Flight rules for git

What are “flight rules”?

A guide for astronauts (now, programmers using git) about what to do when
things go wrong.
Flight Rules are the hard-earned body of knowledge recorded in
manuals that list, step-by-step, what to do if X occurs, and why.
Essentially, they are extremely detailed, scenario-specific standard
operating procedures. […]
NASA has been capturing our missteps, disasters and solutions since
the early 1960s, when Mercury-era ground teams first started gather-
ing “lessons learned” into a compendium that now lists thousands of
problematic situations, from engine failure to busted hatch handles
to computer glitches, and their solutions.
— Chris Hadfield, An Astronaut’s Guide to Life.

Conventions for this document

For clarity’s sake all examples in this document use a customized bash prompt
in order to indicate the current branch and whether or not there are staged
changes. The branch is enclosed in parentheses, and a * next to the branch
name indicates staged changes.
Table of Contents generated with DocToc
• Editing Commits
– What did I just commit?
– I wrote the wrong thing in a commit message
– I committed with the wrong name and email configured
– I want to remove a file from a commit
– I want to delete or remove my last commit
– Delete/remove arbitrary commit
– I tried to push my amended commit to a remote, but I got an error
message
– I accidentally did a hard reset, and I want my changes back
• Staging
– I need to add staged changes to the previous commit
– I want to stage part of a new file, but not the whole file
– I want to add changes in one file to two different commits
• Unstaged Edits
– I want to move my unstaged edits to a new branch
– I want to move my unstaged edits to a different, existing branch
– I want to discard my local, uncommitted changes
• Branches

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 – I pulled from/into the wrong branch
– I want to discard local commits so my branch is the same as one on
the server
– I committed to master instead of a new branch
– I made several commits on a single branch that should be on different
branches
– I want to delete local branches that were deleted upstream
– I accidentally deleted my branch
– I want to delete a branch
• Rebasing and Merging
– I rebased, but I don’t want to force push.
– I need to combine commits
– Safe merging strategy
– I need to merge a branch into a single commit
– I want to combine only unpushed commits
– Check if all commits on a branch are merged
– Possible issues with interactive rebases
– The rebase editing screen says ‘noop’
– There were conflicts
• Miscellaneous Objects
– Clone all submodules
– Delete tag
– Recover a deleted tag
– Deleted Patch
• Tracking Files
– I want to change a file name’s capitalization, without changing the
contents of the file.
– I want to remove a file from git but keep the file
• Configuration
– I want to add aliases for some git commands
– I want to cache a username and password for a repository
• I’ve no idea what I did wrong
• Other Resources
• Books
• Tutorials
• Scripts and Tools
• GUI Clients

Editing Commits

### What did I just commit?

Let’s say that you just blindly committed changes with git commit -a and
you’re not sure what the actual content of the commit you just made was. You
can show the latest commit on your current HEAD with:

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(master)$ git show
or
$ git log -n1 -p
### I wrote the wrong thing in a commit message
If you wrote the wrong thing and the commit has not yet been pushed, you can
do the following to change the commit message:
$ git commit --amend
You can specify the commit message inline if you want:
$ git commit --amend -m 'xxxxxxx'
If you have already pushed the message, you can amend the commit and force
push, but this is not recommended.
### I committed with the wrong name and email configured
If it’s a single commit, amend it
$ git commit --amend --author "New Authorname <[email protected]>"
If you need to change all of history, see the man page for ‘git filter-branch’.
### I want to remove a file from a commit
In order to remove a file from a commit, do the following:
$ git checkout HEAD^ myfile
$ git add -A
$ git commit --amend
This is particularly useful when you have an open patch and you have commited
an unnecessary file, and need to force push to update the patch on a remote.
### I want to delete or remove my last commit
If you need to delete pushed commits, you can use the following. However, it
will irreversabily change your history, and mess up the history of anyone else
who had already pulled from the repository. In short, if you’re not sure, you
should never do this, ever.
$ git reset HEAD^ --hard
$ git push -f [remote] [branch]
If you haven’t pushed, to reset Git to the state it was in before you made your
last commit (while keeping your staged changes):
(my-branch*)$ git reset --soft HEAD@{1}
This only works if you haven’t pushed. If you have pushed, the only truly safe
thing to do is git revert SHAofBadCommit. That will create a new commit
that undoes all the previous commit’s changes. Or, if the branched you pushed

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to is rebase-safe (ie. other devs aren’t expected to pull from it), you can just
use git push -f. For more, see the above section.
### Delete/remove arbitrary commit
The same warning applies as above. Never do this if possible.
$ git rebase --onto SHA1_OF_BAD_COMMIT^ SHA1_OF_BAD_COMMIT
$ git push -f [remote] [branch]
Or do an interactive rebase and remove the line(s) correspoding to commit(s)
you want to see removed.
### I tried to push my amended commit to a remote, but I got an error
message
To https://github.com/yourusername/repo.git
! [rejected] mybranch -> mybranch (non-fast-forward)
error: failed to push some refs to 'https://github.com/tanay1337/webmaker.org.git'
hint: Updates were rejected because the tip of your current branch is behind
hint: its remote counterpart. Integrate the remote changes (e.g.
hint: 'git pull ...') before pushing again.
hint: See the 'Note about fast-forwards' in 'git push --help' for details.
Note that, as with rebasing (see below), amending replaces the old commit
with a new one, so you must force push (-f) your changes if you have already
pushed the pre-amended commit to your remote. Be careful when you do this
– always make sure you specify a branch!
(my-branch)$ git push origin mybranch -f
In general, avoid force pushing. It is best to create and push a new commit
rather than force-pushing the amended commit as it has will cause conflicts in
the source history for any other developer who has interacted with the branch
in question or any child branches.
### I accidentally did a hard reset, and I want my changes back
If you accidentally do git reset --hard, you can normally still get your commit
back, as git keeps a log of everything for a few days.
(master)$ git reflog
You’ll see a list of your past commits, and a commit for the reset. Choose the
SHA of the commit you want to return to, and reset again:
(master)$ git reset --hard SHA1234
And you should be good to go.

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Staging

### I need to add staged changes to the previous commit

(my-branch*)$ git commit --amend
### I want to stage part of a new file, but not the whole file
Normally, if you want to stage part of a file, you run this:
$ git add --patch filename.x
-p will work for short. This will open interactive mode. You would be able to
use the s option to split the commit - however, if the file is new, you will not
have this option. To add a new file, do this:
$ git add -N filename.x
Then, you will need to use the e option to manually choose which lines to
add. Running git diff --cached will show you which lines you have staged
compared to which are still saved locally.
### I want to add changes in one file to two different commits
git add will add the entire file to a commit. git add -p will allow to interac-
tively select which changes you want to add.

Unstaged Edits

### I want to move my unstaged edits to a new branch

$ git checkout -b my-branch
### I want to move my unstaged edits to a different, existing branch
$ git stash
$ git checkout my-branch
$ git stash pop
### I want to discard my local, uncommitted changes
If you want to only reset to some commit between origin and your local, you
can do this:
# one commit
(my-branch)$ git reset --hard HEAD^
# two commits
(my-branch)$ git reset --hard HEAD^^
# four commits
(my-branch)$ git reset --hard HEAD~4
# or
(master)$ git checkout -f

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To reset only a specific file, you can use that the filename as the argument:
$ git reset filename

Branches

### I pulled from/into the wrong branch

This is another chance to use git reflog to see where your HEAD pointed
before the bad pull.
(master)$ git reflog
ab7555f HEAD@{0}: pull origin wrong-branch: Fast-forward
c5bc55a HEAD@{1}: checkout: checkout message goes here
Simply reset your branch back to the desired commit:
$ git reset --hard c5bc55a
Done.
### I want to discard local commits so my branch is the same as one on the
server
Confirm that you haven’t pushed your changes to the server.
git status should show how many commits you are ahead of origin:
(my-branch)$ git status
# On branch my-branch
# Your branch is ahead of 'origin/my-branch' by 2 commits.
# (use "git push" to publish your local commits)
#
One way of reseting to match origin (to have the same as what is on the remote)
is to do this:
(master)$ git reset --hard origin/my-branch
### I committed to master instead of a new branch
Create the new branch while remaining on master:
(master)$ git checkout -b my-branch
(my-branch)$ git checkout master
(master)$
Reset the branch master to the previous commit:
(master)$ git reset --hard HEAD^
HEADˆ is short for HEADˆ1. You can reset further through the generations by
specifying which HEAD to set to.

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Alternatively, if you don’t want to use HEADˆ, find out what the commit hash
you want to set your master branch to (git log should do the trick). Then
reset to that hash. git push will make sure that this change is reflected on
your remote.
For example, if the hash of the commit that your master branch is supposed to
be at is a13b85e:
(master)$ git reset --hard a13b85e
HEAD is now at a13b85e
Checkout the new branch to continue working:
(master)$ git checkout my-branch
### I made several commits on a single branch that should be on different
branches
Say you are on your master branch. Running git log, you see you have made
two commits:
(master)$ git log

commit e3851e817c451cc36f2e6f3049db528415e3c114
Author: Alex Lee <[email protected]>
Date: Tue Jul 22 15:39:27 2014 -0400

Bug #21 - Added CSRF protection

commit 5ea51731d150f7ddc4a365437931cd8be3bf3131
Author: Alex Lee <[email protected]>
Date: Tue Jul 22 15:39:12 2014 -0400

Bug #14 - Fixed spacing on title

commit a13b85e984171c6e2a1729bb061994525f626d14
Author: Aki Rose <[email protected]>
Date: Tue Jul 21 01:12:48 2014 -0400

First commit
Let’s take note of our commit hashes for each bug (e3851e8 for #21, 5ea5173
for #14).
First, let’s reset our master branch to the correct commit (a13b85e):
(master)$ git reset --hard a13b85e
HEAD is now at a13b85e
Now, we can create a fresh branch for our bug #21 branch:

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(master)$ git checkout -b 21
(21)$
Now, let’s cherry-pick the commit for bug #21 on top of our branch. That
means we will be applying that commit, and only that commit, directly on top
of whatever our head is at.
(21)$ git cherry-pick e3851e8
At this point, there is a possibility there might be conflicts. See the There
were conflicts section in the interactive rebasing section above for how to
resolve conflicts.
Now let’s create a new branch for bug #14, also based on master
(21)$ git checkout master
(master)$ git checkout -b 14
(14)$
And finally, let’s cherry-pick the commit for bug #14:
(14)$ git cherry-pick 5ea5173
### I want to delete local branches that were deleted upstream Once you
merge a pull request on github, it gives you the option to delete the merged
branch in your fork. If you aren’t planning to keep working on the branch, it’s
cleaner to delete the local copies of the branch so you don’t end up cluttering
up your working checkout with a lot of stale branches.
$ git fetch -p
### I accidentally deleted my branch
If you’re regularly pushing to remote, you should be safe most of the time. But
still sometimes you may end up deleting your branches. Let’s say we create a
branch and create a new file:
(master)$ git checkout -b my-branch
(my-branch)$ git branch
(my-branch)$ touch foo.txt
(my-branch)$ ls
README.md foo.txt
Let’s add it and commit.
(my-branch)$ git add .
(my-branch)$ git commit -m 'foo.txt added'
(my-branch)$ foo.txt added
1 files changed, 1 insertions(+)
create mode 100644 foo.txt
(my-branch)$ git log

commit 4e3cd85a670ced7cc17a2b5d8d3d809ac88d5012

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Author: siemiatj <[email protected]>
Date: Wed Jul 30 00:34:10 2014 +0200

foo.txt added

commit 69204cdf0acbab201619d95ad8295928e7f411d5
Author: Kate Hudson <[email protected]>
Date: Tue Jul 29 13:14:46 2014 -0400

Fixes #6: Force pushing after amending commits

Now we’re switching back to master and ‘accidentally’ removing our branch.
(my-branch)$ git checkout master
Switched to branch 'master'
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
(master)$ git branch -D my-branch
Deleted branch my-branch (was 4e3cd85).
(master)$ echo oh noes, deleted my branch!
oh noes, deleted my branch!
At this point you should get familiar with ‘reflog’, an upgraded logger. It stores
the history of all the action in the repo.
(master)$ git reflog
69204cd HEAD@{0}: checkout: moving from my-branch to master
4e3cd85 HEAD@{1}: commit: foo.txt added
69204cd HEAD@{2}: checkout: moving from master to my-branch
As you can see we have commit hash from our deleted branch. Let’s see if we
can restore our deleted branch.
(master)$ git checkout -b my-branch-help
Switched to a new branch 'my-branch-help'
(my-branch-help)$ git reset --hard 4e3cd85
HEAD is now at 4e3cd85 foo.txt added
(my-branch-help)$ ls
README.md foo.txt
Voila! We got our removed file back. Git reflog is also useful when rebasing
goes terribly wrong.
### I want to delete a branch
To delete a remote branch:
(master)$ git push origin --delete my-branch
You can also do:
(master)$ git push origin :my-branch

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To delete a local branch:
(master)$ git branch -D my-branch

Rebasing and Merging

### I rebased, but I don’t want to force push.

Unfortunately, you have to force push, if you want those changes to be reflected
on the remote branch. This is because you have fast forwarded your commit,
and changed git history. The remote branch won’t accept changes unless you
force push. This is one of the main reasons many people use a merge workflow,
instead of a rebasing workflow - large teams can get into trouble with developers
force pushing. Use this with caution. A safer way to use rebase is not to reflect
your changes on the remote branch at all, and instead to do the following:
(master)$ git checkout my-branch
(my-branch)$ git rebase -i master
(my-branch)$ git checkout master
(master)$ git merge --ff-only my-branch
For more, see this SO thread.
### I need to combine commits
Let’s suppose you are working in a branch that is/will become a pull-request
against master. In the simplest case when all you want to do is to combine all
commits into a single one and you don’t care about commit timestamps, you
can reset and recommit. Make sure the master branch is up to date and all your
changes committed, then:
(my-branch)$ git reset --soft master
(my-branch)$ git commit -am "New awesome feature"
If you want more control, and also to preserve timestamps, you need to do
something called an interactive rebase:
(my-branch)$ git rebase -i master
If you aren’t working against another branch you’ll have to rebase relative to
your HEAD. If you want to squash the last 2 commits, for example, you’ll have
to rebase against HEAD~2. For the last 3, HEAD~3, etc.
(master)$ git rebase -i HEAD~2
After you run the interactive rebase command, you will see something like this
in your text editor:
pick a9c8a1d Some refactoring
pick 01b2fd8 New awesome feature
pick b729ad5 fixup

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pick e3851e8 another fix

# Rebase 8074d12..b729ad5 onto 8074d12

#
# Commands:
# p, pick = use commit
# r, reword = use commit, but edit the commit message
# e, edit = use commit, but stop for amending
# s, squash = use commit, but meld into previous commit
# f, fixup = like "squash", but discard this commit's log message
# x, exec = run command (the rest of the line) using shell
#
# These lines can be re-ordered; they are executed from top to bottom.
#
# If you remove a line here THAT COMMIT WILL BE LOST.
#
# However, if you remove everything, the rebase will be aborted.
#
# Note that empty commits are commented out
All the lines beginning with a # are comments, they won’t affect your rebase.
Then you replace pick commands with any in the list above, and you can also
remove commits by removing corresponding lines.
For example, if you want to leave the oldest (first) commit alone and
combine all the following commits with the second oldest, you should
edit the letter next to each commit except the first and the second to say f:
pick a9c8a1d Some refactoring
pick 01b2fd8 New awesome feature
f b729ad5 fixup
f e3851e8 another fix
If you want to combine these commits and rename the commit, you should
additionally add an r next to the second commit or simply use s instead of f:
pick a9c8a1d Some refactoring
pick 01b2fd8 New awesome feature
s b729ad5 fixup
s e3851e8 another fix
You can then rename the commit in the next text prompt that pops up.
Newer, awesomer features

# Please enter the commit message for your changes. Lines starting
# with '#' will be ignored, and an empty message aborts the commit.
# rebase in progress; onto 8074d12
# You are currently editing a commit while rebasing branch 'master' on '8074d12'.

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#
# Changes to be committed:
# modified: README.md
#
If everything is successful, you should see something like this:
(master)$ Successfully rebased and updated refs/heads/master.

Safe merging strategy

--no-commit performs the merge but pretends the merge failed and does not
autocommit, giving the user a chance to inspect and further tweak the merge
result before committing. no-ff maintains evidence that a feature branch once
existed, keeping project history consistent.
(master)$ git merge --no-ff --no-commit my-branch

I need to merge a branch into a single commit

(master)$ git merge --squash my-branch
#### I want to combine only unpushed commits
Sometimes you have several work in progress commits that you want to combine
before you push them upstream. You don’t want to accidentally combine any
commits that have already been pushed upstream because someone else may
have already made commits that reference them.
(master)$ git rebase -i @{u}
This will do an interactive rebase that lists only the commits that you haven’t
already pushed, so it will be safe to reorder/fix/squash anything in the list.
### Check if all commits on a branch are merged
To check if all commits on a branch are merged into another branch, you should
diff between the heads (or any commits) of those branches:
(master)$ git log --graph --left-right --cherry-pick --oneline HEAD...feature/120-on-scroll
This will tell you if any commits are in one but not the other, and will give you
a list of any nonshared between the branches. Another option is to do this:
(master)$ git log master ^feature/120-on-scroll --no-merges

Possible issues with interactive rebases

#### The rebase editing screen says ‘noop’

If you’re seeing this:

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noop
That means you are trying to rebase against a branch that is at an identical
commit, or is ahead of your current branch. You can try:
• making sure your master branch is where it should be
• rebase against HEAD~2 or earlier instead
#### There were conflicts
If you are unable to successfully complete the rebase, you may have to resolve
conflicts.
First run git status to see which files have conflicts in them:
(my-branch)$ git status
On branch my-branch
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)

modified: README.md
In this example, README.md has conflicts. Open that file and look for the fol-
lowing:
<<<<<<< HEAD
some code
=========
some code
>>>>>>> new-commit
You will need to resolve the differences between the code that was added in your
new commit (in the example, everything from the middle line to new-commit)
and your HEAD.
Sometimes these merges are complicated and you should use a visual diff editor:
(master*)$ git mergetool -t opendiff
After you have resolved all conflicts and tested your code, git add the files you
have changed, and then continue the rebase with git rebase --continue
(my-branch)$ git add README.md
(my-branch)$ git rebase --continue
If after resolving all the conflicts you end up with an identical tree to what it
was before the commit, you need to git rebase --skip instead.
If at any time you want to stop the entire rebase and go back to the original
state of your branch, you can do so:
(my-branch)$ git rebase --abort

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## Miscellaneous Objects
### Clone all submodules
$ git clone --recursive git://github.com/foo/bar.git
If already cloned:
$ git submodule update --init --recursive
### Delete tag
$ git tag -d <tag_name>
$ git push <remote> :refs/tags/<tag_name>
### Recover a deleted tag
If you want to recover a tag that was already deleted, you can do so by following
these steps: First, you need to find the unreachable tag:
$ git fsck --unreachable | grep tag
Make a note of the tag’s hash. Then, restore the deleted tag with following,
making use of git’s update-ref:
$ git update-ref refs/tags/<tag_name> <hash>
Your tag should now have been restored.
### Deleted Patch
If someone has sent you a pull request on GitHub, but then deleted their original
fork, you will be unable to clone their commits or to use git am. In such cases,
it is best to manually look at their commits and copy them into a new branch
on your local. Then, commit.
After commiting, change the author of the previous commit. To do this, see
how to change author. Then, apply whatever changes needed on to, and make
a new pull request.

Tracking Files

### I want to change a file name’s capitalization, without changing the con-
tents of the file.
(master)$ git mv --force myfile MyFile
### I want to remove a file from git but keep the file
(master)$ git rm --cached log.txt

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Configuration

### I want to add aliases for some git commands

On OS X and Linux, your git configuration file is stored in ~/.gitconfig. I’ve
added some example aliases I use as shortcuts (and some of my common typos)
in the [aliases] section as shown below:
[aliases]
a = add
amend = --amend
c = commit
ca = commit --amend
ci = commit -a
co = checkout
d = diff
dc = diff --changed
ds = diff --staged
f = fetch
loll = log --graph --decorate --pretty=oneline --abbrev-commit
m = merge
one = log --pretty=oneline
outstanding = rebase -i @{u}
s = status
unpushed = log @{u}
wc = whatchanged
wip = rebase -i @{u}
zap = fetch -p
### I want to cache a username and password for a repository
You might have a repository that requires authentication. In which case you
can cache a username and password so you don’t have to enter it on every push
/ pull. Credential helper can do this for you.
$ git config --global credential.helper cache
# Set git to use the credential memory cache
$ git config --global credential.helper 'cache --timeout=3600'
# Set the cache to timeout after 1 hour (setting is in seconds)
## I’ve no idea what I did wrong
So, you’re screwed - you reset something, or you merged the wrong branch,
or you force pushed and now you can’t find your commits. You know, at some
point, you were doing alright, and you want to go back to some state you were
at.
This is what git reflog is for. reflog keeps track of any changes to the tip
of a branch, even if that tip isn’t referenced by a branch or a tag. Basically,

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every time HEAD changes, a new entry is added to the reflog. This only works
for local repositories, sadly, and it only tracks movements (not changes to a file
that weren’t recorded anywhere, for instance).
(master)$ git reflog
0a2e358 HEAD@{0}: reset: moving to HEAD~2
0254ea7 HEAD@{1}: checkout: moving from 2.2 to master
c10f740 HEAD@{2}: checkout: moving from master to 2.2
The reflog above shows a checkout from master to the 2.2 branch and back.
From there, there’s a hard reset to an older commit. The latest activity is
represented at the top labeled HEAD@{0}.
If it turns out that you accidentially moved back, the reflog will contain the
commit master pointed to (0254ea7) before you accidentially dropped 2 com-
mits.
$ git reset --hard 0254ea7
Using git reset it is then possible to change master back to the commit it was
before. This provides a safety net in case history was accidentially changed.
(copied and edited from Source).

Other Resources

Books

• Pro Git - Scott Chacon’s excellent git book

Tutorials

• Getting solid at Git rebase vs. merge

• git-workflow - Aaron Meurer’s howto on using git to contribute to open
source repositories
• GitHub as a workflow - An interesting take on using GitHub as a workflow,
particularly with empty PRs

Scripts and Tools

• firstaidgit.io A searchable selection of the most frequently asked Git ques-

tions
• git-extra-commands - a collection of useful extra git scripts
• git-extras - GIT utilities – repo summary, repl, changelog population, au-
thor commit percentages and more

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 • git-tips - Small git tips
• git-fire - git-fire is a Git plugin that helps in the event of an emergency
by adding all current files, committing, and pushing to a new branch (to
prevent merge conflicts).

GUI Clients

• git-cola - another git client for Windows and OS X

• GitUp - A newish GUI that has some very opinionated ways of dealing
with git’s complications
• gitx-dev - another graphical git client for OS X
• Source Tree - a free graphical git client for Windows and OS X
• Tower - graphical git client for OS X (paid)

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