DESALINATION

ELSEVIER Desalination 152 (2002) 133-140

www.elsevier.com/locate/desal

Chemical impacts from seawater desalination plants - a case

study of the northern Red Sea

Thomas Hoepner*, Sabine Lattemann

Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), University of Oldenburg,
D-26111 Oldenburg Escherweg, I, ARSU GmbH Oldenburg, Germany
Tel. +49 (441) 301779; Fax +49 (441) 3046903; email: [email protected]

Received 10 April 2002; accepted 25 April 2002

Abstract

Seawater desalination facilities range from heavy coastal industry to small local plants, with the majority being
either thermal multi-stage flash (MSF) or membrane-based reverse osmosis (RO) plants. Irrespective of the process,
pretreatment chemicals are added to the intake water to improve plant performance. Furthermore, corrosion cannot
be entirely prevented and heavy metals add to the chemical load of the brines, which are discharged to the marine
environment. For impact assessment, information about chemical loads as well as the sensitivity of the impacted
ecosystem is required. Loads of selected chemicals were estimated for 2 1 plant locations in the Red Sea including
the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez. Locations were identified from the 2000 IDA Worldwide Desalting Plants
Inventory Report and localized on GIS data maps from the World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC). Their
combined capacity exceeds 1.5 million m3/d, with approximately 1.2 million m3/d from MSF and 0.38 million m3/d
from RO plants. Based on these figures, the daily chemical discharge amounts to 2,708 kg chlorine, 36 kg copper
and 9,478 kg antiscalants, when effluent concentrations of 0.25 ppm, 0.015 ppm and 2 ppm are assumed, respectively.
The sensitivity of the Red Sea and the Gulf ofAqaba to chemical loads is discussed and comparisons to the Arabian
Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea are drawn.

Keywords: Red Sea; Chlorine; Copper; Antiscalants

*Corresponding author.

Presented at the EuroMed 2002 conference on Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean Countries:
Cooperation between Mediterranean Countries of Europe and the Southern Rim of the Mediterranean.
Sponsored by the European Desalination Society and Alexandria University Desalination Studies and Technology
Center, Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, May 4-6, 2002.

001 l-9164/02/$- See front matter 0 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
PIESOOll-9164(02)01056-1
134 Th. Hoepner, S. Lattemann / Desalination 152 (2002) 133-140

1. Introduction of land-based pollution in the UNEP regional seas

report for the Red Sea [6]. It must be expected
Provision of potable water by seawater desali-
that the number and capacity of desalination
nation is generally considered a benefit despite
plants will increase in the future and we point to
high construction and operating costs of plants.
the fact that their discharges do not adhere to the
This is especially true when conventional sources
national boundaries of the countries surrounding
of freshwater are absent or cannot be exploited
the Red Sea.
without severe environmental damage. Whoever
is familiar with the situation in arid countries
knows that desalination plants are often large
2. The Red Sea - a brief portrait
industrial facilities, which consume space and
emit substantial amounts of combustion gases. It The very recent, compact and expert portrait
is also known that potable water production means by Sheppard [7] allows keeping this section short.
emitting a concentrate into the sea, into the ground The Red Sea, 2,200 km long, 300-400 km wide
or into evaporation ponds. However, a generally and an average 490 m deep, has only a restricted
less noted fact is that this concentrate contains water exchange with other regional seas. In the
not only the contents of the seawater taken in, north, it is connected to the also semi-enclosed
but also additives (or their conversion products) Mediterranean via the Channel of Suez, whereas
necessary for the desalting process and corrosion the southern end leads into the open ocean. This
by-products [ 1,2]. strait, referred to as the Bab El Mandeb, is only
The response of the impacted marine eco- 29 km wide and 130 m deep, thus forming a narrow
system depends on its sensitivity [3] and the sill between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
magnitude of the impact, which in turn depends The annual evaporation, which is equivalent to
on factors such as distance, transport direction l-2 m in the Red Sea, is almost exclusively replaced
and dilution. Small enclosed or semi-enclosed through the Bab El Mandeb since rainfall and
seas may be understood as entire ecosystems, freshwater input are negligible. Besides this net
although sub-ecosystems may be defined and inflow, a wind driven inward surface current exists
examined separately [3]. For example, one half that is partially balanced by an outward bottom
of the world’s seawater desalination capacity is current. These moderately strong flows correspond
located in the Arabian Gulf and overall impacts to moderate turnover times of 6 years for the
on this enclosed sea may be considered in addition surface layer and 200 years for the whole water
to local effects on certain biotopes. In contrast, body. Consequently, seawater constituents have
the accumulation of desalination plants [4] on the either relatively long residence times or remain
Canary Islands [S] will not produce measurable in the Red Sea, which can therefore be classified
effects on the Atlantic Ocean as a whole, but as a sink for many compounds of natural or
distinct coastal ecosystems may be affected by anthropogenic origin.
the discharge. To discuss impacts from desalination plants,
This report focuses on the northern Red Sea, it is helpful to subdivide the Red Sea into different
which can be characterized as a semi-enclosed water bodies, which, in a first approach, can be
body of water with very limited exchange to the treated separately. As mentioned before, the water
open ocean. Furthermore, it is known for its column of the Red Sea is stratified with the result
outstanding scenery and marine diversity, but also of different turnover times for the surface layer
its fragile biological habitats. We draw our and the deep water. A pycnocline separates both
conclusions from the existing desalination plants layers in a depth of about 250-300 m throughout
[4], which are already considered a major source the year. A second but vertical subdivision can be
 Th. Hoepnel; S. Lattemann /Desalination 152 (2002) 133-140 135

made between the nutrient-deprived northern

parts and the south, which is influenced by and
replenished with oceanic water. However, the
border between these areas is indistinct and must
be more accurately described as a transition zone.
A clear line of demarcation exists between the
Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea, which is the
shallow, 250 m deep Strait of Tiran. The transition
horn the Gulf of Aqaba to the Red Sea is a reduced
version of the transition from the Red Sea to the
ocean. This double semi-enclosure makes the Gulf
of Aqaba one of the most delicate places for
desalination. Unfortunately, this region is also one
of the few urban and industrial centers in the study
area where the water demand is high and new
plants are under preparation. Interestingly, the
Gulf of Suez is completely different. It is far
n 5*.nnl~ 170,4x0 A 3w3ol -441,327
shallower, with the sea being only 70 m deep near
its southern opening, and the lack of a submarine Fig. 1. Locations of MSF and RO seawater desalination
sill accounts for a good water exchange with the plants in the northern Red Sea (capacities based on [4];
Red Sea. The vertical, nutrient-governed division data on coastline, corals and mangrove areas copyright to
of the Red Sea into a northern and a southern half PI).
has its ecological analogy. While the north is
characterized by a fringe of coral reefs along the
coastline, the south is dominated by fine-grained
sediments and associated mangroves, seaweeds
and calcareous algae. So far, no scientific basis
exists that allows for a conclusion which of the
two parts is more sensitive to desalination plant
discharges.

3. Loads and localization of desalination

discharges
Our approach to identify areas of conflict
between the desalination industry and sensitive
marine sub-ecosystems is the production of conflict
maps. Results for the Red Sea are presented in A 500.2,am A &-I,5al
2,001~5,ow 1.501~ I5Jxm
Figs. 1 and 2, which are based on Geographic 5.001- 20,ow 15,MI - 1so.Lm

Information System (GIS) data layers of coral 4 2U,tJol- so.oixJ 150,oN - 300,Mo WCMC Calrafs

reefs and mangrove areas available from the

World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC) Fig. 2. Locations of MSF and RO seawater desalination
[8]. To these delicate ecological structures, point plants in the southern Red Sea (capacities based on [4];
themes were added showing locations and capacities data on coastline, corals and mangrove areas copyright to
of seawater desalination plants. The maps of the [81).
136 Th. Hoepner; S. Lattemann /Desalination 152 (2002) 133-I40

study area thus include 2 1 plant locations with a point to the fact that local conditions may be
total desalination capacity of 1,579,664 m3/d, of altered depending on how the brine is discharged
which 96% are distributed along the shoreline of (e.g. discharge volumes, location of the outlet,
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Gulf ofAqaba waste stream blending, etc.). A significant increase
has an installed capacity of 30,171 m3/d (2% of in salinity may not be tolerated even by organisms
the total) compared to only 4,225 m3/d in the Gulf that are otherwise adapted to high values, such as
of Suez, not including the plants in Hurghada and 42.5 g/l or more in the northern parts of the Red
Sharm El Sheikh with a production ,of 10,500 and Sea. The ambient level may already be close to
22,900 m3/d respectively. So far, no difference was the physiological limit of endemic species [9, lo],
made between thermal and RO plants. and salinity was stressed as an important environ-
Within the entire study area, MSF desalination mental factor even for relatively hardy marine
is the dominant process with an installed production species [ll]. Regarding brine components, we
of 1,203,489 m3/d potable water, whereas the RO select chlorine, copper and antiscalants for an
market share amounts to only 376,175 m3/d or estimate of chemical loads from the given desali-
approximately one fourth of the total. The dis- nation capacities. Capacities are assumed to equal
tribution of capacities is even more imbalanced one tenth of the intake seawater in MSF plants
when only thermal plants are considered, as Saudi and one third in the RO process respectively, i.e.
Arabia contributes more than 99% to total MSF recovery rates are 10 and 33.33%.
capacities. Regarding RO, 86% oftotal capacities
are located in Saudi Arabia. This high share in
3.1. Chlorine
potable waterproduction is mostly due to five major
urban areas, namely Yanbu, Medina (Fig. l), Jeddah, For chlorine concentrations in the outlet from
Makkah/Taif and Assir (Fig. 2), which account MSF-plants we find, for example, the following
for 98% of thermal and 81% of RO capacities in data: 0.2 ppm [12], 0.25 ppm [13,14], 0.5 ppm
the Red Sea. However, it should be noted that these [ 15,161, and 0.4-0.45 ppm [ 171. Expecting that
figures only represent the data shown in Figs. 1 chlorine doses will decrease in the future because
and 2. This information is complete as far asArabian of economic and ecological reasons, we assume
plant locations given in [4] could be matched to that 0.25 ppm is a reasonable value. Chlorine is also
locations in commercial geographical maps and used in RO plants to control biofouling. However,
atlases. Major uncertainty must be expressed about modern RO plants often operate on polyamide
Egyptian plants, as only 68% of the RO and less membranes, which are sensitive to oxidizing
than 1% of the MSF seawater desalination capacity chemicals, such as chlorine, and neutralization of
could be identified. It cannot be ruled out that residual chlorine levels is required before the feed
these plants are located in the Red Sea, but they water enters the RO unit. Therefore, the following
might also be on the Mediterranean shoreline of estimate of chlorine discharge is solely based on
Egypt. The estimated chemical loads should the installed thermal capacity in the Red Sea.
therefore be considered as minimal values. Assuming a chlorine discharge of 0.25 ppm
Our interest is the discharge of brine components and a product/effluent ratio of 1:9 (Fig. 3), a fixed
from both thermal and RO plants. In this context, ratio of 2.25 kg/d chlorine per 1,000 m3/d can be
we focus on the loads of additives and corrosion established between product capacity and chlorine
products [l] rather than the concentrate itself. As load. This value can be modified according to
salinity levels in the study area are primarily con- better knowledge, but we believe it is a reasonable
trolled by the arid climate and a high evaporation guideline. The overall daily chlorine discharge
rate, brine discharges will have a negligible effect within the study area therefore amounts to
on the overall salinity distribution. However, we 2,708 kg. Evidently, the geographical distribution
 Th. Hoepner; S. Lattemann /Desalination 152 (2002) 133-140 137

maintain water quality and avoid toxic conditions.

I 10,000 m3 desalination plant intake I
In saltwater, short-term and long-term levels are

1
1 7,000 m3 cooling water 11
nntiscalants
1
3,000 m3 feedwater 1
0.0 13ppm and 0.0075 ppm, respectively [ 181.These
restrictions can be met, for example, by limiting
discharge concentrations to the same level. Even
more stringent criteria have been established in
California, where discharge of chlorine is not
allowed and residual levels in the effluent have
to be neutralized [ 191.

chlorine 1 1 copper, chlorine 3.2. Copper

9,000 m3 total efnuent

Copper concentrations in the brine of MSF
plants were reviewed by Oldfield and Todd [20],
who also pointed out that levels would be less
Fig. 3. MSF flow sheet for calculationof chemicalloads, than 100 ppb in modern plants with good process
based on a production of 1,000 m3 desalinated water. As
control. The lowest reported value was 15 ppb in
the total intake water is usually chlorinated, both
desalination plant cooling water and brine contain residual
the MSF plant in Al Jubail, Saudi Arabia [21],
chlorine levels (product/effluent ratio 1:9). Concentrations which is still above the short- and long-term water
for copper given in the text refer to brine contamination quality criteria of 4.8 ppb and 3.1 ppb as recom-
only. Although the cooling water is likely to be con- mended by the US EPA.
taminated, too, it is not included in the estimate due to We assume that a level of 15 ppb is realistic in
missing values (product/brine ratio 1:2). Antis&ants are present and future facilities, and an acceptable
added to the feed water in MSF plants (product/feed water basis to estimate copper loads. In this case, we
ratio 1:3)
apply it to MSF plants only for their use of copper-
nickel alloys as heat exchanger materials, while
of loads is defined by the pattern of desalination in the RO process non-metal equipment and stainless
capacities. If Saudi Arabia contributes 99% to the steels prevail. Furthermore, the given discharge
total thermal capacity it also contributes 99% to levels refer to brine and not the total effluent, which
total chlorine loads, with major amounts being is about one third brine and two thirds cooling
discharged in a few areas of high desalination water discharge from the desalination plant
capacity. (Fig. 3). Although the cooling water is likely to be
Following discharge, self-degradation and contaminated too, it is not included in our calculation
dilution cause a decline in environmental chlorine and copper loads are based on brine contamination
levels, but even low concentrations can have only. This approach will result in a conservative
adverse effects on aquatic life. Firstly, chlorine is estimate of copper input. In contrast to chlorine
a highly effective biocide (what is the purpose of loads, where the product/effluent ratio (1:9) was
the application), and secondly, it reacts with organic used because both cooling water and desalination
compounds in seawater. Thus, an immense number feed water are chlorinated, the product/brine ratio
of chlorinated and halogenated by-products are of 1:2 is assumed in the case of copper. As before,
formed, many of which are carcinogenic or other- a standard ratio between product capacity and
wise harmful to aquatic life. In the USA for example, chemical load is formed. Based on 30 g/d copper
chlorine is classified as a pollutant and concentra- output per 1,000 m3/d, the daily discharge amounts
tion limits are recommended by the Environmental to 36 kg in the study area, distributed as addressed
Protection Agency (EPA) for surface waters to in the case of chlorine.
138 Th. Hoepner, S. Lattemann / Desalination 152 (2002) 133-140

Copper is only one representative of the mani- to 2,257 kg/d in the entire study area. The combined
fold corrosion products, among which nickel, thermal and RO antiscalants load is 9,478 kg/d.
chromium, molybdenum and iron also play an As it is difficult to conduct trace analyses for
important role. The mere presence of copper does antiscalants, knowledge about their stability,
not necessarily mean that it will adversely affect residence times and ecotoxicity is limited. Standard
the environment. As copper is an essential micro- biodegradation tests (Zahn-Wellens-Test) revealed
nutrient for most organisms, it might only become that biodegradation of polymaleic acid is slow
toxic if excess amounts become biologically whereas polyacrylic acid is degraded almost three
available. A low brine contamination level of times faster (18 and 52% in 35 d respectively
15 ppb reduces the risk of toxic conditions for [23,24,25]). Polymer antiscalants have similar
aquatic life, and dispersion following discharge properties to natural humic matter or Gelbstoffe,
further decreases dissolved copper levels. Most which are common seawater constituents. Both
metal ions are also removed from the water column have high molecular weight, multiple carboxylic
by transport into sediments. The accumulation in groups, metal ion binding capacity and a high
sediments, however, is a major concern of point stability. In contrast, other characteristics, such as
discharges containing corrosion products, and aromatic groups and color cannot be found in anti-
stresses the importance of estimating total loads. sealants. LC,, values are relatively high (generally
From sediments, metals could be remobilized after exceeding 1,000 ppm [24,26]), which indicates a
a sudden change in environmental conditions, e.g. low toxicity and is far above the typical dosage in
from aerobic to anaerobic. desalination plants. It cannot be excluded, however,
that antiscalants limit the availability of biologically
3.3. Antiscalants essential trace metal ions.
The main representatives of antiscalants are
organic, carboxylic-rich polymers, such as poly-
4. Discussion
acrylic acid and polymaleic acid. Acids and poly-
phosphates, which are still in use at a limited scale A case study should deal with a common
but on the retreat, will be not discussed here. Anti- situation and should present transferable results.
scalants are used in both MSF and RO plants, The examined subject should be outside of actual
where a typical dose of 2 ppm is added to the pressure and should by no means be extreme or
feed water. Data for concentrations at the outlet unique. The selected brine components span an
is scarce, although a lower value of 0.8-l ppm is arc from hazardous substances such as chlorine
given in [22]. Since the material is relatively over potentially harmful compounds like copper
stable, we assume that the added 2 ppm also enter to the apparently tolerable risk related to antiscalants
the coastal water body along with the discharge. additives. The corresponding chemical loads vary
In thermal plants, the feed water to the desali- greatly, as does their environmental fate.
nation section is treated but not the cooling water, Effects of chlorine and copper will be most
which results in a product/feed water ratio of 1:3 noticeable in close distance to the outlets, as their
(Fig. 3). Consequently, the chemical load is 6 kg/d impact range is limited by processes, such as
for a production of 1,000 m3/d and 7,221 kg for dilution, self-decomposition of chlorine and
all thermal plants in the study area. For RO plants, transport of copper into sediments. However,
the same product/feed water ratio is assumed (cor- major concern must still be expressed over these
responding to a recovery of 33.33%), which also compounds in the discharge of MSF plants. This
results in the same load of 6 kg/d per 1,000 m3/d. conclusion is based on the high toxicity of chlorine
The RO antiscalants discharge therefore amounts even at low levels and the risk associated with
 Th. Hoepnel; S. Lattemann /Desalination 152 (2002) 133-140 139

copper accumulation in sediments. In this context, dispersion, for a long time and consequently will
a daily discharge of 2.7 t chlorine and 36 kg copper have detrimental effect on the marine life and
will not produce measurable effects in the Red Sea, habitats [6]. Furthermore, the political boundaries
but local effects may be high. This is especially true of the countries surrounding the Gulf ofAqaba make
for areas of high installed capacity, and it should the relocation of new projects into less susceptible
be noted that 98% of the calculated chlorine and coastal stretches almost impossible.
copper loads are discharged by five urban areas. The situation in the neighboring Arabian Gulf
The daily load of 9.4 t antiscalants by both is far more extreme and beyond the scope of a
MSF and RO plants seems high, but the environ- case study. Its installed seawater desalination
mental risk of these substances is relatively low capacity amounts to 7 million m3/d, or about one
compared to chlorine and copper. Antiscalants half of worldwide capacities. If only locations
have a relatively low toxicity and their environ- with a capacity of more than 500 m3/d are taken
mental fate is characterized by dilution, which into account, the total number of places is at least
further reduces any risk of negative effects. 45, with a peak value of 1.25 million m3/d potable
However, their poor degradability is a major water provided in Jubail, Saudi Arabia (data taken
drawback. As the Red Sea (and especially the north) from [4]). On the one hand, the Arabian Gulf has
is characterized by negligible terrestrial runoff, it more favorable flushing conditions than the Red
lacks substances like humic matter, which have Sea [9], on the other a counterclockwise ring-shaped
similar properties to antiscalants. Effects of anti- residual water current links all the locations, and
sealants discharge therefore requires further inves- the plants receive their feed water from a water
tigation, with focus on their residence times and body, which is under the influence of the upstream
interference with biologically essential trace metal plants.
ions. Similar to the Red Sea, sensitive ecological
It can be concluded that the conflict between features are located along the shoreline of the
Red Sea as acceptor and the desalination industry Arabian Gulf. The risk of damage to ecosystems
as source [l] of discharges is so far below a critical in close proximity to plants and especially their
level. However, Sheppard characterizes the Red outlets is at hand. However, a development with
Sea as a remarkable and very important area, more imminent consequences than those expected
which exhibits a species and biotope diversity from chemical discharges appears to be the
exceeding that of the ocean and the Mediterranean extended landfill activity, that destroys the
Sea [7]. The Red Sea is probably very susceptible shallow water biotopes even before a chemical
to disturbances and the accumulation of harmful damage occurs.
materials could have negative consequences for A deplorable example is the Bay of Tarut (Saudi
this unique environment. In this context, concern Arabia), which Basson et al. characterized as a key
must be expressed over increases in installed biotope of the Gulf [27] in 1981, but where the most
capacities as required for economic growth in the valuable parts are covered by huge landfills today,
region. Much of the rapid expansion of urban long before damages by industrial and urban dis-
centers in Saudi Arabia has been achieved through charges could become apparent.
the extensive use of desalinated water to meet The Mediterranean Sea has a comparatively
demands of the population and industry [6]. A low share in worldwide desalination capacities,
similar development will probably take place in especially if its size and length of coastline are
the Gulf ofAqaba, which was previously identified considered. The still low number of desalination
as one of the most sensitive places for desalination plants in most bordering countries is mainly due
discharges. Due to its geographic isolation, pol- to a relatively good availability of freshwater
lutants that enter the Gulf will remain, with little sources such as precipitation, surface and ground
140 Th. Hoepnec S. Lattemann / Desalination 152 (2002) 133-l 40

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