Glass production and processing

Chemical production and processing of glass

The main ingredient of glass is quartz, also known as silicon dioxide (SiO2). Sand acts as glass
foundation, by creating a glass web, with the help of color oxides. Due to coloring factors of color
oxides, sand can only contain 0.01 – 0.03% of iron oxide. Quartz is the main ingredient of almost all
types of glass and it sets the basic properties and structure of glass. To make glass production
cheaper, sand is mixed with additives like soda (Na3CO3). This lowers the high melting point of the
quartz. Limestone (CaCO3) is added to sand and soda to increase structural integrity and chemical
resistance.

Technical production and processing of glass

Waste glass is added to finely grinded materials in quantities ranging from 20-50%. This mixture is
then melted in the furnace by generator gas. The melting procedure is vital for the later purity of the
glass. After sintering – i.e. the compacting and forming of the material, hich causes the formation of
gases, the mixture becomes a non-homogenous mixture full of bubbles. Bubbles disappear during
the purification process. In the end, the melt is cooled down to approximately 1100°C, which
increase strength and enables further processing.
BATCH PROCESSING SYSTEM (BATCH HOUSE)
BATCH HOUSE DESCRIPTION
A batch house is a plant made for storing and preparation of the glass mixture. It contains large (15
or 24 m^3) or small (7 m^3) siloes. Siloes are cone-shaped, with a pipe attached on the bottom. The
pipe contains a snail or vibrator for the transport of the mixture towards the scale. Under the siloes
there are three scales (the smallest has a capacity of 24kg, the largest of 500 kg) and five dispensers
(with an ability to dispense from the same scale to different dispensers to ensure accuracy).
Dispensers are emptied into the mixer, which is then emptied into iron containers with a capacity of
500kg. Iron containers are used to deliver the mixture to the furnaces. The procedure is fully
automated, but can be operated manually in case of a malfunction.

Materials and shards

Table 1: Raw Material names

Symbol Name Old name

SiO2 Silicon dioxide Quartz sand
PbO Lead oxide Litharge
K2CO3 Potassium carbonate Potash
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate Soda
KNO3 Potassium nitrate Saltpeter
Sb2O3 Antimony trioxide
BaCO3 Barium carbonate
ZnO Zinc oxide
Na2B4O7 * 5H2O Sodium tetra borate Borax
pentahydrate
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate calcite
Na2SO4 Sodium sulfate
The raw materials can be divided in different ways. One possible division is:

1. Basic materials; include substances that form glass (sand), and materials that enable melting at
lower temperatures and provide stability to glass.

2. Materials for glass fining; their task is to remove all gas bubbles from the glass melt and to make
glass melt homogenous (even) with help of mixing procedure.

3. Glass decolorizers; materials used to remove colors from glass caused by iron alloys, which create
blue or green shade in glass. They can be processed in a chemical or physical procedure. Physical
decolorization provides complementary colors. Green color provided by iron oxide, is neutralized by
adding oxides that produce red, blue and purple colors. This provides glass with colorlessness. The
main source of iron is crushed glass, since it gets contaminated with iron during the transport from
the batch house to the furnace, and during the crushing procedure in mills. Chrome presents the
biggest problem with colorization, since even the smallest quantities produce strong glass
colorization. It also can’t be removed with magnets, used for removal of iron from shattered glass.
The source of chrome can be glass molds.
GLASS MELTING FURNACE
Chemical procedure of melting
The melting process can be divided in different phases:

1. Silicon shaping; temperatures from 00 - 400°C, water evaporation (moisture from mixture, crystal
bound water), disintegration of carbonates and sulfates, chemical reaction of alkali with quartz sand.
The powder mixture becomes an opaque sintered mass which looks of hard foam,

2. Glass forming: temperatures from 1100 - 1200°C, silicates melt completely; remains of sand that
have not reacted disintegrate. This procedure takes 60 -70% of the whole melting time; each raise in
temperature shortens the process; materials for melting acceleration disintegrate into gas, which
mixes the melt.

3. Glass fining; the process of removing gas bubbles takes place at temperatures of 1400 -1500°C;
the bubbles result from the air present in the melt, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen
and water vapors; the bigger the bubbles and the more fluent the glass, easier it is to fine the glass;
other factors that are important at this stage are the temperature, time, mixing and additives;

4. Glass forming; occurs at same time as glass fining; important factors for this process are the
temperature and elimination of bubbles.

5. Molten glass needs to be cooled down to a temperature acceptable for further processing; it has
to be cooled down gradually to prevent gas disintegration. Melt needs to be thoroughly mixed to
ensure adequate homogeneity (without vind).
Physical processes in the furnace
In addition to chemical reactions, there is a series of physical processes needed to form glass. Batch
charger feeds furnaces with constant flow of mixture, after the process melt is removed at withdraw
stations. Between these two procedures there is a constant flow of the melt, due to differences in
the melt weight and temperature differences in different parts of the furnace. The highest
temperature position (dew point) and the movement of flows depend on the temperature curve in
the furnace. Gas bath furnaces are heated with natural gas through burners. The highest heat
intensity is in the area of the flame. For this reason, it is desired to have the shortest flame possible
to ensure short combustion time, higher temperature and a better heat transfer. If the flame is too
long, the furnace walls can be damaged. To prevent contact between different flames, opposite
burners are shifted. Flame must not be pointed towards glass melt. The powder mixture conducts
heat poorly, its surface is covered with a layer of melt, while heating of core is slowed down. With
prolonged exposure to heat, the melt becomes more heat-conductive and increases in size. A
movement of melt occurs on the surface due to higher temperatures. Foam forms on the surface of
the melt, towards the end of the process, but disintegrates at higher temperatures and the melting
process is completed. A glass fining process follows, with the highest temperatures in the whole
process. Simultaneously, a homogenization process is active to ensure even melt. At worksites melt
needs to be cooled down properly. This is ensured with the use of agitators, to prevent the forming
of new flows for temperature transfers.

Silo and feeder

A constant level of mixture needs to be maintained in the silo to prevent stratification. It should be
thermally insulated, to remove temperature influence from the furnace, which could cause a
mixture reaction in the silo. A vibrator is located underneath the silo to feed the conical sink of the
feeder. The sink has a mixture level measuring device to signal the vibrator to feed more mixture
into sink. A hydraulic cylinder is located underneath the sink to push the mixture onto a spoon
(fireproof plate that connects the feeder with the furnace). With the regulation of hydraulic cylinder
speed and amplitude fluctuations, the amount of mixture feed to the furnace can be changed. The
hydraulic cylinder is connected with the glass melt level gage, which provides a signal according to
the melt level fluctuation. If the level is to low, the hydraulic cylinder pushes the mixture with a set
speed and stops when the desired level is achieved. The feeding device spoon is cooled with soft
water; in case of power shortage it can be cooled with tap water. The feeding device sink can get
stuck due to wet mixture or to large glass shards. Feeding can be operated manually.

Melting space
A carpet mixture layer is a non-melted mixture at the entrance of the furnace (next to the feeding
device). To provide good melting conditions, the carpet needs to be thin and wide along the whole
length of the furnace. It is created by adding cold mixture to the procedure, which causes slower
melting of the mixture and ensures better quality of the glass. The carpet mixture does not exist, if
the temperature is set too high or if there is no output from the furnace. If the carpet is too long or
too short, this indicates that there are irregularities in the furnace operation.
Temperature regime- burner settings
The glass mixture needs to be heated to the melting and fining (highest) temperature, then slowly
cooled down to the work/working temperature. The temperature layout in the furnace is regulated
with settings of burners. Fuel used to power burners is natural gas due to its low ecological imprint.

Workstation
The glass melt proceeds towards workstations. Flow physically separates the melting room from
workstations and enables the cooling of the melt and at the same time enables flows to travel in
both ways. Furnaces are distinguished according to the number of workstations and their size.

Recuperator
Next to the furnace there are two recuperators. They act as an intake for smoke gas from the
melting room and travel from the top towards the bottom. This transmits heat, which flows in the
same direction (counter flow would heat the top of the recuperator too much, which would demand
for higher quality construction material of the recuperator and that would increase investment
costs, it would, however, lead to higher efficiency). The temperature of intake gases is around
1400°C.

Cooling
There are a water-cooling system and an air cooling system installed. The water cooling system
operates in a closed circuit and uses soft water. It is used for cooling the feeder device spoon,
drainage opening, agitators and level measuring system. Air is used to cool the wall next to the
feeder and to cool down the bottom and sides of melting room.

KP1, KP2 and KP3

All information listed above is generally used for gas furnaces. All three furnaces are continuous tub
furnaces. They use natural gas for heating. The melt is moving around due to currents caused by
heat differences.

Ceramic kilns
In ceramic kilns the process is led batch wise. The melting process is also different from the process
in continuous furnaces, mixing is done mechanically.

Electric furnace
In this type of furnace the chemical reactions to produce glass are the same as in gas furnaces, the
only difference in comparison with gas furnaces is in the process of melting. Here, melting is done in
a vertical direction, instead of a horizontal process of a gas furnace. The vaporing process is much
slower than in gas furnaces. Electrically heated furnaces and canals are using released heat, based
on a Joule effect reaction. This is achieved by submerging electrodes directly into the melt. Glass acts
as user and electrical current causes temperature to rise; this result in the melting and fining of the
mixture.
COLD TREATMENT OF GLASS
To satisfy one out of three conditions for “consumer satisfaction”, we need to make sure our
products achieve the desired quality. To achieve these levels of quality, work has to be done as
follows: Hot and cold treatment of glass needs to adapt to the acid polishing process resulting in
short programs using weak acid. This type of acid polishing results in sharp edges and high quality
surface. Products need to be treated with proper grinding materials according to programmes.
Products are processed with following abrasives:

- Diamond saw,
- Diamond plate,
- Diamond “plano” plate,
- Diamond cones,
- Sanding belts,
- Polish belts,
- Vidia wheels,
- Diamond discs,
- Fine sand used for sanding (SiC)
- Grindstone
 Natural stone,
 SiC,
 Noble corundum
 Natural corundum- Al2O3).

Diamond discs
Diamond disc are designated for product cutting, decorative sanding, edging, drilling and outlining.
Specification of diamond discs:

- Granulation: D-25, 39,46,54,91,107,126,151,181,252,301 in 427. Size of grains is measured

in µm (10-6 ).
- Binders: bakelite, metal and galvan.
- Concentration C-15 – C-200 (Concentration means number of diamond grains per cm^3).
- Profiles: angular (85-140°), radius (R-5, 8,10,16,20,30,50,60), straight.
- Types:1EE1, 9EE1, 9FF1, 14EE1, 14FF1. 15
- Holders: metal, grey alloy and aluminium.

After sanding with diamond discs, we need to consider: Same size diamond grains percentage
should be as big as possible. Peripheral speed, recommended 20m/s, Engine power, Cooling of
diamond discs, Proper recovery.

Manufacturers of diamond discs: SWATY, WENDT, VIP BOHEMIA, WINTER, EFFGEN, DIAMET.
Sanding belts for glass cutting
Sanding belts are used for cutting or cleaning the glass surfaces that were previously cut with
diamond discs. There are different types of sanding belts for wet and dry polishing. Specifications of
sand belts used are: -

Sanding material: SiC in corundum

- Granulation: P-100,150,180,220,240,280,320,400.
- Linen:
 Dry sanding:
 JA 165 AA,
 JA 344 AA ,
 K35 SF,
 J FLEX,
 RB X- FLEX,
 U-243
 Wet sanding:
 KT 62 W,
 SU 42 R,
 RB 555X KORK,
 217 EA,
 237 AA,
 272 LA

Suppliers of sanding belts are: EMEND, COMET, EKAMAND, BOHR, HERMES, TRIZACT

Finishing of glass products

Finishing of glass products includes the following phases:

- Cap cutting,
- Bottom sanding,
- Top sanding,
- Outer and inner trimming,
- Bottom trimming,
- Bottom and top polishing,
- Melting down the edges.
Machines for finishing of glass products:
- POLY-12 injecting programme for shoulder cutting and sanding of bottoms;
- TR-3 for cap cutting and sanding of tops and trimming;
- GS-4 for bottom sanding;
- COMBI 12 (new bibok) for cap cutting and top sanding, mostly for glasses and challises with
up to 3 mm thickness;
- COMBI 6 and COMBI 6 LASER for cap cutting and sanding and trimming of tops;
- PLANO MACHINES for sanding of tops and bottoms;
- HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SANDING MACHINES: for edge sanding;
- SANDING MACHINES inner edge sanding;
- GLASS FUSING MACHINE for flame polishing of edges.
Sanding materials for finishing glass products in cutting:

 Diamond discs, D-15/30,39,46,54,64,91,126,151,181,252 and 301. Dimensions: 150x30x10

 Flexible diamond discs D-25,39,46 in 64. Dimensions 200x30/40x0,5
 Diamond cones D-39 in 46. Different cones: 25,45,120
 Sanding powder: SiC – P-120,180 and 240
 Polish sand: Float and CER Oxide
 Sanding belts: P-220-P400 o Polish belts: KORK.
Treatment demands:
 Sanding within tolerances,
 Parallelism of top and bottom,
 Smooth surface without marks,
 Even edges,
 Stability.

Hand glass cutting Elements:

1. Labelling
 All products for hand cutting need to be properly marked. Horizontal and vertical lines
are marked, so worker knows what sample is designated for a specific product.
 Markings can be also made with plastic, which has guidelines samples.
 Straight surfaces are marked with the help of screen printing.
 Waterproof markers in green color are used for labelling.
 Errors:
 Lines are too thick
 Uneven division of vertical and horizontal lines
 Low quality of markings, resulting in mark wipes during cutting.

2. Grain pattern
 Grain patterns are made with cutting discs, with side profile. They are shaped by
applying pressure on the disc. The size and profile of discs determine the size and
shape of grain patterns.
 The grain pattern can be bigger, but for that the product needs to be pressed and
pulled across the sanding disc.
 Materials:
 Diamond discs, granulation D-39,
 Artificial stones, normal corundum NK 120.
 Profiles:
 Angular, od 90-140°.
 Errors:
 Uneven size of grain patterns,
 Grain patterns that are sanded sideways or uneven in shape,
 Double lines in middle of grain pattern,
 The profile of sanding discs is worn-out, resulting in a non-existing middle
line or too rounded edges.
3. Circle
 Circles are cut with discs with radial profile. They are created by applying pressure.
Size and radius of disc set the circle size. It always has to be round.
 Materials:
 Diamond disc, granulation D-39,
 Artificial stones, normal corundum NK 120.
 Profiles:
 Radius, R 20-60.
 Errors:
 Uneven size of circle,
 Cuts, transition is noticed,
 Circle is not round but oval.
4. Leaf
 Leafs are made with discs, which have angular or straight profiles with 45° edges.
Leaf contains shape of bottom, belly, and top. Leafs are shaped with applying
pressure to disc and pulling it through up and down.
 Materials:
 Diamond disc, granulation D-39,
 Artificial stones, normal corundum NK 120.
 Profiles:
 Angular, from 130-140°,
 Straight, edge cut at 45°
 Errors:

 Uneven size of leaves,
 Leaf cut to deep,
 Leaf shape is not correct with errors.
 Profile of sanding discs is worn-out, resulting in leaf with correct peaks.

5. Cutting of straight and curved lines under and above the cut
6. Pre-cutting and smoothing of cuts
7. Pre-cutting and smoothing of crosses
8. Pre-cutting and smoothing of a star on bottom
9. Pre-cutting and smoothing of net
10. Pre-cutting and smoothing of edges
11. Pre-cutting, cleaning and smoothing of pedestal
12. Cutting of the star on 16
13. Cutting of brilliant net, net on 8
14. Plaid net on 8
15. Plaid net on 16
16. Plaid net on 4
 17. Mechanical polishing
18. Brushing the sharp parts with specific textiles
These processes are made with following materials:
 Diamond discs with different angles and radiuses, granulation D-25, 39,181 and 252.
 Cutting belts, P-240, 280, 320 and 400.
 Stones, noble and natural corundum.
 Diamond saw D-107 and 181.
 Cutting wheels POLPUR-
 Pink, violet, orange, green, black, blue in white.
 Polish sands.
 Float and cerium oxide.

Processing demands:

- Appropriate peripheral speed

- Correct recovery
- Sharp cutting discs, servicing on time
- Steady discs during cutting, appearance of burned edges
- Appropriate cooling, enough water supply

Errors:

- Edging,
 Footing repairs are made with diamond disc D-39. The transition between straight
part and round shape needs to be cut with belt P-400 for water cutting.
 Olives and edges are sanded by hand and cleared by belt P-400, with the technology
of water or dry cutting.
 Products treated by hot processing, need to be cleaned by belt P-280; round surface
and P-400, wooden belt RB 300, P 100 and TRAZACT- straight surface or polpur
wheels LAPI. Challises and glasses with scissors marks, uneven surface, mechanical
damage or dots are cleaned with belt P-400(stronger polishing) or wooden belt
(WWRD). The same applies to the cleaning of bottoms.
 Faults in challises or glasses in the inner part are cleaned with polpur wheels
“ORANGE”. Faults in the inner parts of vases or bowls are cleaned with belts P-400,
wooden belts RB 300 P-100 and blue and grey belts TRAZACT.
 Products need to be cleaned before acid polishing.
 Products are separated based on type of polishing process, they are divided into
different classes, noted in working tasks with specified procedure of polishing.
 Products with faults after acid polishing are fixed mechanically with wooden belt RB
300 P-100 and polpur wheels LAPI ORANGE, cutting belts Trazact A05 and with sand
cerium oxide FG-50.