Acta Theologica

2012:2

G.E. Dames

ENHANCING OF TEACHING
AND LEARNING THROUGH
CONSTRUCTIVE ALIGNMENT
ABSTRACT

This article elucidates issues about practical knowledge/deep learning on the current
teaching and learning preaching practices in the Department of Practical Theology
at the Faculty of Theology of the University of the Free State. The action learning and
action research methodology is applied. Growing evidence indicates that there is
a disjunction between the level of student competencies and incongruent teaching
practices in the Faculty. Failure in the operationalization of both an interdisciplinary
and a constructive alignment approach is at the core of surface learning. It appears
that former and current students find it difficult to align their studies and to adapt
to an unfamiliar, diverse, pluralistic and complex postmodern society. We teach
content and assess students on the basis of what they know. The content does
not relate to students’ own experiences or the broader issues in society. We are
talking about a change that is deeper than surface alterations to the syllabus or
to classroom teaching techniques. We are considering a radically different way of
framing the ministry of preaching and of viewing the task of those who seek to learn
and to teach preaching.

1. INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY

The task of teaching preaching should be redesigned from the perspective
of the ministry of preaching as a holistic and integrative Christian practice
(Long 2008:4):

A practice is a constellation of actions that people have performed

over time that are common, meaningful, strategic, and purposeful
(Long 2008:12).

Dr. G.E. Dames, Department of Philosophy, Practical and Systematic

Theology, University of South Africa. E-mail: [email protected].

Acta Theologica
2012 32(2): 35-53
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/actat.v32i2.3
ISSN 1015-8758
© UV/UFS
<http://www.uovs.ac.za/ActaTheologica>
Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

In this article, practice also refers to practical knowledge about preaching

action or homiletic practices that ought to change (Osmer 2008:84).
Preaching as a practice provides a framework to integrate different
perspectives, to sharpen our teaching focus, and to strengthen student
learning (Long 2008:11). This article captures the author’s teaching and
learning practices and experiences in a homiletics teaching and learning
context. It signifies, albeit Zuber-Skerrit (2007:37), the author’s way of
becoming, knowing, learning, growing and developing as a lecturer in
terms of action learning and action research (henceforth ALAR). In this
article, action learning refers to the lecturer’s (author’s) ability to learn
from teaching practices and experiences whereas action research refers
to critical practical reflection on that experience, practice and praxis. It is
instrumental in the re-envisioning of the teaching preaching practice (cf.
Long 2008:4). In this article, ALAR presupposes more than the umbrella
term “action inquiry” – it seeks to relate to a specific educational issue and
a particular form of study (cf. Tripp 2003). It is a form of study that focuses
on practical knowledge and understanding by reflective practitioners. The
objective is to critique the implicit assumptions in educational practices
through a collective understanding of the praxis. This is a revival of
Aristotle’s practical philosophy/knowledge that transcends positivistic
research methodology (Carr 2006a:425-428, 433; Osmer 2008:84).

Interpreted in this way, [action learning and] action research would

no longer be understood as a social science ‘research paradigm’
that can achieve what conventional social scientific research has
conspicuously failed to achieve (Carr 2006a:434).

ALAR seeks to close the gap between theory and practice and address the
need for a new social scientific paradigm. How we change is to do ALAR –
changing our action by changing our thinking in re-changing our practices
(Carr 2006b). We concur that a re-envisioned integrative methodology for
teaching/learning preaching practices (homiletics) is sought (Long 2008:7).
The improvement of the teaching/learning practice through a systematic/
collaborative way and the dissemination of the results in public are essential
aspects in this regard. ALAR is characterised by group discussions, trial
and error, the discovery of new techniques and methods, and learning
from both students and colleagues (Zuber-Skerrit 2007:37-38). It could be
concurred that lecturer, students and the education institution developed
simultaneously: “Action learning is a change process aimed at personal,
professional and organisational development” (Zuber-Skerri, 2007:37). The
aim of this article is to record the author’s action teaching and learning
findings based on the action research methodology. Zuber-Skerrit’s

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Acta Theologica 2012:2

(1992:15) (cited in Zuber-Skerrit 2007:37) CRASP model is illuminating in

this regard. It refers to the following aspects:

critical collaborative enquiry; reflective practitioners being account­

able and making the results of their enquiry public; self-evaluating
their practice, and engaged in participative problem solving and
continuing professional development (Zuber-Skerrit 1992:15).

The CRASP model characterises the lecturer’s ALAR knowledge, skills and
experience.
The aforementioned is based on both a literature and an empirical
study. Both qualitative (ALAR) and quantitative research methods will be
applied to collect evidence of the lecturer’s teaching and assessment,
and students’ learning activities. The teaching goals of the lecturer will
be analysed by applying the Teaching Goals Inventory (TGI)1 in obtaining
scores through the online self-scoring worksheet. This is followed by a
critical reflection on the results and suggestions of how teaching should
be changed. Principles of reflective teaching will be applied to the
results of The Student Course Experience Questionnaire, adapted from
the University of Oxford Student Course Experience Questionnaire,2 to
differentiate between students’ learning praxis and teaching theories.

2. CONSTRUCTIVE THEORY OF LEARNING AND

ALIGNMENT IN TEACHING
Postmodern students cannot only be taught the facts of science. They
have to reflect on their own cognitive, attitudinal, affective, behavioural
experiences and practical knowledge. Participative learning in action may
enable students to solve scientific and pragmatic problems (Biggs & Tang
2007:50):

Both are premised on the view that meaning is not imposed or

transmitted by direct instruction; it is created by the students’ learning
activities, their ‘approaches to learning’. Meaning is personal; it
depends on motives, intentions, prior knowledge, etc. Learning is a
way of interacting with the world. We structure information we get,
not just receive it, thus education is about conceptual construction
(Biggs in Shake Seigel 2004:1).

1 Available at http://fm.iowa.uiowa.edu/fmi/xsl/tgi/dataentry.xsl?-db=tgidata&-
lay=Layout01+-view [accessed 20 August 2010].
2 Available at http://ceq.oucs.ox.ac.uk/ [accessed 2 July 2010].

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Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

A constructionist theory of learning and alignment in teaching should

be applied (cf. Biggs in Shake Seigel, 2004:1). Intended learning outcomes,
teaching and learning activities and assessment tasks ought to be
aligned (Biggs & Tang 2007:50). Our institutional teaching and learning
climate should also change (Biggs in Shake Seigel 2004:2). Pedagogy of
engagement for multifaceted change that focuses on students’ learning and
complex social experiences will improve their academic and professional
competencies. Students will be enabled to apply learning activities that
foster the construction of their own knowledge, behaviour and skills; as
well as in assessing its outcomes (Biggs & Tang 2007:50, 52):

Alignment in constructive alignment reflects the fact that the

learning activity in the intended outcomes, expressed as a verb, to
be activated in the teaching of the outcome is to be achieved and in
the assessment task to verify that the outcome is achieved.

Faculty should instead focus on the learning activity (the what and the
how) of students and not on the silo teachings of the lecturer’s preferred
themes (Biggs & Tang 2007:52). Course outcomes should instead
empower and inform students on how they are expected to change their
world views and behaviour. This is possible on the basis that their learning
activities should build on specific theories. The bipolar tension between
theory and praxis becomes crucial (Heitink 1979). The use of verbs is
critical in supporting the relation between theory and praxis teaching. The
application of verb-directed intentional learning outcomes clarifies in which
teaching and learning activities students should engage and what and
how students need to perform in the assessment tasks. It should develop
greater application of practical knowledge/an integrative theory in praxis.
Curriculum themes should be defined in terms of outcome statements
in addressing both the teaching and the learning activities (TLAs) and
assessment tasks (ATs). Most of our courses foster inappropriate learning
activities (LAs) which are unaligned and lead to a surface approach in
learning. Constructive alignment is designed to foster practical knowledge/
deep learning instead. Students become more progressive, while teachers
act as mentors/facilitators of students and their learning environment
(Biggs & Tang 2007:54). Faculty should thus shift from norm-referenced
assessment to criterion-referenced assessment (Biggs & Tang 2007:52-
53). Constructive aligned teaching systematises the planning and activities
of teaching activities. It results in open-ended assessment tasks which
allow for unintended, but desirable outcomes (Biggs & Tang 2007:53).
Consistency in the Faculty’s different curriculums will consequently be
maximised (Biggs & Tang 2007:53).

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3. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE

TEACHING AND LEARNING GOALS
The lecturer’s teaching goals (Table 1) were analysed by completing the
Teaching Goals Inventory (TGI) online (See Appendix A for all tables). The
objective was to reflect critically on the TGI’s results which were shared in
contact sessions with fellow colleagues. We focused on the assessment of
each goal’s importance to what the lecturer deliberately aimed to have the
students accomplish. The generic results in Table 3 (T3) were compared
with the lecturer’s in Table 1 (T1) (Brüssow 2010:27). The third column
represents the percentage of aspects within each cluster that was rated
“essential”. The fourth column contains the average rating we assigned
to aspects within each cluster. These results were compared with those
in Table 3 on the result page of the inventory. A critical reflection on our
results was captured and shared with the students during a class session.
Each goal’s importance was assessed to what we aimed to have our
students achieve. The following teaching goals were assessed: higher
order thinking skills; discipline-specific knowledge and skills; liberal arts
and academic values; work and career preparation; basic academic
success skills, and personal development.

3.1 Higher order thinking skills

The highest results, although a slight decreased percentage (from 45%;
a=3.09 [T3] to 38%; a=4.38 [T1]), indicate that we considered higher order
thinking skills to be essential in teaching and learning activities. Current
reciprocal teaching and learning activities, if developed, could engender
much higher order thinking skills. This is only possible within a motivational
context which engenders the space for complex learning skills in Practical
Theology Lecturers 402 and 602 (hereafter, PTL 402 and PTL 602). PTL
402 and PTL 602 represent 4th- and 5th-year modules on homiletic theory
and practical work in the Department of Practical Theology in the Faculty.
Such a reciprocal learning environment lends itself to both a reflective and
a self-monitoring practice for students. Transformative reflection practices
could assist teachers and students in monitoring and improving teaching
and learning practices, respectively (Biggs & Tang 2007:98-99). The current
nature and construction of PTL 402 and PTL 602 engender “learning to
monitor the construction site” in the development and deliverance of
sermons (Biggs & Tang 2007:99).

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Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

3.2 Discipline-specific knowledge and skills

The highest results, although a slight increased percentage (from 36%;
a=2.83 [T3] to 38%; a=4.13 [T1]), indicate that we perceived discipline-
specific knowledge and skills as an essential teaching and learning object.
The nature and purpose of PTL 402 and PTL 602 require that students
conceptualise and operationalize both the concepts and the application of
concepts such as “exegesis, hermeneutics and homiletics”. The appropriate
conceptualisation and operationalization of the aforementioned discipline-
specific knowledge and skills could only engender a relevant and active
learning activity for students. The ultimate object is the interaction between
exegesis, hermeneutics and homiletics through practical hermeneutical
knowledge. Its alignment with the specific intentional learning outcomes
(ILOs), an academically, relevant and applicable sermon, is the main
objective. PTL 402 and PTL 602 engender learning through different sense
modalities: hearing, sight and speech: “The more one modality reinforces
another, the more effective the learning” (Biggs & Tang, 2007:95). Peer
teaching plays a powerful role in the way of learning for the PTL 402 and
PTL 602 students:

Most people learn 95% of what they teach someone else; 80% of
what they use and do in real life; 70% of what they talk over with
others; and 50% of what they see and hear (Biggs & Tang 2007:96).

3.3 Liberal arts and academic values

A significant increase in results (from 18%; a=2.02 [T3] to 30%; a=4
[T1]) indicates that we perceive liberal arts and academic values as an
essential prerequisite in PTL 402/PTL 602 teaching and learning activities.
The premise of the PTL 402 and PTL 602 courses lies in a practical
theological philosophy of interdisciplinarity. Interdisciplinarity seeks to
construct a base of interconnected knowledge which in itself is based on
the student’s prior knowledge/practical knowledge. The course requires
students to acknowledge, research and apply scientific knowledge
from other social sciences and contextual realities. The entire course is
based on the principle of reconstruction of prior knowledge in relation to
new knowledge (Biggs & Tang 2007:93): “In deep learning, new learning
connects with old, so teaching should emphasize the interconnectedness
of topics”. PTL 402 and PTL 602 aim to improve the scope of learning to
transcend discipline-specific knowledge, but to incorporate, for example,
insights from the student’s socio-economic, cultural and political contexts.
Reconceptualization leads to intrinsic motivation and consequently deep
learning. The in-time and in-context learning activity and peer assessment

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create an expectancy-value theory. Teaching is based on a relational

(fostering a motivational context) and an extended abstract structure (Biggs
& Tang 2007:93). Teaching is structured and incorporates a continuous
and active practice of formative feedback (Biggs & Tang 2007:94).

3.4 Work and career preparation

A slight decreased number of results (from 26%; a=2.5 [T3] to 25%; a=3.88
[T1]) indicates work and career preparation as essential for teaching and
learning activities as an appropriate motivational context.

3.5 Basic academic success skills

A significantly decreased percentage of results (from 22%; a=2.29 [T3]
to 11%; a=3.22 [T1]) indicates that basic academic success skills should
play an essential part in teaching and learning activities as an appropriate
motivational context.

3.6 Personal development

A significantly decreased percentage of results (from 28%; a=2.41 [T3]
to 11%; a=3.67 [T1]) indicates that personal development should play an
essential part in teaching and learning activities.
It could be concluded that teaching and learning activities in the PTL
402 and PTL 602 courses focus more on higher order thinking skills and
discipline-specific knowledge and skills (38%; a=4.38/13). The difference
between the results in Table 3 (45%; a=3.09) and Table 1 (38%; a=4.38) on
higher order thinking skills indicates that this aspect needs more emphasis.
The results on the discipline-specific knowledge and skills seem to be on
average with those in Table 3. The increased attention to liberal arts and
academic values (from 18%; a=2.02 [T3] to 30%; a=4 [T1]) could be the
result of a renewed emphasis on interdisciplinary teaching and learning
activities within the Department of Practical Theology. Work and career
preparation (26%; a=2.5 [T3] and 25%; a=3.88 [T1]) seem to be on par.
However, basic academic skills (from 22%; a=2.29 [T3] to 11%; a=3.22
[T1]) will have to receive renewed attention and redress if excellence in
TLAs and deep learning is to be realised. Personal development does
not receive sufficient attention in the TLAs (28%; a=2.41 [T3] compared
to 11%; a=3.67 [T1]). The rationale could be that it receives or should
receive attention throughout the entire curriculum within the entire
Faculty. However, the results may indicate that such a crucial aspect may

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Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

be overlooked in teaching and learning activities. The three top teaching

and learning goals in Table 2 indicate that Wise decisions or discernment
(n=52), Analytic skills (n=2) and the Value of the subject (n=21) point to the
Department’s preference in its teaching activities, which could be ascribed
to the nature of the PTL 402 and PTL 602 courses, regarding the high level
and requirement for excellence in exegesis, hermeneutics and homiletics
through practical hermeneutical knowledge.

4. ANALYSING AND IMPROVING TEACHING AND

LEARNING PRACTICES
The Student Course Experience Questionnaire (adapted from the
University of Oxford) was designed to evaluate students’ experiences of
their learning context (PTL 402 and PTL 602). It was based on the way in
which they perceive key aspects of their learning context in relation to the
quality of their learning approach and to the outcomes of their learning.
The collected results from this inventory provided valuable information
on how students experience our module in terms of teaching, learning
outcomes, assessment, workload and motivation.
The PTL 402 and PTL 602 modules form the foci for interdisciplinary
and cooperative teaching and learning in the Department of Practical
Theology. The quality of teaching, learning, assessment, and outcomes
tasks should guide the construction of transformative teaching towards
a deep learning environment for students. Teaching tasks should make
teaching transparent and facilitate deep learning for students (Ramsden
1995 in Adams 1995:5).

5. STUDENT COURSE EXPERIENCE

QUESTIONNAIRE
The Student Course Experience Questionnaire is designed to evaluate
students’ experiences of their learning environment based on the way
in which they perceive key aspects of their learning context related to
the quality of their learning approach and to their outcomes of learning
(Brüssouw 2010:31).
A survey was conducted on 23 September 2010 to evaluate students’
perceptions and experiences of their learning environment in the
homiletics classes. A random sample of 15 students from both the 4th-
and 5th-year class participated in the survey. The survey measured how
students experience our modules in terms of teaching, learning, outcomes,

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assessment, workload and motivation. The survey should help lecturers

reflect on the results and in decision-making:

A reflective emphasis on decision-making includes a conscious,

systematic, deliberate process of framing and re-framing classroom
practices, in light of the consequences of our actions, democratic
principles, educational beliefs, values and preferred visions teachers
bring to the teaching-learning experience (Serafini 2001 in Green
2006:2).

Future decision-making should take account of Serafini’s suggestions.

Table 4 illustrates the different scales and responses in the survey. The
following paragraph focuses on the analysis and interpretation of the
student survey results and lessons learnt.

5.1 Student survey results and lessons learnt

Table 4 represents the combined responses of students in the PTL 402
and PTL 602 programmes. The general results (n=216; 43% and n=46; 9%)
could be regarded as positive and acceptable. However, the remaining
results (n=132; 26%; n=92; 18% and n=17; 3%) are cause for concern
regarding students’ learning and our teaching practices. The respective
responses for Clear outcomes, Appropriate workload, Appropriate
assessment and even Generic skills are of concern. The number of
students who agreed (n=27; 37%) and those who strongly agreed (n=5;
7%) that our teaching tasks adhere to clear outcomes represents only 41%
of the total percentage of students who have a clear understanding and
positive experience of the validity of the intentional teaching outcomes.
The fact that significant numbers of students (n=21; 28%) were
undecided (n=17; 23%) and disagreed, and that a small number (n=4;
5%) even strongly disagreed on the notion of clear outcomes represents
56% of the students’ perception and actual experience that our teaching
does not demonstrate clear outcomes. During a debriefing session on 13
May 2010, the students requested the team of lecturers to use a rubric for
their evaluation and critique of the students’ class sermons and preaching
action. The students identified the need for a concrete critique evaluation
method, for instance, step-by-step suggestions of what they did wrong
and how they could improve their preaching. The team of lecturers were
asked to explain their manner of critique with examples or guidelines
from their own practices of the ministry of preaching. The students called
for a collective teaching strategy: “[T]he simultaneous class feedback
of three or four lecturers can be overwhelming; the manner of critique
makes a difference; we need a safe space for feedback; and require one

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Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

lecturer to guide us in our exegetical work two weeks before the class”.
The department will progress if the aforegoing recommendations of the
majority of the students are addressed.
The fact that only 7% (n=5) of the students strongly agreed calls for
critical and transformative reflection-on-teaching tasks. The Department
will progress if it addresses the needs of the students and applies some
of the principles of constructive alignment. The alignment of exegetical,
hermeneutical and homiletical teaching tasks with students’ learning
context is required. This may assist in fostering student capacities as well
as in attending to the prescribed guidelines on curriculum development at
the University of the Free State.
Responses to the question on the appropriate workload scale are
alarming: 39% (n=30) of students disagreed, 3% (n=2) strongly disagreed
and 31% (n=24) of the students remained undecided on whether their
workload is appropriate in relation to the total weight of their learning
activities. It could be argued that the Department overemphasises
content coverage instead of focusing on deep and reflective learning. The
majority of students indicated during the debriefing session that they were
overtaxed by all the study requirements of the different departments in
the  Faculty.
Less than half of the students (n=19; 25%) agreed and only 3% (n=2)
strongly agreed that their workload promotes an appropriate motivational
learning context. The fact that only 3% (n=2) of the students strongly
agreed that their workload is conducive for progressive and qualitative
learning may indicate that students are overloaded with content. This
could limit their learning space, capacity development and ability for deep
learning. This may also explain their lack of critical reflection and ability to
integrate the different sub disciplines’ theories into the PTL 402 and PTL
602 modules. The Department was of the opinion that its assessment tasks
were clear and effective. However, only 7% (n=4) of the students agreed
and 2% (n=1) strongly agreed with its current assessment practice; 33%
(n=19) of the students were undecided, and more than half of the students
(n=29; 51%) emphatically disagreed, while 7% (n=4) strongly disagreed.
Homiletic teaching tasks lack a clear and appropriate assessment task
and need to be redesigned. This result correlates with students’ perception
regarding the aforementioned responses on clear outcomes in the PTL 402
and PTL 602 modules. The aforegoing results raise a serious concern in
that students’ learning needs, expectancies and experiences are not being
met with reference to the module’s outcomes, workload and assessment
activities. This requires a redress that could engender an appropriate
learning environment and quality teaching and learning activities that may

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raise students’ learning capacities. The development of an appropriate and

effective assessment rubric is required. This should provide both lecturers
and students with a clear theoretical and practical framework of the
teaching, learning, activities, outcomes and assessment tasks. Practical
knowledge/deep learning necessitates appropriate assessment that
correlates with relevant and practical concepts and philosophies. It is the
art of relating new material to what students already know and understand.
The lecturer should create conditions that stimulate learning – allowing
mistakes without imposing penalties (Biggs & Tang 2007:7). The identity
and integrity of the lecturer support and promote rewarding students’ effort
instead of their abilities. Deep learning embodied by integrity engenders
consistent and fair assessment which correlates with the intended learning
outcomes. Ultimately, the lecturers’ capacity in establishing trust validates
their teaching and learning activities. Constructive alignment provides a
structured reflective framework to anchor teaching decisions in achieving
or assessing the intended learning outcomes (Biggs & Tang 2007:11).
The following responses provide building blocks to improve on the
abovementioned results. Students seem to regard their levels in generic
skills, motivation and satisfaction with the module as acceptable: 56% of
the students agreed and 8% strongly agreed that the module is actively
developing their generic skills in exegesis, hermeneutics and homiletics,
while a minority either disagreed (n=3; 4%) or strongly disagreed (n=2;
3%). The number of students (n=20; 28%) who remained undecided could
be attributed to the abovementioned negative perceptions or experiences
of students. The ideal is that PTL 402 and PTL 602 should at all times
engender the necessary generic skills in exegesis, hermeneutics and
homiletics – it is the culmination point where the content of the different
theological disciplines should overlap and converge (Osmer 2008). The
fact that only 8% of the students strongly agreed on this point is not
acceptable – this factor requires redress.
The majority of students (n=50; 66% and n=12; 16%) indicated that
they either agree or strongly agree that teaching tasks have increased their
motivation levels. However, the Department needs to increase students’
motivational levels for learning. The classroom atmosphere has to be
changed to create an atmosphere of worship and faith community. The
requests by some of the students for continuous formative assessment
in the development of their liturgical and homiletical assignments should
be addressed by the introduction of a team of permanent and part-time
lecturers who could facilitate the process (Osmer 2008). The students’
satisfaction levels may indicate that the Department has attained a
measure of success in this regard. This can substantiated by the responses

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Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

of some of the students indicating that “the homiletics classes were an

improvement and more learner friendly in relation to the previous year”.
Similarly, significant percentages of students (56%; n=31 and 15%;
n=8) agreed and strongly agreed that the Department’s teaching activities
are conducive for their collective satisfaction levels, respectively; 20%
(n=11) of the students were undecided, while only 5% (n=3) disagreed and
4% (n=2) strongly disagreed.
The fact that the Department is the first in the Faculty to apply a
pragmatic interdisciplinary and intradisciplinary approach should foster
greater student motivation and satisfaction in future learning tasks.
The Department embarked on a deliberate interdisciplinary approach
in establishing an integrative homiletics teaching praxis that consists
of New Testament, Old Testament, and Systematic Theology lecturers.
Intradisciplinary initiatives consist of regular departmental seminars and
workshops on the different fields of study in practical theology, particularly
homiletics. Specialists in communication, speech quality facilitators
and local church ministers (as reflective practitioners) form part of the
integrative and collaborative team of lecturers in assisting student learning
experiences. Interdisciplinary work has also been extended in cooperation
with other social sciences which consist of various disciplines in other
faculties at the University of the Free State. Gardner (in Osmer 2008:224)
refers to the aforementioned initiatives as the development of educational
pathways that “allow students to deepen their knowledge, attitudes,
and skills over time”. Collaboration in designing educational pathways
engenders the development and depth of introductory courses in relation
to higher level courses:

An upper-level course in preaching ... may build on empirical

research skills acquired in an introductory course on congregation
studies. An advanced course in Christian education may build on
a communication model learned in a required preaching course
(Osmer 2008:224).

The outcome is to develop students’ critical thinking, reflective

judgement, creativity, and skills in the practice of the ministry of preaching
(Osmer 2008:225).
It could be concurred that the more positive results are sufficient
leverage in developing a teaching and learning atmosphere for deep
learning. It requires transformational reflection for deep teaching, learning
outcomes and assessment tasks. A constructive alignment of teaching,
learning (outcomes) and assessment tasks is required in fostering
practical hermeneutical knowledge. The Department should guard

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against overemphasising content coverage. Two learning outcomes,

as defined by Osmer (2008), should be introduced, namely to focus on
developing students’ task competencies in preaching and knowledge,
attitude, and skills development in practical theological interdisciplinary
and intradisciplinary interpretation. Teaching and learning quality could
improve if some of the following pedagogical strategies as proposed by
Osmer (2008:226-230) are applied:
•• Focusing on modelling and student performances in teaching the
pragmatic task in a context of diversity.
•• Mind maps, case studies, action research – action learning and
critical incident reports to practice practical theological interpretation
regarding episodes, situations, contexts.
•• Repetitive question-asking (teaching for understanding through
public assessment) to integrate task competence and practical
theological interpretation.
•• Theories of interpretation linked with case studies/critical incidents
or practice (interpretive and pragmatic tasks for adaptive challenges).
•• Portfolio of performance and self-reflection.
By applying Osmer’s (2008) teaching and learning strategies, the
Department would be enabled to align learning outcomes and assessment
tasks with its teaching tasks – to foster a learning environment
conducive for the appropriate teaching and learning atmosphere. Current
interdisciplinary and intradisciplinary teaching and learning tasks should
be expanded with reflective and modelling teaching communities and
small learning communities of student peer groups. Formal and informal
formative teaching and learning practices should become part of the
Department’s pedagogical approach. Faculty as a whole should interact
with their respective discipline fields with the Department in a more
transformative manner in realising alignment of the different teaching
and learning activities through a core methodology, such as (practical)
theological interpretation and action. The goal is to shift from a teacher-
centred approach to a learner-centred approach and, ultimately, to a
learning-centred approach (Long 2008:16).

5.2 Becoming reflective practitioners

We have to become “reflective practitioners” (Schon 1983 in Biggs &
Tang 2007:41, 43) to compare our own teaching with our respective
educational experience and theories (Kuit, Reay & Freeman 2001:130).

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Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

It will assist faculties in dealing with the disparities in student survey

results. Our own teaching and learning assumptions would also be
exposed (Brookfield 2002:36). We should “re-adjust” our teaching theories
through a continuous reiterative questioning process to attain an accurate
teaching and learning praxis (Kuit, Reay & Freeman 2001:130-131). The
integration of action research and action learning in teaching tasks could
assist in systematically changing “surface” teaching patterns on the basis
of the above and future research results. This may motivate deep learning
activities or practical knowledge in students (Biggs & Tang 2007:43-44).
We need to develop explicit and well-structured pedagogical theological
theories (Biggs & Tang 2007:44). Osmer’s (2008:4) theory of practical
theological interpretation with regard to descriptive-empirical, interpretive,
normative and pragmatic tasks could prove appropriate in this instance.
It became apparent that students suffer under the current workload. This
situation could foster a Theory X (surface) learning atmosphere, whereas
a Theory Y (deep learning/practical knowledge) atmosphere is preferred
as the appropriate option. A Theory Y climate would enable more time for
student reflection, and eliminate or decrease anxiety and cynicism among
students. We need to apply the principles and practices of constructive
alignment and a centric reflective framework (reflection-for-action;
reflection-in-action, and reflection-on-action) in terms of egocentricism
(view of self), allocentrism (view of student) and macrocentrism (view of
professional and content standards) (Biggs & Tang 2007:46; Green 2006:2-
7). The centric reflective framework is a practical tool that could provide
continuous reflection and assessment of the reality and preferred ideal in
teaching practices. We should also address diversity, complexity, as well as
historical, cultural and political values or beliefs in framing and re-framing
practical problems to which solutions should be sought (Gore & Zeichner
1991 in Hatton & Smith 2006:3). Structured reflection for sound teaching
supports the development of “a growth competence in internally directed
learning” (Korthagen & Vasalos 2005:48). The Department will do well to
build on the positive experience of students regarding their motivational
levels. This could sustain deep learning; maintain quality engagement
during the learning process between lecturer and student (Biggs & Tang
2007:48), and develop students’ competencies, professional identities
and self-directing learning capacities (Korthagen & Vasalos 2005:52-
53, 68). Biggs and Tang (2007:91-92) propose the following intentional
learning outcome activities as general characteristics for good teaching
and learning contexts, namely an appropriate motivational context; well-
structured knowledge base; relevant learner activity; formative feedback;
reflective practice, and self-monitoring activities. These factors could
instil consistency; interconnection between the known and the new; peer

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Acta Theologica 2012:2

teaching; whole-class interactive teaching; self- and peer assessment;

cooperative learning, and monitoring the construction site (Biggs & Tang
2007:97).

6. A WAY FORWARD
Deliberate and sustained reflection and action is required to improve self-
directed student learning activities – it should not be based on silo teaching
practices. This could be realised by implementing action learning, action
research, engagement with a critical friend, drama, role play, journal-
keeping, mentoring, mind maps, peer observation, teaching, storytelling
as well as teaching and learning networks (Hall 1996; Osmer 2008). The
Department’s homiletic workshops should be expanded to support its
teaching efforts in developing and strengthening students’ knowledge,
attitude and skills in practical theological interpretation and action.
PTL 402 and PTL 602 are structured and aligned within an appropriate
motivational context and an inherent formative assessment activity
and reciprocal learning environment. Experience has taught that
the aforementioned teaching practice leads to “the most powerful
enhancement of learning” (Biggs & Tang 2007:97). The entire teaching and
learning activities are structured to enhance interactive teaching. Self- and
peer assessment as well as cooperative learning are inherent activities.
PTL 402 can basically be characterised by learning from error. Students
do find it difficult to make connections between exegesis, hermeneutics
and homiletics. Misconceptions occur often and are redressed on a
continuous basis. The motivational context of PTL 402 and PTL 602
correlates with a Theory Y climate. Students are generally spontaneous
in their peer assessments and participation in reciprocal learning activity
– this fosters a climate of admitting errors. The lecturer’s positive rapport
facilitates public correction as acceptable and appreciative by students
(Biggs & Tang 2007:97-98).

7. CONCLUSION
The aim of this article was to study the author’s teaching praxis based
on the action learning and action research methodology. Both qualitative
(ALAR) and quantitative research methods were applied to collect evidence
of both the lecturer’s teaching and assessment and the students’ learning
activities. The objective was to seek the improvement of the teaching/
learning practice through a collaborative strategy. A constructionist theory
of learning and alignment in teaching was proposed to develop intended
learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities. The lecturer’s

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Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

teaching goals were analysed using the Teaching Goals Inventory (TGI).
One of the findings illustrated that teaching and learning activities in the
PTL 402 and PTL 602 courses focuses more on higher order thinking
skills and discipline-specific knowledge and skills. The Student Course
Experience Questionnaire was utilised to evaluate students’ experiences
of their learning context. Results indicated that there is sufficient leverage
in developing a teaching and learning atmosphere for deep learning/
practical reasoning. Transformational reflection for deep teaching,
learning outcomes and assessment tasks towards practical hermeneutical
reasoning are called for. Contemporary lecturers are required to become
“reflective practitioners” to compare their own teaching with respective
educational experience and student-centred learning.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, K.L.
1995. The critical incident questionnaire: A critical reflective teaching tool.
California State University, Fresno. Available at http://www.exchangesjournal.
org/ [accessed 5 June 2010].

Biggs, J. & Tang, C.

2007. Teaching for quality learning at university. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill: Society for
Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

Brookfield, S.D.
2002. Using the lenses of critically reflective teaching in the community college
classroom. New Directions for Community Colleges 118, Summer. Wiley
Periodicals, Inc.

Brüssow, S.
2010. Facilitation of learning in practice. Unpublished class notes, University of
the Free State.

Carr, W.
2006a. Philosophy, methodology and action. Journal of Philosophy of Education
40(4):421-435. Available at http://0-onlinelibrary.wiley.com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/
doi/10.1111/jope.2006.40.issue-4/issuetoc [2012, 30 July].
2006b. Action research: Understanding the theory of action. Unpublished
workshop material. University of Stellenbosch, 22 September: Centre for Higher
and Adult Education.

Green, K.
2006. No novice teacher left behind: Guiding novice teachers to improve decision-
making through structured questioning. Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban
Education 4(1):1-9. Available at http://www.urbanedjournal.org [2010, 10 June].

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Hall, S.
1997. Forms of reflective teaching practice in higher education. In: R. Pospisil &
L. Willcoxson (eds.), Learning through teaching. Proceedings of the 6th Annual
Teaching Learning Forum, Murdoch University, February 1997. Perth: Murdoch
University:124-131. Available at http://lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf1997/hall1.html
[2010, 1 June].

Hatton, N. & Smith, D.

2006. Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation.
School of Teaching and Curriculum Studies. The University of Sydney. Australia.

Heitink, G.
1979. Pastoraat als hulpverlening. Inleiding in de pastorale theologie en
psychologie. Kampen: J.H. Kok.

Korthagen, F. & Vasalos, A.

2005. Levels in reflection: Core reflection as a means to enhance professional
growth. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice 11(1):47-71.

Kuit, J.A., Reay, G. & Freeman, R.

2001. Experiences of reflective teaching. London /New Delhi: SAGE Publications
2(2):128-142.

Long, T.G.
2008. A new focus for teaching preaching. In: T.G. Long & L.T. Tisdale (eds.)
Teaching preaching as a Christian practice. (Louisville: Westminister John Knox
Press) pp. 3-17.

Osmer, R.R.
2008. Practical theology. An introduction. Michigan: Eerdmans.

Seigel, S.
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scalingtheheights.com/Constructive Alignment [2010, 20 June].

Zuber-Skerrit, O.
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AusAID-funded Seminar.

Keywords Trefwoorde
Teaching and learning Onderrig en leer
Constructionist theory of Konstruksieteorie in leer en
learning and alignment in teaching belyning in onderrig
Action learning and action research Aksieleer en aksienavorsing
Preaching practice Preekpraktyk
Practical knowledge Praktiese wysheid

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Dames Enhancing of teaching and learning through constructive alignment

APPENDIX A
Table 1: The lecturer’s teaching goals

Cluster Goals Percent Mean

included rated rating
in cluster “essential”
I. Higher order thinking skills 1-8 38% 4.38
III. Discipline-specific knowledge and skills 18-25 38% 4.13
IV. Liberal arts and academic values 26-35 30% 4.00
V. Work and career preparation 36-43 25% 3.88
II. Basic academic success skills 9-17 11% 3.22
VI. Personal development 55-52 11% 3.67
(http://fm.iowa.uiowa.edu/fmi/xsl/tgi/dataentry.xsl?-db=tgidata&-lay=Layout01+-view)

Table 2: Top priority teaching goals

Teaching Arts Hum Eng B.Sk Soc. Bus. Med. Sci. Math
goal Sci
(TGI #)
Wise 70%
decisions
(52)
Analytical 66% 73%
skills (2)
Value of 56% 52%
subject
(21)
(http://fm.iowa.uiowa.edu/fmi/xsl/tgi/dataentry.xsl?-db=tgidata&-lay=Layout01+-view)

Table 3: TGI model of teaching goals

Mean cluster ratings (M) and percent (%) “essential” ratings

Four-year colleges Community colleges
TGI cluster M % M %
I. Higher order thinking skills 3.05 43 3.09 45
III. Discipline-specific 2.86 37 2.83 36
VI Personal development 2.28 25 2.41 28
V. Work and career 2.27 21 2.50 26
IV. Liberal arts 2.16 21 2.20 18
II. Basic skills 2.12 18 2.29 22
(http://fm.iowa.uiowa.edu/fmi/xsl/tgi/dataentry.xsl?-db=tgidata&-lay=Layout01+-view)

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 Table 4: Student Course Experience Questionnaire

Scales Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Total of each

disagree agree scale
Good Teaching Scale n=3; 3% n=6; 6% n=27; 29% n=45; 48% n=12; 13% n=93; 100%
(GTS)
Acta Theologica

Clear Outcomes Scale n=4; 5% n=17; 23% n=21; 28% n=27; 37% n=5; 7% n=74; 100%
(CGS)
Appropriate Workload n=2; 3% n=30; 39% n=24; 31% n=19; 25% n=2; 3% n=77; 100%
Scale (AWS)
Appropriate Assessment n=4; 7% n=29; 51% n=19; 33% n=4; 7% n=1; 2% n=57; 100%
Scale (AAS)
Generic Skills Scale (GSS) n=2; 3% n=3; 4% n=20; 28% n=40; 56% n=6; 8% n=71; 100%

53
Motivation Scale (MS) n=0 n=4; 5% n=10; 13% n=50; 66% n=12; 16% n=76; 100%

Satisfaction with the n=2; 4% n=3; 5% n=11; 20% n=31; 56% n=8; 15% n=55; 100%
module
Total of general results: n=17; 3% n=92; 18% n=132; 26% n=216; 43% n=46; 9% n=503; 100%

Source: http://ceq.oucs.ox.ac.uk/
2012:2