Microbiology

Current applications of nanotechnology

in dentistry: a review
Shaeesta Khaleelahmed Bhavikatti, MDS  n  Smiti Bhardwaj, BDS  n  M.L.V. Prabhuji, MDS

With the increasing demand for advances in diagnosis and treatment surface modifications. This review provides detailed insights about cur-
modalities, nanotechnology is being considered as a groundbreaking rent developments in the field of dentistry, and discusses potential future
and viable research subject. This technology, which deals with mat- uses of nanotechnology.
ter in nanodimensions, has widened our views of poorly understood Submitted: February 4, 2013
health issues and provided novel means of diagnosis and treatment. Revised: July 1, 2013
Researchers in the field of dentistry have explored the potential of Accepted: August 13, 2013
nanoparticles in existing therapeutic modalities with moderate success.
The key implementations in the field of dentistry include local drug Key words: nanotechnology, dentistry, diagnosis, drug
delivery agents, restorative materials, bone graft materials, and implant delivery systems, bone grafts, dental implants

T
he term nanotechnology is derived Nanotechnology involves the develop- quantum dots, fullerenes, liposomes, and
from the Greek word nanos, mean- ment of materials, devices, and systems nanocapsules. The top-down approach
ing dwarf. The Nobel Prize winning exhibiting properties that are different deals with the enhancement of existing
physicist, Richard P. Feynman, during his from those found on a larger scale. In the materials, where the existing structures
1959 Plenty of Room at the Bottom speech nanodimension range of 1-100 nm, the are contracted and miniaturized into the
to the American Physical Society, had lower limit is marked by the size of a hydro- nanorange with their molecules consecu-
first projected this dimension of discover- gen atom (0.25 nm) and the upper limit tively rearranged to achieve the desired
ies at a billionth meter scale.1 The term commences from a size where phenomena properties.8,9 Research in the medical
nanotechnology was introduced by Norio different from larger structures start appear- sector is directed toward the develop-
Taniguchi in 1974, when he referred to a ing. In layman’s terms, if a child’s marble is ment and application of nanodevices in
“production technique to get extra high compared to a nanometer, a meter would the sphere of diagnostics, drug delivery,
accuracy and ultra-fine dimensions.”2 appear as the earth’s diameter. and therapeutics.
Later in 1986, K. Eric Drexler contributed This novel scale of technology has The diagnostic discipline emphasizes
to its development by introducing the appealed to researchers of various fields the manufacture of new sensing devices,
concept of molecular nanotechnology including medicine and dentistry. An and the nanotization of existing devices,
in his 1986 publication, Engines of cre- overview of the general applications of to make them more compact and less
ation: the coming era of nanotechnology.3 nanotechnology will provide a better invasive. This includes the development
Applications in the field started in the understanding of the concept. However, of collection and analyzing platforms
1980s with the invention of the scanning this review will focus on the current for mass identification of diseases and
tunneling microscopes and the discovery applications of nanotechnology in their associated markers. Various in vivo
of carbon nanotubes and fullerenes.4-6 dentistry, and the novel materials and nanomeric diagnostic devices, which
However, major initiatives began at the techniques that have been developed can be easily introduced into the human
beginning of this century, thus ushering in using its principles for disease diagnosis, body, have been developed either de
the era of nanotechnology. prevention, rehabilitation, and pulp/ novo or as design alterations of existing
According to the National periodontal regeneration. devices. Once inside the vascular system,
Nanotechnology Initiative, a United States subsequent directions can be provided to
government research and development A brief insight into general the devices via specific surface targeting
program, nanotechnology involves the developments molecules that can identify the required
Current nanotechnological research falls tissue receptors. These proposed novelties
…research and technological development under 2 approaches. The bottoms-up are being researched and tested for any
at atomic, molecular, or macromolecular approach deals with the creation and secondary fallouts or disadvantages. A list
levels, in the length scale of approximately development of new ‘intelligent’ materials of diagnostic devices in Table 1 provides
1-100 nanometer (nm) range, with cre- or devices, wherein various processes are a brief introduction to their functioning
ation and use of structures, devices, and utilized to induce nanostructures to self- and application.10-13
systems that have novel properties and assemble at a desired scale and then orga- The in vitro systems act when a sample
functions as a result of their small and/or nize into higher macroscale structures.8,9 tissue or fluid has been harvested from
intermediate size; and ability to control or Various particles formulated at the the human system. The conventional
manipulate matter on the atomic scale.7 nanoscale include nanorods, nanotubes, in vitro diagnostic aids, such as mass

72 July/August 2014 General Dentistry www.agd.org

 Table 1. A brief description of nanotechnological in vivo diagnostic devices.10-13
Table 2. Drug delivery devices.4,6
Nanodevices Functioning mechanism and applications
Special sensor These are nanorobots, which can be inserted through the skin into the blood Nanotubes • First described by Iijima in 19916
nanobots vessels, where they check blood contents and warn of an abnormal variation, such • Sheets of graphene that can be
as hyperglycemia.10 rolled into hollow cylinders
Quantum dots These are nanometer-sized semiconductor crystals that glow when illuminated Carbon • First described by Kroto et al in
by ultraviolet light. Their linkage to antibodies against specific cancer proteins fullerenes 19854
enables sensitive detection of cancer cells.11
• Insoluble hollow spheres of
Superparamagnetic These are multilayered polymeric shells with an iron oxide core. These shells carbon, also known as buckyballs
iron oxide can carry contrast agents with different aqueous solubilities. Specific surface
Magnetic • Dual core particles acting via
nanoparticles anti-nucleosome antibodies help identify targeted tumor sites, where the
nanoparticles thermal exchange coupling
(SPIONs) compromised clearance mechanisms of the tissues help in their retention and
improved MRI imaging.12 • Can be coated with drug particles
in a lipid layer
Nanopunch This is a paramagnetic biopsy tool consisting of layered copper, nickel, silicon, and
chromium, in the shape of a claw. With temperature change, the differing coef- Lipid • Biodegradable drug-filled lipid
ficients of expansion cause the claw to open and close to collect the specimen. nanoparticles particles without an outer coating
Once tissue is harvested from the site, the punch could be collected from the urine • Can penetrate stratum corneum
sample by a magnetic trap.13

spectrometry (MS), have been modified place between the 2 layers, resulting in discussed, and implemented since ancient
with the addition of nanomeric particles locally increased temperature which can times. However, there is a constant need
on MS planar surfaces (nanotexturing).14 potentially destroy the cancer tissue. for improved tools and techniques.
Relatively newer systems include nanopar- Apart from these particles, an innova- Nanotechnology, with its ever-increasing
ticle bar codes and nanomechanical tion in existing transdermal drug delivery scope, provides dental research new oppo-
cantilevers that employ the application of systems is being developed in the form of runities for progress.
magnetic field and optical beam deflec- nanostructured lipid carriers. These physi- Biofilms are considered the root cause
tion, respectively, in order to interpret ological lipid nanospheres are biodegrad- of most dental and periodontal diseases.
biomolecular interactions.15 able, and exhibit both reduced toxicity Specific pathogenic microorganisms have
Currently, various nanoparticles suit- and increased penetrability. They improve been associated with the development of
able for drug and gene delivery are being the shelf life of photosensitive compounds dental caries and plaque-induced peri-
designed and tested for safety, control, and by enhancing their chemical stability.19,20 odontal infections. Technology employ-
appropriate use. Drug delivery systems The inclusion of nanospheres encapsulat- ing nanosized quantum dots based on
are therapeutic arrangements that can ing local anesthetic agents within carrier immunofluorescence enables the labelling
control the release of drugs and deliver the vehicles could help direct the drug to the of specific bacteria, which eases their
medications optimally (Table 2). One such desired delivery site and prolong its effect, identification and removal. This technique
agent, nanotubes, are open-ended barrels thereby reducing its toxicity.21,22 The afore- provides excellent single cell resolution for
that can carry minute quantities of drugs mentioned systems are only a few of the both in vivo and in vitro labeling of peri-
within their 50-100 nm wide drug cell. many currently being researched. odontal pathogens.23
The open ends of these tubes are covered The field of dentistry is receiving Apart from dental caries and plaque-
with pH or thermosensitive caps, which unprecedented support from the bio- induced periodontal disorders, the oral
break down upon reaching inflamed sites. technological sector, in the form of novel cavity is often afflicted by autoimmune
Similarly, carbon fullerenes and innovations that include improvised diag- disorders and carcinomatous changes.
polymeric nanoparticles can also be nostic aids and treatment devices. Current Highly sensitive diagnostic techniques
formulated as drug delivery vehicles.16,17 dental research involves progressive involving better revelations of autoan-
These carriers possess antibody-modified ingress into the preventive, diagnostic, tibodies, dysplastic cells, and salivary
surfaces, which enable drug delivery to reconstructive, regenerative, restorative, biomarkers are required for apt diagnosis
specific target sites that are inaccessible and rehabilitative domains (Chart). and early treatment. Cost-effecive tech-
to carrier-free drugs.17 Recently, 2-layered nological advancements on this front will
iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles were Diagnostic dentistry help promote a widespread implementa-
used in an animal study for cancer tissue Dental caries and periodontal disease tion of salivary diagnostics. The Oral
destruction.18 After these nanoparticles are the most common maladies affect- Fluid Nano Sensor Test (OFNASET,
are injected into tumors, and a magnetic ing the human race. Methods to prevent The Wong Lab, University of California,
field is applied, exchange coupling takes and combat them have been devised, Los Angeles) is a highly sensitive,

www.agd.org General Dentistry July/August 2014 73

Microbiology  Current applications of nanotechnology in dentistry

specific, portable, and automated Chart. Current applications of nanotechnology in dentistry.

nanoelectromechanical system, which
enables point-of-care detection of sali-
vary proteomic biomarkers and nucleic Bone regeneration Disease diagnosis
acids specific for oral cancer, including n-HAP composite bone graft scaffolds: Biocompatible Quantum dot-assisted detection of
4 mRNA biomarkers (SAT, ODZ, IL-8, with superior mechanical properties. periodontal pathogens.
and IL-1β) and 2 proteomic biomarkers Nanocrystals of CaSO4 : Particle size ranging from OFNASET: Point of care detection of
(thioredoxin and IL-8).24 200-900 nm. Improve resistance to degradation. Last salivary biomarkers.
longer (12-14 weeks).
Preventive dentistry Nanoceramic composite materials: CaPO4 + ZnO
Disease prevention
In the sphere of preventive plaque control (antibacterial) carbon nanotubes (provide flexible and
Dentifrices containing nanosized
measures, dentifrices and mouthwashes inert scaffold).
CaCO3, HAP, or CAP crystals for
form the most widely used products. caries prevention.
Dentifrices can be incorporated with Mouthwashes containing
Restorative dentistry
specific agents that help prevent dental triclosan loaded nanoparticles
Nanofillers: Particle size ranging
caries, remineralize early carious lesions, from 0.005-0.01 µm. Decrease Nanotechnology and silver nanoparticles for
and aid in desensitization of abraded teeth. polymerization shrinkage and in dentistry gingivitis prevention. Biomimetic
The process of enamel remineralization thermal expansion. Increase CA-HAP nanocrystals for daily
is governed by the local concentration of polishing ability, hardness, and use in implant care.
apatite minerals. Nanosized calcium car- wear resistance of composite
bonate particles or hydroxyapatite crystals restorative materials.
are similar to the morphology and crystal Tissue regeneration
structure of enamel.25 In a study of a test GTR membranes incorporated with
dentifrice containing nanosized calcium Dental implants nCHAC/PLGA: Show improved flexibility,
carbonate particles, Nakashima et al found Implant surface nanotextured with titanium. HAP biocompatibility, and osteoconductivity.
48.8% improvement on the remineraliza- or bisphosponates induce and promote celluar dif- Gene-activated matrix: Collagen scaf-
ferentiation and proliferation. Silver nitrate modified fold with chitosan/plasmid nanoparticles
tion of artifically produced subsurface
implant surfaces exhibit antimicrobial properties. encoding for PDGF.
enamel lesions.26 Dentifrices for dental
hypersensitivity that incorporate nano-
hydroxyapatite (n-HAP) or nanocarbonate Abbreviations: CaCO3, calcium carbonate; CA-HAP, calcium hydroxyapatite; CAP, carbonate apatite; CaSO4, calcium
sulphate; GTR, guided tissue regeneration; HAP, hydroxyapatite; nCHAC/PLGA, nanocarbonated hydroxyapatite/
apatite (n-CAP) particles are currently collagen/polylactic-co-glycolic acid; NHAP, nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite; OFNASET, Oral Fluid Nano Sensor Test;
being tested. n-CAP is similar to the inor- PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; ZnO, zinc oxide.
ganic component of teeth and is known to
have a high solubility and a more neutral
pH. When compared to conventional
agents, n-CAP has proven to be an effica- Apart from regular dental care, there shrinkage and thermal expansion, and
cious short-term desensitizing dentifrice.27 has been nanotechnology research into enhance the polishing ability, hardness,
Mouthwashes containing nanoparticles implant care and the prevention of peri- and wear resistance of composites.32,33
loaded with triclosan and silver nanopar- implant diseases. Mouthwashes containing The size of these particles range from
ticles have demonstrated plaque control biomimetic carbonate-hydroxyapatite 0.005-0.01 µm. At this size, the optical
potential. The colloidal suspensions of nanocrystals have been shown to pre- properties of the resin and the filler parti-
triclosan nanoparticles have shown high serve the implant titanium oxide layer cles become a fraction of the wavelength of
substantitvity due to the use of bioad- by protecting it against surface oxidative light. Consequently, these particles cease to
hesive polymers in the system.28 This processes. These nanocrystals also reduce reflect back light, resulting in a more physi-
technology is based on a polyanhydride implant surface roughness by depositing ologic color expression by the material.
bioadhesive nanoparticulate platform, hydroxyapatite into the streaks present The bottoms-up approach is required for
which ensures high mucoadhesive capac- on the titanium surface. This decrease in the production of nanofiller particles. Two
ity for 8 hours, increased encapsulation surface roughness provides better preven- different types of nanofillers, nanomers
capacity, a more homogenous particle size tion against plaque accumulation and peri- (5-75 nm) and nanoclusters (2-20 nm)
(250 nm), and longer shelf life (2 years).29 implant pathologies.31 have been synthesized. Their incorporation
This creates a controlled-release system into an existing resin matrix system has
with bioadhesive properties due to the Restorative dentistry been shown to improve the optical and
presence of a positively charged surfactant The incorporation of nanofiller particles polishing properties of microfill composites
on the microparticle surface. This system in composite resins has given rise to a new and the strength of hybrid composites.32
can be incorporated into gels, toothpastes, class of materials with improved properties An improvement has also been made
and mouthwashes for the treatment and over micro- and macrofilled composites. to resin-modified glass ionomer cement
prevention of periodontal diseases.30 Nanofillers reduce the polymerization (RMGIC) with the addition of nanosized

74 July/August 2014 General Dentistry www.agd.org

fillers. This has been reported to improve from 200-900 nm, while the conventional to form a highly flexible, biocompatible,
the polishability and esthetic properties of CaSO4 bone graft particle size ranges from osteoconductive, and biodegradable com-
the RMGIC.34 The inclusion of nanofilled 30-40 µm. These nanoparticles are further posite membrane. When osteoblastic cells
resins in posterior restorative GIC self- condensed into pellets of 425-1000 µm. were cultured on this membrane, they
adhesive coatings has also demonstrated This nanotization of particles results in a showed a more positive response compared
high hydrophilicity and protection against graft material which is more resistant to to a pure PLGA membrane.51
abrasive wear.35 The low viscosity of the degradation and lasts longer (12-14 weeks)
coating provides an optimal seal and glaze than conventional CaSO4 (4-6 weeks). Tissue engineering
to the GIC surface, which gives time for This rate of degradation matches the rate Recent events have generated research on
the restoration to mature and increases of bone growth in the intrabony defects, new approaches to tissue engineering and
its esthetic properties.35 Thus, it could resulting in better treatment outcomes.47 local gene delivery systems in periodontal
be stated that these improvements in An antibacterial nanoceramic composite tissue regeneration. A gene-activated matrix
filler technology can be used to develop material has recently been developed by (GAM) provides a platform to combine
new resin-based dental restoratives with impregnating nanocalcium phosphate, these 2 techniques. GAM provides a struc-
enhanced mechanical properties.36,37 walled carbon nanotubes, and zinc oxide tural template for therapeutic gene expres-
(ZnO) nanoparticles into an alginate poly- sion and fills the defects for cell adhesion
Regenerative dentistry mer matrix.48 Carbon nanotubes provide and proliferation, as well as the synthesis
Bone grafting a strong, flexible, and inert scaffold on of extracellular matrix. A recent develop-
Bone grafting has been the primary which cells could proliferate and deposit ment in this aspect is a GAM composed
component of periodontal regenerative new bone, while the ZnO nanoparticles of chitosan/collagen scaffold acting as a
dentistry since 1923, when Hegedus suc- provide the antibacterial properties. This 3-dimensional carrier, incorporated with
cessfully attempted the use of extraoral material enhances HAP formation in chitosan/plasmid nanoparticles that encode
autogenous bone in the oral cavity to bone defects.48 The use of nanoparticulate platelet-derived growth factor. This matrix
treat advanced pyorrhea.38 Artificial bone bone grafts show promise in postextrac- demonstrated a sustained and steady release
substitutes were concomittantly developed tion ridge preservation, intrabony defects of condensed plasmid DNA over 6 weeks,
in order to avoid the drawbacks of second regeneration, root perforations, sinus-lift which resulted in a high in vitro prolif-
site surgery and inconsistent graft quantity. procedures, implant dehiscence, and fenes- eration of cultured periodontal ligament
Different alloplastic bone grafts are being tration corrections. fibroblasts, thus demonstrating potential
developed with nanoscale particles. The Nanoparticles can also be designed— for periodontal tissue engineering.52
most popular ones to date are nanoHAP using ultrasonic assessment of the bone
(n-HAP) bone grafts, which are available quality and structure—to simulate bone.49 Nerve regeneration
in crystalline, chitosan-associated and tita- Current research is focused on generating Nanoparticles can also be applied to recon-
nium-reinforced forms.39-41 These n-HAP nanoparticle composite and nanofiber struct damaged nerves, with self-aggregat-
composite bone graft scaffolds are highly scaffolds to increase mechanical strength ing rod-like nanofibers called amphiphiles.
biocompatible, have superior mechani- and support cell growth and differen- Aggregated amphiphiles may reach up to
cal properties, and induce better cellular tiation in required osseous architectures. several micrometers in length and can be
responses compared to ‘plain’ chitosan Genetic material delivery systems that will utilized in vivo to bridge tissue defects in
scaffolds.42,43 A clinical study comparing encode for osteogenic growth factors are the spinal cord.53 This application holds
the use of nanocrystalline HAP (NHAP) also being developed.50 huge potential in the oral surgical arena,
paste vs open flap debridement (control) in such as the possible reconstruction of
intrabony defects demonstrated clinically Guided tissue regeneration a damaged inferior alveolar nerve after
significant outcomes in the NHAP group, The concept of guided tissue regeneration extensive oral surgical procedures.
with a clinical attachment level gain of 3.6 (GTR) is being researched to replace earlier
± 1.6 mm vs the control group’s gain of 1.8 functional graded membranes with novel Pulp regeneration
± 1.2 mm.44 This indicated that the use of 3-layered membranes.51 The former system Nanotechnology has potential in the
an NHAP paste significantly improved the included bilayered GTR membranes with region of dental pulp regeneration. The
clinical outcome when compared to open a porous surface on one side (for cellular development of tissues to replace diseased
flap debridement. ingrowth), and a smooth surface on the or damaged dental pulp can provide a
Apart from HAP, the use of calcium opposite side (for cellular occlusion). A revolutionary alternative to pulp removal.
sulphate (CaSO4) as a biodegradable novel system has come up with a 3-layered The α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone
and osteoconductive bone substitute has GTR membrane composed of an inner- (α-MSH) is known to possess anti-
been utilized since 1892.45,46 As CaSO4 most layer made of 8% nanocarbonated inflammatory properties. Recently, it has
degrades, calcium phosphate forms, which hydroxyapatite/collagen/polylactic-co- been suggested that nanofilms containing
helps in the attachment of osteoblasts and glycolic acid (nCHAC/PLGA) porous α-MSH could help revitalize damaged
new bone deposition. Nanosized crystals of membrane, a middle layer of 4% nCHAC/ teeth.54 Further research is needed to
conventional CaSO4 bone grafts have now PLGA, and an outer layer of PLGA non- evaluate these proposed therapeutic and
developed, with particulate sizes ranging porous membrane. These 3 layers combine regenerative approaches.

www.agd.org General Dentistry July/August 2014 75

Microbiology  Current applications of nanotechnology in dentistry

Rehabilitative dentistry Each new technology brings forth its Bangalore, Karnataka, India, where
The introduction of dental implants has share of specific advantages and disadvan- Dr. Bhardwaj is a postgraduate student,
revolutionized the rehabilitative dental tages. Although nanotechnology is more and Dr. Prabhuji is a professor.
procedures. Various implant surface mod- than a decade old, no ecologic or toxic
ifications are now being tested to improve effects were reported before 2005.63,64 Disclaimer
the bone-to-implant contact ratio, mimic Nanotoxicology is defined as a science The authors have no financial, economic,
the cellular environment, and favor the that deals with the adverse effects of engi- commercial, and/or professional interests
process of osseointegration.55 Surface neered nanodevices and nanostructures in related to topics presented in this article.
characteristics determine the biocompat- living organisms.65
ibility and biointegration of implants by Techniques promising major break- References
regulating their surface energy, composi- throughs in medical and dental sectors 1. Feynman RP. There’s plenty of room at the bottom. Eng
tion, roughness, and topography.56 A might also have a downside, and hence, Sci. 1960;23:22-36.
2. Taniguchi N. Proceedings of the International Confer-
nanostructured surface possesses a large must undergo stringent testing before ence on Precision Engineering (ICPE). Tokyo, Japan.
fraction of defects, such as grain bound- human application. Some areas of concern 1974:18-23.
aries and dislocations, with a resultant include the unplanned entry of nanopar- 3. Drexler KE. Engines Of Creation: The Coming Era Of
texture that strongly influences the sur- ticles through the skin (via hair follicles), Nanotechnology. New York: Anchor Press; 1986:99-
129.
face’s chemical and physical properties.56 or through the respiratory tract, with the 4. Kroto HW, Heath JR, O’Brien SC, Smalley RE. C60:
Implants coated with nanotextured tita- potential to penetrate vital organs.66-68 buckminsterfullerene. Nature. 1985;318:162-163.
nium, hydroxyapatite, or pharmacological Safety protocols should be formulated 5. Kraetschmer W, Lamb LD, Fostiropoulos K, Huffman
agents such as bisphosponates may induce and practiced during the early innova- DR. Solid C60: a new form of carbon. Nature. 1990;
347:354-358.
and promote cellular differentiation and tive stages of engineered nanomaterials
6. Iijima S. Helical microtubules of graphite carbon. Na-
proliferation. In a proposed topologi- to proactively curtail the development ture. 1991;354:56-58.
cal modification for implants involving of counterproductive devices.69 Before 7. United States National Nanotechnology Initiative. Na-
nanodot structures, Pan et al found that commencing large-scale production of tional Nanotechnology Initiative. Available at: http://
50 nm-sized nanodots enhanced osteo- nanodevices, potential environmental www.nano.gov/. Accessed March 26, 2014.
8. Cyril NG, Lung K. Where Will Nanotechnology Take us
blast cell population by 44%, minimized hazards created due to waste generation in the 21st Century? Available at: http://www.ys
apoptotic-like cell death, and enhanced should be considered. Further research journal.com/temp/YoungScientissJ1634-3214608_
focal cell adhesion by 73%.57 is required to determine the mobility, 085546.pdf. Accessed March 26, 2014.
Recently, trials have also been conducted reactivity, ecotoxicity, and persistence of 9. Silva GA. Introduction to nanotechnology and its ap-
plications to medicine. Surg Neurol. 2004;61(3):216-
to introduce antimicrobial bioactive nanoparticles in the environment.70
220.
implant surfaces. Nanostructured crystal- 10. Yu B, Long N, Moussy Y, Moussy F. A long-term flexible
line titanium dioxide coatings deposited Conclusion minimally-invasive implantable glucose biosensor
by cathodic arc have exhibited ultraviolet Nanotechnology is a relatively novel field, based on an epoxy-enhanced polyurethane mem-
(UV)-induced bactericidal effects against which involves manipulation of matter at brane. Biosens Bioelectron. 2006;21(12):2275-2282.
11. Bhowmik D, Chiranjib, Chandira MR, Jayakar B. Role of
Staphylococcus epidermidis, with a 90% the molecular level, including individual nanotechnology in novel drug delivery system. J Phar-
reduction of viable bacteria within molecules and the interactions among ma Sci Tech. 2009;1(1):20-35.
2 minutes of the UV dose.58 Comparable them. It focuses on achieving positional 12. Mahmoudi M, Sant S, Wang B, Laurent S, Sen T. Su-
antimicrobial results were also demon- control with a high degree of specificity, perparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs):
development, surface modification and applications
strated by silver nitrate-loaded nanotitania thereby achieving the desired physical
in chemotherapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2011;63(1-2):
surfaces and silver nanoparticle-modified and chemical properties. There has been 24-46.
titanium (Ti-nAg) surfaces.59-61 Silver an upsurge in interest in deciphering the 13. Nasir A. Nanodermatology: A Bright Glimpse Just Be-
nanoparticles possess a broad-spectrum property of matter at this dimension, thus yond the Horizon - Part I. Available at: http://www.
of antibacterial activity and a lower pro- making nanotechnology one of the most skintherapyletter.com/2010/15.8/1.html. Accessed
March 26, 2014.
pensity to induce microbial resistance. promising and influential areas of scien- 14. Bakry R, Vallant RM, Najam-ul-Haq M, et al. Medicinal
Therefore these compounds can be used as tific research. The current applications of applications of fullerenes. Int J Nanomedicine. 2007;
effective growth inhibitors against various nanotechnology in various fields of den- 2(4):639-649.
microorganisms.30 Although the antibacte- tistry have been reviewed in this article. 15. Cheng MM, Cuda G, Bunimovich YL, et al. Nanotech-
nologies for biomolecular detection and medical diag-
rial mechanism of silver nitrate nanopar- These applications will pave the way for
nostics. Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2006;10(1):11-19.
ticles is yet to be clearly deciphered, their further research opportunities in device 16. Yarin AL. Nanofibers, nanofluidics, nanoparticles and
clinical usage might decrease the incidence and drug development, thus commenc- nanobots for drug and protein delivery systems. [ab-
of postsurgical peri-implant infections and ing an era of unprecedented advances in stract] Available at: http://www.scipharm.at/down-
potentiate therapeutic measures.62 dental diagnostics and therapeutics. load.asp?id=692. Accessed March 26, 2014.
17. van Vlerken LE, Amiji MM. Multi-functional polymeric
nanoparticles for tumour-targeted drug delivery. Ex-
Miniaturization: the downside Author information pert Opin Drug Deliv. 2006;3(2):205-216.
of nanotechnology Dr. Bhavikatti is a senior lecturer, Depart- 18. Lee JH, Jang JT, Choi JS, et al. Exchange-coupled mag-
The human race has always strived toward ment of Periodontics, Krishnadevaraya netic nanoparticles for efficient heat induction. Nat
newer, more progressive technologies. College of Dental Sciences and Hospital, Nanotechnol. 2011;6(7):418-422.

76 July/August 2014 General Dentistry www.agd.org

 Published with permission of the Academy of General Dentistry. © Copyright 2014
by the Academy of General Dentistry. All rights reserved. For printed and electronic
reprints of this article for distribution, please contact [email protected].

19. Dubey A, Prabhu P, Kamath JV. Nano structured lipid 37. Youngblood TA, Nicolella DP, Lankford J, et al. Wear 54. Fioretti F, Palomares CM, Helms M, et al. Nanostruc-
carriers: a novel topical drug delivery system. Int J and select mechanical properties of a zirconia nano- tured assemblies for dental application. ACS Nano.
Pharm Tech Res. 2012;4(2):705-714. filled resin composite. J Dent Res. 2000;79:365. 2010;4(6):3277-3287.
20. Muller RH, Radtke M, Wissing SA. Solid lipid nanopar- 38. Hegedus Z. The rebuilding of the alveolar processes by 55. Simon Z, Watson PA. Biomimetic dental implants—
ticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) in bone transplantation. Dent Cosmos. 1923;65:736- new ways to enhance osseointegration. J Can Dent
cosmetic and dermatological preparations. Adv Drug 742. Assoc. 2002;68(5):286-288.
Deliv Rev. 2002;54(Suppl 1):S131-S155. 39. Singh VP, Nayak DG, Uppoor AS, Shah D. Clinical and 56. Nayar S, Bhuminathan S, Muthuvignesh J. Upsurge of
21. Tan JP, Tan MB, Tam MK. Application of nanogel sys- radiographic evaluation of nano-crystalline hydroxyap- nanotechnology in dentistry and dental implants.
tems in the administration of local anesthetics. Local atite bone graft (Sybograf) in combination with biore- Indian J Multidiscipl Dent. 2011;1(5):264-269.
and Reg Anesth. 2010;3:93-100. sorbable collagen membrane (Periocol) in periodontal 57. Pan HA, Hung YC, Chiou JC, Tai SM, Chen HH, Huang
22. Gorner T, Gref R, Michenot D, Sommer F, Tran MN, Del- intrabony defects. Dent Res J (Isfahan). 2012;9(1):60- GS. Nanosurface design of dental implants for im-
lacherie E. Lidocaine-loaded biodegradable nano- 67. proved cell growth and function. Nanotechnology.
spheres. I. Optimization of the drug incorporation into 40. Reves BT, Jennings JA, Bumgardner JD, Haggard WO. 2012;23(33):335703.
the polymer matrix. J Control Release. 1999;57(3): Preparation and functional assessment of composite 58. Lilja M, Forsgren J, Welch K, Astrand M, Engqvist H,
259-268. chitosan-nano-hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone re- Stromme M. Photocatalytic and antimicrobial proper-
23. Chalmers NI, Palmer RJ, Thumm LD, Sullivan R, Wenyu- generation. J Funct Biomater. 2012;3:114-130. ties of surgical implant coatings of titanium dioxide
an S, Kolenbrander PE. Use of quantum dot lumines- 41. Kailasanathan C, Selvakumar N, Naidu V. Structure and deposited though cathodic arc evaporation. Biotechnol
cent probes to achieve single-cell resolution of human properties of titania reinforced nano-hydroxyapatite/ Lett. 2012;34(12):2299-2305.
oral bacteria in biofilms. Applied Env Microbiol. 2007; gelatin bio-composites for bone graft materials. Ceram 59. Cao H, Liu X, Meng F, Chu PK. Biological actions of
73(2):630-636. Int. 2012;38(1):571-579. silver nanoparticles embedded in titanium controlled
24. Gau V, Wong D. Oral fluid nanosensor test (OFNASET) 42. Chesnutt BM, Viano AM, Yuan Y, et al. Design and by micro-galvanic effects. Biomaterials. 2011;32(3):
with advanced electrochemical-based molecular analy- characterization of a novel chitosan/nanocrystalline 693-705.
sis platform. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1098:401-410. calcium phosphate composite scaffold for bone regen- 60. Feng Y, Cao C, Li BE, Liu XY, Dong YQ. Primary study
25. Vandiver J, Dean D, Patel N, Bonfield W, Ortiz C. eration. J Biomed Mater Res. 2009;88(2):491-502. on the antibacterial property of silver-loaded nanoti-
Nanoscale variation in surface charge of synthetic 43. Chesnutt BM, Yuan Y, Buddington K, Haggard WO, tania coatings [in Chinese]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi.
hydroxyapatite detected by chemically and spatially Bumgardner JD. Composite chitosan/nano-hydroxyap- 2008;88(29):2077-2080.
specific high resolution force spectroscopy. Biomate- atite scaffolds induce osteocalcin production by osteo- 61. Juan L, Zhimin Z, Anchun M, Lei L, Jingchao Z. Depo-
rials. 2005;26:271-283. blasts in vitro and support bone formation in vivo. sition of silver nanoparticles on titanium surface for
26. Nakashima S, Yoshie M, Sano H, Bahar A. Effect of a Tissue Eng Part A. 2009;15(9):2571-2579. antibacterial effect. Int J Nanomedicine. 2010;5:261-
test dentifrice containing nano-sized calcium carbon- 44. Kasaj A, Rohrig B, Zafiropoulos GG, Willershausen B. 267.
ate on remineralization of enamel lesions in vitro. Clinical evaluation of nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite 62. Tolaymat TM, El Badawy AM, Genaidy A, Scheckel KG,
J Oral Sci. 2009;51(1):69-77. paste in the treatment of human periodontal bony de- Luxton TP, Suidan M. An evidence-based environmen-
27. Lee SY, Kwon HK, Kim BI. Effect of dentinal tubule oc- fects—a randomized controlled clinical trial: 6-month tal perspective of manufactured silver nanoparticle in
clusion by dentifrice containing nano-carbonate apa- results. J Periodontol. 2008;79(3):394-400. syntheses and applications: a systematic review and
tite. J Oral Rehabil. 2008;35(11):847-853. 45. Greenwald AS, Boden SD, Goldberg VM, et al. Bone- critical appraisal of peer-reviewed scientific papers. Sci
28. BioNanoPlus Drug Delivery Technologies. Antiseptic graft substitutes: facts, fictions, and applications. J Total Environ. 2010;408(5):999-1006.
Mouthwash. Available at: http://bionanoplus.com/anti- Bone Joint Surg Am. 2001;83-A(Suppl 2 Pt 2):98-103. 63. Kahru A, Ivask A. Mapping the dawn of nanoecotoxi-
septic-mouth-wash.html. Accessed March 26, 2014. 46. Kelly CM, Wilkins RM, Gitelis S, Hartjen C, Watson JT, cological research. Acc Chem Res. 2013;46(3):823-
29. BioNanoPlus Drug Delivery Technologies. NANO GES. Kim PT. The use of a surgical grade calcium sulfate as 833.
Available at: http://bionanoplus.com/nano-ges.html. a bone graft substitute: results of a multicenter trial. 64. Biswas P, Wu CY. Nanoparticles and the environment.
Accessed March 26, 2014. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2001;382:42-50. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2005;55(6):708-746.
30. Pragati S, Ashok S, Kuldeep S. Recent advances in peri- 47. Kathuria R, Pandit N, Jain A, Bali D, Gupta S. Compara- 65. Oberdorster G, Oberdorster E, Oberdorster J.
odontal drug delivery systems. Int J Drug Deliv. 2009; tive evaluation of two forms of calcium sulfate hemi- Nanotoxicology:an emerging discipline evolving from
1:1-14. hydrate for the treatment of infrabony defects. Indian studies of ultrafine particles. Env Health Perspect.
31. Lelli M, Marchisio O, Foltran I, et al. Different corro- J of Dent Sci. 2012;4(2):30-36. 2005;113(7):823-839.
sive effects on hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and 48. Beherei HH, El-Magharby A, Abdel-Aal MS. Prepara- 66. Oberdorster G. Safety assessment for nanotechnology
amine fluoride-based mouthwashes on dental titani- tion and characterization of novel antibacterial nano- and nanomedicine: concepts of nanotoxicology. J In-
um brackets: a comparative in vitro study. Int J Nano- ceramic-composites for bone grafting. Der Pharma tern Med. 2010;267(1):89-105.
medicine. 2013;8:307-314. Chemica. 2011;3(6):10-27. 67. Kreyling WG, Semmler M, Erbe F, et al. Translocation of
32. Mitra SB, Wu D, Holmes BN. An application of nano- 49. Tautzenberger A, Kovtun A, Ignatius A. Nanoparticles ultrafine insoluble iridium particles from lung epitheli-
technology in advanced dental materials. J Am Dent and their potential for application in bone. Int J Nano- um to extrapulmonary organs is size dependent but
Assoc. 2003;134(10):1382-1390. medicine. 2012;7:4545-4557. very low. J Toxicol Environ Health. 2002;65(20):1513-
33. Dresch W, Volpato S, Gomes JC, Ribeiro NR, Reis A, 50. Kim K, Fisher JP. Nanoparticle technology in bone tis- 1530.
Loguercio AD. Clinical evaluation of a nanofilled com- sue engineering. J Drug Target. 2007;15(4):241-252. 68. Muller RH, Keck CM. Drug delivery to the brain—real-
posite in posterior teeth: 12-month results. Oper Dent. 51. Liao S, Wang W, Uo M, Ohkawa S, Akasaka T, Tamura ization by novel drug carriers. J Nanosci Nanotechnol.
2006;31(4):409-417. K, Cui F, Watari F. A three-layered nano-carbonated 2004;4:471-483.
34. Vaikuntam J. Resin-modified glass ionomer cements hydroxyapatite/collagen/PLGA composite membrane 69. Som C, Nowack B, Krug HF, Wick P. Toward the de-
(RM GICs) implications for use in pediatric dentistry. for guided tissue regeneration. Biomaterials. 2007; velopment of decision supporting tools that can be
J Dent Child. 1997;64(2):131-134. 26(36):7564-7571. used for safe production and use of nanomaterials.
35. Tanaka K, Kato K, Noguchi T, Nakaseko H, Akahane S. 52. Peng L, Cheng X, Zhuo R, et al. Novel gene-activated Acc Chem Res. 2013;46(3):863-872.
Change in translucency of posterior restorative glass- matrix with embedded chitosan/plasmid DNA 70. Simonet BM, Valcarcel M. Monitoring nanoparticles in
ionomer cements. [IADR Abstract 2025] Available at: nanoparticles encoding PDGF for periodontal tissue the environment. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2009;393(1):
https://iadr.confex.com/iadr/2007orleans/techpro- engineering. J Biomed Mater Res. 2009;90(2):564- 17-21.
gramforcd/A89310.htm. Accessed March 26, 2014. 576.
36. Furmann BR, Nicolella D, Wellinghof ST, et al. A radi- 53. Ellis-Behnke RG, Liang YX, You SW, et al. Nano neuro
opaque zirconia microfiller for translucent composite knitting: peptide nanofiber scaffold for brain repair Manufacturer
restoratives. [abstract] J Dent Res. 2000;79:246. and axon regeneration with functional return of vision. The Wong Lab, University of California, Los Angeles
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(13):5054-5059. 310.825.3241, www.hspp.ucla.edu/wonglab

www.agd.org General Dentistry July/August 2014 77