresh installs just click the Install now button.

Tick the 'I accept the license terms' checkbox and click 'Next' to proceed.

Which type of installation do you want?

This screen provides two options, Upgrade and Custom (advanced). The upgrade option is for those who
wish to upgrade an existing installation of older version of Windows to Windows 7. It is confirmed that
Windows Vista can be upgraded to Windows 7 with out any issues, but Windows XP is still a problem.
We will opt for the second option here, the Custom install.

Where do you want to install Windows?

Clicking on the 'Custom' button brings the install location selection screen. In the test machine we have an
un-partitioned empty disk. But in the case of a normal installation all your hard drive partitions (e.g. C:\ ,
D:\ etc.) will be listed here. Choose the drive as you like (a 15 GB size is recommended). Make sure the
drive don't have any important data or the Windows 7 installation will wipe-out the contents of that
partition. You can backup the data to another partition (e.g. for installing in D:\ drive move important files
from there to say E:\ drive or to an external usb drive) for safe keeping.

Partitioning /Creating or Modifying Partitions

Click the Drive options (advanced) for advanced partition management options like 'Delete', 'Format',
'New' and 'Extend'. To create a new partition click the New button. But if you have list of partitions in the
previous screen, choose the one where you are planning to install windows 7 and click Format. Then click
'Next' to proceed.

The 'New' option provides a text box to enter the size of the partition you wish to create in MBs. A 15 GB
(15*1024 = 15360 MB) is recommended. In this case I opted for the full size of my virtual drive, i.e. 9216
MB. Click the Apply button to continue. You may be greeted with a message To ensure that all Windows
features work correctly, windows might create additional partitions for system files. . This is a new
feature in Windows 7 to have a small boot partition for system files. Click Okto continue.

So here we are, A new primary partition of 8.8 GB is created along with a System type partition of 200
MB. Select the partition you just created and click Next to continue.

All right, we are all set. The Windows 7 installation begins. time to grab a cup of coffee for and wait for 15
- 30 minutes for the all new OS!
We discussed the initial steps of Windows 7 installation in the first part of this tutorial. In this session the
instillation proceeds though the series of screen shots which involves a reboot. No user interaction is
required for this Part.

This part of Windows 7 installation guide covers the Windows Product code (Serial key) input, Computer
name setup, user account and password setup, time zone selection, Windows update configuration, location
selection, Home group setup etc.

Configure disks, Partitions, volumes, and

device drivers
Basic Disks vs Dynamic Disks:

Basic disks and dynamic disks are two types of hard disk configurations in Windows.
Most personal computers are configured as basic disks, which are the simplest to manage.
Advanced users and IT professionals can make use of dynamic disks, which use multiple
hard disks within a computer to manage data, usually for increased performance or
reliability.

A basic disk uses primary partitions, extended partitions, and logical drives to organize
data. A formatted partition is also called a volume (the terms volume and partition are
often used interchangeably). In this version of Windows, basic disks can have either four
primary partitions or three primary and one extended partition. The extended partition
can contain multiple logical drives (up to 128 logical drives are supported). The partitions
on a basic disk cannot share or split data with other partitions. Each partition on a basic
disk is a separate entity on the disk.

Dynamic disks can contain a large number of dynamic volumes (approximately 2000)
that function like the primary partitions used on basic disks. In Windows 7, you can
combine separate dynamic hard disks into a single dynamic volume (called spanning),
split data among several hard disks (called striping) for increased performance (no fault
tolerance), or duplicate the data on one disk to another (called mirroring).

Let's take a look at these configurations in a little more detail.

 Spanned volumes - A spanned volume is a formatted partition which data is

stored on more than one hard disk, yet appears as one volume. Spanned volumes
are a non-RAID drive architecture. If you extend a simple volume to another
dynamic disk, it automatically becomes a spanned volume. You can extend a
simple volume to make it a spanned volume, and you can also further extend a
spanned volume to add disk storage capacity to the volume. After a volume is
spanned, you cannot stripe or mirror it.
 Striped volumes - Striped volumes are dynamic volumes that contain disk space
from two to thirty-two hard disks. Data that is written to a striped volume is
divided by the operating system into chunks of 64KB. The operating system
stores each chunk on a separate disk. Since, in a striped volume, a large amount of
data is divided into identical portions, it is faster to read or write the data from a
striped volume than from a spanned volume. Striped volumes are not fault

tolerant and are also referred to as RAID-0. A striped volume‘s capacity is limited
to the space available on the disk with the smallest amount of available space.
 Mirrored volumes - A mirrored volume, also known as RAID-1, is a fault-
tolerant volume that duplicates data on two different physical disks. If one of the
disks fails, the data is not lost as an exact copy remains on the surviving disk.
Mirroring costs disk space - for example, if you mirror two 100 GB disks, you are
left with just 100GB of space rather than 200GB. While great for redundancy,
mirroring isn't ideal for performance as all data has to be written twice.

While Windows 7 only supports RAID levels 0 and 1 via software, a 3rd party solution
can provide additional RAID services such as RAID-5. For more information about
RAID, read Hardware and Software RAID.

Note: Dynamic disks are supported only on computers that use the Integrated Drive
Electronics (IDE), Small Computer System Interface (SCSI), Fibre Channel, or Serial
Storage Architecture (SSA). Laptops and other mobile devices, removable disks, and
disks connected via Universal Serial Bus (USB) or FireWire (IEEE 1394) interfaces are
not supported for dynamic storage. Dynamic disks are also not supported on hard drives
with a sector size less than 512 bytes and the disk must have at least 1mb of free space
for the dynamic disk database.

Disk Management Tool:

Disk Management is a useful built-in Windows 7 partition manager that makes hard disk
partitioning quick and simple. Windows 7 Disk Management includes:

 A built-in partition manager

 A graphical user interface (GUI)
 Ability to create new disk partitions within Windows 7
 Ability to shrink existing disk partitions

With Disk Management, you can initialize disks, create volumes, format volumes with
file systems FAT, exFAT, FAT32 or NTFS. You can also extend a disk, reduce a disk,
check if a disk is healthy or unhealthy, create partitions, delete partitions, or change a
drive letter. Disk Management enables you to perform most disk-related tasks without
restarting the system, and most changes take effect immediately. To access Disk
management, perform these steps:

1. Click Start, right-click Computer, and click Manage.

2. In the left pane click Disk Management.

The Disk Management console shown above lists each volume in alphabetical order.
Each hard disk is then broken down into Type, File System, Status, Capacity, and Free
Space. In the second horizontal column, each logical drive is labeled by its letter and
given a color. Right-clicking on each drive opens a menu where users can extend
volumes, shrink volumes, or create new logical drive. You need Administrator or Backup
Operator credentials to perform most Disk Management tasks.

Configuring Disks:

Follow the steps below to create a new partition in Windows 7:

1. In the Disk Management Console, right-click the unallocated space and select
New Simple Volume, and click Next.
2. Select the size for the new volume or partition in MB.
3. Assign the drive letter to the new partition.
4. Format the partition with the appropriate file system and select the check box
Perform a Quick Format. To enable compression, select the check box Enable
File and Folder compression.
5. Click Finish.

Perform these steps to shrink an existing partition in order to create a new partition:

1. In the Disk Management Console, right-click on the partition which you want to
resize. The system displays the capacity of the drive and the option to enter an
amount you'd like to ―shrink‖ your partition by. Click Shrink.
2. You can now see the unallocated space on your hard drive in the capacity you
specified, situated just after your now resized original partition.
3. Right-click the unallocated volume, select New Simple Volume, assign a drive
letter, and quick format the volume using the NTFS file system and default
allocation unit size.

Extending a partition:

1. In the Disk Management Console, right-click the partition that you want to extend
and select Extend Volume.
2. Click Next. The system displays the capacity of the drive and the option to enter
an amount you'd like to extend your partition by. Click Next.
3. Click Finish.

Deleting a partition:

1. In the Disk Management Console, right-click the partition that you want to delete
and select Delete Volume.
2. Click Yes to continue the deletion process.
3. Click Yes to delete the partition.

Changing the drive letter:

1. In the Disk Management Console, right-click on a partition and select Change

drive letters and paths.
2. The current drive letter will display. The Add button typically allows the partition
to be placed inside an existing NTFS folder.
3. Click Change to assign a new drive letter.

To convert from an MBR partition to a GPT partition, or vice versa, follow these steps:

1. Back up or move the data on the basic MBR disk you want to convert.
2. Open Computer Management (Local).
3. In the console tree, click Computer Management (Local), click Storage, and then
click Disk Management.
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4. The disk must not contain any partitions or volumes. If these exist, right-click any
volumes on the disk and then click Delete Partition or Delete Volume.
5. Right-click the MBR disk that you want to change into a GPT disk, and then click
Convert to GPT Disk.

Converting a basic disk to a dynamic disk:

1. In the Disk Management Console, simply right-click the disk you want to convert
and click Convert To Dynamic Disk. If you want to convert from a dynamic disk
to a basic disk, you must first delete all volumes, hence all data, on the disk.

Windows 7 will disallow any of the changes listed above if the partition is currently used
as a system, boot, or page file drive.

In addition to the Disk Management Console, Windows also includes a command line
utility called DiskPart that can be used to configure disks. For more information, read A
Description of the Diskpart Command-Line Utility.

Disk Maintenance:

Windows provides a number of tools that can help keep your disks healthy and
optimized. Let's start with Disk Cleanup. If you want to reduce the number of
unnecessary files on your hard disk to free up disk space and help your computer run
faster, use Disk Cleanup. It removes temporary files, empties the Recycle Bin, and
removes a variety of system files and other items that you no longer need. Follow these
steps:

1. Open Computer, right click on the drive you wish to clean and select Properties.

2. Click the Disk Cleanup button on the General tab and Windows will calculate
how much space it can free up.
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3. Select the items from the list that you wish to delete and click OK.

4. When asked "Are you sure you want to permanently delete these files, click
Delete Files.

As you use your hard drive, it can develop bad sectors. Bad sectors slow down hard disk
performance and sometimes make data writing (such as file saving) difficult or even
impossible. The Error Checking utility scans the hard drive for bad sectors and scans for
file system errors to see whether certain files or folders are misplaced. To scan a disk,
follow these steps:

1. Open Computer, right click on the drive you wish to check and select Properties.
2. Click the Tools tab and then click the Check Now button.

3. Click Start to begin checking the drive.

Fragmentation makes your hard disk do extra work that can slow down your computer.
Removable storage devices such as USB flash drives can also become fragmented. Disk
Defragmenter rearranges fragmented data so your disks and drives can work more
efficiently. Disk Defragmenter runs on a schedule, but you can also analyze and
defragment your disks and drives manually. To do this, follow these steps:

1. Open Computer, right click on the drive you wish to check and select Properties.

2. Click the Tools tab and then click the Defragment Now button.

3. On the screen shown above, click on Analyze disk button to check the drive for
fragmentation.
4. If the drive needs to be defragmented, click the Defragment disk button. This
process can take a long time.

In most cases, manual defragmentation won't need to be done because, by default, this
process is scheduled to run every week. By clicking on the Configure schedule button on
the screen shown above, you can change the interval and select which drives you want
automatically defragmented.

Removable Storage Access Policies:

Removable media can also pose a security threat as it can be lost or stolen, and some
administrators may need to lock down client computers' ability to read, write, or execute
files on such media. Local and group policy provide a method to prevent or limit users'
abilities to interact with removable media. On a stand-alone client computer, you can do
this through Local Group Policy Editor. In an enterprise, you would edit domain Group
Policy at a domain controller and apply it to all clients in the domain.

To modify these settings in local policy, follow these steps:

1. Click Start then type group policy into the search box.
2. Click Edit Group Policy to open the Local Group Policy Editor.
3. Browse to Computer Configuration/Administrative Templates/System/Removable
Storage Access.

4. Here you can double click on a policy to edit it. These are pretty self-explanatory
so we won't go into them here.

Configure file access and printers on a

Windows 7 client computer
Device Manager:

Device Manager provides you the facility to graphically view the hardware that is
installed on your computer. The Device Manager shows you the devices that are
integrated in and connected to your computer, and their drivers. You can use Device
Manager to manage devices only on a local computer. Using Device Manager you can:

 Determine whether the hardware on your computer is working properly.

 Change hardware configuration settings.
 Identify the device drivers that are loaded for each device, and obtain information
about each device driver.
 Change advanced settings and properties for devices. Install updated device
drivers.
 Enable, disable, and uninstall devices.
 Roll back to the previous version of a driver.
 View the devices based on their type, by their connection to the computer, or by
the resources they use.
 Show or hide hidden devices that are not critical to view but might be necessary
for advanced troubleshooting.

Accessing Device Manager:

There are a few ways to open the device manager and you should be familiar with them.
For the purposes of this guide, we are going to open it as follows:

1. Click Start.
2. Right click on Computer and select Properties.
3. In the left menu, click on Device Manager

If you see a yellow exclamation point next to a device, it means that there is a conflict or
problem with the driver as shown below:

Right clicking on the device will allow you to update, disable, or uninstall a problem
driver.

Read Device Manager for more information.

Signed Drivers:

A signed driver is a device driver that includes a digital signature. A digital signature is
an electronic security mark that can indicate the publisher of the software, as well as
whether someone has changed the original contents of the driver package. If a driver has
been signed by a publisher that has verified its identity with a certification authority, you
can be confident that the driver actually comes from that publisher and hasn't been
altered.

Steps for Staging a Device Driver Package in the Driver Store

Devices and Printers Control Panel:

Another place for device management is in the Devices and Printers Control Panel. Here
you can add a device or printer, view and modify drivers, eject devices, and other tasks.

The top menu changes depending on which device is selected.

Configure network connectivity on a windows

7 client computer
Windows 7 networking starts with the Network and Sharing Center which provides a
centralized location where you can view, create, and modify local area network (LAN),
wireless local area network (WLAN), virtual private network (VPN), dial-up, and
Broadband connections on your client and server computers. In addition, you can
configure connections to the local computer and sharing options that specify the content
that is available to other computers and devices on the network; and you can use Network
and Sharing Center tools like Network Map and Network Location to view and specify
additional settings about networks and network profiles. It can also be used to
troubleshoot network connectivity issues. The Network and Sharing center can be
accessed via the control panel.

Adding a Network Connection:

If your computer has a network adapter that is connected to a local area network, you do
not need to manually create a LAN connection, because Windows automatically creates
and configures the connection when you start your computer. Other types of connections
such as VPN and dial-up can be configured as follows:

1. Open the Network and Sharing Center control panel.

2. In Change your network settings, click Set up a new connection or network. The
Set up a new connection or network wizard opens.

3. Select the type of network or connection you wish to establish and complete the
rest of the wizard.

Network Locations:

The first time that you connect to a network, you must choose a network location. This
automatically sets the appropriate firewall and security settings for the type of network
that you connect to. If you connect to networks in different locations (for example, a
network at your home, at a local coffee shop, or at work), choosing a network location
can help ensure that your computer is always set to an appropriate security level.

There are four network locations:

 Home Network - For home networks or when you know and trust the people and
devices on the network. Computers on a home network can belong to a
homegroup. Network discovery is turned on for home networks, which allows
you to see other computers and devices on the network and allows other network
users to see your computer. For more information, see What is network
discovery?
 Work Network - For small office or other workplace networks. Network
discovery, which allows you to see other computers and devices on a network and
allows other network users to see your computer, is on by default, but you can't
create or join a homegroup.
 Public Network - For networks in public places (such as internet cafes or
airports). This location is designed to keep your computer from being visible to
other computers around you and to help protect your computer from any
malicious software on the Internet. HomeGroup is not available on public
networks, and network discovery is turned off. You should also choose this option
if you're connected directly to the Internet without using a router, or if you have a
mobile broadband connection.
 Domain Network - Used for domain networks such as those at enterprise
workplaces. This type of network location is controlled by your network
administrator and can't be selected or changed.

About IPv4:

Once your network connection(s) are established, it is time to configure IP settings.

Every IP address can be broken down into 2 parts, the Network ID and the Host ID. All
hosts on the same network must have the same netid. Each of these hosts must have a
hostid that is unique in relation to the netid. IPv4 addresses are divided into 4 octets with
each having a maximum value of 255. We view IPv4 addresses in decimal notation such
as 124.35.62.181, but it is actually utilized as binary data.

IP addresses are divided into 3 classes as shown below:

Class Range

A 1-126

B <128-191

C 192-223

NOTE: 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback testing on the local system and is not used on
live systems. The following address ranges are reserved for private networks:

10.0.0.0 - 10.254.254.254
172.16.0.0 - 172.31.254.254
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.254.254

About IPv6:

IPv4 has nearly run out of available IP addresses due to the large influx of internet users
and expanding networks. As a result, the powers that be had to create a new addressing
scheme to deal with this situation and developed IPv6. This new addressing scheme
utilizes a 128 bit address (instead of 32) and utilizes a hex numbering method in order to
avoid long addresses such as 132.64.34.26.64.156.143.57.1.3.7.44.122.111.201.5. The
hex address format will appear in the form of 3FFE:B00:800:2::C for example. The IPv6
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equivalent of IPv4's loopback address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1. This can be abbreviated as ::1.

Windows 7 supports both IPv4 and IPv6 through a dual-IP-layer architecture and both are
installed and enabled by default. This architecture enables you to tunnel IPv6 traffic
across an IPv4 network in addition to tunneling IPv4 traffic across an IPv6 network.

Configuring IP Settings:

You can configure network settings on your Windows 7 computer either statically or
dynamically. Static network settings include assigning the IP address, and other related
information like gateway, DNS etc manually which enable it to become a part of a
network. Dynamic settings make use of Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) to
assign IP address and other networking information to your system automatically from a
pre-set pool of addresses.

Follow these steps to configure TCP/IP settings manually on your computer:

1. Open Network
Connections by
clicking the Start
button, then click
Control Panel and
Network and Internet
inside the control
panel.
2. Click Network and
Sharing Center on
your computer.
3. Click Local Area
Connections and then
click Properties to
configure network
addresses and other
information.

4. Click the Networking tab and then, click either Internet Protocol Version 4
(TCP/IPv4) or Internet Protocol Version 6 (TCP/IPv6) and then click Properties.

5. To specify IPv4 IP address settings:

o To configure IP address automatically, click Obtain an IP address
automatically, and then click OK. This option will only work if there is a
DHCP server on your network with available addresses to lease.
o To specify an IP address manually, click Use the following IP address,
and then, in the IP address, Subnet mask, and Default gateway boxes, type
the IP address settings.
6. To specify DNS server address settings:
o To get the DNS server address automatically, click Obtain DNS server
address automatically, then click the Advanced button. Select the WINS
tab. Under NetBIOS setting, select the Default and then click OK.
o To specify a DNS server address manually, click Use the following DNS
server addresses radio button, and then, for the Preferred DNS server and
Alternate DNS server, type the addresses of the primary and secondary
DNS servers.
7. Click OK. This will make the appropriate changes in the TCP/IP configuration of
tour computer.

Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA):

A Windows 7 computer that is configured to use DHCP can automatically assign itself an
Internet Protocol (IP) address if a DHCP server is not available. For example, this could
occur on a network without a DHCP server, or on a network if a DHCP server is
temporarily down for maintenance.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has reserved 169.254.0.0-

169.254.255.255 for Automatic Private IP Addressing. As a result, APIPA provides an
address that is guaranteed not to conflict with routable addresses.

After the network adapter has been assigned an IP address, the computer can use TCP/IP
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to communicate with any other computer that is connected to the same LAN and that is
also configured for APIPA or has the IP address manually set to the 169.254.x.y (where
x.y is the client‘s unique identifier) address range with a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0.
Note that the computer cannot communicate with computers on other subnets, or with
computers that do not use automatic private IP addressing. This also means that a
computer with an APIPA address cannot connect to the internet, only other computers
with APIPA addresses. Automatic private IP addressing is enabled by default.

If a DHCP enabled computer is using an IP address in the APIPA range, it often indicates
that the computer is unable to contact the DHCP server.

Link-Local Multicast Name Resolution:

LLMNR is a Microsoft designed protocol that can be used on private networks where
there is no DNS server, as a mechanism for providing name resolution like DNS does. It
is one of many protocols that do similar things for zero-configuration networks - they
basically allow private networks to function as IP networks without requiring hosts to be
configured with addresses.

Resolving Connectivity Issues:

Windows offers a number of tools and utilities for troubleshooting connectivity and other
network problems. A good place to start is by clicking on the Troubleshoot problems
option in the Network and Sharing Center. This opens the Windows Network Diagnostics
tool. If Windows 7 detects the problem, it may be able to automatically fix it, or possibly
offer a solution.

If this wizard is unable to fix the problem or offer a solution, there are a number of other
tools listed below that can help.

 IPCONFIG - This command is used to view network settings from a Windows

computer command line. Below are the ipconfig switches that can be used at a
command prompt:
o ipconfig /all will display all of your IP settings.
o ipconfig /renew forces the DHCP server, if available to renew a lease.
o ipconfig /renew6 renews n IPv6 DHCP lease.
o ipconfig /flushdns purges the DNS resolver cache.

o ipconfig /registerdns refreshes all DHCP leases and reregisters DNS

names.
o ipconfig /release forces the release of a lease.
 PING (Packet InterNet Groper) - PING is a command-line utility used to verify
connections between networked devices. PING uses ICMP echo requests that
behave similarly to SONAR pings. The standard format for the command is ping
[IP address or hostname]. If successful, the ping command will return replies
from the remote host with the time it took to receive the reply. If unsuccessful,
you will likely recieve and error message. This is one of the most important tools
for determining network connectivity between hosts.

 TRACERT - A command-line troubleshooting tool that enables you to view the

route to a specified host. This will show how many hops the packets have to travel
and how long it takes. Basic usage looks like: tracert [IP address or hostname].

 PATHPING - This tool is very similar to tracert, however, pathping provides

more detailed statistics on individual hops.
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) - A host PC must have the MAC and IP
addresses of a remote host in order to send data to that remote host, and it's ARP
that allows the local host to request the remost host to send the local host its MAC
address through an ARP Request. The ARP -a [IP Address] command will show
you the MAC address associated with a computer or device's IP address.

 NSLOOKUP - This is a command that queries a DNS server for machine name
and address information. To use nslookup, type nslookup [IP address or computer
name or domain name]. NSLOOKUP will return the name, all known IP
addresses and all known aliases (which are just alternate names) for the identified
machine. NSLOOKUP is a useful tool for troubleshooting DNS problems.
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Configure wireless network connectivity on a

windows 7 client computer.( Bluetooth, Wi
Fi)
To configure a PEAP-TLS wireless profile for computers running Windows 7 and
Windows Vista
1. Open the New Wireless Network (IEEE 802.11) Policies Properties dialog box.

2. On the General tab, in Policy Name, type a new name for your policy, or leave
the default.

3. In Description, type a description of your policy.

4. Select Use Windows to configure wireless network settings for clients to

specify that WLAN AutoConfig is used to configure wireless network adapter settings.

5. On the General tab, do one of the following:

 To add and configure a new profile, click Add, and then select
Infrastructure.

 To edit an existing profile, select the profile you want to modify, and then
click Edit.

6. On the Connection tab, in Profile Name, if you are adding a new profile, type a
name for the profile. If you are editing a profile that is already added, use the existing
profile name, or modify the name as needed.

7. In Network Name(s) (SSID), type the service set identifier (SSID) for your
wireless APs, and then click Add.

If your deployment uses multiple SSIDs and each wireless AP uses the same wireless
security settings, repeat this step to add the SSID for each wireless AP to which you want
this profile to apply.

If your deployment uses multiple SSIDs and the security settings for each SSID do not
match, configure a separate profile for each group of SSIDs that use the same security
settings. For example, if you have one group of wireless APs configured to use WPA2-
Enterprise and AES, and another group of wireless APs to use WPA-Enterprise and
TKIP, configure a profile for each group of wireless APs.

8. To specify that wireless clients automatically connect to wireless APs for which
the SSID is specified in Network Name(s) (SSID), select Connect automatically when
this network is in range.

9. To specify that wireless clients connect to networks in order of preference, select

Connect to a more preferred network if available.

10. If you deployed wireless access points that are configured to suppress the
broadcast beacon, select Connect even if the network is not broadcasting.

Security Note

Enabling this option can create a security risk because wireless clients will probe for
and attempt connections to any wireless network. By default, this setting is not
enabled.
11. Click the Security tab. In Select the security methods for this network, in
Authentication, select WPA2-Enterprise if it is supported by your wireless AP and
wireless client network adapters. Otherwise, select WPA-Enterprise.

Note

Selecting WPA2 exposes settings for Fast Roaming that are not displayed if WPA is
selected. The default settings for Fast Roaming are sufficient for most wireless
deployments.
12. In Encryption, select AES, if it is supported by your wireless AP and wireless
client network adapters. Otherwise, select TKIP.

Note

The settings for both Authentication and Encryption must match the settings
configured on your wireless AP.
13. In Select a network authentication method, select Microsoft: Protected EAP
(PEAP).

14. In Authentication mode, select from the following, depending on your needs:
User or Computer authentication, Computer authentication, User authentication,
Guest authentication. By default, User or Computer authentication is selected.

15. In Max Authentication Failures, specify the maximum number of failed

attempts allowed before the user is notified that authentication has failed. By default, this
value is set to ―1.‖

16. To specify that user credentials are held in cache, select Cache user information
for subsequent connections to this network.

17. Click Advanced, and then configure the following:

a. To configure advanced 802.1X settings, in IEEE 802.1X, select Enforce

advanced 802.1X settings, and then configure the following settings, depending on your
needs: Max Eapol-Start Msgs, Held Period, Start Period, and Auth Period.

When the advanced 802.1X settings are enforced, the default values are sufficient for
most wireless deployments.

b. To enable Single Sign On, select Enable Single Sign On for this network.

c. To specify when Single Sign On occurs, select either Perform immediately

before User Logon or Perform immediately after User Logon, depending on your
needs.

The remaining default values in Single Sign On are sufficient for typical wireless
deployments.

d. To specify the maximum amount of time, in seconds, in which 802.1X

authentication must complete and authorize network access, in Max delay for
connectivity (seconds), enter a value, depending on your needs.

e. To allow dialogs during Single Sing On, select Allow additional dialogs to be
displayed during Single Sign On.

f. To specify that wireless computers are placed on one virtual local area network
(VLAN) at startup, and then transitioned to a different network after the user logs on to
the computer, select This network uses different VLAN for authentication with
machine and user credentials.

g. To enable Fast Roaming, in Fast Roaming, select Enable Pairwise Master Key
(PMK) Caching. The default values for PMK Time to Live (minutes) and Number of
entries in PMK Cache are typically sufficient for Fast Roaming.

h. Select This network uses pre-authentication, if your wireless AP is configured

for pre-authentication. The default value of 3 is typically sufficient for Maximum Pre-
authentication attempts.

i. To specify that cryptography adheres to the FIPS 140-2 certified mode, select
Perform cryptography in FIPS 140-2 certified mode.

18. Click OK to save your settings and return to the Security tab.

19. Click Properties. The Protected EAP Properties dialog box opens.

20. In Protected EAP Properties, verify that Validate server certificate is selected.

21. In Trusted Root Certification Authorities, select the trusted root certification
authority (CA) that issued the server certificate to your server running Network Policy
Server (NPS).

Note

This setting limits the trusted root CAs that clients trust to the selected CAs. If no
trusted root CAs are selected, then clients trust all root CAs listed in their trusted root
certification authority store.
22. To specify which Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) servers
your wired access clients must use for authentication and authorization, in Connect to
these servers, type then name of each RADIUS server, exactly as it appears in the
subject field of the server certificate. Use semicolons to specify multiple RADIUS server
names.

23. For improved security and a better user experience, select Do not prompt user to
authorize new servers or trusted certification authorities.

24. In Select Authentication Method, select Smart Card or other certificate.

25. To enable PEAP Fast Reconnect, select Enable Fast Reconnect.

26. To specify that Network Access Protection (NAP) performs system health checks
on clients to ensure they meet health requirements, before connections to the network are
permitted, select Enforce Network Access Protection.

27. To require cryptobinding Type-Length-Value (TLV), select Disconnect if server

does not present cryptobinding TLV.

28. To configure your clients so that they will not send their identity in plaintext
before the client has authenticated the RADIUS server, select Enable Identity Privacy,
and then in Anonymous Identity, type a name or value, or leave the field empty.

For example, if Enable Identity Privacy is enabled and you use ―guest‖ as the
anonymous identity value, the identity response for a user with identity alice@realm is
guest@realm. If you select Enable Identity Privacy but do not provide an anonymous
identity value, the identity response is @realm.

29. Click Configure. In the Smart Card or other Certificate Properties dialog box,
in When connecting, select either Use my smart card or select both Use a certificate
on this computer and Use simple certificate selection (Recommended).

30. To require that access clients validate the NPS server certificate, select Validate
server certificate.

31. To specify which RADIUS servers your wired access clients must use for
authentication and authorization, in Connect to these servers, type then name of each
RADIUS server, exactly as it appears in the subject field of the server‘s certificate. Use
semicolons to specify multiple RADIUUS server names.

32. In Trusted Root Certification Authorities, select the CA that issued certificates
to your NPS servers.

33. To specify that clients use an alternate name for the access attempt, select Use a
different user name for the connection.

34. To prevent users from being prompted to trust a server certificate if that certificate
is incorrectly configured, is not already trusted, or both, select Do not prompt user to
authorize new servers or trusted certification authorities. (Recommended)

35. Click OK to close the Smart card or other Certificate Properties dialog box,
and then click OK again to close the Protected EAP (PEAP) Properties dialog box,
returning you to New Wireless Network Policy Properties.

Secure Windows 7 client desktop computers.

The Windows operating system helps protect files, applications, and other resources from
unauthorized use through a process of matching user accounts and group membership
against the rights, privileges, and permissions associated with those accounts and group
memberships. The topics in this section will show you how to assign or set privileges and
permissions. In addition, understanding privileges and permissions, why they are
necessary, and how they function can help you manage shared resources effectively.
Understanding these processes can also help you avoid unnecessary risks and
troubleshoot any access control problems you might encounter.

Access control is the process of authorizing users, groups, and computers to access
objects on the network or computer.

To understand and manage access control, you need to understand the relationship
between:

 Objects (files, printers, and other resources)

 Access tokens

 Access control lists (ACLs) and access control entries (ACEs)

 Subjects (users or applications)

 The operating system

 Permissions

 User rights and privileges

Before a subject can gain access to an object, the subject must identify itself to the
security subsystem for the operating system. This identity is contained within an access
token that is re-created every time a subject logs on. Before allowing the subject to access
an object, the operating system checks to determine whether the access token for the
subject is authorized to access the object and complete the desired task. It does this by
comparing information in the access token with access control entries (ACEs) for the
object.

ACEs can allow or deny a number of different behaviors, depending on the type of
object. For example, options on a file object can include Read, Write, and Execute. On a
printer, the ACEs that are available include Print, Manage printers, and Manage
documents.

Individual ACEs for an object are combined in an access control list (ACL). The security
subsystem checks the object's ACL for ACEs that apply to the user and the groups that
the user belongs to. It steps through each ACE until it finds one that either allows or
denies access to the user or one of the user's groups, or until there are no more ACEs to
check. If it comes to the end of the ACL and the desired access is still not explicitly
allowed or denied, the security subsystem denies access to the object.

Permissions
Permissions define the type of access granted to a user or group for an object or object
property. For example, the Finance group can be granted Read and Write permissions for
a file named Payroll.dat.

Using the access control user interface, you can set NTFS permissions for objects such as
files, Active Directory objects, registry objects, or system objects such as processes.
Permissions can be granted to any user, group, or computer. It is a good practice to assign
permissions to groups because it improves system performance when verifying access to
an object.

For any object, you can grant permissions to:

 Groups, users, and other objects with security identifiers in the domain.

 Groups and users in that domain and any trusted domains.

 Local groups and users on the computer where the object resides.

The permissions attached to an object depend on the type of object. For example, the
permissions that can be attached to a file are different from those that can be attached to a
registry key. Some permissions, however, are common to most types of objects. These
common permissions are:

 Read

 Modify

 Change owner

 Delete

When you set permissions, you specify the level of access for groups and users. For
example, you can let one user read the contents of a file, let another user make changes to
the file, and prevent all other users from accessing the file. You can set similar
permissions on printers so that certain users can configure the printer and other users can
only print.

When you need to change the permissions on a file, you can run Windows Explorer,
right-click the file name, and click Properties. On the Security tab, you can change
permissions on the file. For more information, see Managing Permissions.

Ownership of objects
An owner is assigned to an object when that object is created. By default, the owner is the
creator of the object. No matter what permissions are set on an object, the owner of the
object can always change the permissions on an object. For more information, see
Managing Object Ownership.

Inheritance of permissions
Inheritance allows administrators to easily assign and manage permissions. This feature
automatically causes objects within a container to inherit all the inheritable permissions
of that container. For example, the files within a folder, when created, inherit the
permissions of the folder. Only permissions marked to be inherited will be inherited.
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User rights and privileges

User rights grant specific privileges and logon rights to users and groups in your
computing environment. Administrators can assign specific rights to group accounts or to
individual user accounts. These rights authorize users to perform specific actions, such as
logging on to a system interactively or backing up files and directories.

User rights are different from permissions because user rights apply to user accounts, and
permissions are attached to objects. Although user rights can apply to individual user
accounts, user rights are best administered on a group account basis. There is no support
in the access control user interface to grant user rights; however, user rights assignment
can be administered through the Local Security Policy snap-in under Local Policies\User
Rights Assignment. For more information, see User Rights and Privileges.

Object auditing
With administrator's rights, you can audit users' successful or failed access to objects.
You can select which object access to audit by using the access control user interface, but
first you must enable the audit policy by selecting Audit object access under Local
Policy\Audit Policy\Local Policies in the Local Security Policy snap-in. You can then
view these security-related events in the Security log in Event Viewer.

Optimize and maintain the performance and

reliability of a windows 7 client computer
Windows Performance Monitor
You can use Windows Performance Monitor to examine how programs you run affect
your computer's performance, both in real time and by collecting log data for later
analysis.

Windows Performance Monitor uses performance counters, event trace data, and
configuration information, which can be combined into Data Collector Sets.

Performance counters are measurements of system state or activity. They can be

included in the operating system or can be part of individual applications. Windows
Performance Monitor requests the current value of performance counters at specified
time intervals.

Event trace data is collected from trace providers, which are components of the
operating system or of individual applications that report actions or events. Output from
multiple trace providers can be combined into a trace session.

Configuration information is collected from key values in the Windows registry.

Windows Performance Monitor can record the value of a registry key at a specified time
or interval as part of a log file.

 Overview of Windows Performance Monitor

 Using Performance Monitor

 Creating Data Collector Sets

 Scheduling and Managing Data in Windows Performance Monitor

 User Interface: Windows Performance Monitor

Using Performance Monitor
Performance Monitor is a simple yet powerful visualization tool for viewing performance
data, both in real time and from log files. With it, you can examine performance data in a
graph, histogram, or report.

Membership in the local Performance Log Users group, or equivalent, is the minimum
required to complete this procedure.

To start Performance Monitor

1. Click Start, click in the Start Search box, type perfmon, and press ENTER.

2. In the navigation tree, expand Monitoring Tools, and then click Performance

Monitor.

You can also use Performance Monitor to view real-time performance data on a remote
computer.

Membership in the target computer's Performance Log Users group, or equivalent, is

the minimum required to complete this procedure.

To connect to a remote computer with Performance Monitor

1. Start Performance Monitor.

2. In the navigation tree, right-click Reliability and Performance, and then click
Connect to another computer.

3. In the Select Computer dialog box, type the name of the computer you want to
monitor, or click Browse to select it from a list.

4. Click OK.

Creating Data Collector Sets

A Data Collector Set is the building block of performance monitoring and reporting in
Windows Performance Monitor. It organizes multiple data collection points into a single
component that can be used to review or log performance. A Data Collector Set can be
created and then recorded individually, grouped with other Data Collector Set and
incorporated into logs, viewed in Performance Monitor, configured to generate alerts
when thresholds are reached, or used by other non-Microsoft applications. It can be
associated with rules of scheduling for data collection at specific times. Windows
Management Interface (WMI) tasks can be configured to run upon the completion of
Data Collector Set collection.

Data Collector Sets can contain the following types of data collectors:

 Performance counters

 Event trace data

 System configuration information (registry key values)

Scheduling and Managing Data in Windows Performance Monitor

You schedule data collection and manage the storage of log data on a Data Collector Set
basis in Windows Performance Monitor. Reports can be stored after log data has been
deleted, which gives you access to performance statistics without storing individual
counter values.

 Schedule Data Collection in Windows Performance Monitor

 Manage Data in Windows Performance Monitor

 View Reports in Windows Performance Monitor

Remote access setting for a windows 7 client

computer.
Introduction to Remote Desktop:

The Remote Desktop (RDP) utility allows you to connect to a computer on a network and
access all of your programs, files, and network resources as if you were sitting in front of
that computer. Remote desktop is often used by security professionals to administer
servers, and fix problems on client computers without having to be in front of them. In
fact, they could be in another country.

You cannot use Remote Desktop Connection to connect to computers running Windows
7 Starter, Windows 7 Home Basic, and Windows 7 Home Premium. In other words, only
Windows 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise editions allow a computer to connect
to them via RDP. All versions of Windows 7 have the Remote Desktop client software
that allows them to make outgoing connections.

To use Remote Desktop and Remote Assistance, you have to use TCP port 3389.
Therefore, it needs to be opened using the Windows Firewall and any other firewalls
between your computer and the remote host. Additional requirements include:

 You must have permission to connect to the remote computer.

 The remote computer must be turned on or have Wake on LAN enabled.
 Both computers must be connected to a network.
 The remote computer must be configured to accept incoming connections (see
next section). By default this is turned off.

Enabling Remote Desktop Connections:

Follow these steps to enable the remote desktop connection in Windows 7:

1. Click Start, then right-click the Computer and select properties.

2. Click the Remote settings option in the window.
3. Enable Allow connections from computers running any version of Remote
Desktop in the System Properties dialogue box.
4. Click Apply and the remote desktop connections feature will be enabled on your
Windows 7 computer.

Note: When you enable Remote Desktop, Windows Firewall automatically updates rules
to allow Remote Desktop connections to be made to the computer. If you reset Windows
Firewall to its default settings, the firewall will no longer allow connections. Simply
disable and then re-enable Remote Desktop to correct this problem.

Establishing a Remote Desktop Connection:

1. Click Start and then click All Programs and then click Accessories.

2. Click the Remote Desktop Connection option. The Remote Desktop dialogue box
is displayed; specify the IP address or hostname of the remote machine to which
you want to connect.
3. Click Connect and if the computer is running and remote connections are enabled
on it, a connection will be made.
4. Enter the the username and password for that computer.

If a user other than yourself is logged into the remote machine, they will be presented
with an alert that someone is trying to establish a remote desktop connection with the
computer. They can choose to accept the connection or not.

Configuring Remote Desktop:

To configure remote access, follow these steps:

1. In the Control Panel, first click System And Security, and then click System.
2. Click Remote Settings in the left pane and the System Properties dialog box to the
Remote tab opens.
3. If you want to disable the Remote Desktop, select Don’t Allow Connections To
This Computer, then click OK and skip the remaining steps.
4. To enable Remote Desktop, choose either of the two options:
o Select Allow Connections From Computers Running Any Version Of
Remote Desktop. This allows connections from any version of Windows.
o Select Allow Connections Only From Computers Running Remote Desktop
With Network Level Authentication. This allows connections only from
Windows 7 or later computers and computers with secure network
authentication.
5. Click Select Users to open the Remote Desktop Users dialog box. To grant
Remote Desktop access to any user, click Add. This opens the Select Users dialog
box. In the Select Users dialog box, click Locations to select the computer or
domain in which the users are located with whom you want to work. Type the
name of a user and enter the object names to the selected fields, and then click
Check Names. If matches are found, then you can select the account you want to
use and then click OK. If no matches are found, update the name you entered and
search again.
6. To revoke remote access permissions for any user account, select the account and
then click Remove.
7. Click OK when you have finished.

Remote Assistance:

Since Windows XP, Remote Assistance has provided a handy way to get or give a
helping hand from a distance. The main difference between Remote Desktop and Remote
Assistance is that with Remote Assistance, the remote user must request a connection,
and when connected, both the local user and the remote user can see what is happening
on the screen at the same time. Windows Remote Assistance is enabled by default on
computers running Windows 7.

In previous versions of Windows, the primary way to initiate a Remote Assistance

connection was by creating an "invitation" file with info on how to find and connect to
your system, and sending it the person you are requesting help from via e-mail. You can
still use invitation files in Windows 7, and if your helper is running Vista or XP, you'll
have to. However, if both parties have Windows 7, a new feature called Easy Connect
can simplify the connection process by eliminating e-mail as a middleman.

To request remote assistance in Windows 7, search for assistance from the Start menu,
then click Windows Remote Assistance.

After you click Invite someone you trust to help you, you'll see Easy Connect along with
the two e-mail-based invitation options. Choose Easy Connect, and then you should see a
Windows Remote Assistance window displaying the 12-character password needed for
access to your computer. This automatic password generation is another new Windows 7
feature, and it occurs whether you use Easy Connect or invitations. It forces you to use a
strong password to increase security over that in Vista or XP.

If Easy Connect is grayed out, one of the following reasons may be the cause.

 Both computers aren't running Windows 7. In order to use Easy Connect with
Remote Assistance, both of the computers must be running Windows 7.
 Access to the Internet is limited. If access to the Internet is limited on either
computer, Easy Connect is disabled. Internet access might be limited if you‘re on
a corporate network.
 Your router doesn't support Easy Connect. Easy Connect uses the Peer Name
Resolution Protocol (PNRP) to transfer the Remote Assistance invitation over the
Internet. One possible issue is that your router doesn't support UPnP, or doesn't
have it enabled. You may also want to try enabling port 3540 (UDP) on your
router. You can check your router by using the Internet Connectivity Evaluation
Tool on the Microsoft website. If you're running Windows Server, you need to
install the Peer Name Resolution Protocol.

Once connected and with the remote user's permission, you can "remote control" their
computer like you would with Remote Desktop, only the user will be able to see what
you are doing.

After you've successfully established a Remote Assistance session with someone via
Easy Connect, connecting to that person in the future will be even easier. The next time
you run Remote Assistance you'll see a list of people you've previously connected to.
Select a name and the Windows Remote Assistance window will launch, and when your
helper connects to you, you'll be connected without having to see or enter a password
because the one from your last session is cached. This subsequent connect feature only
works when the helper is using the same computer they were on initially.

Windows Remote Management Service:

The Windows Remote Management service allows you to execute commands on a

remote computer, either from the command prompt using WinRS or from Windows
PowerShell. Before you can use WinRS or Windows PowerShell for remote management
tasks, it is necessary to configure the target computer using the WinRM command. To
configure the target computer, run the command WinRM quickconfig from a command
prompt.
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You can use Windows Remote Management service (WinRS) to execute command-line
utilities or scripts on a remote computer. To use WinRS, open a command prompt and
prefix the command that you want to run on the remote computer with the WinRS –
r:[RemoteComputerName] command. For example, to execute the Ipconfig command on
a computer named Naomi, issue the command:

WinRS –r:Naomi ipconfig

If the computer is on the local network, you can use its NetBIOS name. If the computer is
on a remote network, you may need to specify its fully qualified domain name (FQDN).
It is also possible to specify credentials to be used on the remote computer, for example,
to run the command net accounts, which displays information about a computer‘s
password policy on a computer named Naomi.7-seconds.pdxoffice using the NaomiS user
account, issue the following command:

WinRS –r:http://Naomi.7-seconds.pdxoffice –u:NaomiS net accounts

If you do not specify a password using the –p:password option, you are prompted to enter
a password after you execute the command. You can configure WinRS options through
Group Policy in the Computer Configuration\Administrative Templates\Windows
Components\Windows Remote Shell node.

PowerShell:

Windows PowerShell utilities give you the ability to remotely configure and administer a
Windows 7 machine. Windows PowerShell is a command-line scripting utility that
allows you to remotely execute commands on a Windows 7 machine. Windows
PowerShell is a command line utility that was specifically designed for system
administrators to allow for remote administration. One of the advantages of Windows
PowerShell is that it introduced the concept of a cmdlet. A cmdlet is a command that is
built into Windows PowerShell. There are more than 100 built-in cmdlets, and you can
build your own cmdlets and allow others to use them as well.

Another advantage of Windows PowerShell is that it allows you to gain access to a file
system on a computer. Windows PowerShell also allows you to access the Registry,
digital certificate stores, and other data stores.

The following features are new with PowerShell in Windows 7:

 New cmdlets - Windows PowerShell includes over 100 new cmdlets, like Get-
Hotfix, Send-MailMessage, Get-ComputerRestorePoint, New-WebServiceProxy,
Debug-Process, Add-Computer, Rename-Computer, Reset-
ComputerMachinePassword, and Get-Random.
 Remote management - You can run commands on one computer or more
computers with a single command. You can establish an interactive session with a
single computer, and computers can receive remote commands from multiple
computers.
 PowerShell Integrated Scripting Environment (ISE) - Windows PowerShell
ISE is a graphical user interface for Windows PowerShell with which you can run
commands, and write, edit, run, test, and debug scripts in the same window. It
offers eight independent execution environments and includes a inbuilt debugger,
multiline editing, selective execution, syntax colors, line and column numbers,
and context-sensitive Help.
 Background jobs - With Windows PowerShell background jobs, you can run
commands asynchronously in the background and can continue to work in your
session. You can run background jobs on a local or remote computer, and can
store the results locally or remotely.
 Debugger - The Windows PowerShell debugger can help you to debug functions
and scripts. You can step through code , set and remove breakpoints, check the
values of variables, and display a call-stack trace.
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 Modules - Windows PowerShell modules allow you to organize your Windows

PowerShell scripts and functions into independent, self-contained units. You can
package your cmdlets, scripts, functions, and other files into modules that can be
distributed to other users. Modules are easier to install and use as compared to
Windows PowerShell snap-ins. Modules can include any type of file, like audio
files, images, Help files, and icons. Modules run in a separate session so as to
avoid name conflicts.
 Transactions - Windows PowerShell now also supports transactions, through
which you can manage a set of commands as a logical unit. A transaction can be
committed, or it can be completely undone to undo the changes and the affected
data is not changed by the transaction.
 Events Windows PowerShell includes a new event infrastructure with which you
can create events, subscribe to system and application events, then you can listen,
forward, and act on the events synchronously and asynchronously.
 The Advanced functions - Advanced functions are similar to cmdlets, but they
are written in the Windows PowerShell scripting language instead of in C#.
 Script internationalization - Scripts and functions display messages and Help
text to users in various languages.

Using Windows PowerShell:

1. Click Start, then click All Programs and then click Accessories.
2. Click Windows PowerShell and then again click Windows PowerShell to access it.
Windows PowerShell Integrated Scripting Environment (ISE) is a new host
application which allows you to run commands and write, test, and debug scripts
in a friendly, syntax-colored. It can be accesses by clicking Windows PowerShell
ISE.
3. When the Windows PowerShell utility starts, type Help and press Enter. This will
show you the Windows PowerShell syntax and some of the commands included
with Windows PowerShell. You can type Help * at the Windows command
prompt. This will show you all of the cmdlet commands that you can use.

Following are few Windows PowerShellcmdlets:

Clear-History Deletes entries from the command history

Invoke-command Runs commands on local or remote computers
Start-job Starts a Windows PowerShell background job
Stop-job Stops a Windows PowerShell background job
Remove-job Deletes a Windows PowerShell background job
Import-Module Adds modules to the current session
Receive-job Gets the results of a Windows PowerShell background job
Format-table Shows the results in a table format
Out-file Sends the job results to a file
Get-Date Gets the date and time
Set-Date Sets the system time and date on a computer
Get-event Gets an event in the event queue
New-event Creates a new event
Trace-command Configures and starts a trace of a command on a machine.

Installing Windows Server 2008

How to Install Windows Server 2008 Step by Step

Installing Windows Server 2008 is pretty straightforward and is very much like installing
Windows Vista, but I thought I'd list the necessary steps here for additional information.
For those of you who have never installed Vista before, the entire installation process is
different than it used to be in previous Microsoft operating systems, and notably much
easier to perform.

To use Windows Server 2008 you need to meet the following hardware requirements:

Component Requirement
Processor • Minimum: 1GHz (x86 processor) or 1.4GHz (x64 processor) •
Recommended: 2GHz or faster Note: An Intel Itanium 2 processor is
required for Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems
Memory • Minimum: 512MB RAM • Recommended: 2GB RAM or greater •
Maximum (32-bit systems): 4GB (Standard) or 64GB (Enterprise and
Datacenter) • Maximum (64-bit systems): 32GB (Standard) or 2TB
(Enterprise, Datacenter and Itanium-based Systems)
Available Disk • Minimum: 10GB • Recommended: 40GB or greater Note: Computers
Space with more than 16GB of RAM will require more disk space for paging,
hibernation, and dump files
Drive DVD-ROM drive
Display and • Super VGA (800 x 600) or higher-resolution monitor • Keyboard •
Peripherals Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device

Upgrade notes:

I will not discuss the upgrade process in this article, but for your general knowledge, the
upgrade paths available for Windows Server 2008 shown in the table below:

If you are currently running: You can upgrade to:

Windows Server 2003 Standard Edition (R2, Full Installation of Windows Server 2008
Service Pack 1 or Service Pack 2) Standard Edition

Full Installation of Windows Server 2008

Enterprise Edition
Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Edition Full Installation of Windows Server 2008
(R2, Service Pack 1 or Service Pack 2) Enterprise Edition
Windows Server 2003 Datacenter Edition Full Installation of Windows Server 2008
(R2, Service Pack 1 or Service Pack 2) Datacenter Edition

Follow this procedure to install Windows Server 2008:

1. Insert the appropriate Windows Server 2008 installation media into your DVD drive.
If you don't have an installation DVD for Windows Server 2008, you can download one
for free from Microsoft's Windows 2008 Server Trial website.

2. Reboot the computer.

3. When prompted for an installation language and other regional options, make your
selection and press Next.

4. Next, press Install Now to begin the installation process.

5. Product activation is now also identical with that found in Windows Vista. Enter your
Product ID in the next window, and if you want to automatically activate Windows the
moment the installation finishes, click Next.

If you do not have the Product ID available right now, you can leave the box empty, and
click Next. You will need to provide the Product ID later, after the server installation is
over. Press No.

6. Because you did not provide the correct ID, the installation process cannot determine
what kind of Windows Server 2008 license you own, and therefore you will be prompted
to select your correct version in the next screen, assuming you are telling the truth and
will provide the correct ID to prove your selection later on.

7. If you did provide the right Product ID, select the Full version of the right Windows
version you're prompted, and click Next.

8. Read and accept the license terms by clicking to select the checkbox and pressing
Next.

9. In the "Which type of installation do you want?" window, click the only available
option – Custom (Advanced).

10. In the "Where do you want to install Windows?", if you're installing the server on a
regular IDE hard disk, click to select the first disk, usually Disk 0, and click Next.

If you're installing on a hard disk that's connected to a SCSI controller, click Load Driver
and insert the media provided by the controller's manufacturer.

If you're installing in a Virtual Machine environment, make sure you read the "Installing
the Virtual SCSI Controller Driver for Virtual Server 2005 on Windows Server 2008"

If you must, you can also click Drive Options and manually create a partition on the
destination hard disk.

11. The installation now begins, and you can go and have lunch. Copying the setup files
from the DVD to the hard drive only takes about one minute. However, extracting and
uncompressing the files takes a good deal longer. After 20 minutes, the operating system
is installed. The exact time it takes to install server core depends upon your hardware
specifications. Faster disks will perform much faster installs… Windows Server 2008
takes up approximately 10 GB of hard drive space.

The installation process will reboot your computer, so, if in step #10 you inserted a
floppy disk (either real or virtual), make sure you remove it before going to lunch, as
you'll find the server hanged without the ability to boot (you can bypass this by
configuring the server to boot from a CD/DVD and then from the hard disk in the booting
order on the server's BIOS)

12. Then the server reboots you'll be prompted with the new Windows Server 2008 type
of login screen. Press CTRL+ALT+DEL to log in.

13. Click on Other User.

14. The default Administrator is blank, so just type Administrator and press Enter.

15. You will be prompted to change the user's password. You have no choice but to press
Ok.

16. In the password changing dialog box, leave the default password blank (duh, read
step #15…), and enter a new, complex, at-least-7-characters-long new password twice. A
password like "topsecret" is not valid (it's not complex), but one like "T0pSecreT!" sure
is. Make sure you remember it.

17. Someone thought it would be cool to nag you once more, so now you'll be prompted
to accept the fact that the password had been changed. Press Ok.

18. Finally, the desktop appears and that's it, you're logged on and can begin working.
You will be greeted by an assistant for the initial server configuration, and after
performing some initial configuration tasks, you will be able to start working.

Introduction to Administrative Tasks in

Windows Server 2008 Environment
(1) Prepare your Domain for the Windows Server 2008
R2 Domain Controller
Before installing the first Windows Server 2008 R2 domain controller (DC) into an
existing Windows 2000, Windows Server 2003 or Windows Server 2008 domain, you
must prepare the AD forest and domain. You do so by running a tool called ADPREP.

ADPREP extends the Active Directory schema and updates permissions as necessary to
prepare a forest and domain for a domain controller that runs the Windows Server 2008
R2 operating system.

Note: You may remember that ADPREP was used on previous operating systems such as
Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2003 R2 and Windows Server 2008. This article
focuses on Windows Server 2008 R2.

What does ADPREP do? ADPREP has parameters that perform a variety of operations
that help prepare an existing Active Directory environment for a domain controller that
runs Windows Server 2008 R2. Not all versions of ADPREP perform the same
operations, but generally the different types of operations that ADPREP can perform
include the following:

 Updating the Active Directory schema

 Updating security descriptors
 Modifying access control lists (ACLs) on Active Directory objects and on files in
the SYSVOL shared folder
 Creating new objects, as needed
 Creating new containers, as needed

To prepare the forest and domain for the installation of the first Windows Server 2008 R2
domain controller please perform these tasks:

Lamer note: The following tasks are required ONLY before adding the first Windows
Server 2008 R2 domain controller. If you plan on simply joining a Windows Server
2008 R2 Server to the domain and configuring as a regular member server, none of the
following tasks are required.

Another lamer note: Please make sure you read the system requirements for Windows
Server 2008 R2. For example, you cannot join a Windows Server 2008 R2 server to a

Windows NT 4.0 domain, not can it participate as a domain controller in a mixed domain.
If any domain controllers in the forest are running Windows 2000 Server, they must be
running Service Pack 4 (SP4).

First, you should review and understand the schema updates and other changes that
ADPREP makes as part of the schema management process in Active Directory Domain
Services (AD DS). You should test the ADPREP schema updates in a lab environment to
ensure that they will not conflict with any applications that run in your environment.

You must make a system state backup for your domain controllers, including the schema
master and at least one other domain controller from each domain in the forest (you do
have backups, don't you?).

Also, make sure that you can log on to the schema master with an account that has
sufficient credentials to run adprep /forestprep. You must be a member of the Schema
Admins group, the Enterprise Admins group, and the Domain Admins group of the
domain that hosts the schema master, which is, by default, the forest root domain.

Next, insert the Windows Server 2008 R2 DVD media into your DVD drive. Note that if
you do not have the media handy, you may use the evaluation version that is available to
download from Microsoft's website. You can also use an MSDN or Technet ISO image,
if you have a subscription to one of them.

Browse to the X:\support\adprep folder, where X: is the drive letter of your DVD drive.
Find a file called adprep.exe or adprep32.exe.

Note: Unlike in Windows Server 2008 where you had to use either the 32-bit or 64-bit
installation media to get the right version of ADPREP, Windows Server 2008 R2
ADPREP is available in a 32-bit version and a 64-bit version. The 64-bit version runs by
default. If you need to run ADPREP on a 32-bit computer, run the 32-bit version
(adprep32.exe).

To perform this procedure, you must use an account that has membership in all of the
following groups:

 Enterprise Admins
 Schema Admins
 Domain Admins for the domain that contains the schema master

Open a Command Prompt window by typing CMD and pressing ENTER in the Run
menu.

Drag the adprep.exe file from the Windows Explorer window to the Command Prompt
window. Naturally, if you want, you can always manually type the path of the file in the
Command Prompt window if that makes you feel better...

Note: You must run adprep.exe from an elevated command prompt. To open an elevated
command prompt, click Start, right-click Command Prompt, and then click Run as
administrator.

Note: If your existing DCs are Windows Server 2008, dragging and dropping into a
Command Prompt window will not work, as that feature was intentionally disabled in
windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista.

In the Command Prompt window, type the following command:

adprep /forestprep

You will be prompted to type the letter "c" and then press ENTER. After doing so,
process will begin.

ADPREP will take several minutes to complete. During that time, several LDF files will
be imported into the AD Schema, and messages will be displayed in the Command
Prompt window. File sch47.ldf seems to be the largest one.

When completed, you will receive a success message.

Note: As mentioned above, ADPREP should only be run on an existing DC. When trying
to run it from a non-DC, you will get this error:

Adprep cannot run on this platform because it is not an Active Directory Domain
Controller.
[Status/Consequence]
Adprep stopped without making any changes.
[User Action]
Run Adprep on a Active Directory Domain Controller.

Allow the operation to complete, and then allow the changes to replicate throughout
the forest before you prepare any domains for a domain controller that runs
Windows Server 2008 R2.

In the Command Prompt window, type the following command:

adprep /domainprep

Process will take less than a second.

ADPREP must only be run in a Windows 2000 Native Mode or higher. If you attempt to
run in Mixed Mode you will get this error:

Adprep detected that the domain is not in native mode

[Status/Consequence]
Adprep has stopped without making changes.
[User Action]
Configure the domain to run in native mode and re-run domainprep

Allow the operation to complete, and then allow the changes to replicate throughout
the forest before you prepare any domains for a domain controller that runs
Windows Server 2008 R2.

If you're running a Windows 2008 Active Directory domain, that's it, no additional tasks
are needed.

If you're running a Windows 2000 Active Directory domain, you must also the following
command:

adprep /domainprep /gpprep

Allow the operation to complete, and then allow the changes to replicate throughout
the forest before you prepare any domains for a domain controller that runs
Windows Server 2008 R2.

If you're running a Windows 2003 Active Directory domain, that's it, no additional tasks
are needed. However, if you're planing to run Read Only Domain controllers (RODCs),
you must also

type the following command:

adprep /rodcprep

If you already ran this command for Windows Server 2008, you do not need to run it
again for Windows Server 2008 R2.

Process will complete in less than a second.

Allow the operation to complete, and then allow the changes to replicate throughout
the forest before you prepare any domains for a domain controller that runs
Windows Server 2008 R2.

To verify that adprep /forestprep completed successfully please perform these steps:

1. Log on to an administrative workstation that has ADSIEdit installed. ADSIEdit is

installed by default on domain controllers that run Windows Server 2008 or Windows
Server 2008 R2. On Windows Server 2003 you must install the Resource Kit Tools.

2. Click Start, click Run, type ADSIEdit.msc, and then click OK.

3. Click Action, and then click Connect to.

4. Click Select a well known Naming Context, select Configuration in the list of available
naming contexts, and then click OK.

5. Double-click Configuration, and then double-click

CN=Configuration,DC=forest_root_domain where forest_root_domain is the
distinguished name of your forest root domain.

6. Double-click CN=ForestUpdates.

7. Right-click CN=ActiveDirectoryUpdate, and then click Properties.

8. If you ran adprep /forestprep for Windows Server 2008 R2, confirm that the Revision
attribute value is 5, and then click OK.

9. Click ADSI Edit, click Action, and then click Connect to.

10. Click Select a Well known naming context, select Schema in the list of available
naming contexts, and then click OK.

11. Double-click Schema.

12. Right-click CN=Schema,CN=Configuration,DC=forest_root_domain, and then click

Properties.

13. If you ran adprep /forestprep for Windows Server 2008 R2, confirm that the
objectVersion attribute value is set to 47, and then click OK.

Install Windows Server 2008 Server Roles with

Server Manager
The following server roles are available in Windows Server 2008.

Active Directory Certificate Services. Active File Services. File Services provides technologies
Directory® Certificate Services (AD CS) provides for storage management, file replication,
customizable services for creating and managing distributed namespace management, fast file
public key certificates used in software security searching, and streamlined client access to files.
systems employing public key technologies.

Active Directory Domain Services. Active Hyper-V. Hyper-V provides the services that you
Directory Domain Services (AD DS) stores can use to create and manage virtual machines
information about users, computers, and other and their resources. Each virtual machine is a
devices on the network. AD DS helps virtualized computer system that operates in an
administrators securely manage this information isolated execution environment. This allows you to
and facilitates resource sharing and collaboration run multiple operating systems simultaneously.
between users.

Active Directory Federation Services. Active Network Policy and Access Services. Network
Directory Federation Services (AD FS) provides Policy and Access Services delivers a variety of
Web single-sign-on (SSO) technologies to methods to provide users with local and remote
authenticate a user to multiple Web applications network connectivity, to connect network
by using a single user account. AD FS segments, and to allow network administrators to
accomplishes this by securely federating, or centrally manage network access and client health
sharing, user identities and access rights, in the policies.
form of digital claims, between partner
organizations.

Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services. Print Services. Print Services enables the
Organizations that have applications that require management of print servers and printers. A print
a directory for storing application data can use server reduces administrative and management
Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services workload by centralizing printer management
(AD LDS) as the data store. tasks.

Active Directory Rights Management Services. Terminal Services. Terminal Services provides
Active Directory Rights Management Services technologies that enable users to access
(AD RMS) is information protection technology Windows-based programs that are installed on a
that works with AD RMS-enabled applications to terminal server, or to access the Windows desktop
help safeguard digital information from itself from almost any computing device. Users
unauthorized use. can connect to a terminal server to run programs
and to use network resources on that server.

Application Server. Application Server provides a Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration
complete solution for hosting and managing Services. Universal Description, Discovery, and
high-performance distributed business Integration (UDDI) Services provides UDDI
applications. Integrated services, such as the capabilities for sharing information about Web
.NET Framework, Web Server Support, Message services within an organization's intranet, between
Queuing, COM+, Windows Communication business partners on an extranet, or on the
Foundation, and failover Ccusters boost Internet. UDDI Services can help improve the
productivity throughout the application life cycle. productivity of developers and IT professionals
with more reliable and manageable applications.

DHCP Server. Dynamic Host Configuration Web Server. Web Server, or Internet Information
Protocol (DHCP) allows servers to assign, or Services (IIS), enables sharing of information on
lease, IP addresses to computers and other the Internet, an intranet, or an extranet. It is a
devices that are enabled as DHCP clients. unified Web platform that integrates IIS 7.0,
Deploying DHCP servers on the network ASP.NET, and Windows Communication
automatically provides computers and other Foundation. IIS 7.0 also features enhanced
TCP/IP-based network devices with valid IP security, simplified diagnostics, and delegated
addresses and the additional configuration administration.
parameters these devices need.

DNS Server. Domain Name System (DNS) Windows Deployment Services. You can use
provides a standard method for associating Windows Deployment Services to install and
names with numeric Internet addresses. This configure Windows operating systems remotely on
makes it possible for users to refer to network computers by using Pre-Boot Execution
computers by using easy-to-remember names Environment (PXE) boot ROMs. Administration
instead of a long series of numbers. overhead is decreased through the
implementation of the WdsMgmt Microsoft
Management Console (MMC) snap-in, which
manages all aspects of Windows Deployment
Services.

Fax Server. Fax Server sends and receives faxes,

and allows you to manage fax resources such as
jobs, settings, reports, and fax devices on this
computer or on the network.

Scheduling
In computer science, scheduling is the method by which threads, processes or data flows
are given access to system resources (e.g. processor time, communications bandwidth).
This is usually done to load balance a system effectively or achieve a target quality of
service. The need for a scheduling algorithm arises from the requirement for most
modern systems to perform multitasking (execute more than one process at a time) and
multiplexing (transmit multiple flows simultaneously).
The scheduler is concerned mainly with:
Throughput - The total number of processes that complete their execution per time unit.
Latency, specifically:
Turnaround - total time between submission of a process and its completion.
Response time - amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first
response is produced.
Fairness / Waiting Time - Equal CPU time to each process (or more generally appropriate
times according to each process' priority).
In practice, these goals often conflict (e.g. throughput versus latency), thus a scheduler
will implement a suitable compromise. Preference is given to any one of the above
mentioned concerns depending upon the user's needs and objectives.
Types of operating system schedulers
Operating systems may feature up to 3 distinct types of scheduler, a long-term scheduler
(also known as an admission scheduler or high-level scheduler), a mid-term or medium-
term scheduler and a short-term scheduler. The names suggest the relative frequency with
which these functions are performed. The scheduler is an operating system module that
selects the next jobs to be admitted into the system and the next process to run.
Long-term scheduling
The long-term, or admission scheduler, decides which jobs or processes are to be
admitted to the ready queue (in the Main Memory); that is, when an attempt is made to
execute a program, its admission to the set of currently executing processes is either
authorized or delayed by the long-term scheduler. Thus, this scheduler dictates what
processes are to run on a system, and the degree of concurrency to be supported at any
one time - i.e.: whether a high or low amount of processes are to be executed
concurrently, and how the split between IO intensive and CPU intensive processes is to
be handled. In modern operating systems, this is used to make sure that real time
processes get enough CPU time to finish their tasks. Without proper real time scheduling,
modern GUI interfaces would seem sluggish. The long term queue exists in the Hard
Disk or the "Virtual Memory".
Long-term scheduling is also important in large-scale systems such as batch processing
systems, computer clusters, supercomputers and render farms. In these cases, special
purpose job scheduler software is typically used to assist these functions, in addition to
any underlying admission scheduling support in the operating system.
Medium-term scheduling
The medium-term scheduler temporarily removes processes from main memory and
places them on secondary memory (such as a disk drive) or vice versa. This is commonly
referred to as "swapping out" or "swapping in" (also incorrectly as "paging out" or
"paging in"). The medium-term scheduler may decide to swap out a process which has
not been active for some time, or a process which has a low priority, or a process which is
page faulting frequently, or a process which is taking up a large amount of memory in
order to free up main memory for other processes, swapping the process back in later
when more memory is available, or when the process has been unblocked and is no
longer waiting for a resource.
In many systems today (those that support mapping virtual address space to secondary
storage other than the swap file), the medium-term scheduler may actually perform the
role of the long-term scheduler, by treating binaries as "swapped out processes" upon
their execution. In this way, when a segment of the binary is required it can be swapped
in on demand, or "lazy loaded".
Short-term scheduling
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The short-term scheduler (also known as the CPU scheduler) decides which of the ready,
in-memory processes are to be executed (allocated a CPU) next following a clock
interrupt, an IO interrupt, an operating system call or another form of signal. Thus the
short-term scheduler makes scheduling decisions much more frequently than the long-
term or mid-term schedulers - a scheduling decision will at a minimum have to be made
after every time slice, and these are very short. This scheduler can be preemptive,
implying that it is capable of forcibly removing processes from a CPU when it decides to
allocate that CPU to another process, or non-preemptive (also known as "voluntary" or
"co-operative"), in which case the scheduler is unable to "force" processes off the CPU.In
most cases short-term scheduler is written in assembly because it is a critical part of the
operating system.
Dispatcher
Another component involved in the CPU-scheduling function is the dispatcher. The
dispatcher is the module that gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the
short-term scheduler.

This function involves the following:

 Switching context
 Switching to user mode
 Jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program

The dispatcher should be as fast as possible, since it is invoked during every process
switch. The time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running
is known as the dispatch latency.
Scheduling disciplines
Scheduling disciplines are algorithms used for distributing resources among parties which
simultaneously and asynchronously request them. Scheduling disciplines are used in
routers (to handle packet traffic) as well as in operating systems (to share CPU time
among both threads and processes), disk drives (I/O scheduling), printers (print spooler),
most embedded systems, etc.
The main purposes of scheduling algorithms are to minimize resource starvation and to
ensure fairness amongst the parties utilizing the resources. Scheduling deals with the
problem of deciding which of the outstanding requests is to be allocated resources. There
are many different scheduling algorithms. In this section, we introduce several of them.
In packet-switched computer networks and other statistical multiplexing, the notion of a
scheduling algorithm is used as an alternative to first-come first-served queuing of data
packets.
The simplest best-effort scheduling algorithms are round-robin, fair queuing (a max-min
fair scheduling algorithm), proportionally fair scheduling and maximum throughput. If
differentiated or guaranteed quality of service is offered, as opposed to best-effort
communication, weighted fair queuing may be utilized.
In advanced packet radio wireless networks such as HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink
Packet Access ) 3.5G cellular system, channel-dependent scheduling may be used to take
advantage of channel state information. If the channel conditions are favorable, the
throughput and system spectral efficiency may be increased. In even more advanced
systems such as LTE, the scheduling is combined by channel-dependent packet-by-
packet dynamic channel allocation, or by assigning OFDMA multi-carriers or other
frequency-domain equalization components to the users that best can utilize them.
First in first out
Also known as First Come, First Served (FCFS), is the simplest scheduling algorithm,
FIFO simply queues processes in the order that they arrive in the ready queue.
 Since context switches only occur upon process termination, and no reorganization of
the process queue is required, scheduling overhead is minimal.
 Throughput can be low, since long processes can hog the CPU
Turnaround time, waiting time and response time can be high for the same reasons above
No prioritization occurs, thus this system has trouble meeting process deadlines.

The lack of prioritization means that as long as every process eventually completes, there is no
starvation. In an environment where some processes might not complete, there can be
starvation.
It is based on Queuing

Similar to Shortest Job First (SJF).

With this strategy the scheduler arranges processes with the least estimated processing
time remaining to be next in the queue. This requires advanced knowledge or estimations
about the time required for a process to complete.
If a shorter process arrives during another process' execution, the currently running process may
be interrupted (known as preemption), dividing that process into two separate computing
blocks. This creates excess overhead through additional context switching. The scheduler must
also place each incoming process into a specific place in the queue, creating additional
overhead.
This algorithm is designed for maximum throughput in most scenarios.
Waiting time and response time increase as the process' computational requirements increase.
Since turnaround time is based on waiting time plus processing time, longer processes are
significantly affected by this. Overall waiting time is smaller than FIFO, however since no process
has to wait for the termination of the longest process.
No particular attention is given to deadlines, the programmer can only attempt to make
processes with deadlines as short as possible.
Starvation is possible, especially in a busy system with many small processes being run.

Fixed priority pre-emptive scheduling

The O/S assigns a fixed priority rank to every process, and the scheduler arranges the
processes in the ready queue in order of their priority. Lower priority processes get
interrupted by incoming higher priority processes.
Overhead is not minimal, nor is it significant.
FPPS has no particular advantage in terms of throughput over FIFO scheduling.
Waiting time and response time depend on the priority of the process. Higher priority processes
have smaller waiting and response times.
Deadlines can be met by giving processes with deadlines a higher priority.
Starvation of lower priority processes is possible with large amounts of high priority processes
queuing for CPU time.

Round-robin scheduling
The scheduler assigns a fixed time unit per process, and cycles through them.
RR scheduling involves extensive overhead, especially with a small time unit.
Balanced throughput between FCFS and SJF, shorter jobs are completed faster than in FCFS and
longer processes are completed faster than in SJF.
Poor average response time, waiting time is dependent on number of processes, and not
average process length.
Because of high waiting times, deadlines are rarely met in a pure RR system.
Starvation can never occur, since no priority is given. Order of time unit allocation is based upon
process arrival time, similar to FCFS.

Multilevel queue scheduling

This is used for situations in which processes are easily divided into different groups. For
example, a common division is made between foreground (interactive) processes and
background (batch) processes. These two types of processes have different response-time
requirements and so may have different scheduling needs. It is very useful for shared
memory problem

Overview
CPU Turnaround Response
Scheduling algorithm Throughput
Overhead time time
First In First Out Low Low High Low
Shortest Job First Medium High Medium Medium
Priority based scheduling Medium Low High High
Round-robin scheduling High Medium Medium High
Multilevel Queue
High High Medium Medium
scheduling

Deadlock

Both processes need both resources. P1 requires additional resource R1, P2 requires
additional resource R2; neither process can continue.
This article is about the computer science concept. For other uses, see Deadlock
(disambiguation).
A deadlock is a situation in which two or more competing
actions are each waiting for the other to finish, and thus
neither ever does.
In an operating system, a deadlock is a situation which
occurs when a process enters a waiting state because a
resource requested by it is being held by another waiting
process, which in turn is waiting for another resource. If a
process is unable to change its state indefinitely because the resources requested by it are
being used by other waiting process, then the system is said to be in a deadlock.
Deadlock is a common problem in multiprocessing systems, parallel computing and
distributed systems, where software and hardware locks are used to handle shared
resources and implement process synchronization.
In telecommunication systems, deadlocks occur mainly due to lost or corrupt signals
instead of resource contention.

Examples
Deadlock situation can be compared to the classic "chicken or egg" problem. It can be
also considered a paradoxical "Catch-22" situation. A real world analogical example
would be an illogical statute passed by the Kansas legislature in the early 20th century,
which stated:
― When two trains approach each other at a crossing, both shall come to a full stop
and neither shall start up again until the other has gone. ‖
A simple computer-based example is as follows. Suppose a computer has three CD drives
and three processes. Each of the three processes holds one of the drives. If each process
now requests another drive, the three processes will be in a deadlock. Each process will
be waiting for the "CD drive released" event, which can be only caused by one of the
other waiting processes. Thus, it results in a circular chain.

Necessary conditions
A deadlock situation can arise if and only if all of the following conditions hold
simultaneously in a system:
Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be non-shareable. Only one process can use the
resource at any given instant of time.

Hold and Wait or Resource Holding: A process is currently holding at least one resource and
requesting additional resources which are being held by other processes.
No Preemption: The operating system must not de-allocate resources once they have been
allocated; they must be released by the holding process voluntarily.
Circular Wait: A process must be waiting for a resource which is being held by another process,
which in turn is waiting for the first process to release the resource. In general, there is a set of
waiting processes, P = {P1, P2, ..., PN}, such that P1 is waiting for a resource held by P2, P2 is
waiting for a resource held by P3 and so on till PN is waiting for a resource held by P1.

Deadlock handling
Most current operating systems cannot prevent a deadlock from occurring. When a
deadlock occurs, different operating systems respond to them in different non-standard
manners. Most approaches work by preventing one of the four Coffman conditions from
occurring, especially the fourth one. Major approaches are as follows.

Ignoring deadlock

In this approach, it is assumed that a deadlock will never occur. This is also an
application of the Ostrich algorithm. This approach was initially used by MINIX and
UNIX. This is used when the time intervals between occurrences of deadlocks are large
and the data loss incurred each time is tolerable. It is avoided in very critical systems.

Detection

Under deadlock detection, deadlocks are allowed to occur. Then the state of the system is
examined to detect that a deadlock has occurred and subsequently it is corrected. An
algorithm is employed that tracks resource allocation and process states, it rolls back and
restarts one or more of the processes in order to remove the detected deadlock. Detecting
a deadlock that has already occurred is easily possible since the resources that each
process has locked and/or currently requested are known to the resource scheduler of the
operating system.
Deadlock detection techniques include, but are not limited to model checking. This
approach constructs a finite state-model on which it performs a progress analysis and
finds all possible terminal sets in the model. These then each represent a deadlock.
After a deadlock is determined, it can be corrected by using one of the following
methods:
Process Termination: One or more process involved in the deadlock may be aborted. We can
choose to abort all processes involved in the deadlock. This ensures that deadlock is resolved
with certainty and speed. But the expense is high as partial computations will be lost. Or, we can
choose to abort one process at a time until the deadlock is resolved. This approach has high
overheads because after each abortion an algorithm must detect if the system is still in
deadlock. Several factors must be considered while choosing a candidate for termination, such
as priority and age of the process.
Resource Preemption: Resource allocated to various processes may be successively preempted
and allocated to other processes until deadlock is broken.

Prevention

Deadlock prevention works by preventing one of the four Coffman conditions from
occurring.
Removing the mutual exclusion condition means that no process will have exclusive access to a
resource. This proves impossible for resources that cannot be spooled. But even with spooled
resources, deadlock could still occur. Algorithms that avoid mutual exclusion are called non-
blocking synchronization algorithms.
The hold and wait or resource holding conditions may be removed by requiring processes to
request all the resources they will need before starting up (or before embarking upon a
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particular set of operations). This advance knowledge is frequently difficult to satisfy and, in any
case, is an inefficient use of resources. Another way is to require processes to request resources
only when it has none. Thus, first they must release all their currently held resources before
requesting all the resources they will need from scratch. This too is often impractical. It is so
because resource may be allocated and remain unused for long periods. Also, a process
requiring a popular resource may have to wait indefinitely as such a resource may always be
allocated to some process, resulting in resource starvation. (These algorithms, such as serializing
tokens, are known as the all-or-none algorithms.)
The no preemption condition may also be difficult or impossible to avoid as a process has to be
able to have a resource for a certain amount of time, or the processing outcome may be
inconsistent or thrashing may occur. However, inability to enforce preemption may interfere
with a priority algorithm. Preemption of a "locked out" resource generally implies a rollback, and
is to be avoided, since it is very costly in overhead. Algorithms that allow preemption include
lock-free and wait-free algorithms and optimistic concurrency control.
The final condition is the circular wait condition. Approaches that avoid circular waits include
disabling interrupts during critical sections and using a hierarchy to determine a partial ordering
of resources. If no obvious hierarchy exists, even the memory address of resources has been
used to determine ordering and resources are requested in the increasing order of the
enumeration. The Dijkstra's solution can also be used.

Avoidance

Deadlock can be avoided if certain information about processes are available to the
operating system before allocation of resources, such as which resources a process will
consume in its lifetime. For every resource request, the system sees if granting the request
will mean that the system will enter an unsafe state, meaning a state that could result in
deadlock. The system then only grants requests that will lead to safe states. In order for
the system to be able to determine whether the next state will be safe or unsafe, it must
know in advance at any time:
resources currently available
resources currently allocated to each process
resources that will be required and released

A memory management unit (MMU)

Sometimes called paged memory management unit (PMMU), is a computer hardware
component responsible for handling accesses to memory requested by the CPU. Its
functions include translation of virtual addresses to physical addresses (i.e., virtual
memory management), memory protection, cache control, bus arbitration and in simpler
computer architectures (especially 8-bit systems) bank switching.

How it works

Schematic of the operation of an MMU

Modern MMUs typically divide the virtual address space (the range of addresses used by
the processor) into pages, each having a size which is a power of 2, usually a few
kilobytes, but they may be much larger. The bottom n bits of the address (the offset
within a page) are left unchanged. The upper address bits are the (virtual) page number.
The MMU normally translates virtual page numbers to physical page numbers via an
associative cache called a translation lookaside buffer (TLB). When the TLB lacks a
translation, a slower mechanism involving hardware-specific data structures or software
assistance is used. The data found in such data structures are typically called page table
entries (PTEs), and the data structure itself is typically called a page table. The physical
page number is combined with the page offset to give the complete physical address.
A PTE or TLB entry may also include information about whether the page has been
written to (the dirty bit), when it was last used (the accessed bit, for a least recently used
page replacement algorithm), what kind of processes (user mode, supervisor mode) may
read and write it, and whether it should be cached.
Sometimes, a TLB entry or PTE prohibits access to a virtual page, perhaps because no
physical random access memory has been allocated to that virtual page. In this case the
MMU signals a page fault to the CPU. The operating system (OS) then handles the
situation, perhaps by trying to find a spare frame of RAM and set up a new PTE to map it
to the requested virtual address. If no RAM is free, it may be necessary to choose an
existing page (known as a victim), using some replacement algorithm, and save it to disk
(this is called "paging"). With some MMUs, there can also be a shortage of PTEs or TLB
entries, in which case the OS will have to free one for the new mapping.
In some cases a "page fault" may indicate a software bug. A key benefit of an MMU is
memory protection: an OS can use it to protect against errant programs, by disallowing
access to memory that a particular program should not have access to. Typically, an OS
assigns each program its own virtual address space.
An MMU also reduces the problem of fragmentation of memory. After blocks of memory
have been allocated and freed, the free memory may become fragmented (discontinuous)
so that the largest contiguous block of free memory may be much smaller than the total
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amount. With virtual memory, a contiguous range of virtual addresses can be mapped to
several non-contiguous blocks of physical memory.

VLSI VI475 MMU "Apple HMMU"

from the Macintosh II
used with the Motorola 68020
In some early microprocessor designs, memory management was performed by a separate
integrated circuit such as the VLSI VI475 or the Motorola 68851 used with the Motorola
68020 CPU in the Macintosh II or the Z8015 used with the Zilog Z80 family of
processors. Later microprocessors such as the Motorola 68030 and the ZILOG Z280
placed the MMU together with the CPU on the same integrated circuit, as did the Intel
80286 and later x86 microprocessors.
While this article concentrates on modern MMUs, commonly based on pages, early
systems used a similar concept for base-limit addressing, that further developed into
segmentation. Those are occasionally also present on modern architectures. The x86
architecture provided segmentation rather than paging in the 80286, and provides both
paging and segmentation in the 80386 and later processors (although the use of
segmentation is not available in 64-bit operation).

Examples
Most modern systems divide memory into pages that are 4 KB to 64 KB in size, often
with the possibility to use huge pages from 2 MB to 512 MB in size. Page translations are
cached in a TLB. Some systems, mainly older RISC designs, trap into the OS when a
page translation is not found in the TLB. Most systems use a hardware-based tree walker.
Most systems allow the MMU to be disabled; some disable the MMU when trapping into
OS code.
ACTIVE DIRECTORY (AD)
Is a directory service created by Microsoft for Windows domain networks? It is included
in most Windows Server operating systems. Server computers that run Active Directory
are called domain controllers.
Active Directory provides a central location for network administration and security. It
authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a Windows domain type
network—assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers and installing or
updating software. For example, when a user logs into a computer that is part of a
Windows domain, Active Directory verifies the password and specifies whether the user
is a system administrator or normal user.
Active Directory uses Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
versions 2 and 3, Kerberos and DNS.

History
Active Directory was previewed in 1999, released first with Windows 2000 Server
edition, and revised to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows
Server 2003. Additional improvements were made in Windows Server 2003 R2,
Windows Server 2008 and Windows Server 2008 R2, and with the release of the latter
the domain controller role was renamed Active Directory Domain Services.

Structure of Active Directory

Objects
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An Active Directory structure is a hierarchical arrangement of information about objects.

The objects fall into two broad categories: resources (e.g., printers) and security
principals (user or computer accounts and groups). Security principals are assigned
unique security identifiers (SIDs).
Each object represents a single entity—whether a user, a computer, a printer, or a
group—and its attributes. Certain objects can contain other objects. An object is uniquely
identified by its name and has a set of attributes—the characteristics and information that
the object represents— defined by a schema, which also determines the kinds of objects
that can be stored in Active Directory.
The schema object lets administrators extend or modify the schema when necessary.
However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory
objects, deactivating or changing these objects can fundamentally change or disrupt a
deployment. Schema changes automatically propagate throughout the system. Once
created, an object can only be deactivated—not deleted. Changing the schema usually
requires planning.

Sites
A Site object in Active Directory represents a geographic location that hosts networks.

Forests, trees, and domains

The Active Directory framework that holds the objects can be viewed at a number of
levels. The forest, tree, and domain are the logical divisions in an Active Directory
network. Within a deployment, objects are grouped into domains. The objects for a single
domain are stored in a single database (which can be replicated). Domains are identified
by their DNS name structure, the namespace.
A tree is a collection of one or more domains and domain trees in a contiguous
namespace, linked in a transitive trust hierarchy.
At the top of the structure is the forest. A forest is a collection of trees that share a
common global catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory configuration.
The forest represents the security boundary within which users, computers, groups, and
other objects are accessible.

Organizational units
The objects held within a domain can be grouped into Organizational Units (OUs). OUs
can provide hierarchy to a domain, ease its administration, and can resemble the
organization's structure in managerial or geographical terms. OUs can contain other
OUs—domains are containers in this sense. Microsoft recommends using OUs rather
than domains for structure and to simplify the implementation of policies and
administration. The OU is the recommended level at which to apply group policies,
which are Active Directory objects formally named Group Policy Objects (GPOs),
although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the level
at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but delegation can be
performed on individual objects or attributes as well.
Organizational Units are an abstraction for the administrator and do not function as
containers; the underlying domain is the true container. It is not possible, for example, to
create user accounts with an identical username (sAMAccountName) in separate OUs,
such as "fred.staff-ou.domain" and "fred.student-ou.domain", where "staff-ou" and
"student-ou" are the OUs. This is so because sAMAccountName, a user object attribute,
must be unique within the domain. However, two users in different OUs can have the
same Common Name (CN), the first component of the Distinguished Name (DN) of the
user. Thus from the point of view of the DN, OUs do function as containers.
As the number of users in a domain increases, conventions such as "first initial, middle
initial, last name" (Western order) or the reverse (Eastern order) fail for common family
names like Li (李), Smith or Garcia. Workarounds include adding a digit to the end of the
username. Alternatives include creating a separate ID system of unique employee/student
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id numbers to use as account names in place of actual user's names, and allowing users to
nominate their preferred word sequence within an acceptable use policy.
Because duplicate usernames cannot exist within a domain, account name generation
poses a significant challenge for large organizations that cannot be easily subdivided into
separate domains, such as students in a public school system or university who must be
able to use any computer across the network.
In Active Directory, organizational units cannot be assigned as owners or trustees. Only
groups are selectable, and members of OUs cannot be collectively assigned rights to
directory objects.
In Microsoft's Active Directory, OUs do not confer access permissions, and objects
placed within OUs are not automatically assigned access privileges based on their
containing OU. This is a design limitation specific to Active Directory. Other competing
directories such as Novell NDS are able to assign access privileges through object
placement within an OU.
Active Directory requires a separate step for an administrator to assign an object in an
OU as a member of a group also within that OU. Relying on OU location alone to
determine access permissions is unreliable, because the object may not have been
assigned to the group object for that OU.
A common workaround for an Active Directory administrator is to write a custom
PowerShell or Visual Basic script to automatically create and maintain a user group for
each OU in their directory. The scripts are run periodically to update the group to match
the OU's account membership, but are unable to instantly update the security groups
anytime the directory changes, as occurs in competing directories where security is
directly implemented into the directory itself. Such groups are known as Shadow Groups.
Once created, these shadow groups are selectable in place of the OU in the administrative
tools.
Microsoft refers to shadow groups in the Server 2008 Reference documentation, but does
not explain how to create them. There are no built-in server methods or console snap-ins
for managing shadow groups.
The division of an organization's information infrastructure into a hierarchy of one or
more domains and top-level OUs is a key decision. Common models are by business unit,
by geographical location, by IT Service, or by object type and hybrids of these. OUs
should be structured primarily to facilitate administrative delegation, and secondarily, to
facilitate group policy application. Although OUs form an administrative boundary, the
only true security boundary is the forest itself and an administrator of any domain in the
forest must be trusted across all domains in the forest.

The Domain Name System (DNS)

Is a hierarchical distributed naming system for computers, services, or any resource
connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with
domain names assigned to each of the participating entities. A Domain Name Service
resolves queries for these names into IP addresses for the purpose of locating computer
services and devices worldwide. By providing a worldwide, distributed keyword-based
redirection service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the
functionality of the Internet.
An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the phone
book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP
addresses. For example, the domain name www.example.com translates to the addresses
192.0.43.10 (IPv4) and 2620:0:2d0:200::10 (IPv6). Unlike a phone book, however, DNS
can be quickly updated and these updates distributed, allowing a service's location on the
network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same
hostname. Users take advantage of this when they recite meaningful Uniform Resource
Locators (URLs) and e-mail addresses without having to know how the computer
actually locates the services.
The Domain Name System distributes the responsibility of assigning domain names and
mapping those names to IP addresses by designating authoritative name servers for each
domain. Authoritative name servers are assigned to be responsible for their particular
domains, and in turn can assign other authoritative name servers for their sub-domains.
This mechanism has made the DNS distributed and fault tolerant and has helped avoid
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the need for a single central register to be continually consulted and updated.
Additionally, the responsibility for maintaining and updating the master record for the
domains is spread among many domain name registrars, who compete for the end-user's,
domain-owner's, business. Domains can be moved from registrar to registrar at any time.
The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of this database
service. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and
communication exchanges used in DNS, as part of the Internet Protocol Suite.

Introduction to Linux
Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and
open source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is
the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released 5 October 1991 by Linus
Torvalds.
Linux was originally developed as a free operating system for Intel x86-based personal
computers. It has since been ported to more computer hardware platforms than any other
operating system. It is a leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems
such as mainframe computers and supercomputers. More than 90% of today's 500 fastest
supercomputers run some variant of Linux, including the 10 fastest. Linux also runs
on embedded systems (devices where the operating system is typically built into
the firmware and highly tailored to the system) such as mobile phones, tablet computers,
network routers, televisions and video game consoles; the Android system in wide use on
mobile devices is built on the Linux kernel.
The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open
source software collaboration: the underlying source code may be used, modified, and
distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under licenses such as
the GNU General Public License. Typically Linux is packaged in a format known as
a Linux distribution for desktop and server use. Some popular mainstream Linux
distributions include Debian (and its derivatives such as Ubuntu), Fedora and openSUSE.
Linux distributions include the Linux kernel, supporting utilities and libraries and usually
a large amount of application software to fulfill the distribution's intended use.
A distribution oriented toward desktop use will typically include the X Window
System and an accompanying desktop environment such as GNOME or KDE Plasma.
Some such distributions may include a less resource intensive desktop such
as LXDE or Xfce for use on older or less powerful computers. A distribution intended to
run as a server may omit all graphical environments from the standard install and instead
include other software such as the Apache HTTP Server and an SSH server such
as OpenSSH. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution
for any intended use. Applications commonly used with desktop Linux systems include
the Mozilla Firefox web browser, theLibreOffice office application suite, and
the GIMP image editor.

Installation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux 0.5

System
Requirement:
RAM: 256
MB Processor: PIV
Disk Space: 10
GB

To delete partition:
1. Right-click on My Computer
2. Click Manage
3. Click Disk Management
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4. Right-Click on D: drive (or any drive that you want to delete)

5. Click Delete Logical Drive…
Message: All data on this volume will be lost. Do you want to continue?
6. Click Yes
7. Close

Boot from CD-

ROM:
1 Insert Red Hat Enterprise Linux CD into CD-ROM (RHEL_5.2 i386
2 Click Start
3 Click Shut Down…
4 Select Restart
5 Click OK

To Install Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5:

1. Type boot: linux text and Press Enter Button (To install or upgrade in
text mode) OR
boot: Press Enter Button (To install or upgrade in graphical mode)

2. Press OK (To begin testing the CD media before installation)

3. Press Test (To test the CD currently in the drive)
OR
Press Skip (To skip the media test and start the
installation)
4. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5, Click Next

What language would you like to us during the installation process?

5. Select English (English)
6. Click Next
Select the appropriate keyboard for the system.
7. Select U.S. English
8. Click Next
Installation Number
9. Click Skip entering Installation Number
10. Click Ok
If you're unable to locate the Installation Number,
consult http://www.redhat.com/apps/support/in.html.
11. Click Skip
Installation requires partitioning of your hard drive. You can either choose
to use this or create your won.
12. Select Create custom layout
13. Click Next
Partitioning hard drive
14. Click New
Add
Partition
15. Mount Point: Select "/" slash (Root)
16. File System Type: Select ext3
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17. Size (MB): Enter 7000 (7 GB)

18. Click OK
19. Click New (again)
20. Mount Point: Select /boot
21. File System Type: Select ext3
22. Size (MB): Enter 100
23. Click OK
24. Click New (again)
25. File System Type: Select swap
26. Size (MB): Enter 1024 (double of RAM size)
27. Click OK
28. Click New (again)
29. Mount Point: Type /data
30. File System Type: Select vfat
31. Size (MB): Enter 2110 (all free space available)
32. Click OK
33. Click Next
34. Click The GRUB boot loader will be installed on /devsda
35. Click Next 36. Check Other
37. Click Edit button
38. Enter "Microsoft Windows XP"
39. Click OK
Time Zone: Please click into the map to choose a region or:
40. Select Asia/Karachi
41. Click Next
The root account is used for administering the system. Enter a password for the
root user.
42. Enter Root Password: 123456 (password must be minimum 6 character long)
43. Confirm: 123456
44. Click Next
Custom
Installation
45. Click Customize now
46. Click Next
47. Select Desktop Environments
48. Select GNOME Desktop Environment (31 out of 36 optional packages
are installed. To install all the 36 options)
49. Click Optional packages button
Packages in GNOME Desktop Environment. Please choose the packages
which you would like to have installed.
50. Check all uncheck options one by one
51. Click Close button ( now all the 36 packages are installed)
52. Check KDE (K Desktop Environment) (6 out of 7 optional packages are
installed. To install all the 7 options):
53. Click Optional packages button
54. Check all uncheck options one by one
55. Click Close button
(Similarly select main categories from left panel and installed its optional
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packages that you want to install one by one.)

56. Click Next
To begin installation of Red hat Enterprise Linux Server:
57. Click Next
The software we have selected to install will require the following CDs:
a. Red hat Enterprise Linux
Server 5 CD # 1 b. Red hat
Enterprise Linux Server 5 CD # 2
c. Red hat Enterprise Linux
Server 5 CD # 3 d. Red hat
Enterprise Linux Server 5 CD # 4
e. Red hat Enterprise Linux
Server 5 CD # 5
58. Click Continue button (Starting install process. This may take several minute.

History of Linux
Unix
The UNIX operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&T's Bell
Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McElroy,
and Joe Ossanna. It was first released in 1971 and was initially entirely written in
assembly language, a common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in
1973, UNIX was re-written in the programming language C by Dennis Ritchie (with
exceptions to the kernel and I/O). The availability of an operating system written in a
high-level language allowed easier portability to different computer platforms. With a
legal glitch forcing AT&T to license the operating system's source code to anyone who
asked, UNIX quickly grew and became widely adopted by academic institutions and
businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs. Free of the legal glitch requiring
free licensing, Bell Labs began selling UNIX as proprietary product.
GNU
The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a
"complete Unix-compatible software system" composed entirely of free software. Work
began in 1984. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation and wrote
the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the
programs required in an operating system (such as libraries, compilers, text editors,
a UNIX shell, and a windowing system) were completed, although low-level elements
such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus
Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would
not have decided to write his own.
BSD
Although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD,
from whichNetBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Linus Torvalds has
said that if 386BSD had been available at the time, he probably would not have created
Linux.
MINIX
MINIX is an inexpensive minimal Unix-like operating system, designed for education in
computer science, written by Andrew S. Tanenbaum. Starting with version in 2005,
MINIX has become free and redesigned for "serious" use.
In 1991 while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious about
operating systems and frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which limited it to
educational use only. He began to work on his own operating system which eventually
became the Linux kernel.
Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX, and applications written
for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later Linux matured and further Linux development
took place on Linux systems. GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components,
because it was advantageous to use the freely available code from the GNU project with
the fledgling operating system. (Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be reused in
other projects as long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license.)
Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial
redistribution, to the GNU GPL. Developers worked to integrate GNU components with
Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.
Ubuntu, a popular Linux distribution
Today, Linux systems are used in every domain, from embedded systems to
supercomputers, and have secured a place in server installations often using the
popular LAMP application stack. Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise
desktops has been growing. They have also gained popularity with various local and
national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for
Linux. News of the Russian military creating its own Linux distribution has also
surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project. The Indian state of Kerala has
gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their
computers. China uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for
its Loongsonprocessor family to achieve technology independence. In Spain some

regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in
education and official institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in
Andalusia. Portugal is also using its own Linux distribution Caixa Mágica, used in the
Magalhães netbook and the e-escolar government program. France and Germany have
also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.
User interface
Users operate a Linux-based system through a command line interface (CLI),
a graphical user interface (GUI), or through controls attached to the associated
hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default
mode is usually a graphical user interface, by which the CLI is available
through terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console. Most low-level
Linux components, including the GNU userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is
particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very
simple inter-process communication. A graphical terminal emulator program is often
used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop. A Linux system typically implements a CLI
by a shell, which is also the traditional way of interacting with a UNIX system. A Linux
distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface.
On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the extensive desktop
environments KDE Plasma Desktop, GNOME, and Xfce; though a variety of additional
user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window System,
often simply called "X". It provides network transparency and permits a graphical
application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact
with the application.
Other GUIs may be classified as simple X window managers, such
as FVWM, Enlightenment, and Window Maker, which provide aminimalist functionality
with respect to the desktop environments. A window manager provides a means to
control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts
with the X Window System. The desktop environments include window managers as part
of their standard installations (Mutter for GNOME, KWin for KDE, Xfwm for Xfce as of
January 2012) although users may choose to use a different window manager if preferred.

Linux's directory structure

As you may have noticed, Linux organizes its files differently from Windows. First the
directory structure may seem un logical and strange and you have no idea where all the
programs, icons, config files, and others are. This tuXfile will take you to a guided tour
through the Linux file system. This is by no means a complete list of all the directories on
Linux, but it shows you the most interesting places in your file system.
</>
The root directory. The starting point of your directory structure. This is where the Linux
system begins. Every other file and directory on your system is under the root directory.
Usually the root directory contains only subdirectories, so it's a bad idea to store single
files directly under root.
Don't confuse the root directory with the root user account, root password (which
obviously is the root user's password) or root user's home directory.
< /boot >
As the name suggests, this is the place where Linux keeps information that it needs when
booting up. For example, this is where the Linux kernel is kept. If you list the contents of
/boot, you'll see a file called vmlinuz - that's the kernel.
< /etc >
The configuration files for the Linux system. Most of these files are text files and can be
edited by hand. Some interesting stuff in this directory:
/etc/inittab
A text file that describes what processes are started at system bootup and during normal
operation. For example, here you can determine if you want the X Window System to
start automatically at bootup, and configure what happens when a user presses
Ctrl+Alt+Del.

/etc/fstab
this file contains descriptive information about the various file systems and their mount
points, like floppies, cdroms, and so on.
/etc/passwd
A file that contains various pieces of information for each user account. This is where the
users are defined.
< /bin, /usr/bin >
These two directories contain a lot of programs (binaries, hence the directory's name) for
the system. The /bin directory contains the most important programs that the system
needs to operate, such as the shells, ls, grep, and other essential things. /usr/bin in turn
contains applications for the system's users. However, in some cases it really doesn't
make much difference if you put the program in /bin or /usr/bin.
< /sbin, /usr/sbin >
Most system administration programs are stored in these directories. In many cases you
must run these programs as the root user.
< /usr >
This directory contains user applications and a variety of other things for them, like their
source codes, and pictures, docs, or config files they use. /usr is the largest directory on a
Linux system, and some people like to have it on a separate partition. Some interesting
stuff in /usr:
/usr/doc
Documentation for the user apps, in many file formats.
/usr/share
Config files and graphics for many user apps.
/usr/src
Source code files for the system's software, including the Linux kernel.
/usr/include
Header files for the C compiler. The header files define structures and constants that are
needed for building most standard programs. A subdirectory under /usr/include contains
headers for the C++ compiler.
/usr/X11R6
The X Window System and things for it. The subdirectories under /usr/X11R6 may
contain some X binaries themselves, as well as documentation, header files, config files,
icons, sounds, and other things related to the graphical programs.
< /usr/local >
This is where you install apps and other files for use on the local machine. If your
machine is a part of a network, the /usr directory may physically be on another machine
and can be shared by many networked Linux workstations. On this kind of a network, the
/usr/local directory contains only stuff that is not supposed to be used on many machines
and is intended for use at the local machine only.
Most likely your machine isn't a part of a network like this, but it doesn't mean that
/usr/local is useless. If you find interesting apps that aren't officially a part of your distro,
you should install them in /usr/local. For example, if the app would normally go to
/usr/bin but it isn't a part of your distro, you should install it in /usr/local/bin instead.
When you keep your own programs away from the programs that are included in your
distro, you'll avoid confusion and keep things nice and clean.
< /lib >
The shared libraries for programs that are dynamically linked. The shared libraries are
similar to DLL's on Wingbows.

< /home >

This is where users keep their personal files. Every user has their own directory under
/home, and usually it's the only place where normal users are allowed to write files. You
can configure a Linux system so that normal users can't even list the contents of other
users' home directories. This means that if your family members have their own user

accounts on your Linux system, they won't see all the w4r3z you keep in your home
directory. ;-)
< /root >
The superuser's (root's) home directory. Don't confuse this with the root directory (/) of a
Linux system.
< /var >
This directory contains variable data that changes constantly when the system is running.
Some interesting subdirectories:
/var/log
A directory that contains system log files. They're updated when the system runs, and
checking them out can give you valuable info about the health of your system. If
something in your system suddenly goes wrong, the log files may contain some info
about the situation.
/var/mail
Incoming and outgoing mail is stored in this directory.
/var/spool
This directory holds files that are queued for some process, like printing.
< /tmp >
Programs can write their temporary files here.
< /dev >
The devices that are available to a Linux system. Remember that in Linux, devices are
treated like files and you can read and write devices like they were files. For example,
/dev/fd0 is your first floppy drive, /dev/cdrom is your CD drive, /dev/hda is the first IDE
hard drive, and so on. All the devices that a Linux kernel can understand are located
under /dev, and that's why it contains hundreds of entries.
< /mnt >
This directory is used for mount points. The different physical storage devices (like the
hard disk drives, floppies, CD-ROM's) must be attached to some directory in the file
system tree before they can be accessed. This attaching is called mounting, and the
directory where the device is attached is called the mount point.

The /mnt directory contains mount points for different devices, like /mnt/floppy for the
floppy drive, /mnt/cdrom for the CD-ROM, and so on. However, you're not forced to use
the /mnt directory for this purpose, you can use whatever directory you wish. Actually in
some distros, like Debian and SuSE, the default is to use /floppy and /cdrom as mount
points instead of directories under /mnt.
< /proc >
This is a special directory. Well, actually /proc is just a virtual directory, because it
doesn't exist at all! It contains some info about the kernel itself. There's a bunch of
numbered entries that correspond to all processes running on the system, and there are
also named entries that permit access to the current configuration of the system. Many of
these entries can be viewed.
< /lost+found >
Here Linux keeps the files that it restores after a system crash or when a partition hasn't
been uncounted before a system shutdown. This way you can recover files that would
otherwise have been lost.
Shell
The Linux/Unix shell refers to a special program that allows you to interact with it by
entering certain commands from the keyboard; the shell will execute the commands and
display its output on the monitor. The environment of interaction is text-based (unlike the
GUI-based interaction we have been using in the previous chapters) and since it is
command-oriented this type of interface is termed Command Line interface or CLI.
Before the advent of GUI-based computing environments, the CLI was the only way that
one can interact and access a computer system.
Up until now, there was never a need to type commands into a shell; and with the
modernization and creation of a lot of newer GUI-based tools, the shell is becoming
increasingly un-required to perform many tasks. But that said, the shell is a very powerful
Pre pared by: Sardar Azeem(MBA(B&F) Computer HW And Network Engineer: Pict
Computer Center Link Road Abbottabad.
Email: [email protected]/Website:www.pictcomputeratd.com
SARDAR AZEEM PICT(77 | P a g e ) 8/11/2012

place, and a lot is achieved through it. A lot of the front-end GUI methods of doing things
have similar ways and means to get done with using the shell. Professional Linux and
UNIX users find the shell very powerful, and an introduction to at least the basic shell
usage is useful.
Linux Commands
1. # cal - To display current month calendar.
2. # cal 08 2010 - To display calendar of August 2010
3. # date - To display current system date and time
4. # clear - To clear the terminal screen
5. # dir - To list directory contents
6. # ls - To list directory contents with color
7. # ls –l - To display properties of file and folders etc
8. # ls –a - To display all files including hides files.
In linux if a file or folder starts with dot "." it means it is a hidden file. To hide a file
or folder just rename file and place dot "." in front of it.

9 # ls –l Desktop - To display Desktop folder property

10 # ls –lh - To show file and folder size in MB and GB.
11 # whatis ls - To know more about command ls.
12 # info cal - To know command ls in details.
13 # ls --help - To display all options of ls command.
14. ls –help | more - To display page by page use pipe sign. To quit
press q. to move line by line press enter button. To
move page by page press space bar.
15 # man ls - To display manual of ls command.
16 # cd .. - CD space double dot to exit directory one by one.
- There is no extension of system files in linux
- Extensions are replaced with color
- Black / White - Text files
- Blue - Folder
- Green - Executable or Commands
- Red - Backup, Compress and RPM (.exe)
- Light Blue - Shortcuts or link file
- Pink - Link
There are 6 locations of commands
1- /bin
2- /usr/bin
3- /usr/local/bin
4- /sbin
5- /user/sbin
6- /user/local/sbin Copy files from source to destination
17 Copy File
# ls /user/bin | more Syntax: cp source destination
[root@localhost ~]# cp corvit /opt - Copy
corvit file from root to opt folder
18 # ls /opt - To confirm file copied
19 # pwd - Print name of current / working directory i.e./root.

20 # cp /etc/fstab /opt - Copy fstab file from etc folder to opt

Eg destination folder from root.
# cp - Copy from etc folder to root. "." means current
/etc/named.caching.nameserve.conf folder in which we are present.
21 Copy Folder To copy folder/directory from source to destination.
Syntax: cp –r source destination
- We use –r to copy folder
# cp –r ISB /opt

22 Cut File/Folder Move / Cut (rename)

files or folder from
source to destination.
Syntax: mv source
destination
23 Rename File or Folder #Tomv ks.cfg /opt - Cut ks.cfg file from
root to opt folder.
rename
# mv text /opt - Cut text folder from
file
rootor
to opt folder.
folder we
use mv
command.
Syntax:
mv
24 Delete File Remove
oldname files or directories
Syntax:
newname rm filename
## rm
mv fstab
named.caching-nameserver.conf named.conf
rm: remove regular file ‗fstab‘? y - Press Y to confirm
deletion
# rm /opt/fstab - To remove file in opt
25 Delete Folder folder
# rm –rfrom
ISB root

26 Delete Empty Folder Syntax: rmdir foldername

# rmdir /opt/ISB - To delete empty folder ISB in
opt
Make Directory / Create Folder mkdir -
Make directories Syntax: mkdir foldername
# mkdir text

27 Delete all files and folders (del # rm –rf name - To delete all files and folders –rf
tree) means forcefully.

28 # fdisk –l - Partition table manipulator for Linux

- To check how many partitions are in use.

29 # df –h - Report file system disk space usage.

30 cat Syntax
Allows you to look, modify or cat filename [-n] [-b] [-u] [-s] [-v]
combine a file. Examples
cat file1.txt file2.txt > file3.txt
Reads file1.txt and file2.txt and combines those files to
make file3.txt.

31 AT Syntax
Schedules a command to be ran at at [-c | -k | -s] [-f filename] [-q queuename] [-m] -t time
a particular time, such as a print [date] [-l] [-r]
job late at night. Examples
at -m 01:35 < atjob
Run the commands listed in the 'atjob' file at 1:35AM,
in addition all output that is generated from job mail to
the user running the task. When this command has
been successfully enter you should receive a prompt
similar to the below example.
commands will be executed using /bin/csh
job 1072250520.a at Wed Dec 24 00:22:00 2003
at -l
This command will list each of the scheduled jobs as
seen below.
1072250520.a Wed Dec 24 00:22:00 2003
at -r 1072250520.a
Deletes the job just created.
atrm 23
Deletes job 23.
If you wish to create a job that is repeated you could
modify the file that executes the commands with
another command that recreates the job or better yet
use the crontab command

32 GREP Syntax
grep command to suppress normal grep -c "word" file
output and display a count of grep -c "string" file
matching lines for each input file. Example
grep -c 'var' /etc/passwd

33  zip is a compression and file zip examples:

packaging utility for Linux and Creates the archive data.zip and puts all the files in the
Unix (including FreeBSD, current directory in it in compressed form
Solaris etc). $ zip data *
No need to add .zip extension or suffix as it is added
 unzip will list, test, or extract automatically by zip command.
files from a ZIP archive files. To zip up an entire directory (including all
subdirectories), the command:
$ zip -r data *
unzip example:
To use unzip to extract all files of the archive pics.zip
into the current directory & subdirectories:
$ unzip pics.zip

34 Chmod Syntax
Changes the permission of a file. chmod [OPTION]... MODE[,MODE]... FILE...
Permissions chmod [OPTION]... OCTAL-MODE FILE...
u - User who owns the file. chmod [OPTION]... --reference=RFILE FILE...
g - Group that owns the file. Examples
o - Other. The above numeric permissions can be added to set a
a - All. certain permission, for example, a common HTML file
r - Read the file. on a Unix server to be only viewed over the Internet
w - Write or edit the file. would be:
x - Execute or run the file as a chmod 644 file.htm
program. This gives the file read/write by the owner and only
Numeric Permissions: read by everyone else (-rw-r--r--).
CHMOD can also to attributed by Files such as scripts that need to be executed need
using Numeric Permissions: more permissions. Below is another example of a
400 read by owner common permission given to scripts.
040 read by group chmod 755 file.cgi
004 read by anybody (other) This would be the following
200 write by owner 400+040+004+200+100+010+001 = 755 where you
020 write by group are giving all the rights except the capability for
002 write by anybody anyone to write to the file.cgi file(-rwxr-xr-x).
100 execute by owner chmod 666 file.txt
010 execute by group Finally, another common CHMOD permission is 666,
001 execute by anybody as shown below, which is read and write by everyone.

Pre pared by: Sardar Azeem(MBA(B&F) Computer HW And Network Engineer: Pict
Computer Center Link Road Abbottabad.
Email: [email protected]/Website:www.pictcomputeratd.com

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