HANDBOOK ON INGREDIENTS FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS

Handbookon
Ingredients for
Aquaculture Feeds
by

Joachim w. Hertrampf

Dr. se. agr., Dipl. agr., Dipl.-Ing.

and

Felicitas Piedad-Pascual

Ph.D. Nutr., M.S. Food & Nutr., B.S. Pharm.

ILLUSTRATIONS BY ONG, SIK LEE t

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

Library of Congress Catalog-in-Publication data is available.

ISBN 978-1-4020-1527-4 ISBN 978-94-011-4018-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-4018-8

Printed an acid-free paper

AII Rights Reserved

© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
OriginalIy published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2000
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 2000
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
incIuding photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permis sion from the copyright owner.
 Only God knows everything,
Man cannot know everything,
But he can learn to know many things.
 CONTENTS

List of Tables xxiii

List of Figures xxxix
List of Abbreviations xliii
Preface xlv
Acknowledgement xlix

1 Prologue 1

2 Nutrition of Aquatic Animals at a Glance 4

2.1 Diversity of cultured aquatic animals 4
2.2 Proteins 9
2.3 Carbohydrates 13
2.4 Lipids 16
2.5 Vitamins 19
2.6 Minerals 23
2.7 Other feed supplements 27
2.7.1 Chemo-attractants 27
2.7.2 Antibiotics 29
2.7.3 Antioxidants 31
2.8 Physical properties of feed 33
2.9 References 35

3 Animal fats 43
3.1 Rationale 43
3.2 Manufacture and processing 43
3.3 Tallow 43
3.3.1 Description 43
3.3.2 Chemical and physiological properties 44
3.3.3 Feeding value 46
3.4 Lard 50
3.4.1 Description 50
3.4.2 Chemical and physiological properties 50
3.4.3 Feeding value 50
3.5 Poultry fat 53
3.6 Animal fat 53
3.6.1 Description and properties 53
3.6.2 Feeding value 53
3.7 Quality criteria of animal fats 54
viii

3.8 Recommended inclusion rates 56

3.9 Legal aspects 56
3.10 References 57

4 Bile acid products 60

4.1 Rationale 60
4.2 Manufacture and processing 60
4.3 Chemical and physiological properties 60
4.4 Feeding value 62
4.5 Recommended inclusion rates 62
4.6 Legal aspects 63
4.7 References 63

5 Bleaching earth (used) 65

5.1 Rationale 65
5.2 Processing 65
5.3 Chemical and physiological properties 65
5.4 Feeding value 67
5.5 Recommended inclusion rates 68
5.6 Legal aspects 68
5.7 References 68

6 Blood products 69
6.1 Rationale 69
6.2 Collection and processing 69
6.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 70
6.4 Feeding value 74
6.4.1 Blood meal 74
6.4.2 Preserved blood 76
6.5 Recommended inclusion rates 76
6.6 Legal aspects 77
6.7 References 78

7 Brewer's grains (de-hydrated) 80

7.1 Rationale 80
7.2 Manufacture and processing 80
7.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 80
7.4 Feeding value 83
7.5 Recommended inclusion rates 83
7.6 Legal aspects and precautions 84
7.7 References 84

8 Casein (de-hydrated) 86
8.1 Rationale 86
8.2 Manufacture and processing 86
 ix

8.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 86

8.4 Feeding value 90
8.5 Recommended inclusion rates 92
8.6 Legal aspects 92
8.7 References 92

9 Cheese scrap 96
9.1 Rationale 96
9.2 Processing 96
9.3 Chemical and physiological properties 96
9.4 Feeding value 98
9.5 Recommended inclusion rates 98
9.6 Legal aspects and precautions 98
9.7 References 98

10 Cocoa-pod husk meal 100

10.1 Rationale 100
10.2 Manufacture and processing 100
10.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 100
10.4 Feeding value 102
10.5 Recommended inclusion rates 103
10.6 Legal aspects 103
10.7 References 103

11 Coffee pulp (de-hydrated) 105

11.1 Rationale 105
11.2 Processing 105
11.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 105
11.4 Feeding value 106
11.5 Recommended inclusion rates 107
11.6 Legal aspects and precaution 107
11.7 References 108

12 Crab Meal 109

12.1 Rationale 109
12.2 Manufacture and processing 109
12.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 110
12.4 Feeding value 112
12.5 Recommended inclusion rates 113
12.6 Legal aspects and precautions 113
12.7 References 113

13 DistiUery by-products 115

13.1 Rationale 115
13.2 Manufacture and processing 115
x

13.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 116

13.4 Feeding value 119
13.5 Recommended inclusion rates 121
13.6 Legal aspects 122
13.7 References 122

14 Egg Powder 125

14.1 Rationale 125
14.2 Manufacture and processing 125
14.3 Chemical and physiological properties 126
14.4 Feeding value 129
14.5 Recommended inclusion rates 129
14.6 Legal aspects 129
14.7 References 129

15 Feather Meal 131

15.1 Rationale 131
15.2 Manufacture and processing 132
15.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 133
15.4 Feeding value 136
15.5 Recommended inclusion rate 139
15.6 Legal aspects 139
15.7 References 140

16 Feed Carotenoids 142

16.1 Rationale 142
16.2 Biochemical, biological and other properties 142
16.3 Carotenoid products 145
16.3.1 Synthetic astaxanthin and canthaxanthin 145
16.3.2 Yeast astaxanthin 149
16.3.3 Algal astaxanthin 150
16.3.4 Astaxanthin from crustacean wastes 151
16.4 Recommended inclusion rates 153
16.5 Legal aspects and precautions 153
16.6 References 154

17 Feed Yeast 157

17.1 Rationale 158
17.2 Inactive yeast 158
17.2.1 Definition and manufacture 158
17.2.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 159
17.2.3 Feeding value 164
17.2.3.1 Fishes 164
17.2.3.2 Crustaceans 166
17.2.3.3 Molluscs 167
 xi

17.2.3.4 Zooplankton 167

17.3 Active yeast 169
17.3.1 Definition and production 169
17.3.2 Chemical and other properties 169
17.3.3 Feeding value 171
17.4 Recommended inclusion rates 172
17.5 Legal aspects 172
17.6 References 172

18 Fish meal 177

18.1 Rationale 177
18.2 Manufacture and processing 178
18.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 180
18.4 Feeding value 185
18.5 Recommended inclusion rates 187
18.6 Legal aspects 187
18.7 References 188

19 Fish protein concentrate (hydrolysed) 192

19.1 Rationale 192
19.2 Manufacture and processing 192
19.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 192
19.4 Feeding value 195
19.5 Recommended inclusion rates 197
19.6 Legal aspects 197
19.7 References 197

20 Fish Silage and other marine silages 198

20.1 Rationale 198
20.2 Manufacture and processing 199
20.2.1 Acid silage 199
20.2.2 Alkaline silage 199
20.2.3 Fermented silage 200
20.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 200
20.3.1 Chemical properties 200
20.3.2 Physiological properties 203
20.3.3 Other properties 204
20.4 Feeding value 205
20.5 Recommended inclusion rates 207
20.6 Legal aspects and precautions 207
20.7 References 208

21 Fish Solubles (de-hydrated) 211

21.1 Rationale 211
21.2 Manufacture and processing 211
xii

21.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 211

21.4 Feeding value 214
21.5 Recommended inclusion rates 214
21.6 Legal aspects 214
21.7 References 215

22 Immunostimulatory substances 217

22.1 Rationale 217
22.2 Substances with immunostimulatory effect 217
22.3 Glucans 217
22.4 Application response 219
22.5 Doses of administration and legal aspects 219
22.6 References 219

23 KriU meal 221

23.1 Rationale 221
23.2 Manufacture and processing 222
23.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 222
23.4 Feeding value 224
23.5 Recommended inclusion rates 227
23.6 Legal aspects 227
23.7 References 227

24 Leather meal (hydrolysed) 229

24.1 Rationale 229
24.2 Manufacture and processing 229
24.3 Properties 229
24.4 Feeding value 230
24.5 Legal aspects 231
24.6 References 231

25 Leucaena Leaf Meal 232

25.1 Rationale 232
25.2 Manufacture and processing 232
25.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 232
25.4 Feeding value 235
25.5 Recommended inclusion rates 238
25.6 Legal aspects 238
25.7 References 238

26 Live Food 241

26.1 Rationale 241
26.2 Feed organisms 241
26.2.1 Phytoplanktons 241
26.2.2 Zooplanktons 243
 xiii

26.2.3 ~icro-crustaceans 243

26.2.4 Other feed organisms 245
26.3 ~ass-culture of feed organisms 245
26.4 Chemical, physiological and other properties 246
26.5 Feeding value 250
26.6 Feeding recommendations and precautions 252
26.7 References 253

27 Liver from warm-blooded animals 255

27.1 Rationale 255
27.2 Processing 256
27.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 256
27.4 Feeding value 258
27.5 Recommended inclusion rates 260
27.6 Legal aspects 260
27.7 References 260

28 Maize Products 262

28.1 Rationale 262
28.2 ~anufacture and processing 262
28.3 ~aize meal 264
28.3.1 Description 264
28.3.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 264
28.3.3 Feeding value 267
28.4 ~aize starch 268
28.4.1 Description 268
28.4.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 268
28.4.3 Feeding value 369
28.5 ~aize gluten meal and maize gluten feed 270
28.5.1 Description 270
28.5.2 Chemical and physiological properties 270
28.5.3 Feeding value 271
28.6 ~aize bran 272
28.6.1 Description 272
28.6.2 Properties 272
28.6.3 Feeding value 273
28.7 Maize germ meal 273
28.8 Dextrin 274
28.8.1 Description 274
28.8.2 Chemical and physiological properties 274
28.8.3 Feeding value 275
28.9 Recommended inclusion rates 276
28.10 Legal aspects 276
28.11 References 277
xiv

29 Marine Oils 281

29.1 Rationale 281
29.2 Manufacture and processing 281
29.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 281
29.4 Feeding value 286
29.5 Recommended inclusion rates 288
29.6 Legals aspect 288
29.7 References 288

30 Meat by-product meals 291

30.1 Rationale 291
30.2 Manufacture and processing 291
30.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 293
30.4 Feeding value 297
30.5 Recommended inclusion rates 298
30.6 Legal aspects 299
30.7 References 300

31 Mineral feed ingredients 302

31.1 Rationale 302
31.2 Macro mineral ingredients 302
31.3 Trace mineral ingredients 307
31.4 Contaminants in mineral ingredients 308
31.5 Chelated mineral ingredients 310
3l.6 Legal aspects 310
31.7 References 312

32 Mollusc products 314

32.1 Rationale 314
32.2 Manufacture and processing 315
32.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 315
32.4 Feeding value 317
32.5 Recommended application and precautions 319
32.6 References 319

33 Pig bristle meal 322

33.1 Rationale 322
33.2 Processing and properties 322
33.3 Feeding value 322
33.4 Recommended inclusion rates 323
33.5 Legal aspects 324
33.6 References 324
 xv

34 Potato protein 325

34.1 Rationale 325
34.2 Manufacture and processing 325
34.3 Chemical, physiological and other ptoperties 326
34.4 Feeding value 328
34.5 Recommended inclusion rates 328
34.6 Legal aspects 328
34.7 References 328

35 Poultry by-product meal 330

35.1 Rationale 330
35.2 Manufacture and processing 330
35.3 Chemical and physiological properties 330
35.4 Feeding value 333
35.5 Recommended Inclusion rates 334
35.6 Legal aspects 335
35.7 References 336

36 Pulses 338
36.1 Rationale 338
36.2 Harvesting and processing 339
36.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 339
36.4 Feeding value 343
36.5 Recommended inclusion rates 348
36.6 Legal aspects 348
36.7 References 349

37 Rice by-products 351

37.1 Rationale 351
37.2 Milling and processing 352
37.3 Rice bran 353
37.3.1 Description 353
37.3.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 353
37.3.3 Feeding value 355
37.4 Broken rice and rice polishings 356
37.4.1 Description 356
37.4.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 357
37.4.3 Feeding value 357
37.5 Rice hulls 358
37.5.1 Description and properties 358
37.5.2 Feeding value 358
37.6 Recommended inclusion rates 358
37.7 Legal aspects 359
37.8 References 360
xvi

38 Shrimp meal 364

38.1 Rationale 364
38.2 Manufacture and processing 364
38.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 364
38.4 Feeding value 367
38.5 Recommended inclusion rates 368
38.6 Legal aspects 368
38.7 References 369

39 Silkworm pupae meal 372

39.1 Rationale 372
39.2 Processing 372
39.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 372
39.4 Feeding value 374
39.5 Recommended inclusion rates 376
39.6 Legal aspects 376
39.7 References 377

40 Snail meal 379

40.1 Rationale 379
40.2 Processing 380
40.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 380
40.4 Feeding value 381
40.5 Recommended inclusion rates and precautions 381
40.6 References 381

41 Soya lecithin 383

41.1 Rationale 383
41.2 Manufacture and processing 383
41.3 Chemical and physiological properties 384
41.4 Feeding value 388
41.5 Recommended inclusion rates 391
41.6 Legal aspects 392
41.7 References 393

42 Soya protein products 396

42.1 Rationale 396
42.2 Manufacture and processing 396
42.3 Chemical and physiological properties 397
42.4 Feeding value 399
42.5 Recommended inclusion rates 400
42.6 Legal aspects 401
42.7 References 401
 xvii

43 Squid meal 403

43.1 Rationale 403
43.2 Manufacture and processing 403
43.3 Chemical, physiological and other propreties 404
43.4 Feeding value 406
43.5 Recommended inclusion rates 408
43.6 Legal aspects 408
43.7 References 409

44 Unidentified growth factors 411

44.1 Rationale 411
44.2 Processing 411
44.3 Chemical and physiological properties 412
44.4 Feeding value 413
44.5 Recommended inclusion rates and legal aspects 413
44.6 References 413

45 Vegetable oils 415

45.1 Rationale 415
45.2 Manufacture and processing 415
45.3 Coconut oil 419
45.3.1 Description 419
45.3.2 Chemical and physiological properties 419
45.3.3 Feeding value 421
45.4 Cotton-seed oil 422
45.4.1 Description 422
45.4.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 422
45.4.3 Feeding value 422
45.5 Ground-nut oil 423
45.5.1 Description 423
45.5.2 Chemical and physiological properties 423
45.5.3 Feeding Value 423
45.6 Linseed oil 424
45.6.1 Description 424
45.6.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 424
45.6.3 Feeding value 424
45.7 Maize oil 425
45.7.1 Description 425
45.7.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 425
45.7.3 Feeding value 426
45.8 Olive oil 428
45.8.1 Description 428
45.8.2 Chemical and physiological properties 428
45.8.3 Feeding value 429
45.9 Palm oil and palm kernel oil 429
xviii

45.9.1 Description 429

45.9.2 Chemical and physiological properties 430
45.9.3 Feeding value 430
45.10 Rape-seed oil 431
45.10.1 Description 431
45.10.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 431
45.10.3 Feeding value 431
45.11 Rice bran oil 432
45.11.1 Description 432
45.11.2 Properties and feeding value 432
45.12 Safflower oil 432
45.12.1 Description 432
45.12.2 Chemical and physiological properties 433
45.12.3 Feeding value 433
45.13 Sesame oil 433
45.13.1 Description 433
45.13.2 Properties 433
45.14 Soybean oil 434
45.14.1 Description 434
45.14.2 Chemical and physiological properties 434
45.14.3 Feeding value 434
45.15 Sunflower oil 437
45.15.1 Description 437
45.15.2 Chemical and physiological properties 437
45.15.3 Feeding value 437
45.16 Recommended inclusion rates 438
45.17 Legal aspects 438
45.18 References 439

46 Vegetable oil meals 445

46.1 Rationale 445
46.2 Manufacture and processing 446
46.3 Coconut meal 446
46.3.1 Description 446
46.3.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 446
46.3.3 Feeding value 450
46.3.4 Recommended inclusion rates 450
46.4 Cotton-seed meal 450
46.4.1 Description 450
46.4.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 451
46.4.3 Feeding value 453
46.4.4 Recommended inclusion rates 455
46.5 Ground-nut meal 455
46.5.1 Description 455
46.5.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 455
 xix

46.5.3 Feeding value 458

46.5.4 Recommended inclusion rates 459
46.6 Linseed meal 459
46.6.1 Description 459
46.6.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 459
46.6.3 Feeding value 462
46.6.4 Recommended inclusion rates 462
46.7 Mustard meal 463
46.7.1 Description 463
46.7.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 464
46.7.3 Feeding value 465
46.7.4 Recommended inclusion rates 466
46.8 Olive by-products 467
46.8.1 Description 467
46.8.2 Chemical and physiological properties 468
46.8.3 Feeding value 468
46.8.4 Recommended inclusion rates 468
46.9 Palm-kernel meal 468
46.9.1 Description 468
46.9.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 469
46.9.3 Feeding value 471
46.9.4 Recommended inclusion rates 471
46.10 Rape-seed meal 472
46.10.1 Description 472
46.10.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 472
46.10.3 Feeding value 475
46.10.4 Recommended inclusion rates 476
46.11 Safflower meal 476
46.11.1 Description 476
46.11.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 476
46.11.3 Feeding value 478
46.11.4 Recommended inclusion rates 478
46.12 Sesame meal 478
46.12.1 Description 478
46.12.2 Chemical, physological and other properties 479
46.12.3 Feeding value 481
46.12.4 Recommended inclusion rates 481
46.13 Soybean meals 482
46.13.1 Description 482
46.13.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 483
46.13.3 Feeding value 488
46.13.4 Recommended inclusion rates 492
46.14 Sunflower meal 493
46.14.1 Description 493
46.14.2 Chemical, physiological and other properties 493
xx

46.14.3 Feeding value 495

46.14.4 Recommended inclusion rates 496
46.15 Legal aspects 496
46.16 References 500

47 Vermi meal 509

47.1 Rationale 509
47.2 Culture of worms 509
47.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 509
47.4 Feeding value 511
47.5 Recommended inclusion rates and precautions 512
47.6 References 513

48 Vitamin C products 515

48.1 Rationale 515
48.2 Synthesis 515
48.3 Properties 515
48.4 Biological value 519
48.4.1 Fishes 519
48.4.2 Crustaceans 521
48.5 Recommended inclusion rates 521
48.6 Legal aspects 521
48.7 References 522

49 Water hyacinth 525

49.1 Rationale 525
49.2 Processing 525
49.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 525
49.4 Feeding value 527
49.5 Recommended inclusion rates 529
49.6 Legal aspects 529
49.7 References 529

SO Wheat and wheat by-products 531

50.1 Rationale 531
50.2 Milling process 531
50.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 532
50.4 Feeding value 536
50.4.1 Wheat grain 536
50.4.2 Wheat flour 536
50.4.3 Wheat bran 537
50.4.4 Other wheat products 538
50.5 Recommended inclusion rates 538
50.6 Legals aspects and precautions 538
50.7 References 540
 xxi

51 Whey (de-hydrated) 543

51.1 Rationale 543
51.2 Manufacture and processing 543
51.3 Chemical, physiological and other properties 543
51.4 Feeding value 547
51.5 Recommended inclusion rates 548
51.6 Legal aspects 548
51. 7 References 549

52 Yucca schidigera extract 551

52.1 Rationale 551
52.2 Manufacture and processing 552
52.3 Chemical properties and mode of action 553
52.4 Feeding value 554
52.5 Recommended inclusion rates and legal aspects 554
52.6 References 555

List of scientific names of aquatic organisms used in this book 557

Index 567
 LIST OF TABLES

1-01: The species of the zoological marine shrimp Penaeidae 2

2-01: Feeding habits of selected fish species 5

2-02: Length of intestines of some aquatic and terrestrial animals
in comparison to the animal's body length 6
2-03: Maximum concentrations of pollutants for
optimal growth of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 7
2-04: Parameters for the judgement of dietary protein utilisation by fish 10
2-05: Protein requirement of tilapia (Oreochromis sp)
and salmonids in dependence of the age of development 11
2-06: Protein requirement of some crustaceans 12
2-07: Amino acid profile of prawns 12
2-08: Factors for estimating the digestible energy
of feed ingredients for aquatic animals 13
2-09: Digestibility of carbohydrates by salmonid fishes 14
2-10: Effect of the water temperature on the apparent
digestibility of soybean oil and selected fatty acids
by the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 17
2-11: The effect of the melting point of the dietary fat
on the digestibility by the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 17
2-12: Mean content of fatty acid groups in freshwater
and marine fishes (% of total fatty acids) 18
2-13: The effect of dietary lipid on fatty acid composition
of channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) 18
2-14: The effect of cholesterol on the growth of Penaeus japonicus 19
2-15: Major natural sources of vitamins 20
2-16: Guidelines for the vitamin fortification per kg of formulated fish feed 22
2-17: Guidelines for the vitamin fortification per kg of formulated feed
for marine shrimps 23
2-18: Classification of minerals in feed for cultured aquatic animals 24
2-19: Concentration of elements in seawater and freshwater 25
2-20: Macro and trace mineral requirements of fish and shrimp 26
2-21: Taste buds and olfactory cells of man and selected species 28
2-22: Concentration of glycine betaine of various invertebrates 28
2-23: Feed antibiotics approved by the EU 31
2-24: Antioxidants approved for feed by the EU 32
2-25: Antioxidants approved for feed in the U.S.A. 32
xxiv

2-26: Weight loss of pellets in water as an indicator

for the water durability of aquaculture feed 34
2-27: Characteristics of selected pellet binding aids from plants 34

3-01: Fatty acid composition of tallow, lard, poultry fat and animal fat 44
3-02: Response of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to beef tallow
after 10 weeks of feeding 46
3-03: Weight gain and feed efficiency of carp (Cyprinus carpio)
fingerlings at various levels of beef tallow 46
3-04: Beef tallow as an energy source in diets
for red sea bream (Pagrus major) 47
3-05: Growth indicators of milkfish (Chanos chanos)
fingerlings fed tallow and various lipids 48
3-06: The fatty acid profile of the diet for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus)
is reflected in the fatty acid profile of the whole fish 50
3-07: Growth response of juvenile tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon)
to various levels of beef tallow in semi-purified diets 50
3-08: Growth indicators of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fingerlings
fed pork lard and various lipids 52
3-09: Growth response of juvenile tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon)
to various levels of pork lard in semi-purified diets 52
3-10: Growth performance of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
fed 6.0% chicken fat for 20 weeks 53
3-11: Yellow grease as an energy source in diets for Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis nilotica) 54
3-12: Congealing points, melting points, iodine values and
saponification values of animal fats 55
3-13: Requirements for animal fat by the German feedstuff law 56

4-01: Composition of gall-bladder bile of cattle, pig and dog 61

4-02: Lipids of the bile of sheep 61
4-03: Composition of the bile of fishes 61

5-01: Chemical and physical properties of acid-activated bleaching earth 66

5-02: Bleaching earth's content of some heavy metals 66
5-03: Residual oil extracted from used bleaching earth 66
5-04: Used bleaching earth (UBE) in diets for rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) 67

6-01: Chemical composition of fresh blood and blood meal 70

6-02: Effect of drying procedure of blood meal on the crude protein
and amino acid content 71
6-03: Essential amino acid content of the protein of blood meal 71
6-04: Macro and trace minerals and vitamin content of blood meal 72
6-05: Digestibility, and metabolisable and digestible energy
 xxv

of differently processed blood meals for rainbow trout

(Salmo gairdneri) and chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) 72
6-06: Effect of the drying temperature in the cylindrical dryer on the protein
digestibility of blood meal in pigs 73
6-07: Refrigerated storage of blood and the effect on the bacterial count 73
6-08: Replacement of fish meal by a combination of blood meal and
rendered carcass meal in diets for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 74
6-09: Blood meal replaces fish meal in diets for juvenile tilapia
(Oreochromis mossambicus) 75
6-10: Differently processed blood meal as a protein source in diets
for Penaeus vannamei 76
6-11: Effect of blood silage in the moist diet for rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 77

7-01: Chemical composition of dried brewers' grains 81

7-02: Essential amino acid profile of dried brewers' grains 82
7-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of dried brewers' grains 82
7-04: Metabolisable energy values of dried brewers' grains 83
7-05: Dried brewers' grains in practical fish diets 83

8-01: Chemical composition of casein (dehydrated) 86

8-02: Essential amino acid profile of dehydrated casein 87
8-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of de-hydrated casein 88
8-04: Protein digestibility of casein 89
8-05: Apparent digestibility of casein by penaeid shrimps 89
8-06: Effect of preserved crude casein in moist pellets on performances
of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 90
8-07: Casein as the protein source in diets fed for 100 days to rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) 91
8-08: Replacement of clam protein by casein and other animal protein
sources in diets for Penaeus japonicus 92

9-01: Chemical composition of cheese and cheese scrap 97

9-02: Profile of essential amino acids of cheese and cheese scrap 97
9-03: Macro and trace mineral and vitamin contents of cheese 97

10-01: Chemical composition of heat-processed cocoa-pod husk meal,

cocoa pods, cocoa shells and cocoa beans 101
10-02: Apparent digestibility of CPHM in diets for African catfish
(Clarias ishierensis) 102
10-03: Performances by African catfish (Clarias ishierensis) 103

11-01: Chemical composition of the components of coffee pulp

and spent coffee 106
11-02: Essential amino acid content of dried coffee pulp 106
xxvi

11-03: Effect of dried coffee pulp in the diet for male tilapia
(Iilapia aurea) fingerlings 107

12-01: Chemical composition of crab meal, crab protein concentrate

and pure crab meal 11 0
12-02: Essential amino acid profile of crab meal and crab protein concentrate 110
12-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of crab meal and crab protein concentrate 111
12-04: Energy values of crab meal 112
12-05: Response of the brown shrimp (Penaeus californiensis)
post-larvae and juveniles fed diets containing crab meal 112

13-01: Chemical composition of distillers' dried products 117

13-02: Essential amino acid profile of distillers' dried products 117
13-03: Macro and trace mineral contents of distillers' dried products 118
13-04: The vitamins of distillers' dried products 118
13-05: Energy values of distillers' dried products 119
13-06: Replacement of fish meal by a fixed level of distillers' dried grains
with solubles (DDGS) and soybean meal in diets for
juvenile channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) 120
13-07: Effect of increasing levels of distillers' dried grains with solubles
(DDGS) on dressing percentage and body composition of
channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) 121
13-08: Effect of distillers' dried grains with solubles (DDGS)
as an ingredient in diets for the freshwater prawn
Macrobrachium rosenbergii 121
13-09: Specification for distillers' feeds by the German feedstuff legislation 122

14-01: Constituents of eggs of some fowl species 125

14-02: Chemical composition of spray-dried egg products 127
14-03: Principal egg-white protein in the domestic fowl 127
14-04: Essential amino acid content of whole egg powder 127
14-05: Mineral and vitamin contents of whole egg powder 128

15-01: Chemical composition and the profile

of essential amino acid of the individual parts of the feather 132
15-02: Chemical composition of feather meal 133
15-03: Essential amino acid profile of hydrolysed feather meal
and untreated feathers 134
15-04: Mineral and vitamin contents of hydrolysed feather meal 134
15-05: Energy values of hydrolysed feather meal 135
15-06: Digestibility of hydrolysed feather meal 135
15-07: Replacement of fish meal by feather meal and poultry
by-product meal in diets for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 137
15-08: Feather meal and feather meallblood meal as a substitute
for fish meal in diets for tilapia (Tilapia mossambicus) 138
 xxvii

15-09: Feather meal replaces maize gluten meal in diets for catfish
(lctalurus punctatus) 138
15-10: Nutritional standards of feather meal required by German
feedstuff law and NRA 139

16-01: Xanthophyll content of plant materials and astaxanthin content

of animal products used in aquatic feed 143
16-02: Acute toxicity of carotenoids 144
16-03: Specification of synthetic carotenoids 146
16-04: Relation between egg mortality and egg astaxanthin content
in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 147
16-05: Distribution of astaxanthin in shrimp 147
16-06: Survival and weight gain of kuruma prawns (Penaeus japonicus)
fed diets containing various pigment sources at different levels 148
16-07: Pigmentation efficacy of astaxanthin in tiger prawns
(penaeus monodon) 149
16-08: Chemical composition of Phaffia rhodizyma compared to
that of brewer's yeast 149
16-09: Deposition ofpigmenters in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
flesh fed for 100 days with algal astaxanthin 150
16-10: Guidelines for the application of carotenoids to aquaculture feeds 153
16-11: Pigmenters approved by the ED-Authorities for the use in feeds
for aquatic animals 154

17-01: Properties of inactive yeasts 158

17-02: Mean chemical composition of different types of inactive, dry yeasts 160
17-03: Essential amino acid profile of different types of inactive, dry yeasts 160
17-04: Macro and trace mineral content of different types of inactive, dry yeasts 161
17-05: Vitamin content of different types of inactive, dry yeasts 161
17-06: Properties of baker's yeast 162
17-07: Energy values of different inactive, dry yeasts in rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) 162
17-08: Apparent digestibility of inactive, dry yeasts by various fish species 163
17-09: Effect of Saccharomyces sp. treatment on the apparent digestibility
by rainbow trouts (Salmo gairdneri) 163
17-10: Differently treated dry baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
in the diet for the lake trout (Savelinus namaycush) 164
17-11: Performances of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) on diets
with alkane yeast and fish meal as the sole protein source 165
17 -12: The effect of lactic yeast (Kluyveromyces fragilis) on performances
of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 167
17-13: Response of bivalves on algae and torula yeast and combinations thereof 167
17-14: Assimilation efficiency of the algae lsochrysis galbana and torula yeast
for the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) and the hard clam
(Mercenaria mercenaria) 168
xxviii

17-15: Different preparations of baker's yeast on performances

of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis 168
17 -16: Essential amino acid profile of yeast culture 170
17 -17: Mineral and vitamin contents of yeast culture 170

18-01: Types of fish meals by some fish meal exporting countries 178
18-02: Chemical composition of fish meal 180
18-03: Essential amino acid profile of fish meal 181
18-04: Importants fatty acids in lipids of fish meal 182
18-05: Macro and micro mineral contents of some typical fish meals 182
18-06: Vitamin content of some typical fish meals 183
18-07: Metabolisable and digestible energy content of fish meals in aquatic
and terrestrial animals 183
18-08: Apparent digestibility of fish meals in various fish species 184
18-09: Response of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
fingerlings on feeding diets with tilapia or herring meal 186
18-10: Growth response of milkfish fry fed white fish meal
and/or maize gluten meal 186
18-11: Quality requirements of fish meals according to
German feedstuff legislation 188

19-01: Chemical composition of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate

(HFPC) in comparison to soybean meal (from de-hulled beans)
and herring meal 193
19-02: Essential amino acid profile of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate
(HFPC) 194
19-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate
(HFPC) 194
19-04: Energy content of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HFPC)
determined in salmonids 194
19-05: The effect of starter feed containing various marine protein sources
on the development of first feeding Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 195
19-06: Effect of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HFPC)
in juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) 195
19-07: Feeding tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) juveniles
with hydrolysed fish proteion concentrate (HFPC) for 60 days 196
19-08: Legal requirements for hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HFPC) 197

20-01: Chemical composition of fish silage 200

20-02: Essential amino acid profile of fish silage 201
20-03: Chemical composition of shrimp head and
squid viscera silage compared to the fresh material 202
20-04: Essental amino acid profiles of shrimp head silage
and shrimp head meal 202
20-05: Apparent digestibility of fish silage 203
 xxix

20-06: Apparent digestibility of essential amino acids of fish silage 204

20-07: Dogfish (Squalus acanthias) offal silage as feed
for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 205
20-08: The influence of storage time of saithe (Pollachius virens)
offal silage on performance of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 206
20-09: Increasing levels of lactic acid tilapia silage in diets
for juvenile Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
in replacement for herring meal 206
20-10: Increasing levels of fish silage from a blend of sardine
(Sardina pilchardus) and whiting (Merlangius merlangius)
on the development of European eel (Anguilla anguilla) fingerlings 207
21-01: Chemical composition (%) of de-hydrated fish solubles
and condensed fish solubles 212
21-02: Essential amino acid profile of dehydrated fish solubles 213
21-03: Macro and trace minerals and vitamin contents
of de-hydrated fish solubles 213
21-04: Fish solubles in diets for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 214
21-05: Legal requirements for fish solubles in the Federal Republic of Germany 215

22-01: B-glucan content of grains 218

23-01: Chemical composition of krill meal 222

23-02: Essential amino acid profile of krill meal 222
23-03: Fluoride content of feed containing krill meal and fluoride
content of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed with that feed 223
23-04: Replacing 50% of animal protein by krill meal in the diet
for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 224
23-05: Total replacement of animal protein by krill meal in diets
for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 224
23-06: Replacement of 50% and 100% of animal protein by krill meal
in the diet for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 225
23-07: Replacement of all animal protein by krill meal
in the diet for carp (Cyprinus carpio) 225
23-08: Krill meal as the only protein source in replacement
for fish meal in diets for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) 226
23-09: The effect of partial replacement of shrimp meal by krill meal
in diets for juvenile tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 226

24-01: Chemical composition (% in dry matter) of leather scrap meal

and leather waste meal 230
24-02: Essential amino acid profile of leather meal 230

25-01: Mimosine content of leucaena leaf meals processed by various methods 232
25-02: Chemical composition of leucaena leaf meal 233
25-03: Essential amino acid profile of leucaena leaves 233
xxx

25-04: Macro and micro mineral contents of leucaena leaves 234

25-05: Pigment content of leucaena meal from various countries 234
25-06: Growth responses and feed utilisation efficiencies of Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) fingerlings fed various levels
of leucaena leaf meal for 70 days 236
25-07: Responses of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fed leucaena leaves 237
25-08: Leucaena leaf meal as a protein source in diets
for tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) 237

26-01: Chemical composition of live food 246

26-02: Essential amino acid profile of selected live food 247
26-03: Fatty acid profile of live food 247
26-04: Macro and trace mineral contents of live food 248
26-05: Vitamin content of the brine shrimp (Artemia) as compared
to minimum dietary requirement of salmonids 248
26-06: Gross energy content of live food 249
26-07: Apparent protein digestibility, protein efficiency ratio
and net protein utilization of live food 249
26-08: Biological response of some cultured aquatic animals
to different geographical strains of artemia 251
26-09: Growth response of juvenile blue print oysters (Crassostrea virginica)
to various algal species 251
26-10: Estimated daily consumption of rotifers (Brachionus plicatilis)
by red sea bream (Pagrus major) larvae during the fIrst month of culture 252

27-01: Chemical composition of liver meal and livers of various animals 256
27-02: Essential amino acid profile of mammal liver 257
27-03: Mineral and vitamin contents ofliver meal 257
27-04: Survival and growth of common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
larvae fed freeze-dried pork and beef liver 258
27-05: Growth of a hybrid bighead carp (Aristichtys nobilis) x silver carp
(Hypophthalmichtus molitrix) larvae fed for two weeks pork liver,
zooplankton and crumbled feed 259
27-06: Growth responses of juvenile freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium
rosenbergii) to various supplemental levels of frozen beef liver 259

28-01: Products from dry milling and wet milling of maize 263
28-02: Chemical composition of maize products 264
28-03: Essential amino acid profile of maize products 264
28-04: Macro and trace mineral contents of maize products 265
28-05: The vitamins of maize products 265
28-06: Energy values of maize products 266
28-07: Apparent digestibility of maize meal 267
28-08: Effect of maize meal on protein and carbohydrate digestibility
by rainbow trout (Oncorhybchus mykiss) 268
 xxxi

28-09: The effect of native (raw) and gelatinised (cooked)

maize starch on growth and feed conversion
of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 269
28-10: Digestibility of maize gluten meal and maize gluten feed
in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 271
28-11: Maize gluten versus wheat gluten as protein source in diets
for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 272
28-12: Performance response of milkfish (Chanos chanos)
fry fed maize gluten meal at various levels 272
28-13: Chemical composition of maize germs and maize germ meal 273
28-14: Relationship between the dextrin level of the diet
and the dextrin digestibility 274
28-15: Recommended inclusion rates for maize products in aquaculture feeds 276
28-16: Quality requirements for maize products by the German feedstuff law 276

29-01: Variation of the fatty acid composition of selected fish species 282
29-02: n-3 fatty acid content of selected fishes 283
29-03: Mean vitamin A and D contents of selected fish liver oils 284
29-04: Guideline specifications of crude fish oil 284
29-05: Apparent digestibility of fish oil by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
in relation to water temperature 285
29-06: Response of different oils on growth and carcass composition
of carp (Cyprinus carpio) 286
29-07: The effect of pollack liver oil and beef tallow + n-3 HUFA
on the development of red sea bream (Pagrus major) 287

30-01: Lowest and highest nutrient contents of meat by-product meals 293
30-02: Chemical composition of meat by-product meals 293
30-03: Quality consistency of meat and bone meal within
and between rendering plants in Denmark 293
30-04: Crude protein and crude fat contents of meat meal
of different rendering plants 294
30-05: Essential amino acid profile of meat by-product meals 294
30-06: Macro and trace mineral content of meat meal and meat and bone meal 295
30-07: With increasing ash content of meat and bone meal the content of
macro minerals increases and level of micro minerals declines 295
30-08: The vitamins of meat meal and meat and bone meal 296
30-09: Energy values of meat by-product meals per kg 296
30-10: Apparent digestibility of meat by-product meals 297
30-II: Replacement of fish meal by meat meal in diets
for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 298
30-12: Meat and bone meal replaces partially or completely
fish meal in diets for til apia (Oreochromis mossambicus) 298
30-13: Quality requirements for meat by-product meals
by the German feedstuff legislation 299
xxxii

31-01: Variability of phosphorus content in meat and bone meal 302

31-02: Bio-availability of calcium in calcium supplements in pigs 303
31-03: Chemical composition of rock phosphates 303
31-04: Chemical composition of phosphate compounds 304
31-05: The relative biological value of calcium phosphates, tested in broilers 305
31-06: Absorption of dietary phosphates by selected fish species 306
31-07: Chemically pure magnesium and sodium compounds 307
31-08: Common technical trace mineral compounds (%) for aquaculture feeds 308
31-09: Official guidelines for contaminants in individual mineral
ingredients in U.S.A. 309
31-10: Contamination levels with highly toxic, toxic, moderately toxic
and slightly toxic elements of commercial/technical
mineral ingredients for animal feed 309
31-11: Requirements of permitted mineral compounds for animal feeds
according to German feedstuff legislation 311

32-01: Chemical composition of mussel meat 315

32-02: Essential amino acid profile of mussel meat 316
32-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of mussel meat 316
32-04: Mean survival, spawning, fecundity and hatching rate of ablated
tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) broodstock fed various diets
with various feeding regimes 318
32-05: Performances of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) post-larvae
fed frozen brown mussel meat and shrimp meal 318

33-01: Essential amino acid profile ofraw and hydrolysed pig bristles 323
33-02: Pig bristle meal (hydrolysed) as a protein source in diets
for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 323

34-01: Chemical composition of potato-protein and some other protein sources 326
34-02: Mean mineral content of potato-protein 327

35-01: Chemical composition of pOUltry by-product meal

and "whole pOUltry meal" 331
35-02: Essential amino acid profile of poultry by-product meal 331
35-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of poultry by-product meal 332
35-04: Energy values of pOUltry by-product meal 332
35-05: Apparent digestibility of pOUltry by-product meal in salmonids 333
35-06: Response of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) on diets
containing increasing levels of poultry by-product meal
and declining levels of herring meal 333
35-07: Replacement of fish meal with poultry by-product meal in diets
for fry and fingerlings rainbow trouts (Salmo gairdneri) 334
35-08: Quality criteria for poultry by-product meal as required
by German feedstuff legislation 335
 xxxiii

36-01: Chemical composition of selected pulses 339

36-02: Essential amino acid profile of various pulses 340
36-03: Macro and trace mineral contents of selected pulses 340
36-04: The vitamins of selected pulses 340
36-05: The energy contents of pulses 341
36-06: Digestibility of selected pulses 342
36-07: Performance of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry on
diets containing green gram (Phaseolus aureus) 343
36-08: Various treatments of faba beans (Vigna catiang)
and their effects on the chemical composition 344
36-09: Responses of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) feeding
untreated and treated faba beans and sweet lupines, respectively 344
36-10: Growth performance of carp (Israeli strain Dor-70)
fed diets with lupin meal 346
36-11: Effects of 25% sesbania seed (Sesbania grandiflora),
differently treated as replacement for fish meal in diets fed
to til apia (Oreochromis mossambicus) 347
36-12: Minimum/maximum requirements for pulses
by the German feedstuff law 348

37-01: Chemical composition of rice by-products 353

37-02: Essential amino acid profile of rice by-products 353
37-03: Macro and trace mineral contents of rice by-products 354
37-04: Vitamin content of rice by-products 354
37-05: Digestibility ofrice bran 355
37 -06: Maximum inclusion rate of rice by-products in practical
aquaculture diets 358
37-07: Minimum/maximum requirements for rice by-products
by the German feedstuff law 360
37-08: Specifications for rice bran in Thailand 360

38-01: Chemical composition of shrimp meals 365

38-02: Chemical composition of shrim head meals differently processed 365
38-03: Essential amino acid profile of shrim meals 365
38-04: Fatty acids of total fat in shrimp meal as compared
to wild tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) muscle 366
38-05: Mineral and vitamin contents of shrimp meal 366
38-06: Digestible energy of shrimp meal of selected origins 366
38-07: Apparent digestibility of shrimp meals 367
38-08: Growth response of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 368

39-01: Chemical composition of silkworm pupae meal (in dry matter) 373
39-02: Essential amino acid profile of silkworm pupae meal 373
39-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of silkworm pupae meal 373
39-04: Apparent digestibility of silkworm pupae meal 374
xxxiv

39-05: De-oiled silkworm pupae meal replaces fish meal

at increasing levels in diets for common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 375
39-06: Non-defatted silkworm pupae meal replaces fish meal in diets
for catla-rohu hybrids 375
39-07: Fish meal replacement by silkworm pupae meal in diets
for the catfish Heteropneustis tossilis 376

40-01: Chemical composition of snail meal 380

40-02: Essential amino acid profile of snail meal 380

41-01: Composition of soybean oil "sludge" and crude lecithin 385

41-02: Fatty acid content of soya lecithin 385
41-03: Macro and trace mineral contents of soya lecithin 385
41-04: Mean composition of soya lecithins 386
41-05: Definition of Lecithin by the European Union (EU) 387
41-06: Recommendations for the phospholipid requirement of fishes 392
41-07: Recommendations for the phospholipid requirement of shrimps 392

42-01: Chemical composition of soya protein products 397

42-02: Essential amino acid content of soya protein products 398
42-03: Biological evaluation of soya protein products in rats 398
42-04: Response of yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata)
on replacement of brown fish meal by soya protein concentrate 400
42-05: Minimum quality requirements for soya protein products
as stipulated by international and national bodies 401

43-01: Chemical composition of squid products 404

43-02: Essential amino acid profile of squid meal and squid liver meal 405
43-03: Fatty acid and cholesterol contents of squid by-products 405
43-04: Squid meal and other protein feedstuffs in diets
for post-larvae tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 406
43-05: Squid meal replaces fish protein concentrate in diets
for juvenile tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 408
44-01: Mean chemical composition and essential amino acids of UGF 412
44-02: Mineral and vitamin contents of UGF 412

45-01: Fatty acid profile of vegetable oils 418

45-02: Quality characteristics of vegetable oils 419
45-03: Energy values of vegetable oils 420
45-04: Digestibility of vegetable oils 421
45-05: The response of tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon)
to various levels of coconut oil in the diet for juveniles 422
45-06: Effect on growth of carp (Cyprinus carpio) fed linseed
and fish oils for 133 days 424
45-07: Maize oil as dietary fat source of juvenile rainbow trout
 xxxv

(Salmo gairdneri) 426

45-08: Vegetable oils and menhaden oil in diets for the juvenile
sunshine bass (Morone chrysops x Morone saxatilis) 427
45-09: Specification of crude palm oil and crude palm kernel oil
by the "Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia" 430
45-10: Colour strength in muscle of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
after feeding different dietary oils 432
45-11: Ratio of n-3:n-6 fatty acids in heart phospholipids and
some HUFAs of muscles' total lipids of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 435
45-12: Growth response of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fingerlings fed
with various oils and fats 435
45-13: Effect of soybean oil on growth parameters of sea bass
(Lates calcarifer) fry 436
45-14: Responses of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) to various levels
of soybean oil 436
45-15: Effect of increasing dietary fat levels on performances
of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 437
45-16: Quality requirements by the German feedstuff legislation
for feed grade vegetable oils 439

46-01: Chemical composition of vegetable oil meals and expellers 447

46-02: Essential amino acid profile of coconut meal and coconut expeller 448
46-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of coconut meal and coconut expeller 449
46-04: Energy values of coconut meal and coconut expellers 449
46-05: Relationship between the residual oil content and the digestible
energy value of coconut by-products with pigs 449
46-06: Digestibility of coconut meal and coconut expeller 451
46-07: Essential amino acid profile of decorticated cotton-seed products 451
46-08: Mineral and vitamin contents of decorticated cotton-seed meal
and cotton-seed expeller 452
46-09: Energy values of cotton-seed meal 452
46-10: Digestibility of cotton-seed meal 452
46-11: The replacement of soybean meal by cotton-seed meal in diets
for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) 454
46-12: Effect of cotton-seed meal in diets for northern white shrimp
(Penaeus setiferus) and white leg shrimp (Penaeus vanname i)
of different sizes 454
46-13: Essential amino acid profile, true amino acid availability and
the chemical score of ground-nut meal for channel catfish
(lctalurus punctatus) 456
46-14: Mineral and vitamin contents of ground-nut products 456
46-15: Energy values of ground-nut meal 457
46-16: Digestibility of ground-nut meal 457
46-17: The effect of ground-nut meal in diets for red swamp crayfish
(Procambarus clarkii) 458
xxxvi

46-18: Essential amino acid profile and apparent and true amino acid
digestibility of linseed meal for carp 460
46-19: Mineral and vitamin contents oflinseed meal and linseed expeller 460
46-20: Energy values of linseed meal 461
46-21: Digestibility of linseed meal 461
46-22: Growth and feed utilisation of linseed meal by common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) 462
46-23: Essential amino acid profile of mustard meal and apparent
and true amino acid digestibility of mustard expeller for
common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 464
46-24: Glucosinolate content of mustard products 465
46-25: Response of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) fry fed mustard expeller 466
46-26: Energy values of olive pulp with rabbits 468
46-27: Essential amino acid profile of palm-kernel meal
and palm-kernel expeller 470
46-28: Macro and trace mineral contents ofpalm-kemel meal
and palm-kernel expeller 470
46-29: Energy values of palm-kernel meal and palm-kernel expeller 470
46-30: Digestibility of palm-kernel meal and palm-kernel expeller 471
46-31: Growth and feed utilisation of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
fed diets with palm-kernel meal 471
46-32: Essential amino acid profile of rape-seed products and true
amino acid availability of canola meal for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 473
46-33: Mineral and vitamin contents of rape-seed meal and rape-seed expeller 473
46-34: Energy values of rape-seed meal 474
46-35: Digestibility of rape-seed meal 474
46-36: Effect of feeding canola meal to hybrid tilapia
(Oreochromis mossambicus x Oreochromis aureus) 475
46-37: Essential amino acid profile of safflower products 477
46-38: Mineral and vitamin contents of safflower meal 477
46-39: Energy values of safflower meal 477
46-40: Essential amino acid profile and apparent and true digestibilities
of sesame meal for common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 479
46-41: Mineral and vitamin contents of sesame meal 479
46-42: Energy values of sesame meal 480
46-43: Digestibility of sesame meal 480
46-44: Feeding value of sesame expeller in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 481
46-45: Essential amino acid profile of soybean products 483
46-46: Macro and trace mineral content of soybean meals 484
46-47: The vitamins of soybean meals 484
46-48: Energy values of soybean meal 485
46-49: Digestibility of soybean meals 485
46-50: Digestibility of soybean meal 486
46-51: Effect of duration of heating of soybean meal on urease activity,
trypsin inhibitor content and feeding value (broilers) 487
 xxxvii

46-52: Responses of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) juveniles

to diets containing soybean meal 490
46-53: Increasing levels of soybean meal as partial or complete replacement
of fish meal in diets for banana shrimps (Penaeus merguiensis) 491
46-54: Guideline for the use of soybean meal, soybean expeller, de-hulled
soybean meal and full-fat soybean meal in diets for aquatic animals 493
46-55: Essential amino acid profile of sunflower products 494
46-56: Mineral and vitamin contents of sunflower meal and sunflower seeds 494
46-57: Energy values of sunflower meal 495
46-58: Digestibility of sunflower meal 495
46-59: Increasing levels of sunflower meal in diets for rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) 496
46-60: Minimum/maximum requirements by the German feedstuff law
for meal from solvent extraction and cakes from screw pressing
of vegetable oil seeds 497
46-61: Undesirable substances in by-products of vegetable oil seeds processing,
according to German feedstuff legislation 499

47-01: Chemical composition of various worm meals 510

47-02: Essential amino acid profile ofvermi meals 510
47-03: Macro and trace mineral content of freeze dried vermi meal
(Eudrilus eugeniae) 510
47-04: Digestibility of vermi meal 511
47-05: Response of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed diets for 84 days
with various inclusion levels of freeze dried Eiseniafoetida 512
47-06: The effect of vermins in the diets for tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) 513

48-01: The effect of pelletising temperature and feed's moisture content

on the stability of Vitamin C 517
48-02: Storage stability of L-ascorbyl phosphate in pelletised
and extruded aquaculture feed 518
48-03: Retention of ascorbic acid preparations from pelletised
and extruded salmonid feeds, immersed in seawater 519
48-04: Bioavailability of ascorbic acid coated with hydrogeneted
soybean oil and crystalline ascorbic acid in fish diets 519
48-05: Effect of increasing levels of ascorbic acid from
Na-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate 520
48-06: Vitamin C products having the GRAS status of F.D.A. 521

49-01: Chemical composition of water hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes) 526

49-02: Apparent protein digestibility of water hyacinth 526
49-03: Growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
fed various amounts of dried water hyacinth 528
49-04: Growth of nile tilapis (Oreochromis niloticus)
fed composted water hyacinth 528
xxxviii

49-05: Growth response of Indian major carp (Labeo rohita)

fed diets containing water hyacinth 529

50-01: Chemical composition of wheat and wheat products 532

50-02: Essential amino acid profile of wheat and wheat products 532
50-03: Mineral content of wheat and wheat products 533
50-04: The vitamins of wheat and wheat products 533
50-05: Energy values of wheat and wheat products per kg 534
50-06: Digestibility (%) of wheat and wheat products 535
50-07: Growth of Atlantic salmon (Salrno salar) fed differently processed wheat 536
50-08: Growth and feed utilization of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla)
fed various levels of wheat flour and protein 537
50-09: Various levels of wheat middlings in diets for juvenile red drum
(Sciaenops ocellatus) 539
50-10: Recommended inclusion rates for wheat and wheat products
in diets for cultured aquatic animals 539
50-11: Minimum requirements of wheat and wheat by-products
in accordance with the Feedstuff Legislation of
the Federal Republic of Germany 539

51-01: The influence of the type of coagulation of cow milk

on the chemical composition of whey powder 544
51-02: Profile of essential amino acid of whey powder 545
51-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of whey powder 545
51-04: Energy values of whey powder 546
51-05: The effect of spray-drying and drum-drying on
the protein digestibility and the biological value of whey powder 546
51-06: Digestibility of whey powder 546
51-07: Biological values of whey powder 546
51-08: Whey powder in diets for rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) 547
51-09: Quality requirements for whey products according to
German feedstuffs legislation 548

52-01: Specification and chemical composition of commercial

Yucca schidigera products 553
 LIST OF FIGURES

2-01: Diagram of taxonomic classification of fish. 4

2-02: Diagram of classification of Shrimp spp. 7
2-03: The digestive system of shrimps. 8
2-04: The alimentary system of bivalves. 9
2-05: Classification of carbohydrates (saccharides) 14
2-06: The digestibility of the organic matter of wheat
and wheat by-products in carp (Cyprinus carpio)
is affected by the crude fibre content of these feed ingredients. 15
2-07: The effect of increasing added inositol levels on the growth
of the kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) 21
2-08: Interrelationship between macro and trace minerals
in animal metabolism. 24
2-09: Illustration of a taste bud. 27
2-10: The effectiveness of selected gram-positive and gram-negative
antibiotics against various microbes. 30

3-01: Relationship between water temperature and apparent

digestibility of beef tallow and pork lard in diets
for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). 45
3-02: Relationship between the level of total dietary fat and
the total body and liver fat of the yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata)
after feeding increasing levels of beef tallow. 49

6-01: The quantity of collected cattle blood in relation

to the bleeding time. 69

7-01: Diagram of the processing of dried brewers' grains. 81

8-01: Composition of the nitrogen fraction of milk. 87

8-02: Seasonal variation of casein's amino acids. 88

10-01: Flow diagram in the processing of cocoa beans. 101

12-01: Flow diagram for processing of crab protein concentrate. 109

13-01: Diagram of the processing of distillers' dried feeds. 116

13-02: Variation of the crude protein content of distillers' dried products. 117
xl

14-01: Diagram of processing whole egg powder. 126

15-01: The parts of the poultry feather. 131

15-02; The effect of increasing processing pressure on the pepsin
digestibility of continuously and batch processed hydrolysed feather meal. 136

16-01: Factors that influence pigmentation in crustaceans. 148

16-02: Astaxanthin levels in the oil phase from various crustaceans meals. 151
16-03: Percentage of fish with good to excellent colour after 120 days
of feeding 3.0, 6.0 and 9.0 mg carotenoids. 152

17-01: Microscopic photos of spray-dried brewer's yeast and molasses yeast. 157
17-02: Replacement of fish meal by alkane yeast with and without
I-methionine in diets for coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). 165
17-03: Development of the body weight of yellowtail
(Serioia quinqueradiata) after feeding lactic yeast. 166

18-01: Flow diagram in the processing of fish meal. 179

19-01: Diagram of the production of

Hydrolysed Fish Protein Concentrate (HFPC). 193
19-02: Relative growth rate of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)
juveniles fed with increasing levels of HFPc. 196

20-01: Diagram of batch production of acid fish silage. 198

21-01: Flow diagram of the processing of de-hydrated fish solubles. 212

22-01: Structural formula of B-l,3-1,6-glucan (simplified). 218

23-01: Atlantic krill (Euphausia superba). 221

25-01: The effect on growth and feed conversion of increasing levels

of leucaena protein in feeds for the Indian rohu carp (Labeo rohita). 236

26-01: Physical movements of a larvae for catching the prey

Brachionus plicatilis. 242

26-02; The micro-crustacea Daphnia Pulex. 244

27-01: The liver of the pig and cattle. 255

28-01: Production diagram of wet milling of maize. 263

28-02: Weight development of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha)
fed diets containing 20% glucose or dextrin. 275
 xli

29-01: Flow diagram of the degumming and refining process of fish oil. 282
29-02: The relation between melting point of hydrogenated fish oil
and its digestibility by the carp (Cyprinus carpio). 285

30-01: Processing diagram of meat by-product meals. 292

31-01: Schematic production process of calcium phosphates. 304

32-01: Shape of mussels. 314

34-01: Approximate amounts of potato processing products. 325

34-02: Essential amino acids of potato-protein compared with some
important protein sources. 327

36-01: Growth of juvenile tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) fed undehulled

and dehulled cow peas (Vignia catiang) diets 345
36-02: Growth of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) fed 25% treated
(various treatments) and untreated seed meal of jack beans
(Canavalia ensiformis) 347

37-01: Structure of the rice grain. 351

37-02: Flow diagram of rice milling process. 352

40-01: Land (lung) snails. Edible snail (Helix pomatia) (left)

and common field (red) slug Agriolimax meticulatus) (right). 379

41-01: Diagram of processing of crude soybean oil to lecithin products used

in the feeding of aquatic animals. 384
41-02: Polar lipids and their classification. 386
41-03: Performances of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
fed a herring meal basal diet and supplemental soya lecithin. 388
41-04: Weight gain of kuruma prawns (Penaeusjaponicus)
receiving diets with and without lecithin. 390
41-05: Daily growth rates of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fingerlings
by trial periods after feeding phospholipids (de-oiled lecithin)
and choline chloride. 391

42-01: Diagram of soya protein products. 396

42-02: Diagram of the production of soya protein hydrolysate. 399

43-01: The common squid (Loligo vulgaris). 403

43-02: Response on liveweight of brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus)
juveniles when fed diets containing squid meal. 407
xlii

45-01: Bunches of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) fruits. 416

45-02: Diagram of vegetable oil extraction. 417
45-03: Development of channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus)
fed on maize oil and menhaden oil. 427
45-04: Specific growth rate (SGR) of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed sunflower oil compared to fish oil. 438

46-01: Growth response of catfish (Clarias batrachus) fry to

a combination of linseed expeller (38%) and fish meal (26%)
compared with fish meal only. 463
46-02: Diagram of olive oil processing. 467
46-03: Products obtained from the processing of crude palm kernels. 469
46-04: Growth response of Indian major carp (Labeo rohita)
fry to various levels of sesame expeller. 482
46-05: The effect of different levels of soybean meal de-hulled,
soybean meal and full-fat soybean meal on the weight gain
of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). 488
46-06: Production results of different levels of soybean meal in diets
for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) reared at various stocking rates. 491

47-01: The red Earthworm (genus: Lumbricus; class: Oligochaeta)

can be 20 to 35 cm long and can live for as long as 10 years. 509

48-01: "Broken back syndrome" of Coho salmon

(Oncorhynchus kisutch) (scoliosis [above],
normal development [middle], lordosis [below)). 516
48-02: Structural formula of L-ascorbic acid (left) and its oxidised
form de-hydro-ascorbic acid (right). 516

49-01: Weekly weight gain of common carp (Cyrprinus carpio)

fed composted and non-composted water hyacinth. 527

50-01: Water durability of feed pellets containing 5.0% wheat gluten

and wheat flour and extruded rice, respectively 535

51-01: From whole milk to whey powder. 544

52-01: The environmental nitrogen cycle of aquatic animals. 551

52-02: Yucca schidigera plants. 552
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANPU = Apparent net protein utilization

APD Apparent protein digestibility
BV = Biological value
°C Degree centigrade
CIC Commonwealth of Independent Countries (former USSR)
CPHM Cocoa-pod husk meal
CPM = California Pellet Mill
DDG = Distillers dried grains
DM = Dry matter
EAAI = Essential amino acid index
EC = European Community
EFA Essential fatty acids
EU European Union
FAA Free amino acids
FCR = Feed conversion rate
FFA = Free fatty acids
FAO = Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations,
RomeJItaly
g = Gramme
GRAS = Generally recognized as safe
HFPC Hydrolysed fish protein concentrate
HUFA = Highly unsaturated fatty acid
i.m. Intra-muscular
IU International unit
kcal = Kilocalorie
kg = Kilogramme
I = Litre
LTF Low thermal fish meal
mcg Microgramme
mg Milligramme
MJ = Megajoule
mm3 = Millilitre
MT = Metric tonne
NPU = Net protein utilisation
NRC National Research Council (U.S.A.)
PER Protein efficiency ratio
ppb Parts per billion
ppm = Parts per million
xliv

ppt Parts per trillion

PUPA Polyunsaturated fatty acid
RNA Ribonucleic acid
SGR Specific growth rate
UBE Used bleaching earth
UGP Unidentified growth factors
WHO World Health Organisation of the United Nations,
Geneva/Switzerland
 PREFACE

Current growth in global aquaculture is paralleled by an equally significant increase in

companies involved in aquafeed manufacture. Latest information has identified over 1,200
such companies, not including those organizations in production of a variety of other
materials, i.e., vitamins, minerals, and therapeutics, all used in varying degrees in proper
feed formulation. Aquaculture industries raising particular economically valued species,
i.e., penaeid shrimps and salmonids, are making major demands on feed ingredients,
while relatively new industries, such as til apia farming, portent a significant acceleration
in demand for properly formulated aquafeeds by the end of the present decade and into
the next century.
As requirements for aquafeeds increases, shortages are anticipated in various
ingredients, especially widely used proteinaceous resources such as fish meal. A variety of
other proteinaceous commodities are being considered as partial or complete replacement
for fish meal, especially use of plant protein sources such as soybean meal. In the past
five years, vegetable protein meal production has increased 10% while fish meal
production has dropped over 50%, since 1989, largely attributed to overfishing and
serious decline in wild stock. Throughout fisheries processing industries, traditional
concepts as "waste" have given way to more prudent approaches, emphasizing total
by-product recovery. Feed costs are a major consideration in aquaculture where in
some groups, i.e., salmonids, high protein-containing feeds using quality fish meal, can
account for as much as 40 to 60% of production costs. About 67% of the actual feed cost
can be attributed to the fish meal protein fraction. Clearly, this is an untenable situation
as global aquaculture increases in size and diversity of commercial species. Considerations
such as cost and availability of commonly utilized aquafeed ingredients also must be
recognized as new formulation practices develop. In all likelihood, these will differ from
conventional procedures with movement in usage of non-traditional feed ingredients.
Currently, aquafeed least-cost formulations mainly are geared to those traditional
procedures used in livestock feeding and not designed especially to meet the needs of
rapidly growing aquaculture industry.
Innovative approaches must explore the wide variety of processing by-products
potentially available as nutritionally valuable ingredients in specific aquafeeds.
This must be correlated with the availability of such ingredients, especially plant and
animal proteins, in individual countries and the dictates of economic pressures.
Competing feedstock (ingredient) demand by major livestock industries is another factor
in proper allocation of feed ingredients. Regardless, the final processed aquafeed must
meet specific physical standards, such as water stability and palatability, as well as satisfy-
ing the nutritional needs of the aquatic species being cultivated. Ultimately, diet selection
and use of alternative proteins will relate to the intensity of the cultivation practice.
While high cost "nutrient dense" complete pelleted diets may be feasible in intensive
xlvi

operations, greater flexibility is possible in terms of ingredient substitution in less

extensive operations where natural feeding processes may occur.
As new non-traditional diets are formulated, many using the various ingredients enu-
merated in this book, studies will be needed to ascertain their digestibility and composite
nutritional value of the formulation to the particular targeted species. Ancillary attention
also must be given to palatability of the diet and its effectiveness in achieving an
economically sound conversion rate. Of paramount importance is the effect of individual
ingredients on the physical stability of the final pellet and its compos tie texture, facilitating
optimal ingestion. For instance, shrimp feeds need both good water stability and rehydra-
tion properties which directly affect texture and optimal ingestion. Similarly, hard inflexible
small dietary particles for first-feeding stages of fish may be rejected. Finally, the effect
of a particular ingredient on final sensory properties of the aquatic species must be given
consideration to insure maximum consumer acceptability of the processed product.
For instance, excessive dietary levels of corn gluten meal and alfalfa meal impart an
undesirable yellowish color to catfish flesh due to concentrations of xanthophylls, espe-
cially high in corn gluten meals. Conversely, with shrimp, especially such commercial
species as Penaeus monodon and Penaeus japonicus, inclusion of ingredients (i.e., shrimp
meal) rich in carotenoids (especially astaxanthin), is needed to impart proper pigmentation
to the crustacean exoskeleton.
The efforts of the authors to make available a thorough compilation of feed ingredients,
together with relevant performance data where possible, is a worthwhile contribution to
global aquaCUlture. Paradoxically, major anticipated growth in aquaCUlture is projected to
occur in those countries where traditional feed ingredients are lacking or totally unavailable.
Thus the information contained here has truly practical value, and unquestionably will
be utilized by aquaculturists. Various of the ingredients listed, i.e., soybean meal, fish meal,
crab meal, shrimp meal, and other animal and plant by-products already have acceptance
in various degree in aquaculture feeds. What is needed are new formulations that reflect
reductions in feed costs and especially more prudent use of available commodities.
Nowhere else has such a compilation of relevant ingredient data been attempted, and
the authors are to be commended for their initial efforts. Certainly, the database will be
significantly expanded as experimental results indicate nutritional value and dietary
feasibility of the various ingredients presented. Others will be added as food processing
industries endeavor to recover by products that have real economic value, rather than
that of a waste product to be discarded.
Newly developed ingredients for aquafeeds are appearing in the international market-
place. One example is that of the carotenoid (astaxanthin) containing yeast Phaffia
rhodozyma, currently being used as an effective pigmenting agent in salmonid and other
aquatic diets. Technological developments are being explored to enhance usage of plant
and animal feedstuffs in aquafeeds. Examples include, among others, such approaches
as development of genetically engineered soybean with increased levels of the essential
amino acids methionine and lysine, as well as possible removal of bone from meat
and bone meal, thereby reducing calcium levels with a concurrent increase in the
protein content. Hydrolyzed protein products, including fish protein concentrates from
by-catch and processing water are being commercialized along with hydrolyzed proteins
from blood, egg, pOUltry and liver products.
 xlvii

The stated objectives of this book, "to contribute to a better understanding of com-
monly used aquaCUlture feed ingredients and to find some useful information on some
potential feedstuffs for aquaculture diets", clearly are valid ones in terms of needs of
present day aquaculture. Hopefully, this worthwhile endeavor will serve as a catalyst for
further compilation and ultimate critical analysis of basic and applied information on
a wide range of specific ingredients for use in commercial aquaculture.

Dr. Samuel P. Meyers

Professor
Departments of Food Science!
Oceanography & Coastal Science
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA 70803IUSA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors gratefully acknowledge Cynthia Animas, Amelia Arisola, Carolina Unggui,
Luisa Pacino, Jeremiah Buendia, Oscar Gulmatico and Norma Terue1 for their patience
and unfaltering help throughout the preparation of the manuscript for this book.
Furthermore, the authors sincerely appreciate the illustrations that the late Ong Sik Lee
did. Unfortunately, he passed away before this book was printed.
 1. PROLOGUE

Aquaculture has had a rapid, global development during the recent 30 years particularly,
fish and crustacean culture. Today about 30 species of shrimps and more than 300 finfish
species are commercially cultivated world-wide. However, aquaculture does not only
include fishes and crustaceans. Culture of aquatic organisms also includes not only the
commercial production of molluscs, seaweed, sea cucumber and sea urchin, but also
turtles, frogs and reptiles. On the other hand, aquaculture is not new. The Chinese are
known to have farmed ponds filled with carp more than 2000 years ago.
The profit oriented commercial farming of aquatic organisms in controlled water and
environment is known as aquaCUlture, and is a specific sector of agricultural production
with the objective of producing animal protein for human consumption. For instance,
the culture of Atlantic salmon (Salrna salaT) in Norway, the world's largest producer, has
its roots in basic research work with terrestrial farm animals. The late internationally
recognised geneticist in animal breeding, Harald Skervald, a professor emeritus of the
Norwegian Agricultural University, in the sixties, used the salmon for genetic research
because reproduction rate is tremendous for enhancing genetical progress compared to
the possibilities offered by terrestrial animals.
But commercial aquaculture is not always sunny. The industry is very young, and still
works on many presumptions with regard to reproduction, husbandry and specifically
nutrition. Some of the problems that cause difficulties in commercial aquaculture are
the diversity and enormous number of species with their specific requirements. A very
typical example for the diversity of aquatic animals is the zoological marine shrimp
family Penaeidae which is comprised of 81 different species in 13 genera (Table 1-01).
While only few species are used in terrestrial production of farm animals, culture of
aquatic organisms includes a wide variety of species, each of them having different
habits and various physiological and nutritional needs.
Lack of knowledge and understanding of the behaviour of aquatic animals, associated
with a too pronounced attitude for profit-making and short-sighted management that
does not consider environmental hazards are major reasons for failures in commercial
aquaculture. These attitudes have developed into a kind of "aquacultural nomadism"
which means that, when a certain area has been deserted by irresponsible commercial
aquaculture, the operation moves on to another, still virgin area, continuing the destructive
activities to the environment.
There are also other reasons for the uncertainty of the industry which results in instability.
Research work in aquaculture genetics is still at an early stage. Without adequate genet-
ical selection land farm animal production would not have attained today's standards of
high performances. So far aquaculture research work has had little regard for hereditary
disposition and the environment (including feeding) both of which are necessary for
good yield. Unfortunately, feed utilisation cannot be greatly manipulated genetically
2 CHAPTER I

because the hereditary coefficient for feed conversion is low as established in terrestrial
farm animals.

Table 1-01: The species of the zoological marine shrimp Penaeidae l

~ ~ Genus ~
~ Me.lilJle.nae.us Parapenaeopsis Xiphope.naues
P. aztecus aztecus M. affinis P. arafurica X. kroyeri
P. aztecus subtilis M. benettae P. cornuta X. riveti
P. brasiliensis M. brevicornis P. hardwickii Genus
P. brevirostris M. burkenroadi P. hungerfordi Eusicyonia
P. caeruleus M. dalli P. sculptilis E. cristata
P. californiensis M. demani P. tene/la E. lancifer japonica
P. canaliculatus M. eboracensis P. venusta
P. carinatus M. endeavouri ~ ~
P. duorarum duoraum M. ensis Trachvpenae.uy Sicyonia
P. esculentus M. incisipes T. anchoralis S. brevirostris
P. fluviatilis M. insolitus T. byrdi S. dorsalis
P. indicus M. intermedius T. curvirostris ~
P. japonicus M.joyneri T.faoea Protrachpene
P. latisulcatus M. macleayi T.fulvus P. precipua
P. longistylus M. masters;; T. gonospinifer ~
P. macculochi M. monoceros T. granulosus Atvpopenaeus
P. merguiensis ~ ~ A·formosus
P. monodon Me.la[!.enaeo[!.sis Solenocera ~
P. occidentalis M. barbatus S. alticarinata Parapenaeus
P. orientalis M. borradailei S. depressa P. australiensis
P. penicillatus M. crassissima S. subnuda
P. plebejus M. lamellata Genus
P. schmitti M. mogiensis Hvme.nopenaeus
P. semisulcatus M. novae-guineae H. mulleri
P. setiferus M. palmensis H. robustus
P. stylirostris M. rosea H. sibogae
P. vannamei M. sinuosa

I Source: Motoh, H. (1977): SEAFDEC, Techn. Report No 2.

Another misconception and cause for failure in commercial aquaculture is the use of
experimental results from one species to another. For example, the kuruma prawn
(Penaeus japonicus) has the lowest production volume because of its relatively slow
growth but the most substantial research work, such as on shrimp feeding experiments,
has been done in this species, and results are transferred to other cultivated shrimp species
regardless of their feeding behaviour and physiological differences. Similar observations
exist for fishes, like salmonids and to a lesser extent channel catfish. When compared with
 PROLOGUE 3

terrestrial animal production this is tantamount to using experiences from pig production
for broiler raising.
There is a remarkable general knowledge of physiology, nutrition and feeding of
aquatic organisms, considering the relatively short period in which research work has been
carried out. However, with regard to the specific knowledge on nutrition and feeding
of most commercially cultivated aquatic species, the global map of aquaculture nutrition
and feeding has still many "white spots".
This "Handbook on Ingredients for Aquaculture Feeds" aims to contribute to a better
understanding of the feed components that affect the nutrition and feeding of aquatic
animals, mainly fishes and crustaceans. Oftentimes, little consideration is given to the
chemical and physiological properties and the feeding value of the individual constituent
in formulating commercial aquaculture feed. The use of each feed component has its
"pros" and "cons". Due to this concern the feeding value of a feedstuff might be over or
under assessed and necessary restrictions are neglected.
Furthermore, this book will not only contribute to a better understanding of commonly
used aquaCUlture feed ingredients but also give some useful information on some poten-
tial feedstuffs for aquaculture diets.
Various agricultural waste products have been included in the hope that they may be
found useful, economically feasible and will help in the production of "friendly" feeds
not only at the farm level but also in commercial feed manufacturing.
Some remarks have to be made in order to understand the set-up of the handbook.
At the start it was planned to sub-divide the contents into protein and energy feedstuffs
as well as into "traditional" and "non-conventional" feedstuffs. However, since there are
many overlaps, it was found inconvenient to sub-divide into protein and energy feedstuffs.
Furthermore, the border-line between traditional and non-conventional feedstuffs is very
fluid and the definition of a non-conventional feedstuff is rather complex and debatable.
Many feedstuffs used in aquaculture feeds are actually non-conventional. They are
often by- and waste products from the manufacture of foodstuffs for human consumption
but may have a superior feeding value for aquatic animals. Due to all these difficulties it
was decided to describe the feedstuffs in alphabetical order.
Data referring to terrestrial farm animals were used whenever there was a lack of
information from aquatic animals. The data should only serve as an indication that
the feedstuff, without any obligation to use them, may be useful for aquaculture feeds.
Last but not least, this presentation does not claim to be a complete review of all
possible feedstuffs which could be included into an aquaculture feed.

Hamburg/Germany and Iloilo/The Philippines

December 1999

Joachim W. Hertrampf
Felicitas Piedad-Pascual
 2. NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE

Farming of aquatic animals requires comprehensive knowledge and appreciation of nutri-

tion, feedstuffs, feeds and feeding practices. Compared with the nutrition of terrestrial
farm animals, nutrition of aquatic organisms is relativel:x new. Like terrestrial farm
animals the aquatic counterparts require protein, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals
and other feed additives for meeting the physiological needs of growth and reproduction.
However, there are immense differences between terrestrial and aquatic farm animals.
Due to the abundant diversity of cultured aquatic animals their nutritional requirements
vary widely.

2.1 Diversity of Cultured Aquatic Animals

For successful farming of aquatic animals the environmental and biological characteristics
of the large number of species have to be fully understood.

Fishes
Temperature and salinity of the water are major environmental characteristics in fish culture.
Fishes are poikilothermal organisms which normally adapt their body temperature to
the environmental temperature(J3J). Fishes are subdivided into "warmwater" and "cold-
water" fishes. Warmwater fishes have an optimum growing water temperature of 25°C
to 30°C(102), and 20°C and below is the preferred temperatures of coldwater Fishes(JoI).
Coldwater and warmwater species can be both, freshwater and marine fishes (Figure 2-01).
The migration habit from oceans to streams and vice versa of some species such as salmonids
and eels is successfully used in brackishwater fish culture by careful control of water salinity.

Figure 2-01. Diagram of taxonomic classification of fish(58).

 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 5

Water pollution is a serious problem in aquaculture. It is, therefore, suggested that

resistance to pollutants should be added to the environmental characteristics of fishes(ll).
Four attributes determine the biological characteristics of fish(ll):
Reproductive habits,
• Requirements of the eggs and larvae,
Adaptability to crowding,
Feeding habits.
Fishes can be classified according to the type of food they prefer under natural con-
ditions(99). The four main categories are (Table 2-01):
Herbivores,
• Detritus feeders,
• Omnivores,
• Carnivores.

Table 2-01: Feeding habits of selected fish species(58)

1. Herbivores
Carp:
• Big head carp Aristichtus nobilis
• Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idellus
• Javanese carp Puntius gonionotus
• Silver carp Hypothalmichtys molitrix
Gourami Osphyronemus gourami
Milkfish Chanos chanos
Perch Perea spp.
Rabbit fish Siganus guttatus
Tilapia Tzlapia sppJOreochromis spp.
Siamese gourami Trichagaster pectoralis
2. Detritus feeders
Mud carp Cirrhinus molitorella
3. Omnivores
Channel catfish lctalurus punctatus
Common carp Cyprinus carpio
Grey mullet Mugil cephalus
4. Carnivores
Black carp Mylopharyngodon piceus
Catfish Clarias batrachus
Grouper Epinephelus spp.
Marblegoby Oxyelotris marmoratus
Salmon:
• Atlantic salmon Salmosalar
• Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp.
Seabass Lates calcarifer
Trout:
• Brown trout Salmo trulta
• Rainbow trout Salmo gairdneriiOncorhynchus mykiss
6 CHAPTER 2

The feeding habit of fish is reflected in the digestive anatomy. The gut-length of fishes
is short and the ratio of body length and gut-length is narrow (Table 2-02). The chyme,
therefore, stays in the gut only for a short time(51). For this reason fish feed must have a
high digestibility. A typical carnivorous fish has a short gut with an extendible stomach
for large prey. In the longitudinal axis the stomach can be extended by 30 to 35% and
the diameter can increase by 75% (131).

Table 2-02: Length of intestines of some aquatic and terrestrial animals in

comparison to the animal's body length(51)

Species Length of the intestine is ... times longer than the body

Trout 1.0 to 1.5

Carp 2.0 to 2.5
Dog/cat 5.0
Horse 12.0
Pig 15.0
Cattle 20.0
Sheep 30.0

Omnivores which tend to eat animal food still have a large stomach but a longer intestine
than carnivores. Omnivores such as the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), preferring a plant
diet, have pharyngeal teeth, no stomach and a long intestine. The gut of herbivorous fish,
particularly those which consume phytoplankton is the longest and the most complex type(99i .
Detritus feeders are efficient. They feed mainly on dead organic matter at the bottom of
the pond and are "cleaners". In the "transitional stage" the food habit may vary, not only
between species but also according to the age of the animals and environmental changes.

Crustaceans
Shrimps are decapod crustaceans of the suborder Natantia used mainly for farming.
The term "shrimp" and "prawn" are often used interchangeably. Commercially, shrimp
refers to the small species while prawn applies to the larger species. The name "shrimp"
is used also in connection with various species of the families Pandalidae, Peneidae and
Palaemonidae. It particularly refers to the family Crangonidae(1l.105i .
The environmental characteristics of shrimps are similar to those of fishes (Figure 2-02).
Most important for aquaculture are marine warmwater shrimps. Marine coldwater shrimps
are normally small in size. By nature all cultured shrimp species have in the wild
the habit of entering shallow coastal waters, when very young. There they settle to the
bottom where they grow rapidly for several weeks until they return to the sea(ll).
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 7

Shrimps spp

Omnivore

Fresh
water shrimps

Figure 2-02. Diagram of classification of Shrimp SppP7}.

In shrimp culture water quality is essential. Optimal conditions are(30):

Water temperature: 28 to 33°C
• Salinity: 15 to 25 ppt
pH: 8.0 to 8.5
• Oxygen: 3.7 ppm (min.)
The maximum concentrations for pollutants is shown in Table 2-03.

Table 2-03: Maximum concentrations of pollutants for optimal growth of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)(JO)

1. H!<av):: metals: Mercury 0.0025 ppm

Copper 0.1 ppm
Cadmium 0.15 ppm
Zinc 0.25 ppm
2. Surfacl!!!lts: Dunall OSE 0.1 ppm
BP 110 0.2 ppm
Seagreen 0.5 ppm
3. &l5ti!<ilks: Malathion 0.0004 ppb
Parathion 0.001 ppb
Rotenone 0.008 ppb
Azodrin 0.01 ppb
Endosulfan 0.01 ppb
Paraquat 0.01 ppb
Butachlor 1.0 ppb
4. Others: HzS 0.033 ppm
NH3 0.1 ppm
8 CHAPTER 2

Shrimps are classified as carnivores, herbivores and omnivores. The penaeid gut is
straight with three main sections: Fore-gut, mid-gut and hind-gut (Figure 2-03)(91).
Digestion in penaeid species is a combination of mechanical and chemical processes(l49).
The hepatopancreas plays a central role in the metabolic processes. It has similar functions
to that of the liver in vertebrates. Its enzyme-secretion system is comparable to that of
the vertebrate pancreas(30).
During the life cycle certain penaeid species change from being herbivorous to
carnivorous. However, this transition is only of interest with regard to the protein
content of the diet.

I. Oesophagus 3. Hepatopancreas 5. Intestine

2. Stomach 4. Heart 6. Anus

Figure 2-03. The digestive system of shrimps.

Molluscs
Oysters, mussels, clams and scallops belong to the phylum Mollusca and are of the class
Lamellibranchiata or Bivalvia. The latter name derives from the two shells which
enclose the animal. There are over 7,000 species of bivalves that live in a wide variety
of habitats. Only a small portion of all these species are of aquacultural interest(118).
Brackishwater and seawater are the primary habitats of farmed molluscs. Bivalves
remain in general cemented in one location with the exception of the terrified scallops
and the gastropod abalone (Haliotis Spp.)(2. 47).
Molluscs species in the wild are primarily herbivores. Carnivorous bivalves are of no
direct interest for aquaculture(121). The digestive system of bivalves is the most complex
in the animal kingdom. Five basic stomach types have been described of which three are
found in cultured bivalves (Figure 2-04)(117). Not less than 21 different digestive enzymes
have been found in the bivalve stomach(l2l). Some bivalves are completely gutless such
as Solemya reidi(122).
The natural diet of marine bivalves is "biphasic", including both particulate and
dissolved components(132). The diet of abalone changes during the different phases of
their development(47). However, the feeding behaviour of bivalves differs from species
to species. But all of them have in common the tendency to eat only when certain
conditions are present, such as tidal flow, the vigorous movement of the surrounding
water and the presence of food(47. 121).
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 9

1. Mouth 4. Digestive diverticula 7. Rectum

2. Oesophagus 5. Digestie tabule 8. Anus
3. Dorsalhood 6. Midgut 9. Foot

Figure 2-04. The alimentary system of bivalves.

Bivalves have the ability to take up dissolved organic material from the water as
demonstrated by the uptake of free amino acids (FAA)(132). Bacteria associated with
bivalves are eaten as food and may contribute to the nutrition of these bivalves.
They provide soluble molecules for absorption by the gills or gut, or as contributors to
digestion(121). At the same time marine bivalves compete effectively with bacteria
normally present in their habitat for available dissolved organic matter<J32).
The biosynthesis of mollusc shell is a specific mechanism. Shell formation is a complex
process which is not completely understood but it is heavily dependent on the chemical
composition of the water and influenced by the nutritional quality of the assimilated food(129).
The slow development of formulated diets for farmed molluscs has been mainly due to
the fact that their nutritional requirements have not yet been established. Mollusc nutrition
is far behind that of other farmed aquatic animals(21).

2.2 Proteins

Proteins are a large class of nitrogenous substances of a complex union of amino acids
and containing carbon (50.0%), oxygen (22.0%), hydrogen (0.7%) and other elements
such as sulphur, phosphorus, iron and iodine(13J). Nitrogen (N) (16.0%) is the most
important element of protein. The crude protein content of a feed ingredient is generally
obtained by multiplying the nitrogen content with the factor 6.25.
10 CHAPTER 2

However, not all nitrogen of a feed ingredient refers to protein. Nitrogen can be a
component of proteins, proteides and non-protein nitrogen. Protein consists of only
polypeptides while proteides are composed of at least one protein and another compound
which is a non-protein, e.g. phospho-proteides =protein + phosphoric acid. Compounds
which contain nitrogen but not in the form of amines (-NR:z) do not have any nutritional
value for aquatic animals(5l}.
The basic units of protein are amino acids. There are some twenty major amino acids.
The ten essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by the organism and have to be
provided for in the feed for aquatic animals. For complete utilisation of the dietary
protein the amino acids have to be balanced. Excess of dietary protein/amino acids is
not only costly but also requires energy for deamination. Amino acids are not only the
building blocks of protein but are also involved in growth, maintenance of body tissue
and energy for the well-being of the animal(4o.85. 109).

Fishes
In the digestive tract of the fish the dietary protein is split into free amino acids and short
peptide chains by enzymes and absorbed by the gut-wall. In the blood, protein appears
in the form of amino acids(55). Utilisation of dietary protein depends on its digestibility
which is affected by a number of factors( llO). Certain parameters are used for determining
the protein utilisation by the fish (Table 2-04). They are at the same time an indicator for
the quality of the dietary protein(l3/).

Table 2-04: Parameters for the judgement of dietary protein utilisation by fish

Abbr. Name of parameter Formula

Weight gain (g)

PER Protein efficiency ratio PER =- - - - - - - - -
Protein ingestion (g)

Weight gain (g)

PPY Productive protein value PPY = - - - - - - - - x 100
Protein ingestion (g)

N-retention + endogene N + N-losses in the digestive tract

BY Biological value BY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x l O O
Feed-N

(B -Bol - (B k - Boll
NPU Net protein utilisation NPU=
N-ingestion

EAA Essential amino acid index EEA = Geometrical average of the 10 essential amino acids

I B = Body-N after ingestion of feed protein

Bo = Body-N at start of trial
Bk = Body-N after protein-free nutrition
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 11

The fish body contains 65 to 75% protein(l58). Its protein requirement, therefore, is about
two to three times higher than that of mammals and converts protein much better than
crustaceans(109).
Fishes do not have an absolute protein requirement(88).1t is influenced by the species,
age of the animals and the water temperature. Fishes cultured in tropical climate have
a lower protein requirement (25 to 30%) than those cultured in moderate climate
(30 to 40%)(40. 109.162).
Fish fry has the highest protein requirement which declines with growth (Table
2-05)(10. 52). A linear relationship between dietary protein requirement and specific
growth rate (SGR) exists(138). Warmwater fish have a faster SGR than temperate fish(109).

Table 2-05: Protein requirement of tilapia (Oreochromis sp) and salmonids is dependent on the age
of development

Tilapia(1O) Salmonids(52)

Liveweight Protein-requirement Stage of development Protein-requirement

g % %

until 1.0 35.0 to 50.0 Fry 50.0

1.0 to 5.0 30.0 to 40.0 Fingerling 40.0
5.0 to 25.0 25.0 to 30.0 Grow-out 35.0
more than 25.0 20.0 to 25.0

Crustaceans
The principles of providing crustaceans with dietary protein are similar to those for fishes.
In addition to species, food-habits, age and water temperature, the source of protein
and energy level of the diet as well as stocking rate affects the protein requirement of
crustaceans(71. 88). For intensive shrimp culture commercial feed should contain not
more than 35% protein while that for semi-intensive shrimp culture ranges between
20 to 35%(88). The protein requirement of commonly cultured crustaceans is in Table 2-06.
Usually protein from animal sources give better growth and survival than plant proteins.
Marine crustaceans require relatively high levels of animal protein, particularly of
marine origin. Freshwater prawns are better utilisers of plant proteins than marine shrimps.
A guideline for the amino acid requirement of crustaceans is the amino acid composition
of the whole shrimp (Table 2-07)171. 109). The utilisation of synthetic amino acids by
crustaceans is not yet fully established(l09). Diets based exclusively on synthetic amino
acids were poorly utilised(llO).
12 CHAPTER 2

Table 2-06: Protein requirement (%) of some crustaceans(88. 1(9)

Penaeus aztecus Northern brown shrimp 25 - 45

Penaeus indicus Indian white prawn 36 - 63
Penaeusjaponicus Kuruma prawn 35 - 60
Penaeus merguiensis Banana prawn 34 - 50
Penaeus monodon TIger prawn 40- 50
Penaeus setiferus Northern white shrimp 28 - 32
Penaeus stylirostris Blue shrimp 30 - 35
Penaeus vannamei White leg shrimp 30 - 35
Palaemon serratus Pink shrimp/common prawn 30
Macrobrachium rosenbergii Giant river prawn 25 - 45
Macrobrachium nobilis Fresh water prawn 30
Homarus americanus American lobster 11-60

Molluscs
Very little is known on protein requirement of molluscs. Most of the diets, if not all,
used in larval rearing are natural food such as micro-algae of varied species. The protein
efficiency is related to the presence of essential amino acids in the same proportion as
in the tissue. The nutrient content of artificial diets tested were based on the composition
of Isochrysis galbana and contained egg albumin, yeast, salmon sperm and crystalline
amino acids(l56).

Table 2-07: Amino acid profile of prawns (g/16 g N)(27)

Amino acid TIger prawn Indian prawn Kuruma prawn

Penaeus monodon Penaeus indicus Penaeusjaponicus

Arginine 9.16 9.94 8.16

Histidine 1.52 1.91 2.40
Isoleucine 3.86 4.01 4.58
Leucine 8.04 7.24 8.04
Lysine 6.83 6.62 8.46
Methionine 2.01 1.82 2.90
Phenylalanine 4.02 4.01 4.83
Tyrosine 3.05 2.93 4.20
Valine 3.70 3.09 4.44

The ten essential amino acids and in addition proline and tyrosine were found to be
essential for Mytilus califomianusfJ56). The utilisation of bacteria protein by molluscs is
still being deliberated. The ability of the usage most probably varies between species(l3.12/).
Abalone feed should not contain less than 30% protein(47).
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 13

2.3 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates or saccharides are generally composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

They are aliphatic mono-oxopolyhydroxy-compounds with the basic formula Cx(H20)y'
Saccharides are energy nutrients for all fauna and flora organisms. They are reservoirs
and fuel and are the frame for plants. Globally carbohydrates form the major volume of all
biological material(J46). Carbohydrates are classified as mono-, oligo- and polysaccharides
(Figure 2-05). Monosaccharides are the basic compound for forming oligosaccharides
and polysaccharides(J3l).
The major carbohydrates of feed ingredients for aquatic animals are oligo- and
polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, pectin). Starch from plants is a macro-molecule and
composed of 2,000 to 8,000 /3-glucose-units(J3J. 99). The animal starch is glycogen. which
primarily is deposited in the liver'99.57).
In general, in the digestive tract polysaccharides are split into monosaccharides by
enzymatic hydrolysis for absorption. The enzyme for splitting cellulose - cellulases - is
only produced by micro-organisms(l3J. 146). The indigestible lignin is the fibrous material
of the cell-wall(99)) which obstructs the utilisation of the carbohydrates of the cell-wall
by the bacteria.

Table 2-08: Factors for estimating the digestible energy of feed ingredients for
aquatic animals(lo/)

Nutrient Gross energy Digestible energy

kcal/kg kcal/kg

Carbohydrates (non-legumes) 4.1 3.0

Carbohydrates (legumes) 4.1 2.0
Proteins (animals) 5.5 4.25
Proteins (plants) 5.5 3.8
Fats 9.1 8.0

Remark: No calorific value has been attributed to fibre in this method of calculation

Carbohydrates are determined indirectly. They are the difference between the sum
of moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash and crude fibre content and 100 and is named
the "nitrogen-free extract" (N-free extract). It does not encompass cellulose, lignin and
pentosanes which are included in the crude fibre contentl48. 57.131).
Gross energy, digestible energy and metabolisable energy are instruments for the
determination of the energy value of feed ingredients. Metabolisable energy is difficult
to determine with aquatic animals and the digestible energy from experiments are not
readily available. However, the digestible energy can be calculated based on factors shown
in Table 2-08(99). Other techniques are also used for estimating the digestible energy.
To calculate the digestible energy, the factors have to be mUltiplied with the nutrients
(based on dry matter) of the individual feed ingredients. The sum of these is the
digestible energy.
14 CHAPTER 2

Glucose Arabinose Lactose Raffinose Stachhose Cellulose Hemi-

Gal actose Saccharose Starch cellulose
Fructose! Mal tose Pectin
Cellobiase chitin
Glycogen

Figure 2-05_ Classification of carbohydrates (saccharides)

Fishes
The digestion of carbohydrates by the fish is affected by their feeding habits, the secretion
of the stomach juice, the availability of carbohydrate enzymes and the anatomy of
the digestive tract In general, carnivorous fish such as salmonids digest carbohydrates
less efficiently than omnivorous and herbivorous fish (55,99, 131)_ Rainbow trout cannot
digest purified cellulose and hemi-celluloseIl 4}_ Water temperature has no effect on
carbohydrate digestibility(61},
The carbohydrate digestibility by salmonids is affected by the size of the carbohydrate
molecule and its level in the diet (Table 2_09)(114,131). The poor ability to utilise carbo-
hydrates applies also to the carnivorous yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) and striped
jack (Caranx delicatissimus)!1 28, 143, 1441,

Table 2-09: Digestibility (%) of carbohydrates by salmonid fishes(l31)

Carbohydrate Brook trout Rainbow trout

(Salvelinus fantinalis) (Salma gairdneri)

Glucose 99 79 - 90
Maltose 92
Saccharose 73
Lactose 60
Dextrin 77 - 80
Starch (cooked) 57 52 -70
Starch (raw) 38 20 - 24
a-cellulose 10 - 14
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 15

Due to high enzyme activity certain carp species such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) utilise carbohydrates well(126. 128) while fry
of the bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) respond negativeIy(l48). Various catfish
species use carbohydrates even at levels of almost 50%167. 90. 99). The African tilapia
(Sarotherodon melanotheron) utilised dietary carbohydrates satisfactorily(97).
The crude fibre utilisation by fish is uncertainlI3I ). In carp it was found that with increas-
ing levels of crude fibre the digestibility of the organic matter declined (Figure 2_06)(126).

100
Wheat
90
..
.
..,
!!
E
70 Wheat middlings

....c
u

.•'"
0 50
Wheat pollard

...
..
0

.......
Wheat bran

.... 30
.......
..Q

~
~

....Q'"
10

o 2 I. G 8 10 12 11. 16 18
Crude fibre (\)

Figure 2·06. The digestibility of the organic matter of wheat and wheat by-products in carp (Cyprinus carpio)
is affected by the crude fibre content of these feed ingredients(l26).

Crustaceans
In crustaceans carbohydrates are important as an energy source for chitin synthesis and
synthesis of non-essential fatty acid11I0 ). In addition carbohydrates have a protein sparing
effectl20). However, there are differences in the utilisation of the various carbohydrate
sources. Monosaccharides such as glucose, galactose and fructose inhibit the growth of
the brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus), pink shrimp (Penaeus duorarum) and kuruma prawn
(Penaeus japonicus)169, 99. 1I0). On the other hand disaccharides like sucrose, maltose and
trehalose, and polysaccharides such as dextrin and starch have a high nutritive value as
carbohydrate sources l26. 69). Crustaceans are incapable of digesting oligosaccharides from
seeds of legumes and pulses due to the ab~ence of specific enzymesl28. 1I0).
16 CHAPTER 2

Chitin is a linear polysaccharide with the formula (C 6H 1P5)n and the major compo-
nent of the exoskeleton of crustaceans. Due to moulting this has to be steadily replaced.
It is synthesised from glucose via glucosamine, a precursor of chitin(69).
Although dietary crude fibre may stimulate the microbial gut fiora(46), its level in
commercial diets should be less than 5.0%(110).

Molluscs
Little information is available on the value of carbohydrates in mollusc culture. In abalone
farming carbohydrates are considered as an inexpensive energy source(47).
In studies on gastropod nutrition carbohydrates were included in diets at rather
high levels(2I!.

2.4 Lipids

Lipids are fatty acid esters of glycerol and are the primary means by which animals store
energy. Aquatic animals are able to metabolise lipids readily, particularly when deprived
of food. Dietary lipids have two major functions. They are sources of energy and fatty
acids. Dietary lipids also give palatability to the feed and serve as a vehicle for the
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and sterols and in additon playa very important role
in the structure of biological membranes such as phospholipids and sterol esters(30, 43).
The protein-sparing property of dietary lipids has been demonstrated in rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri). With increasing fat content of the diet, the protein retention
increased(6o. 141). The requirement of fish ranges from 5.0 to 18.0% fat depending on the
fish species(lIO), but diets for the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) may contain fat levels
as high as 25.0%.
Lipids with high content of unsaturated fatty acids particularly polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA) are very liable to oxidation. Metabolites of lipid oxidation may react with
other nutrients and reduce their availability. Malonaldehyde, a product of fat oxidation
can be toxic to fish(22).

Fishes
Fishes have to be provided with exogenous lipids. Triglycerides are the major energy
source for metabolism in fish muscle. The fatty acids of the lipids are oxidised in the cell
mitochondria(55).
Chain-length and the saturation of the the fatty acids affects the digestibility of lipids.
The higher the content of long-chained, saturated fatty acids, the lower the digestibility.
The fat digestibility also is affected by water temperature and the melting point of dietary
lipids (Table 2-10 and 2-11 )(9). Fishes can synthesise de novo fatty acids from acetate as
a precursor!22), with the exception of the three essential fatty acids "linolenic acid"
(18:3n-3); "linoleic acid" (18:2n-6) and "arachidonic acid" (20:4n-6). They have to be
provided in the feed.
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 17

Table 2-10: Effect of the water temperature on the apparent digestibility (%) of soybean oil and selected fatty
acids by the rainbow trout (Salrno gairdnerl)f9)

Water temperature

3°C HOC

Soybean oil 87.9 89.2

Stearic acid C18:0 77.4 79.5
Oleic acid C18:1 87.2 87.8
Linoleic acid C18:2 96.6 97.3
Linolenic acid C18:3 100.0 100.0

Fish lipids contain high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. However, environmental
factors such as freshwater and seawater (Table 2-12); migration from the ocean to
streams and vice versa; salinity; water temperature, depth of the water (pressure) and
also the fatty acid composition of the dietary fat influence the fatty acid composition of
the fish (Table 2-13Y22. 55. 87.107.108.134,139).
PUFA are the dominating fatty acids in the fish. The dietary requirement of
essential fatty acids is in the range of 0.5 to 1.5%(10.24.110.140.142.152,161). But an over-
supply of Omega-3 HUFA (highly unsaturated fatty acids) in trout feed depresses
perfomances of the animals. The symptoms of an oversupply are similar to those of
fatty acid deficiencies(131).
Signs of deficiency symptoms of essential fatty acids are described by NRC(lOl).

Table 2-11: The effect of the melting point of the dietary fat on the digestibility (%) by the rainbow trout
(Salrno gairdneri)(9)

Fish oil (untreated and hydrogenated) Water temperature

3°C HOC

Melting point 10°C 85.8 84.8

Melting point 21°C 74.6 75.2
Melting point 33°C 68.8 69.5
Melting point 41°C 46.4 49.0
18 CHAPTER 2

Table 2-12: Mean content of fatty acid groups in freshwater and marine fishes (% of total fatty acids)(2Z)

Fatty acid group Freshwater fishes Marine fishes

Saturated 23.3 25.7

Monoenoic 41.6 42.7
n-6 6.0 3.6
n-3 23.4 23.3
Ratio n-6:n-3 0.34 0.15

Table 2-13: The effect of dietary lipid on fatty acid composition of channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus)(I34)

Total fatty Fatty acid composition of diet' Carcass fatty acid composition' Liver fatty acid composition'
acids
Beef tallow Menhaden Beef tallow Menhaden Beef tallow Menhaden
meal meal meal

HUFA 3.8 41.9 10.5 42.1 17.6 48.4

n-6 3.3 4.3 5.4 5.1 4.3
n-3 3.8 38.4 5.0 34.6 5.04 3.8

, of total fatty acids

Crustaceans
Crustaceans have to be provided with exogenous lipids. The requirement is lower than
for fish. Recommendations are in the range of 4.0 to 10.0% for marine shrimps and
3.0 to 6.0% for freshwater shrimps(1IO). In juvenile kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus)
the n-3-series of fatty acids is more effective than the n-6-series(72 ).
The reproductive performances of shrimp broodstock is insufficient when there is lack of
essential fatty acids (EFA)195. 96). In the presence of phospholipids larval Penaeus japonicus
required less PUFA thanjuveniles(75). The requirement is estimated to be 1.0 to 1.6%(110).
Crustaceans have a dietary requirement for sterols because they are incapable of
synthesising de novo sterols from acetate and mevalonic acid(23). Dietary cholesterol is
the most effective. Very likely sterols other than cholesterol have to be converted to
cholesterol in the bodyl76. 147). Diet supplementation with 0.25 to 1.0% cholesterol meets
the requirements of crustaceans (Table 2_14)1 23. 32.ll0. ll/).

Molluscs
The nutritional value of lipids and fatty acids for bivalves has been established by
a number of experiments. Lipids are particularly important for larval growth and
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 19

development of oysters(l56). However, the quantitative deposition of lipids in the body

is unknown. It is assumed that triglycerides have a consistent fatty acid pattern through-
out the bivalve bodyW Changes in the fatty acid composition have been observed
during the development of bivalves(29).
Phytoplanktons are regarded as the principal food sources for bivalve larvae. However,
some algae appear to be more nutritious than others. Some algal food may be deficient
in 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 fatty acids as observed in a trial in the juvenile Pacific oyster
(Crassostrea gigas)(l56). Supplementation of the algal diet with encapsulated 22:6n-3
fatty acids improved the growth of the Pacific oyster83).
Not more than 5.0% fat should be used in formulated feed for abalone (Haliotis spp.).
The added fat for coldwater abalone should have a low melting point(47). In formulated
diets for the blue print oyster (Crassostrea virginica) 12.0% oyster lipid extract was
successfully used(83)

Table 2·14: The effect of cholesterol on the growth of Penaeus japonicus

(Test period: 30 days, temp.: 26 to 27°C) (4]]

Cholesterol fortification Weight gain

% g %

0 0.74 100.0
0.7 1.10 148.6
1.4 1.20 162.2
2.1 1.45 195.9

2.5 Vitamins

Vitamins are organic nutrients, essential to man and animals. Insufficient dietary supply
results in deficiency symptoms. Scurvey is the oldest known vitamin deficiency, described
as early as 400 B.C. by Hippocrates. Rickets in children and the deadly beri-beri disease
are caused by vitamin deficiencies.
In this century most of the vitamins were discovered in feeding experiments with
rats and miceW Although vitamins occur naturally all of them can be synthesised by
chemical or microbiological processes on an industrial scale(56).

True Vitamins
The characteristic of a true vitamin is the co-enzyme function(30. 33. 101). There are 14
vitamins which are classified as fat-soluble and water soluble vitamins (Table 2-15).
Vitamins are involved in many biological functions of the organism. They are important
for good health and high performance. Some Vitamins have a precursor which is
converted in the body from a pro-vitamin into a true vitamin, e.g. J3-carotene is
the precursor of Vitamin A.
20 CHAPTER 2

Table 2-15: Major natural sources of vitamins(99)

Vitamin Other name Source

for Vitamin

1. Fat-~Qluhl!: Vjtamins
Vitamin A Retinol Fish oils
Vitamin D3 Calciferol Fish oils
Vitamin E Tocopherol Vegetable oils
Vitamin ~ Menadion Leaf meals, alfalfa

2. Water-soluhle Vitamin~

Vitamin B1 Thiamin Legumes, brans, yeast

VitaminB 2 Riboflavin Yeast, liver, milk, soya beans
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine Yeast, cereals, liver
Vitamin B12 Cyanocobalamin Fish meal, fish viscera,
slaughterhouse wastes
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Fresh fish tissue, insects
Biotin Vitamin H Li ver, yeast, milk products
Folic acid Pteroylglutamic acid Yeast, fish tissue, fish viscera,
leaf meal
Nicotinic acid Vitamin PP Yeast, legumes, forage
Pantothenic acid Vitamin B3 Yeast, brans, animal offal,
fish tissue
Choline Vitamin B4 Wheat germ, legumes

Apart from the traditional functions of true vitamins "additional effects" have been
described such as enhancing immunity of the organism by Vitamin A and the detoxifying
effect of Vitamin E when there is an over-supply of selenium(56).
Generally, fat-soluble vitamins and Vitamin C are less stable than water-soluble vitamins.
The stability of vitamins are affected by moisture, oxidation, reduction, trace minerals,
heat, light, pressure, pH and the storage time!34. 56).
Information on the bio-availability of vitamins are scarce. In aquatic animals only
the bio-availability of synthetic Vitamin C has been studied!3/). The bio-availability of
inherent vitamins of raw materials is rather variable(15l).

Substances without Vitamin Status

The term vitamin has been applied to many chemical substances that do not meet the
criteria for vitamin status since they do not have a co-enzyme function. Without being
dietary essentials, they exhibit biological activitY33). Cultured aquatic animals are in
need of some of them, e.g. inositol.
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 21

Fishes
For fish farmers the most obvious signs of vitamin deficiencies are growth retardation and
increased mortality. However, in most cases vitamin deficiency symptoms are due to
insufficient availability of more than one vitamin(55).
Fat-soluble vitamins, particularly Vitamin A, can be deposited in the liver while water
soluble vitamins are hardly deposited in the organism. Deficiencies of water-soluble
vitamins, therefore, occur much fasterl 79). The utilisation of Pro-vitamin A by fish depends
on the water temperature (should not be lower than 12° to 14°q(l16). Only a.-tocopherol
can be used efficiently as Vitamin E by fish. The utilisation of all other tocopherols is
much lowerl154).
In fish nutrition Vitamin BI deficiency is most common, particularly when raw fish is fed.
Raw fish contains the enzyme thiaminase which can destroy thiamin (Vitamin B 1)(99).
Tryptophan cannot be effectively utilised by salmonids without nicotinic acid which
serves as a precursorl JJ5). Choline, although classified as an essential vitamin, can be
synthesised by the body in the presence of a methyl-donor (e.g. methionine), folic acid and
Vitamin B 1P5, 159, 163). Choline may also be replaced by phospholipids (see chapter 41)(135).
The "fatty liver syndrome" (e.g, in carp (Cyprinus carpio) is the most severe choline
deficiency sign(l63),
Crustaceans
Just like in fishes the primary sign of vitamin deficiency in crustaceans are poor growth
and high mortality rate. The need for providing kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) with
choline and inositol has been demonstrated. Beyond 2,000 mglkg diet no additional
growth was observed (Figure 2-07)156, 74).
Freshwater prawns most probably obtain a portion of their vitamin requirements from
the nutrients of the pond(8, 16, 17, 137).

05

c:
iii
0>
~
iii
o

.04

500 1000 /"4too

InOSItol mglkg feed

Figure 2·07. The effect of increasing added inositol levels on the growth of the kuruma prawn
(Penaeus japonicus)(71).
22 CHAPTER 2

Molluscs
Molluscs need vitamins as any other animal, however, their needs are not yet quantita-
tively established. Since cultured molluscs are basically fed on natural food (algae), their
vitamin requirements may be met!47. 110. 156). Bacteria associated with molluscs such as in
bivalves, may also supply vitamins(l3, 121). Formulated feed also contain high levels of
yeast which is a good source of the B-Vitamins(44).

Vitamin Requirements
Vitamin requirements have been categorized and defined as the:
Minimum vitamin requirement;
Optimum vitamin requirement;
Suboptimal scope.
The vitamin level between minimum and optimum requirements is the suboptimal scope.
Supplying suboptimal amount is more or less practiced in vitamin fortification of aqua-
culture feed(56).
Many factors affect the quantitative requirement of vitamins by fish. Coldwater fish
have a higher vitamin requirement than warmwater fish(56, 136). Stress situations such as
high salinity or poor water quality require higher vitamin fortification. Since crustaceans
are slow eaters, their diet requires higher vitamin levels to counteract the loss of water-
soluble vitamins through leaching.
A guide for the fortification of aquaculture feed with vitamins are in Tables 2-16 and 2-17.

Table 2-16: Guidelines for the vitamin fortification per kg of formulated fish feed(l31)

Vitamin Rainbow trout Common carp Channel catfish

VitamimA IV 5,000 -20,000 4,000 -20.000

Vitamin D3 IV 2,000 - 3,000 2,000 500 - 4,000
VitaminE mg 100 - 500 100 - 500
VitaminK3 mg 10 - 20 3
Vitamin BI mg 10- 20 10 1
Vitamin B2 mg 10 - 20 5- 10 10
Vitamin B6 mg 10- 20 5- 10 2- 3
Vitamin BI2 mcg 20 - 50
Vitamin C mg 200 - 400 50 - 100 50 - 200
Pantothenic acid mg 50 - 100 30 - 90 250 I
Nicotinic acid mg 50 - 100 20 - 50 20
Biotin mg 1- 2
Folic acid mg 5- 10
Cholin mg 500 - 1,000 1,000 - 2,000
Inositol mg 300 - 500 400 - 500

I for fry
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 23

Table 2-17: Guidelines for the vitamin fortification per kg of fonnulated feed for marine shrimps(4. 62. /36)

VitamimA IU 4,000 -100,000

Vitamin D3 IU 1,000 - 5,000
Vitamin E mg 100 300
Vitamin IS mg 5.0 100
Vitamin BI mg 30 120
Vitamin B z mg 20 70
Vitamin B6 mg 50 120
Vitamin BIZ mcg 20 100
Vitamin C mg 1,000 - 5,000
Pantothenic acid mg 75 220
Nicotinic acid mg 150 330
Biotin mg 0.5 1.5
Folic acid mg 5.0 15
Cholin mg 400 - 2,400
Inositol mg 300 - 4,000

Vitamin Toxicity
Too little as well as too high vitamin supply can be harmful to animals. Tolerance levels
are not the same for each vitamin and may range from two times to 1,000 times that of
the requirement(35). The toxicity of vitamins is classified as follows:
• Vitamins with high toxic potential (Vitamin A - Vitamin D - Choline);
• Vitamins with moderate toxic potential (Vitamin B2 - nicotinic acid - pantothenic acid);
• Vitamins with low toxic potential (Vitamin E - Vitamin ~ - Vitamin C - Vitamin B j
- Vitamin B6 - Vitamin Bj2 - biotin - folic acid).
Signs of excess vitamin supply (hypervitaminosis) have been observed in fish(136).
However, rainbow trout tolerated without adverse effect 900,000 IV Vitamin Alkg feed
and 1.4 million IV Vitamin D/kg feed(61).

2.6 Minerals

Minerals are essential nutrients for aquatic animals. For optimum performances they
must be provided in proper amounts and in biologically available form. In contrast to
terrestrial animals, aquatic animals can absorb part of the required minerals from the
water through their gills or even through their entire body surface(55.56).
Minerals are not only required for the formation of bones, scales, teeth and exoskeletons,
but are also needed in many physiological processes and functions(ll3). The mineral
content of the whole body depends on the age of the animal and the mineral supply.
Both essential and almost all non-essential minerals are found in the animal body(42) but
the general opinion that marine aquatic animals are highly contaminated with heavy
metals, has been proven to be incorrect(I06).
24 CHAPTER 2

Mineral absorption is affected by the aquatic species and certain environmental

factors such as mineral content of the water, water temperature and pH of the water<55).
There are 23 minerals, classified as macro and micro (trace) minerals, which are
essential to aquatic animals (Table 2_18)(/36). Minerals required at levels of more than
100 mg/kg diet (basis: dry matter) are macro elements. All others are micro (trace)
minerals(J3I). An intensive interrelationship between the minerals exists in the organism
(Figure 2-08) and their functions are rather compiex(39).

Table 2-18: Classification of minerals in feed for cultured aquatic animals(l36}

Macro minerals Trace minerals Trace minerals l

Calcium Ca Aluminium Al Arsenic As

Chloride CI Cobalt Co Chromium Cr
Phosphorus P Copper Cu Nickel Ni
Potassium K Fluorine F Silicon Si
Magnesium Mg Iodine Tin Sn
Sodium Na Iron Fe Vanadium V
Sulfur S Manganese Mn
Molybdenum MO
Selenium Se
Zinc Zn

I Biological function still uncertain

Figure 2-08. Interrelationship between macro and trace minerals in animal metabolismI56}.
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 25

Bio-availability of Minerals
The bio-availability of minerals, as affected by a number of factors, is comparable to
the digestibility of nutrients of organic origin(56.82). However, the determination of the
bio-availability of minerals is not yet standardised(56). The bio-availability of calcium
carbonate (CaC02), tested in carp (Cyprinus carpio) is very low (27%)198) and that of
mono-sodium phosphate (NazHP04), tested in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is
high (90 to 95%)(124).
Most phytate-phosphorus of plant seeds is not only poorly available but also binds
calcium (Ca) as well as magnesium (Mg) and Zinc (Zn)(42. 89).

Fishes
Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are the dominant inorganic components in the whole
fish, e.g. rainbow trouts contain 0.43% Ca and 0.41% P(50). The Ca:P-ratio in the feed,
therefore should be 1.0: 1.0 to 1.2. About 90% of Ca and 80% of P are found in the bones.
The remaining percentages are vital for metabolism(55).
While the absorption of Ca from water is high and makes fish less dependent on
dietary Ca(55), the P-uptake from water is low(1J2) since the P-content of the water is also
low (Table 2-19)(18). However, the Ca absorption from water is related to the available Pto
the fish(55). Dietary magnesium (Mg) is essential because water has a low Mg content(l3/).
On the other hand, most probably the sodium (Na), potassium (K) and chloride (CI)
requirement can be satisfied by the water!89).

Table 2-19: Concentration (mg/l) of elements in seawater and freshwater l8i

Element Freshwater Seawater

Calcium Ca 42.0 400

Chloride CI 6.0 19,000
Copper Cu 0.003 - 0.5
Iron Fe 0.005 0.01
Magnesium Mg 11.0 1,340
Manganese Mn 0.02
Phosphorus P 0.005 0.02
Potassium K 2.0 380
Silicon Si 3.0
Sodium Na 8.0 10,500
Zinc Zn 0.005 O.oJ

The knowledge on trace minerals for fish is scarce(l3l). They are needed for a number
of chemical processes in the metabolism (formation and synthesis of certain proteins,
enzymes, vitamins, hormones)(79). The biological functions of molybdenum (Mo),
chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), nickel (Ni), vanadium (V) and tin (Sn) are uncertain, e.g.
chromium still is considered as an undesirable substance(42. 157). Table 2-20 provides
guidelines on the mineral requirement of fish.
26 CHAPTER 2

Crustaceans
The basics of mineral functions and requirements for crustaceans are similar to that for fish.
Like fish, marine crustaceans are able to absorb minerals from the aquatic environment(l13).
The more intensive the shrimp culture is, the less the physiological mineral requirement
can be met by the water81 ). Freshwater shrimps drink little or no water.
Due to the frequent moulting of crustaceans large quantities of minerals are lost and
have to be replaced. Prior to ecdysis, minerals must be removed from the old exoskeleton
to soften it . Only a certain portion of the minerals can be stored in tissues(7o. 81).
Oversupply of minerals might be just as harmful as deficiencies as indicated by
experiments under laboratory conditions(73). Guidelines for the macro and trace mineral
requirement are in Table 2-20.

Molluscs
Mineral requirements for molluscs have not been defined and are difficult to define.
Molluscs drink water and utilise the inorganic and organic materials in their aquatic
environment. However, it seems that adding minerals to formulated feed improves
growth(7. 45. 47).

Table 2-20: Macro and trace mineral requirements-of fish(55) and shrimp(38. 45. 1/3. 136.)

Fish Shrimp

1. Mllcro minerllls
Calcium % 0.5 0.5 1.25
Phosphorus % 0.7 1.0 2.0
Magnesium % 0.05 0.1 - 0.3
Sodium % 0.1 - 0.3 0.2 - 0.6
Potassium % 0.1 - 0.3 0.7 - 0.9
Sulfur % 0.3 - 0.5
Chlorine % 0.1 - 0.5

2. Irilce mineral~

Iron mg/kg 50 100 70 - 300

Copper mg/kg 1,000 - 4,000 10 35
Manganese mg/kg 20 50 20 - 45
Cobalt mg/kg 5 10 5 - 10
Zinc mg/kg 30 100 90 110
Iodine mglkg 100 - 300 30
Selenium mg/kg 0.1 0.2
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 27

2.7 Other Feed Supplements

2.7.1 Chemo-attractants

Gustation and Olfaction

Food attraction and feeding stimulation are significant considerations in the formulation
and ultimate acceptance of aquatic feeds. An otherwise nutritionally balanced diet may
be ineffective or marginal in its performance due to the absence or presence of a minimal
concentration of ingredients that elicit a positive stimulatory response in a particular
aquatic species(93). At the stage salmonids begin exogenous feeding, as much as 50% of
the population may die of starvation in the presence of commercial feed, due to the poor
acceptance of the feed(86).
The pattern offood search behaviour is induced by the taste (gustation) and the smell
(olfaction). The sense of taste and the sense of smell are both chemical senses(78).
The taste is the "sense at close range" while the smell is the "sense at a distance".
Receptors of the taste are the taste buds which are chemo-receptors (Figure 2_09)(79).
The total number of taste buds varies from species to species (Table 2-21).

Taste pin

Figure 2-09. Illustration of a taste bud (",·desig",d/ro.., 79. WI).

28 CHAPTER 2

Table 2-21: Taste buds and olfactory cells of man and selected species(79. 100. 16())

Species Taste buds Olfactory cells

Nos. Million

Chicken 25 10- 20
Duck 200 10- 20
Man 9,000 - 10,000 10- 20
Sheep 10,000 125 - 225
Pig 5,000 - 15,000 125 - 225
Goat 15,000 125 - 225
Cattle 25,000 - 35,000 125 - 225

In aquatic animals the sense of taste is more important than the sense of smell. The latter
only plays a certain role in some few species. Taste buds not only can be found in the
mouth but also in the lips. They also may cover the head as well as the whole body
including the taiW8). For the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) sense of taste and sense of
smell are independent of each other J33). Fishes can have an olfactory ability 250 times
better than that of man(79).

Table 2-22: Concentration of glycine betaine of various

invertebrates(BO)

Species mg/l00 g raw muscle

1. !:;!l!staS;~i!l!~
Crab 357 - 711
Shrimp 251 961
Krill 106
2. Molluscs
Octopus 1,434
Squid 619 - 928
Clam 679 - 727
Oyster 805
Mussel 964

Phagostimulatory Substances
To make the search for food by cultured aquatic animals more efficient, formulated feed
is fortified with phagostimulatory substances, also named chemo-attractants. They provide
the proper "signals" that allow aquatic animals to recognise the pellet as a potential
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 29

food source. To activate the feeding behaviour of aquatic animals is quite complex.
The search for food by fish consists of three phases(68):
• Arousal to or awareness of food stimulus;
Search to locate feed stimulus;
Consummation to assess acceptability.
Certain synthetic amino acids have been shown to accelerate the search for food and
its ingestion(150). An important activator of feeding behaviour is glycine(93). Mixtures of
amino acids have proven to be more effective than individual amino acids(3). Essential
amino acids like lysine may have no or only limited chemo-attractant effect(92 )
The lipid fraction of the feed also may have chemo-attractant properties.
Phospholipids and their derivatives were found to be attractive for yellowtail (Seriola
quinqueradiata) and abalone (Haliotis Spp.)l47, 53).
Besides synthetic amino acids natural materials such as waste and by-products from
processing of aquatic animals are also used as chemo-attractants. Post mortem deterioration
releases free amino acids and nucleotides(J46). Glycine betaine is found in relatively large
concentrations in various marine invertebrates (Table 2-22). The acceptance preference
for certain chemo-attractants differ between aquaculture species(JIO).
Effective attractants which stimulate the gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell) senses
of aquatic animals are:
• Fish solubles,
• Mussel flesh (meat),
Mussel extractive (Mytilus edulis),
• Short-necked clam (Tapes spp.),
Shrimp meal,
Shrimp waste,
• Squid meal,
Tuna viscera powder.
For herbivorous molluscs, algae and seaweed are attractive. The chemo-attractability
is due to the content of free amino acids. The higher the content of free amino acids,
the more is the algae and seaweed species, respectively, preferred(J5).

2.7.2 Antibiotics

Performance Promotion
Antibiotics are bacteriostatic or bactericidal substances in the metabolism of a wide
range of micro-organisms. They are primarily effective against bacterial infections (145)
but not for viral infections, as often claimed. Antibiotics were used for the first time in
1949 as an antibacterial performance promoter 77. 125).
Antibiotics are somewhat selective in their antibacterial actions. They are, therefore,
divided into effectiveness against "gram I-negative bacteria" and "gram-positive bacte-
ria". For instance, streptomycin is mainly effective against gram-negative bacteria while
penicillin is most effective against gram-positive organisms. Antibiotics such as chlortetra-
cycline and oxytetracycline have a wider range of activity and are effective against both
(Figure 2-10). While the latter are called "broad-spectrum" antibiotics, the former are
"narrow-spectrum" antibiotics l130).

1 The Danish bacteriologist Hans Christoph Joachim Gram (1853-1938) developed the dye-process for
the differentiation of similar appearing bacteria.
30 CHAPTER 2

Tetracycline Bacitracin Penicillin

Figure 2-10. The effectiveness of selected gram-positive and gram-negative antibiotics against
various microbes (' non-hemolytic; 2 hemolytic) ('5}

After almost 50 years of application the mode of action of antibiotics as performance

promoters is not yet fully understood. A number of theories have been considered but
a definite answer has not been obtained.
The use of antibiotics as performance promoter is limited in many countries.
An antibiotic which should be approved by the EU as a performance promoter has
to meet the following essential criteria:
The antibiotic is not to be used for human and veterinary medicine;
After feeding of an antibiotic there are no residues in the animal that is produced;
There should be no development of any kind of resistance against pathogenic germs_
Only few antibiotics meet these requirements. The number of feed antibiotics approved
by the EU is very short (Table 2-23)1157) and will be re-considered due to popular objections.
The performance promoting effect of antibiotics in mammals and poultry is well known_
Relevant trials in cultured fish were less successful. It is presumed that, contrary to
warm-blooded animals, fish do not have a permanent bacterial flora in the intestine
because the empty gut of the healthy fish is more or less sterile( 11.120). In cultured aquatic
animals signs of resistance to pathogenic bacteria have been observed after feeding diets
containing antibiotics(1J· 47).

Prevention and Cure

A wide range of antibiotics are important for the prevention and treatment of diseases
of aquatic animals. However, this is no longer a nutritional matter. The application,
therefore, has to be supervised by veterinarians or fish pathologists. After application
of the antibiotic, withdrawal periods have to be observed so that the consumable parts of
the aquatic animals are free of residues. Due to this concern some countries have
enforced strict regulations(66, 133).
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 31

Table 2-23: Feed antibiotics approved by the EU(/57)

Antibiotic Chemical formula EU-No.

Avilamycin C57.62Hs2.90CI,.203,.32 E 717

Avoparcin C53H603~6C13 E 715
FJavophospholipol C7oH'24040N6P E 712
Monensin-sodium C'6H6,OllNa E 714
Salinomycin-sodium C42H6901lNa E 716
Spirarnycin I. C43H740'4N2 J E 710
II. C45H760'5N2 J Base
III. C46N7SO'5N2 J
Tylosin-phosphate C46H77NO'7 E 713
Virginiamycin I. C2sH3507N3 E71l
II. C43H49)ION7
Zinc Bacitracin C66H'030'6N'7SZn E 700

Very recently, approval of some of the above have been withdrawn.

2.7.3 Antioxidants

Autoxidation and Chemical Reactions

Feed and feedstuffs readily undergo oxidation when exposed to air. The oxidation reaction
is irreversible and results in chemical changes causing losses in nutrients and a reduction
in the shelf-life of feed and feedstuffs. This oxidation reaction is referred to as "autoxi-
dation" or "rancidity".
A wide range of feedstuffs and other organic substances used in animal feeds easily
undergo autoxidation. Predominantly, substances which have unsaturated carbon (C)
atoms (double bonds) in their molecular structure are very susceptible to autoxidation.
Ingredients commonly affected by autoxidation are fats, oils, vitamins and pigments.
Rancidity causes palatability problems in feed, loss in vitamin potency and colour
strength of pigments. Proteins and carbohydrates are not prone to autoxidation because
they do not contain the oxygen labile double bonds.
Autoxidation is a chain reaction and occur in three phases(1). It can be prevented by
chelation of metallic ions that are responsible for catalysing the initiation phase of
autoxidation and by scavenging of free radicals by antioxidants which serve as electron
donors(146). Substances that prevent autoxidation are classified as:
Natural antioxidants;
Synthetic antioxidants.
Some chelating agents are citric acid, tartaric acid, phosphoric acid and their salts.
The efficacy of antioxidative substances may be synergistic and also be affected by
the substrate itse1f1'146). Antioxidants do not last for ever. Due to their antioxidative
reactions they deplete themselves.
32 C"APTER2

Antioxidants used as feed additives have to be safe for man and animals. In many
countries the application of antioxidants has to be approved by the competent authorities
(Tables 2-24, 2-25).

Table 2-24: Antioxidants approved for feed by the EU(157)

Antioxidant Chemical fonnula EU-No.

L-Ascorbic acid C6"S06 E 300

Butylated hydroxyanisole (B"A) C II"'602 E 320
Butylated hydroxytoluene (B"T) C'S"240 E 321
Ethoxyquin C'4"'90N E 324
Calcium-L-ascorbate C'2"'40 I2Ca • 2"P E302
5.6-Diacethyl-ascorbic acid Cu,II,ps E 303
Dodecyl gallate C'9"300S E 312
Sodium-L-ascorbate C6"706Na E 301
Octyl gallate C'S"220S E311
Propyl gallate C IO"'20S E 310
Synthetic alphatocopherol C29" SOO2 E307
Synthetic deltatocopherol C27"4602 E 309
Synthetic gammatocopherol C2S"4802 E308
Natural extract with high content of tocopherols E306

Table 2-25: Antioxidants approved for feed in the U.S.A.'/)

Antioxidant Classification under food regulations

Ascorbic acid 582.3013

Ascorbyl palmitate 582.3149
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) 582.3169
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 582.3173
Calcium ascorbate 582.3189
Dilauryl thiodipropionate 582.3280
Distearyl thiodipropionate 582.3280
Ethoxyquin 573.380
Propyl gallate 582.3660
Resin guaiac (same as guaiac gum) 582.3336
Thiodipropionic acid 582.3109
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 33

Damaging Effects of Oxidation

Major physiological and pathological damaging effects of feeding oxidised fat and oils are:
• Dark colouration,
• Anemia,
Lethargy,
• Brown-yellowish pigmented livers,
Abnormal kidneys,
Gill clubbing.
The products of lipid oxidation may react with other nutrients, e.g. protein and vitamins,
and reduce the available dietary levels. Oxidation products may also be toxid22), e.g.
malonaldehyde is toxic to rats(37, 1l9), Higher levels of Vitamin E and selenium in the diet
may detoxify oxidised dietary fat( 103. 104).
Feeding oxidised fat to fish, particularly salmonids, resulted in depressed performances,
higher mortality rates and other physiological damages(12, 36. 49. 63. 123). The so called
"Sekoke disease" of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is caused by oxidised fatf54.153.155).

2.8 Physical Properties of Feed

Feed pellets have to be eaten and should not fall apart before they are ingested by the
aquatic animals. The water durability of aquaculture feed, therefore, is important.
Manufacturers of aquaculture feed have to consider the eating habit of the aquatic
animals when processing feed. The slower the animal eats, the more water-durable the
pellets should be.
Generally, carnivorous fishes are fast eaters, while crustaceans are slow eaters.
For aquatic animals that eat floating feeds, water durability of the feed is of less impor-
tance than for bottom feeders,
Most major raw materials used for aquaculture feed formulations have poor pelletising
ability and, therefore, feed made from them have an unsatisfactory water durability.
The pellet stability and water durability of the feed can be substantially improved by
extrusion, expansion and addition of a binding agent to the mash prior to pelletising.
The parameters that may be used for determining pellet quality of aquaculture feed are:
• Abrasion,
• Hardness,
Water durability.
Testing of the water durability of pellets is not yet uniform. A practical parameter for
testing the effectiveness of a pellet binding agent is the weight loss of the pellets in water.
The higher the degree of disintegration of the pellet in a given time, the higher the weight
loss and, therefore, the lower the water durability (Table 2-26)(15).
Leaching of water soluble nutrients during the first minutes of immersion is important
for ease of finding the feed by the animals(94). The "leaching rate" can be measured by
the visible light absorption after 10, 30 and 60 minutes(84).
The range of materials that have a pellet binding capacity is very wide, and are clas-
sified as(59):
34 CHAPTER 2

Natural minerals,
Wood-processing by-products,
Plant products with pellet binding properties,
Synthetic compounds.
Most materials belong to plant products with pellet binding properties (Table 2-27).

Table 2-26: Weight loss of pellets in water as an indicator for the water durability of aquaculture feed( 15)

Pellet binding aid Inclusion Weight loss after drying (%)

rate
% 0.5' 1.0 2.0 6.0

PMC2 0.5 5.9 8.1 10.1 11.0

Guar gum 1.0 5.5 9.7 10.7 12.7
Egg bananas 5.0 4.4 10.2 14.5 17.9
Nam-wa bananas 5.0 6.8 14.1 16.4 19.3
Broken mung beans 15.0 6.2 11.3 12.9 20.7
Mung bean bran 15.0 8.3 11.4 15.5 21.0
Yellow alfa starch 10.0 7.6 18.0 27.2 32.0
Cooked broken rice 25.0 21.7 41.4 44.8 45.7
Alfa starch 10.0 50.3 52.7 59.5 71.4

, Hours pellets stayed in water; 2 Polymethylo1carbamide

Table 2-27: Characteristics of selected pellet binding aids from plants(64)

Source Plant/product Characteristics

Agriculture products and Wheat gluten. high gluten wheat Stickiness of the binder depends
by-products flour. tapioca flour. rice gluten. on the feed processing equipment
maize starch. sago palm starch and operating techniques. Widely
used in aquaculture feeds
Glue from seaweeds Agar-agar. alginate carrageenan Very sticky. high price.
Used particularly for research and
experimental diets
Endosperm of beans Guar gum. locust bean gum Function has to be harmonised
with the pH. Used for specialty
feed
Plant secretions Arabic gum. tragacanth. Very sensitive to pH. therefore
karaya gum not widely used in feeds
 NUTRITION OF AQUATIC ANIMALS AT A GLANCE 35

There are three parameters that are important for calculating the "Efficiency Index"
for selecting the most suitable pellet binding agent(59J. These parameters are:
• Water durability (tested by loss of weight after drying);
Inclusion rate of the binding agent (as parameter for pellet binder's contribution
to the water pollution, since most of them are only slightly or non-digestible;
Cost of the pellet binding agent per unit of feed.
The formula for the index is:

(X x 5) x (Y x 2) x Z
Efficiency Index =---------
3xW
Whereby:
X = Water Durability,
Y = Inclusion rate,
Z = Cost of pellet binding agent per MT of feed,
W = Any divisor for reducing the index (otherwise it may be very high),
5 and 2 = Factor expressing the importance of criteria,
3 = Number of criteria.

The lower the Efficiency Index, the more cost and performance efficient is the pellet
binder. In general, low inclusion rates of the pellet binder are not only cost effective but also
highly performance efficient with regard to water durability and environmental pollution.

2.9 References

1. MFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (Publisher).
Sacramento. CAIUSA.
2. Ackman. R.G. (1982): Fatty acid metabolism of bivalves. Proc. 2nd Int'! Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition.
Biochemistry and Physiological Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition. 27-29 Oct.. Rehoboth Beach.
Delaware/USA.358-376.
3. Adron, J. w.; Mackie, A.M.(l978): Studies on the chemical nature of feeding stimulants for rainbow trout,
Salmo gairdneri. J. Fish Biology, 12., 303.
4. Akiyama, D.M.; Dominy, w.G. (1989): Penaeid shrip nutrition for the commercial feed industry. Texas
Shrimp Farming Manual. Vol. I, Extension Service Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TexaslUSA.
5. Akiyama, D.M.; Dominy, w.G.; Lawrence, A.L. (1991): Penaeid shrimp nutrition for the commercial feed
industry (Revised). Proc. Aquaculture Feed Process. and Nutrition Workshop. Thailand and Indonesia,
19 to 25 Sept. (American Soybean Ass., Singapore).
6. Albers, N.; Behm, G.; Dressler, D.; Klaus, w.; Kiither, K.; Lindner, H. (1984): Vitamins in animal nutrition.
Arbeitsgem. Wirkstoffe Ld. TIerernlihrung e.V. (AWT). Bonn/Germany.
7. Ali, S.M. (1982): Effect of natural silt on oyster growth. Proc. 2nd Conf. Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochem.
and Physiol. Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition, Rohoboth Beach. DelawarelU.S.A., October. 431.
8. Anderson, R.K.; Parker, P.L.; Lawrence, A. (1987): A 13C/12C tracer study of the utilization of presented
feed by a commercially important shrimp Penaeus vannamei in a pond grow-out system. J. World
Maricult. Soc .• 18., 148-155.
36 CHAPTER 2

9. Austreng, E.; Skrede, A.; Eldegard, A., (1979): Effect of dietary fat sources on the digestibility of fat and
fatty acids in rainbow trout and mink. Acta Agric. Scand.• 29.• 119-126.
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154. Watanabe, T.; Takeuchi, T.; Wada, M. (1981): Dietary lipid levels and a-tocopherol requirement of carp.
Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 47., 1585-1590.
155. Watanabe, T.; Matsui, M.; Kawabata, T.; Ogino, C. (1977): Effect of alpha-tocopherol deficiency on carp.
V. The composition of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters in lipids of young carp. Bul. Jap. Soc. Sci.
Fish., 43.,813-817.
156. Webb, K.L; Chu, F.-LE. (1982): Phytoplankton as a food source for bivalve larvae. Proc. 2nd Int'! Conf.
on Aquaculture Nutrition, Biochemistry and Physiological Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition, 27-29 Oct.,
Rehoboth Beach, DelawareJUSA, 273-291.
157. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, Y.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
158. Wilson, R.P. (1989): Amino acids and proteins. In: Halver, J.E. (ed.): Fish Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc.
San DiegolUSA, 112-151.
159. Wilson, R.P.; Poe, W.E. (1988): Choline nutrition of fingerling channel catfish. Aquaculture, 68., 65-71.
160. Wittke, G. (1972): Physiologie der Haustiere. Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin and Hamburg/Germany.
161. Yone, Y.; Fujii, M. (1975): Studies on nutrition of red sea bream. XI. Effect of omega-3 fatty acid
supplement in a com oil diet on growth and feed efficiency. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 41., (1), 73-77.
162. Yurkowski, M.; Tabachek, J.L (1979): Proximate amino acid composition of some natural fish foods.
Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. I, 20-23 June, 435-448.
163. Zeisel, S.H. (1990): Phospholipids and choline deficiency. In Hanin, I.; Pepeu, G. (1990): Phospholipids.
Plenum Press, New York and London, 219-231.
 3. ANIMAL FATS

3.1 Rationale

Fats of land animals are an efficient, low-cost and high energy source for feeding animals.
Fats are derived from the fat tissue of animals. A general classification follows(9):
Tallow, from cattle and sheep;
Lard, from pigs, horses and bones;
• Animal fats normally a mixture of different fat sources, particularly poultry fat
and fat from fallen animals.
Fat is also classified according to the fat's origin, colour, melting point, the amount of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), highly unsaturated fatty acid (HUFA), free fatty
acids and impurities.
In the past animal fats have been primarily used as raw materials for margarine, making
soaps and detergents, candles and stearic acid(48). Annually approximately 1.25 million
MT of rendered fat is being recycled into animal fat in the U.S.AJ32J.

3.2 Manufacture and Processing

Rendering is the process of converting fat tissue into the various animal fats. The animal
by-products are heated to release the fat from the tissue and to remove the moisture(32).
There are two principal methods of rendering(33):
Animal tissue is placed in an enclosed pressure vessel (cooker) and super-heated
steam is injected to provide both heat and agitation. The mixture is cooked at
110° to 120D e for three to six hours and settles into three phases:
• A top fiat layer which is drawn off;
• An intermediate water layer;
• A bottom layer, consisting primarily of proteinaceous material (grieves).
This method is no longer widely used and has been replaced by:
Modem rendering plants that feature a continuous rendering process, and a
sophisticated equipment for prevention of air and water pollution.

3.3 Tallow

3.3.1 Description

Tallow is animal fat that is solid above 40 D e(30). It is white, greyish-white to yellowish
from carotenoids when animals graze. It usually comes from cattle or mutton. Rendered
44 CHAPTER 3

fat from beef fat is commonly known as beef tallow or sometimes "oleo stock" due to
its high content of oleic acid (43.5%)(5).
Tallow is classified as "edible" and "feed" tallow. The "American Fats and Oils
Association" subdivides tallow into 12 grades. The free fatty acids and the titre are most
important for grading(33). In Europe, there are only three grades: fine tallow, edible tallow
and industrial tallow (49).

3.3.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Beef tallow is an energy source. It contains high levels of saturated fatty acids (48.2%) and
unsaturated fatty acids (46.6%). Only 4.3% are polyunsaturated fatty acids (Table 3-01)140).
The cholesterol content is 1,000 mg/kg(49). The mineral and vitamin contents of beef
tallow is insignificant.

Table 3-01: Fatty acid composition of tallow, lard, poultry fat and animal fat (%)(3.4.5.21.22.29.31.33.34.43)

Fatty acid Tallow Lard Poultry fat Animal fat

Beef Mutton

1. Saturated Acids
Lauric 12:0 0.5
Myristic 14:0 3.2 5.2 1.5 1.1 2.1
Pentadecanoic 15:0 0.5
Palmitic 16:0 26.4 23.6 25.7 24.2 20.9
Margaric 17:0 0.9 2.0 0.5 0.3 0.3
Stearic 18:0 19.8 24.5 13.0 6.3 47.6
Arachidic 20:0 0.1

Total Saturated Fatty Acids: 49.5 51.9 40.4 32.2 70.0

2. MQno-un§iIll!l:iI!ed Fattx Acid5

Myristicoleic 14:1 0.6 0.2 0.3
Pentadecenoic 15:1 0.02 0.2
Palmiticoleic 16:1 3.4 2.5 3.7 6.2 2.6
Heptadecenoic 17:1 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.1
Oleic 18:1 41.0 33.3 45.0 39.7 13.7
Eicosenoic 20:1 0.4 1.0 0.1

Total Unsaturated Fatty Acids: 46.3 39.6 52.6 54.7 16.8

3. PolXl!n5atl!Ill~d Fattx A!,;ids

Linoleic 18:2 2.7 4.4 9.6 19.3 15.3
Linolenic 18:3 0.7 4.0 2.7 1.1 1.0
Arachidonic 20:4 0.4 0.4

Total Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: 3.8 8.8 12.3 21.5 16.3

 ANIMAL FATS 45

Physiological properties
The digestible and metabolisable energy of beef tallow for land animals range between
8,100 to 8,700 kcallkg and 7,100 to 7,500 kcallkg, respectivelyl9.26. 28). The digestibility of
tallow in land animals depends on the species and age of the animals. Digestibility of
tallow is particularly low in young animals due to the high level of saturated fatty acids
of tallow and the insufficient secretion of bile acid by young animals(27). Similar conditions
may be assumed for aquatic animals.
Apparent digestibility of tallow increases in rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) and in
carp (Cyprinus carpio) as water temperature increases (Figure 3-01)151):

,
90

Carp / Ta 11 ow

80

Rainbow trout / Lard

.......
:!
.... 70

......Q....
III 66. 0
11/
....'"
"CI
....c:
..• 60
III Rainbow trout / Tallow
Do
Do
IC

50

5' 10' IS'C

Water temperature/Rainbow trout
I I
12' 24" 27 ·C
Water temperature/Carp

Figure 3-01. Relationship between water temperature and apparent digestibility of beef tallow and pork
lard in diets for rainbow trout (Salrno gainineri) and carp (Cyprinus carpio )(datajrom, 51)
46 CHAPTER 3

3.3.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
Beef tallow in general, is a good energy source for fish provided that the diet alone con-
tains omega fatty acids l48, 55). Certain fish species or group of fish species may respond
differently on feeding diets containing beef tallow.
Salmonids fed only on beef tallow did not perform well. However, reducing the beef
tallow level in the diet by substituting marine oils with high content of PUFA gave
superior results by more than doubling weight gain and improving feed conversion
(Table 3_02)148,55). Beef tallow in broodstock diets for rainbow trout has no negative
effect on reproduction parameters when compared to a commercial high protein brood-
stock feed I50).

Table 3-02: Response of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to beef tallow after 10 weeks of feeding(48)

Beef tallow % \0,0 6,0 4,0

Cuttlefish liver oil % 10,0 4,0 6,0

Mean initial weight g 6,\ 6,0 6.1 6,1

Final weight g 26.0 13,9 24.4 22,9
Weight gain % 326.2 300.0 275.4
Feed conversion 1: 1.16 0,78 1.14 1.08

However, the supplementation of a basic diet with fat from beef spleen caused physio-
logical disorders in chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) fingerlings which
were not found in fishes fed with groundnut oiFll).
Beef tallow in combination with cuttlefish liver oil in diets for carp resulted in best
weight gain and feed conversion I50). But in semi-purified diet for carp fingerlings, the
addition of beef tallow depressed growth in the range of 5,7 to 13,1 (Table 3_03)129).

Table 3-03: Weight gain and feed efficiency of carp (Cyprinus carpio) fingerlings at various levels of
beef tallow(29)

Casein-gelatine % 26 26 26 34 34 34
Feed oil % 5 5 5 5 5 5
Beef tallow % 0 4,5 9,5 0 4.5 9,5

Weight gain % 314 296 273 508 451 448

Feed efficiency % 96,2 96,6 93,8 115,5 117,2 117.8
 ANIMAL FATS 47

It appears that channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) is not so finicky concerning beef
tallow. Compared to soybean oil and fish oil, fish showed matching performance(29).
In hatchery diets, beef tallow levels of 20 to 49% was superior to 30% menhaden fish oil (52).
But challenging the immune response of channel catfish (0.7 g weight) with a mixture of
beef tallow and zinc was without any success while other oils (maize, linseed, menhaden)
strengthened the immunity from the pathogen (Edwardsiella ictaluri)02. 13).
Fish perform better on diets containing beef tallow alone or in combination with other
fat sources compared to fat-free diets, iffeeds are not isoenergetic as observed in a number
of experiments (Table 3-04). Beef tallow of up to 12% in diets for blue tilapia (Tilapia
aurea) promoted good performance but levels of more than 12 % depressed perfor-
mances(42).

Table 3-04: Beef tallow as an energy source in diets for red sea bream (Pagrus major) (trial period: 42 days)f47J

White fish meal % 57.0 57.0 57.0 57.0

Beef tallow % 5.0 10.0 5.0
Pollack liver oil % 5.0 5.0 10.0
Crude protein % 50.8 53.8 54.1 53.7
Crude fat % 6.2 16.2 20.9 20.7
Digestible energy kcal/kg 3,150 3,960 4,300 4,250
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Initial body weight g 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5
Growth rate % 207 280 267 285
Feed efficiency % 73.1 93.3 88.6 97.4
PER 1.4 1.7 1.6 1.8

Body composition
Crude protein % 18.8 18.1 18.3 18.3
Crude fat % 8.4 14.1 14.0 14.6

The milkfish (Chanos chanos) performed best on a combination of beef tallow and
coconut oil (1:1) compared not only to fat-free diet but tallow and other oil sources
(Table 3-05)OJ. This appears to be unusual since both beef tallow and coconut oil are
high in saturated but low in polyunsaturated fatty acids. This is because the milkfish is
able to desaturate and elongate saturated fatty acids. However, fish oil was superior to
tallow in diets for Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) and striped mullet
(Mugil cephalus)f25).
Feeding of beef tallow affects the carcass composition. The fat content of the whole
fish is directly related to dietary fat as found in milkfish (Table 3-05)(1), red seabream
(Pagrus major) (Table 3_04)(47) and yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) in the latter with
extreme increase of liver lipids at highest fat content of the diet (Figure 3-02)(46). Less body
fat was observed if dietary beef tallow was compared on an isonitrogenous and isoener-
getic basis to fish oil in the hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops x Morone saxatilis)(l4).
48 CHAPTER 3

The fatty acid profile of the fish fat is a direct reflection of the dietary fatty acid
profile (Table 3-06)(15. 421. This is particularly pronounced when added fat is high in
saturated fatty acids (e.g., beef tallow and coconut oil) (Table 3-05). The fatty acid
profile of tallow is also reflected in developing eggs of broodfish fed with tallow(181.

Table 3-05: Growth indicators of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fingerlings fed beef tallow and various lipids(l)

No fat % 0
Beef tallow % 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Cod liver oil % 5.0
Coconut oil % 5.0
Soybean oil % 5.0
Maize oil % 5.0

Growth rate % 213.7 385.3 450.5 306.3 345.3

Weight gain g 2.0 3.7 4.3 2.9 3.3
Feed conversion 1: 3.5 2.4 1.9 3.0 2.5
S urvi val rate % 90.0 100.0 100.0 98.0 97.0

Body composition in dry matter:

- Moisture % 81.6 73.1 74.6 74.4 74.2
- Crude Protein % 20.9 66.8 66.5 67.9 67.3
- Crude fat % 3.6 19.9 19.6 17.6 27.6

Fatty acid composition:

- n-3 % 2.5 13.3 3.5 5.3 6.7
- n-6 % 8.8 6.7 4.4 22.1 22.7
- Saturated % 36.4 29.5 48.0 27.4 24.0

Crustaceans
Beef tallow is a poor lipid source for the tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon). In a four week
feeding trial with tallow fed at increasing levels in semi-purified diets total lipid content
was similar at all levels of beef tallow. The fatty acid composition of the prawns reflected
that of the dietary lipids and HUFAs were incorporated more into the polar lipid fraction
(Table 3-07)171.
 ANIMAL FATS 49

/
/
1.8

Total fat of diet ~' "

~
14
I
/
IEeei' t.allow of diet.
/
22
/
/
/
10 /
//

/
/
/

Figure 3-02. Relationship between the level of total dietary fat and the total body and liver fat of the yellowtail
(Serioia quinqueradiata) after feeding increasing levels of beef tallow(da,a!rom. 46)
50 CHAPTER 3

Table 3-06: The fatty acid profile of the diet for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) is reflected in
the fatty acid profile of the whole fish(42)

Fatty acid
Formula Diet' Fish Carcass
Systematic name Common name % %

Tetradecanoic Myristic 14:0 2.9 2.1

Hexadecanoic Palmitic 16:0 18.8 17.1
Hexadecenoic Palmitoleic 16:ln-7 5.1 6.7
Octadecanoic Stearic 18:0 10.9 2.8
Octadecenoic Oleic 18:ln-9 57.5 59.5
Octadecadienoic Linoleic 18:2n-6 2.1 2.8
Octadecatrienoic Linolenic 18:3n-3 2.2
Eicosatetraenoic Arachidonic 20:4n-6 0.6
Eicosapentaenoic N/W 20:5n-3 0.5
Docosatetraenoic Adrenic 22:4n-6 traces
Docosapentaenoic Behenic 22:5n-3 0.7
Docosahexaenoic NIN 22:6n-3 1.4
Others 2.5 3.0

'Containing 10% beef tallow; 2No trivial name given

Table 3-07: Growth response of juvenile tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) to various levels of beef tallow in
semi-purified diets{7}

Beef tallow % 0 4.0 8.0 12.0

Initial weight g 0.537 0.628 0.581 0.588
Mean weight gain % 27.7 10.1 18.3 17.3
Specific growth rate %/day 0.86 0.27 0.76 0.56
Mean survival % 66.7 66.7 66.7 77.8
Total body lipid content % 0.88 1.03 1.06 0.98

3.4 Lard

3.4.1 Description

Lard from pork is white fat with a good taste and odour. The consistency of lard is affected
by the composition of the feed fed to pigs(49). For the quality of lard, the rendering process
is hardly influential.
 ANIMAL FATS 51

Lard also comes from horses and any type of bones. It has usually a melting point
between 20 to 40°C as compared to above 40°C for tallows(30).

3.4.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Most of the fatty acids present in pork fat are saturated fatty acids, although linoleic and
linolenic acids are also present. The most important fatty acids are palmitic acid, stearic
acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid (Table 3-01). Cholesterol content of lard is 860 mg/kg(49).
The mineral and vitamin content of lard is insignificant with the exception of
Vitamin E (22 mg/kg)l5lJ.

Physiological Properties
The digestible and metabolisable energy tested in land animals range from 8,100 to 9,100
and from 7,900 to 8,900 kcallkg, respectively!9. 26. 28).
Like in beef tallow, digestibility of pork lard in young broiler and piglets are lower
than in older animals(8. 39). Apparent digestibility of lard in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
increases as temperature increases (Figure 3-01).

3.4.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
Using pork lard in diets for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) as the only fat source
in comparison to other animal fats and vegetable oils showed no differences in growth
and feed conversion(16). The combination of pork lard with vegetable oil or the partial
replacement of marine oil (e.g. herring oil) result in good performances by rainbow trout
fingerlings(38. 41. 56).
The combination of pork lard with coconut oil (1:1) in milkfish feeds is superior to
combinations with other fat sources.
The pork lard/coconut oil fed fish did not only perform better than the fat-free group
but also better than the rest of the fat combinations (Table 3-08)(1).
The dietary fat level and the fatty acid profile is reflected in the carcass composition in
the same way it was reflected in fish fed beef tallow. The higher the level of unsaturated
fatty acids in the diet, the higher the levels of the same in the carcass (Table 3-08)(1).

Crustaceans
Among dietary lipids (pork lard, anchovy, linseed or maize oils), in diets for Chinese
prawn (Penaeus chinensis), the lowest fecundity and hatchability were obtained with
pork lard. Eggs of prawns fed pork lard contained the lowest n-3 highly unsaturated fatty
acid (HUFA) (12.8%), compared to the other sources. Prawns also fed maize and linseed
oils had increased egg production over those fed the pork lard diet but there was no sig-
nificant improvement in hatchability(54).
Pork lard is a poor energy source for tiger prawn juveniles compared to cod liver oil
at various lipid leve1s(7}. Mean weight gain and specific growth rate, was only better in
pork lard at 8.0% and 12% compared to the fat-free diet (Table 3-09).
52 CHAPTER 3

In the carcass composition of juvenile tiger prawns the fatty acid profile of the tissues
reflected that of the dietary lipids(7).

Table 3-08: Growth indicators of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fingerlings fed pork lard and various lipids(1)

No fat % 0
Pork lard % 5.0 5.0 5.0
Coconut oil % 5.0
Soybean oil % 5.0
Maize oil % 5.0

Growth rate % 213.7 457.9 297.0 347.4

Weight gain g 2.0 4.4 2.8 3.3
Feed conversion I: 3.5 1.9 2.6 2.3
Survival rate % 90.0 100.0 98.0 98.0

Body composition in dry matter:

Moisture % 81.7 72.7 74.8 72.7
Crude protein % 70.9 65.6 66.1 66.0
Crude fat % 3.6 21.8 18.4 19.7
Fatty acid composition:
n-3 % 2.5 6.4 8.2 9.8
n-6 % 8.8 8.4 27.8 28.2
Saturated % 36.4 47.1 28.1 24.6

Table 3-09: Growth response of juvenile tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) to various levels of pork lard in
semi-purified diets(7)

Pork lard % 4 8 12
Cod liver oil % 4 8 12
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Initial weight g 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6
Final weight g 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.2 0.83 1.21
Weight gain % 27.5 13.0 50.8 31.4 63.9 36.6 106.7
SGR %/day 0.9 0.4 1.5 1.0 1.7 1.1 2.6
Survival rate % 66.7 61.1 77.7 66.7 83.3 50.0 83.3
Lipid content of the body % 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.1 1.5
 ANIMAL FATS 53

3.5 Poultry Fat

Poultry fat comes mainly from discarded chicken fat and chicken viscera. About 2/3 are
unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (Table 3_01)140).
Poultry fat in the diet (6.0%) for rainbow trout and fed for 20 weeks performed as well
as the same diet fortified with salmon oil (Table 3-10)116).

Table 3-10: Growth performance of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed

6.0% chicken fat for 20 weeks(l6)

Poultry fat Salmon oil

Mean initial weight g 80.0 80.0

Mean final weight g 269.1 257.7
Feed efficiencyl % 0.88 0.86
Body composition 2:
Moisture % 74.39 74.06
Crude protein % 16.84 16.77
Crude fat % 6.69 6.98
Lipid extracted from fillet % 4.27 4.32

lDry weight of diet/wet weight gain; 2wet basis

3.6 Animal Fat

3.6.1 Description and Properties

Animal fat or feed grade fat is usually a blend of different fats and may contain poultry
fat, lard, low grade tallow (yellow grease) and fat from fallen animals (destruction fat).
Animal fat can be highest of all discussed fats in the saturated fatty acids. Palmitic,
stearic acid and linoleic acid are rather high (Table 3-01).

3.6.2 Feeding Value

Yellow grease as sole fat source in diets for tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) showed no
significant differences in growth rate, feed conversion or level of protein deposition
when compared to the diet without added fat (Table 3-11). However, the addition of
yellow grease to the diet significantly increased the levels of carcass and viscera fat.
It appears that the Nile tilapia is able to store significant quantities of lipids in the
carcass and the viscera, but are not able to utilise this energy source to improve growth
or feed utlisation{ /7).
54 CHAPTER 3

Consumers reject tilapia fed predominantly with raw chicken viscera because its fat
gives tilapia flesh a broiler taste(36).

Table 3-11: Yellow grease as an energy source in diets for Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis nilotica)(l7)

Fish meal % 6.8 6.6 6.3

Soybean meal (44%) % 36.1 34.7 33.4
Yellow grease 0.0 3.8 7.2
Crude protein % 34.0 32.9 31.1
Crude fat 5.1 9.1 12.4
Digestible energy kcal/kg 2,414 2,725 2,820
MJ/kg to.! 11.4 ll.8

Final body weight g 189.5 193.3 189.0

Weight gain g 147.6 152.0 147.0
Feed conversion I 1: 0.65 0.64 0.60

Body composition:
Crude protein % 16.6 16.3 16.2
Fat % 4.5 5.7 5.9
Viscera fat % to.8 15.4 17.2

IWet weight gain (g)/dry weight food offered (g)

3.7 Quality Criteria of Animal Fats

Animal fats used for feeding purposes should fulfill certain quality criteria with regard
toI2I.33):

Moisture content Saponification value

Impurities Fatty acid profile
Acid value Iodine value
Unsaponifiables Peroxide value

Moisture in fat reduces energy value of the fat and favours the growth of micro-
organisms. The moisture content should not exceed 1.0%.
The insoluble impurities are determined with petrol-ether. Such substances are:
N-compounds, carbohydrates, minerals, oxidised fatty acids. These substances cause
fast spoilage of the fat by autoxidation and micro-organisms. The maximum content is
limited to 1.0%.
 ANIMAL FATS 55

The acid value is the indicator for "free fatty acids" (FFA) and is an expression of
fat freshness. The maximum acid value is 50 but higher values does not mean that
the fat is not fit to be used as a feedstuff. A high level of free fatty acids does not seem
to affect the feeding value of the fat and did not result in negative performances in
salmonids(6}, in calves(31}, in pigS(IO, 19, 37} and in laying hens(20}.
Unsaponifiables refer to any material of animal fat that will not saponify when mixed
with an alkali. High levels of unsaponifiable matter may have a depressing effect on
performance of the animal.
The saponification value is an estimate of the mean molecular weight of the fatty acids.
The higher the saponification value, the lower the mean chain length of the triglycerides.
It is measured in mg potassium-hydroxide required for the saponification of 1.0 g fat
(Table 3-12).

Table 3-12: Congealing points, melting points, iodine values and saponification values of
animal fats

Type of fat Congealing Melting Iodine Saponification

Point(21) point(2J,51) value(3. 33, 34) value(3,33)
DC °C

Tallow (beef) 30-80 43-49 41-52 195-201

(goat) 34 199
(mutton) 41 197
Lard 22-32 28-44 52-74 193-201
Poultry fat 21-27 30-32 80-85
Animal fat 59-79

The characteristics of the fatty acid profile are classified as follows:

High level of medium-chain, saturated fatty acids,
High level of long-chain, poly-unsaturated fatty acids,
High level of long-chain, single unsaturated fatty acids, (poultry fat)
High level of long-chain, saturated fatty acids (beef tallow, lard, bone fat).
Other parameters for obtaining information about the fatty acid profile of fats is the
congealing point and the melting point (Table 3-12). The melting point is affected by
the amount of unsaturated fatty acids and length of the saturated acid chain(27).
The iodine value is a measure of the chemical saturation of the fat and results are
expressed as g iodine absorbed per 1,000 g of fat (Table 3-12).
The peroxide value expresses the freshness of fat. It determines the content of peroxide
oxygen in lipids. The peroxide value should not exceed 10.
56 CHAPTER 3

3.8 Recommended Inclusion Rate

Fat has a negative effect on pellet quality (stability, water durability). The desired pellet
quality, therefore, is the limiting factor for the use of animal fat. Recommended inclusion
rates of fat from land animals for aquaculture feeds are:
Tallow: 5.0 to 10.0%
• Lard: 5.0 to 10.0%
Poultry fat: 5.0 to 10.0%
Animal fat: 5.0 to 10.0%

3.9 Legal Aspects

The EU-Regulation 92/87IEEC of 26 October 1992 does not differentiate between

the species from which the fat is derived. Animal fat is listed as No. 9.08 and defined
by both the EU directive and the German feedstuff law as "A product from fat of warm-
blooded animals". However, the German law differentiates between "refined animal fat"
and "animal fat". In addition, certain minimum/maximum requirements have to be met
(Table 3_l3)152).

Table 3-13:Requirements for animal fat by the German feedstuff law(52)

Refined fat Unrefined fat

Moisture max. % 0.1 0.1

Acid value max. 50
Impurities max. % 0.1 1.0
Unsaponifiables max. % 3.0 3.0

A supplement to EU-Regulations (instruction 771101IEEC) requires that feedstuffs

have to be free of any residues which may originate from their treatment and/or
processing. This applies particularly to nickel which is used as a catalyst in fat and oil
processingW
The American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has designated the GRASS-
status for animal fats and oil because they are easily bio-degraded by bacteria. They are
also not harmful to the environment(33). The maximum tolerance, set by FDA for
aflatoxin is 20 ppb and 7.0 ppm for lead. Furthermore, USA regulations call for zero
tolerance on salmonella in any kind of feed(33).
 ANIMAL FATS 57

3.10 References

1. Alava, V. (1986): Combinations of dietary fat sources in dry diets for Chanos chanos fingerlings. In:
MaClean, S.; Dizon, L.B.; Hosilloes, L. V. (eds.): The First Asian Fisheries Forum, Asian Fisheries
Society, Manila/Philippines, 1986. 519-521.
2. Anonymous (1995): Nickel 1m Futter: Die Miihle + MischfuUertechnik, 132., (30), 499.
3. Anonymous (w/o year): Fatty acids. Akzo Chemie, U.K. Ltd. 12/14 St. Ann's Crescent, Wandsworth,
London.
4. Anonymous (w/o year): Typical fatty acid composition of common fats and oils. Emery Industries, Inc.
5. Arroyo, P. T. (1974): The science of Philippine foods, 1st ed. Abaniko Enterprises, Araneta Center, Quezon
CitylPhilippines.207.
6. Austreng, E.; GjeJsen, T. (1981): Fish oils with different content of free fatty acids in diets for rainbow
trout fingerlings and salmon parr. Aquaculture, 25., 173-183.
7. Catacutan, M. (1991): Growth and fatty acid composition of Penaeus monodon juveniles fed various
lipids. Bamidgeh, 43., 47-56.
8. Eusebio, f.H.; Hays, V.W; Speer, v.c.; McGall. u.T. (1965): Utilisation of fat by young pigs. J. Anim.
Sci., 24., 1001-1007.
9. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and pOUltry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Ind., BrisbanelAustralia, Inf. Series Q 185001.
10. Farries, E.; Schroder, f. (1977): Zum Einsatz reiner Fettsliuren in der Schweinemast. Proc. VDLUFA-
KongreB, 63-65.
11. Fowler, L.G.; Wood, E.M. (1966): Effect of type of supplemental dietary fat on chinook salmon finger-
lings. Progr. Fish-Culturist, 28., 123-127.
12. Fracalossi, D.M.; Lovell, R.T. (1993): Effect of dietary lipid sources and water temperature on mortality
of channel catfish fingerlings challenged with Edwardsiella ictaluri. In: Carrillo. M.; Dahle, L.; Morales.
f.; Sorgeloos, P.; Suennevig, N.; II'yban, f. (eds.): From discovery to commercialization. European
Aquaculture Soc. No. 19.,224, OostendelBelgium.
13. Fracalossi, D.M.; Lovell, R.T. (1994): Dietary lipid sources influence responses of channel catfish
(lctalurus punctatus) to challenge with the pathogen Edwardsiella ictaluri. Aquaculture, 119., 287-298.
14. Frinsko, M.O.; Robinette, HR.; Robinsons, E.H (1992): Evaluation of lipid sources for phase II hybrid
striped bass (Morone saxatilis x Morone chrysops). Aquaculture 1992: Growing toward the 21st century.
97-98.
15. Gatlin, D.M. Ill; Stickney, R.R. (1982): Fall-winter growth of young channel catfish in response to quantity
and source of dietary lipid. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 111., 90-93.
16. Greene, D.HS.; Selivonchick D.D. (1990): Effects of dietary vegetable, animal and marine lipids on
muscle lipid and hematology of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture, 89., 165-182.
17. Hanley, F. (1991): Effects of feeding supplementary diets containing varying levels of lipid on growth,
feed conversion and body composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nilotica). Aquaculture, 93., 323-334.
18. Hardy, R. W; Maysumoto, T.; Farigrieve, WT.; Stickney, R.R. (1989): The effects of dietary lipid source
on muscle and egg fatty acid composition and reproductive performance of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus
kisutch). Proc. Third International Symposium on Feeding and Nutrition in Fish., 28 Aug. to I Sept. 1989,
Toba/Japan, 1990, 347-355.
19. Hartfiel, W (1978): Fette mit hoheren Anteilen freier Fettsliuren in der Schweinemast. Fette, Seifen,
Anstrichmittel, 80., 540-543.
20. Hartfiel, W (1978): Beeinflussen Futterfette mit unterschiedlich hoher Peroxid- und Sliurezahl die
58 CHAPTER 3

Futteraufnahme und Futterverwertung bei legenden Hennen. Kraftfutter, 61., 58-62.

2!. Hartfiel, W. (w/o year): Qualitatskriterien ftir Futterfette. IG Fett, BonnlGermany.
22. Hertrampf, J. (1980): Lecithin-enriched vegetable oils in mink nutrition. Proc. 2 0d Internat. Sci. Congress,
VaedbeklDenmark, April.
23. Hertrampf, J.W (1987): Vitamin E and fats in feeds. Animal Nutrition News. BASF. Nov. 1987.2
24. Hertrampf, J. W (1995): Feeding poultry with lecithin (phospholipids). Lucas Meyer-Publication No. 15,
Hamburg/Germany.
25. Jones. F.v.; Strawn, K. (1983): Growth and food utilization of caged Atlantic croaker and striped mullet
reared on various lipid diets in a heated water system. J. World Maricult. Soc., 14.• 590-594.
26. J¢rgensen. G.; Glem-Hansen, N. (1973): Quoted from: Hertrampf, J. (1980).
27. Lowe. B. (1943): Experimental cookery from the chemical and physical standpoint, 3rd ed .. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
28. Meyer. H.; Heckotter, E. (1986): Futterwerttabelle ftir Hunde und Katzen. Schltitersche Verlagsanstalt,
Hannover/Germany.
29. Murai. T.; Akiyama. T.; Takeuchi. T.; Watanabe. T.; Nose. T. (1985): Effects of dietary protein and lipid
levels on performance and carcass composition of fingerling carp. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 51 .. 605-608.
30. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp. A manual on the preparation and presentation of
compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCP/REP/87/26. Romelltaly.
31. Niesar, K.H. (1964): Qualitlitsmerkmale und Qualitlitsbewertung der Fettkomponenten im Mischfutter.
Bayer. Landw. Jahrbuch, 41 .. 230-242.
32. NRA (1992): Rendered animal fats and oils. National Renderers Ass., Inc., Alexandria, Virg./uSA
(Leaflet, July).
33. NRA (1993): Pocket information manual- a buyers guide to rendered products. National Renderers Ass.,
Inc., Alexandria, Virg./uSA.
34. NRA (w/o year): Animal fats and oils - the environmental perspective. National Renderers Ass., Inc.,
Alexandria, Virg./uSA (Leaflet).
35. NRC (1993): Nutrient requirements of fish. National Academy Press, Washington D.C.
36. Pathamasothy, S. (1993): Private communication.
37. Pfirter, H.P.; Wenk, e. (1984): Die Verwendung von Fett in Schweinerationen. 35th Ann. Meeting EVT,
The Haguerrhe Netherlands.
38. Reinitz, G.L.; Yu, T.e. (1981): Effects of dietary lipids on growth and fatty acid compposition of rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdneri). Aquaculture, 22., 359-366.
39. Renner. R.; Hill, F.w. (1960): The utilisation of com oil, lard and tallow by chicken of various ages.
Poultry Sci., 39., 849-854.
40. Shepherd. AJ.; Iverson, J.L.; Weihrauch, J.L. (1978): Composition of selected dietary fats, oils,
margarines and butter. In: Kuksis. A. (ed.): Fatty acids and glycerides. Oxford. Plenum Press. 341-379.
41. Steffens. w. . Albrecht. M. -L. (1979): Einsatz von hartem Fett in Trockenmischfutter ftir RegenbogenforeUen
(Salmo gairdneri). 1. Mitt. Zuwachs und Futterverwertung bei der Setzlingsaufzucht. Arch.
Tierernahrung. 27.• 161-169.
42. Stickney. R.R.; Andrews, J. W. (1972): Effects of dietary lipids on growth, food conversion and lipid and
fatty acid composition of catfish. J. Nutrition. 102., 249-258.
43. Stickney. R.R.; McGeachin, R.B. (1984): Growth, food conversion and survival of fingerling Tilapia
aurea fed differing levels of dietary beef tallow. Prog. Fish. Cult., 46., 102-105.
44. Tacon, A.G.J. (1987): The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp - A Training Manual, 2.
Nutrient Sources and Composition. Field Document 51E GCP/RLN075IlTA. (FAO) BrasilialBrazil.
 ANIMAL FATS 59

45. Takeda, M.; Shimeno, S.; Hosokawa, H.; Kajiyama, H.; Kaisho, T. (1975): The effect of dietary calorie
to protein ratio in the growth, feed efficiency and body composition of young yellowtail. Nippon Suisan
Gakkashi, 41., 443-447.
46. Takeuchi, T.; Shiina, Y.; Watanabe, T. (1992): Suitable protein and lipid levels in diet for fingerlings of
yellowtail. Nippon Suisan Gakkashi, 58., 1333-1339.
47. Takeuchi, T.; Shiina, Y.; Watanabe, T. (1991): Suitable protein and lipid levels in diet for fingerlings of
red sea bream (Pagrus major). Nippon Suisan Gakkashi, 57., 293-299.
48. Takeuchi, T.; Watanabe, T.; Ogino C. (1978): Use of hydrogenated fish oil and beef tallow as a dietary
energy source for carp and rainbow trout. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 44., 875-881.
49. Tiiufel, A.; Ternes, w.; Tunger, L; Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg/Germany.
50. Watanabe, T. (1983): Effect of nutritional quality of broodstock diets on reproduction of rainbow trout
and their egg quality. Salmonid Reproduction: International Symp., Washington Univ., Seattle!U.S.A., Sea
Grant Program. 21.
51. Watanabe, T. (1988): Fish nutrition and mariculture. Kanagawa In!'!. Fisheries Training Centre. Japan
International Cooperation Agency.
52. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
53. Winfree, R.A.; Stickney, R.R. (1984): Formulation and processing of hatchery diets for channel catfish.
Aquaculture, 41.,311-323.
54. Xu, X.L.; Ji, w.J.; Castell, J.D.; O'Dor, R.K. (1993): Effect of dietary lipids on fecundity, hatchability and
egg fatty acid composition of Chinese prawn (Penaeus chinensis). In: Carillo, M.; Dahle, L.; Morales,
J.; Sorgeloos, P.; Svennevig, N.; Wyban, J. (eds.): From Discovery to Commercialization. European
Aquaculture Soc., 19., 98, Oostende/Belgium.
55. Yu, T.C.; Sinnhuber, R.O. (1981): Use of beef tallow as an energy source in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus
kisutch) rations. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 38., 367-370.
56. Yu, T.S.; Sinnhuber, R.O.; Putnam, G.B. (1977): Use of swine fat as an energy source in trout rations.
Progr. Fish-Culturist, 39., 95-97.
 4. BILE ACID PRODUCTS

4.1 Rationale

Bile is formed in the liver cells (hepatocytes) and secreted into the small intestine via the
bile duct. Due to its detergent properties bile emulsifies the fats in the small intestine.
Bile, therefore, is essential for lipid digestion and absorption. The constituents of bile are
bile acids, which are lipoides; bile pigments, which belong to the chromoproteides;
phospholipids (see chapter 41); cholesterol and inorganic matter (e.g. sodium and phos-
phorus compounds).
Commercial bile acids have a wide range of applications in the pharmaceutical and
chemical industries, such as laboratory chemicals like TCBS (thiosulphate-citrate-bile-
salts-sucrose-agar). A substance derived from shark bile has been reported to cure acne(l)
and according to a Chinese belief, bile of the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) may
improve visual acuity(3).

4.2 Manufacture and Processing

Fluid bile is derived from fresh bile of cattle and pigs collected from abattoirs. The feed
grade quality of bile acid is manufactured from crude bile acid on a carrier.
For pharmaceutical and chemical application the fluid bile is filtered, concentrated
and spray-dried into a fine powder.

4.3 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Bile acids are also called bile salts, and other Latin names used are: FeZ tauri, BiZis bovis,
Sales biliares.

Chemical Properties
Bile acid is a natural product. The composition varies not only from species to species
but also within the same species (Table 4-01). The very high content of phospholipids
in the bile of ruminants is the basis for the surfactant property of bile acids (Table 4-02).
In man about 15% of the bile lipids are phospholipids of which 96% is phosphatidyl-
choline(2) .
 BILE ACID PRODUCTS 61

Table 4-01: Composition (%) of gall-bladder bile of cattle, pig and dog(l6)

Cattle Pig Dog

Moisture 89.40 81.10 - 88.50 77.60 - 88.60

Biliary bile acid 7.20 8.50 - 12.00 7.90 - 15.00
Lecithin 0.52 1.20 2.90 2.30 7.00
Cholesterol 0.04 0.13 0.18 0.08 0.10
Protein (mainly mucine) 0.42 0.28 0.41 0.19 - 0.52
Bilirubin 0.03 0.03 0.09 - 0.17

Table 4-02: Lipids of the bile of sheep(l7)

Lipids gil

Phospholipids 11.48
Lysophospholipids 1.17
Phosphatidylethnolamine 0.44
Cholesterole 0.86
Cholesterolester 0.31
Triglyceride 0.37
Unesterified fatty acids 0.40

Physiological Properties
Very little is known of the role of bile acids in aquatic animals(l3). The two major bile acids
in salmonids are "taurocholic acid" (cholic acid conjugated with taurine) and "taurocheno-
desoxycholic acid" (Table 4-03)14, JI, 19,23.25),

Table 4-03: Composition of the bile of fishes (%)

TCA I TCDOCA2 OBA3 Ref.

Rainbow trout (Salrna gairdneri) 85.0 14.0 1.0 (4)

(15)
Channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) 83.0 15.0 2.0'
(15)
Blue catfish (lctalurus Jurcatus) 84.0 16.0 0

I Taurocholic acid; 2 Taurochenodesoxycholic acid; 3 other bile acids; 4 Taurodesoxycholic acid

62 CHAPTER 4

There are considerable variations in the yield of bile between marine and freshwater
fish as well as between the species of both groups. It ranges from 0.04 to 0.06% of
the total body weight of fish(l8). The bile of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) does not
have any enzymem. The ingestion of the bile of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus)
may kill human (in severe cases) and experimental animals. The gastric intubation of
grass carp bile extract killed all the experimental rats in two to eight hours. Rats that
ingested pig bile showed no significant changes in the recorded parameters(3).

4.4 Feeding Value

The principal function of bile salts in the body is to aid in the digestion of dietary lipids
and to enhance the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. It plays also an integral role in
the homing of salmonid fishes!6, 9, 10,27). Other olfactory functions of bile salts such as
orienting and snapping have been demonstrated(l2, 26).
The feeding value of exogenous bile acids has been tested more extensively in
terrestrial animals than in aquatic organisms. Supplementing chicken diets with bile
salts at the inclusion rate of 0.1 to 0.5% cholic acid, 0.5% chenodesoxycholic acid and
0.4 to 4.0% ox bile, respectively, improved lipid digestibility and performances(l4).
Piglets responded less positively to the addition of 0.15 to 0.60% bile salts to the dietl22 ).
The addition of 0.02% ursodesoxycholic acid, a bile acid, to a diet containing pollack
liver oil (20%) for yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) improved the nutritional value of
the diet(5).
Cod lipase from defatted pyloric caeca of the cod (Gadus morhua) showed an absolute
requirement for bile salts on olive oil hydrolysis. When tributyrine was used as substrate,
the bile salt dependence was less pronounced(8). Results of another experiment on the
influence of dietary lipid classes on the fatty acid composition of juvenile cod suggested
that cod larvae and small juveniles may not fully digest neutral lipid classes due to lack
of suitable lipases, bile acids or both!20).
Studies on the effect of bile salts on the growth of bacteria in the gut of fish showed
that bile salts do not inhibit growth of enteric luminous bacteria found in the gut of the
fish!2/), Intestinal vibrio species isolated from yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) which
were commercially cultured, were able to grow well at 37°C, but were resistant to low
pH (4.5) and bile acid(24).
Commercial bile products are commonly added to fortify aquaculture diets, particu-
larly those for crustaceans although there are no experimental results that clearly define
the rationale for adding bile salts.

4.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

The role of exogenous bile acids has hardly been studied in aquaculture organisms.
The usefulness of bile acids as a feed additive, therefore, cannot clearly be established.
In commercial diets bile products are used at levels of 0.2 to 0.5%.
 BILE ACID PRODUCTS 63

4.6 Legal Aspects

Commercial bile products are non-toxic. Nevertheless, national legal regulations for
the application of bile acids to aquaculture feeds have to be observed.

4.7 References

1. Anonymous (1993h): Shark bile - a cure for acne. Infofish International, (6), 59.
2. Avogaro, P.; Mancini, M.; Ricci, G.; Paoletti, R. (1983): Phospholipids and atherosclerosis. Raven Press,
New York.
3. Chen, e.F.; Lin, M.e.; Liu, H.M. (1990): Plasma electrolyte changes after ingestion of bile extract of
the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) in rats. Toxic. Letters, 50., (2/3), 221-228.
4. Denton, J.E.; Youse/' M.K.; Youse/' l.M.; Kuksis, A. (1974): Bile acid composition of rainbow trout,
Salmo gairdneri. Lipids, 9., (12), 945-951.
5. Deshimaru, 0.; Kuroki, K.; Yone, Y. (1982): Suitable levels of lipids and ursodesoxycholic acid in diet
for yellowtail. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 48. (9), 1265-1270.
6. D¢ving, K.B.; Selset, R.; Thommesen, G. (1980): Olfactory sensitivity to bile acids in salmonid fishes.
Acta Physiol. Scand., 108, 123-131.
7. Falge, R. (1973): Untersuchungen von Enzymaktivitaten im Darminhalt der Regenbogenforelle
(Salmo gairdneri) nach Fiitterung mit natiirlicher und halbsynthetischer Nahrung. Diss. University
RostocklGermany.
8. Gjel/esvik, D.R.; Raae, AJ.; Walther, B.T. (1989): Partial purification and characterization of a triglyc-
eride lipase from cod (Gadus morhua). Aquaculture, 79., (1-4), 177-184.
9. Groves, A.B.; Collins, e.B.; Trefethen, P.S. (1968): Roles of olfaction and vision in choice of spawning site
by homing adult chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). J. Fish. Res. Borad Canada, 25., 867-876.
10. Hara, T.J.; McDonald, S.; Evans, R.E.; Marui, T; Arai, S.; McCleve, J.D.; Arnold, S.; Dodson, J.1.;
Neill, w'H. (1984): Morpholine, bile acids and skin mucus as possible chemical cues in salmon homing:
Electrophysiological re-evaluation . Mechanism of migration of fishes. NATO Conf, Ser. 4, Mar. Sci.,
14.,363-378.
11. Hasslewood, G.A.D. (1967): Bile salt evaluation. J. Lipid Res., 8., 535-550.
12. Hellstr¢m, T.; D¢ving, K.B. (1986): Chemoreception of taurocholate in anosmic and slam-operated cod
(Gadus morhua). Behav. Brain Res., 21., (2), 155-162.
13. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
14. Hertramp/. J.H. (1995): Feeding poultry with lecithin (phospholipids). Lucas Meyer, Hamburg/Germany,
Publication NO.15.
15. Kellogg, T.F. (1975): The biliary bile acids of the channel catfish, lctalurus punctatus, and the blue
catfish, lctalurus Jurcatus. Compo Biochem Physiol.. 50B., 109-111.
16. Kolb, E. (1984): Lehrbuch der Physiologie der Haustiere. VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 5th Ed.
17. Lennox et al. (1989): Quoted from: Kolb, E. (1989).
18. Mathew, P.T.; Naie, K.e.R.; Madhavan, P.; Prabhu, P.v. (1986): Isolation of bile from fish and identifi-
cation by thin-layer chromatography. Fish. Techn. Soc. Fish. Techn., Cochin., 23., (1),13-17.
19. Nagayoshi, S.; Hoshita, T.; Yukawa, M.; Kazuno, T. (1964): Studies on the bile of Plecoglossus altivelis.
Stero-bile acids and bile sterols. LXIX. Hiroshima J. Med. Sci., 13., 333-340.
20. Olsen, R.E.; Hendersen, R.I.; Pedersen, T. (1991): The influence of dietary lipid classes on the fatty acid
64 CHAPTER 4

composition of small cod (Gadus morhua L.) juveniles reared in an enclosure in northern Norway. J. Exp.
Mar. BioI. Ecol., 148., (1), 59-76.
21. Ramesh, A.; Venugopalan, II.K. (1989): Response on enteric luminous bacteria to environmental condi-
tions in the gut of the fish. J. Appl. Bacteriology, 66., (6), 529-533.
22. Reinhart, G.A.; Mahan, D.C.; Cera, K.R. (1989): Bile salt supplementation in weaning pigs. Ohio Swine
Res. and Industry Rep., Anim. Sci. Dept., Ser. 89-1 (Ohio State Univ.).
23. Ripatti, P.O.; Sidorov, II.S. (1971): Quantitative composition of the bile acid of certain vertebrates in
connection with the nature of their nutrition. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 212, 770-773.
24. Sakata, T.; Nakaji, M.; Kakimoto, D. (1978): Microflora in the digestive tract of marine fish. 1. General
characterization of the isolates from yellowtail. Mem. Fac. Fish., Kagoshima Univ., 27., (1), 65-71.
25. Sasaki, T. (1966): Comparative studies on the bile salts of fishes by thin layer chromatography. Stero bile
acids and bile alcohols. LXXXII. J.Biochem., 60., 56-62.
26. Sorensen, P.w,; Hara, T.J.; Stacey, N.E.(1986): The olfactory sensitivity of mature male, female, immature
and hypophysectomized goldfish to I-amino acid, bile acid and steroid compounds by underwater electro-
olfactograrn (EOG). Chern. Senses, 11., (4), 666.
27. Wisby, w,J.; Hasler; A.D. (1954): Effect of olfactory occlusion on migrating silver salmon (Oncorhynchus
kisutch). J. Fish. Res. Board Canada, 11.,472-478.
 5. BLEACHING EARTH (USED)

5.1 Rationale

Bleaching earth is used in the refining of vegetable oils and animal fats for human con-
sumption. The absorbent capacity of the bleaching earth removes the impurities and
unwanted matter, such as colouring substances (carotenoids), soaps, proteins and others,
found in oils and fats. To recover the residual oil is technically possible but uneconomical.
Used Bleaching Earth (UBE) which is also called "Fat-containing Bleaching Earth"
is mostly deposited as waste world-wide. It is estimated that annually at least 100,000 MT
of fats/oils are ditched in the form of UBE. This not only is an environmental pollutant
but also risky to dispose of, because the oil-containing material has a tendency to
easily explode.

5.2 Processing

Bleaching earth is geologically a "montmorillonite" which is a group of clays with the

general formula AI 2Si4 0 IO(OH)2' Montmorillonite is so called "swelling clay" because
it swells greatly in water. The absorption capacity is two to seven times its volume.
The disadvantage of the absorption capacity of swelling clay is the fact that dissolved
or dispersed additives (e.g. vitamins) are absorbed and unreleasable(3).
The chemical and physical properties of montmorillonite are not constant and vary,
depending on the nature of the saturating cation, the origin of the clay and the physical
and chemical treatments. Treatments include acid activation to produce H+montmoril-
lonite, soda ash treatment, and substitution of the exchangeable cation by long-chain
organic bases which allows the material to swell in oil rather than in water<'4). Bleaching
earth used in the vegetable oil and animal fat refining industry is an acid-activated mont-
morillonite.
For easy handling UBE has to be dried. To form a free flowing feedstuff of high
fat content, a process has been developed, where used bleaching earth is combined with
cellulosic fibres(5).

5.3 Chemical and Physiological Properties

The chemical and physical properties of the "unused" acid activated bleaching earth
varies (Table 5-01). The quantities of heavy metals found were below the tolerance levels
permitted by the EU (European Union) for compound feed (10 ppm for lead and 0.1 ppm
for mercury) (Table 5-02).
66 CHAPTER 5

Table 5-01: Chemical and physical properties of acid-activated bleaching earth

Malaysia(/) Europe(6)

Moisture % 16.0 N/AI

pH (25% suspension) 25 to 3.0 N/A
Oil retention capacity % 20.0 N/A
Si0 2 % 68.3 70.0
AIP3 % 16.4 12.0
Fe20 3 % 3.9 4.0
Ti02 % N/A 0.8
MgO % 1.3 2.0
CaO % 1.2 3.0
Nap % 0.4 0.4

Kz° % 0.5 0.8

N/A
Loss on ignition % 8.0
Organic matter % N/A 7.0

1 not analysed

Table 5-02: Bleaching earth's content of some heavy metals

(ppm)

Reference (6) (2)

Mercury (Hg) 0.05 0.01

Cadmium (Cd) 0.28 <0.1
Lead (Pb) 5.75 1.5

The residual oil content of UBE depends on the type of oil which has been refined
(Table 5-03). The residual oil is prone to oxidation. The fatty acid composition of fat
from UBE and corresponding refined oil is not significantly different.

Table 5-03: Residual oil extracted from used bleaching earth

Type of oil Residual oil Reference

refined %

Soybean oil 27.0 (6)

(2)
Marine oil 23.0
(7)
Palm oil 20.0 to 30.0
 BLEACHING EARTH 67

The gross energy content of UBE is related to the fat content of the material as found
by "adiabatic bomb calorimetry":
3,140 kcallkg (13.1 MJ/kg) (soybean oil)l6)
3,400 kcal/kg (14.2 MJ/kg) (marine oil)!2J.
There is a discrepancy between the relatively high gross energy content and the analysed
crude fat which indicates that a certain portion of the fat is absorbed and unrelaesed by
the bleaching earth(2· 6).
When UBE used as a feedstuff special attention has to be given because of the ash
content of around 85 to 88%.

5.4 Feeding Value

Used bleaching earth is an energy feedstuff. UBE tested at increasing levels in diets for
rainbow trout (Salrna gairdneri) gave an apparent improvement in growth which is most
probably due to the increase in the total fat content of the feed and a reduction in the
carbohydrate level (Table 5-04). The digestibility of the nutrients were not affected by
UBE although the ash content increased with increasing levels of UBE(2).
The feeding value of used bleaching earth has not yet been tested in crustaceans.

Table 5-04: Used bleaching earth CUBE) in diets for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)(2)

UBE % 0 10.01 20.0 30.0

Wheat flour % 31.9 22.4 12.9 3.4
Capelin oil % ll.O 9.5 8.0 6.5

Crude protein % 36.8 38.1 37.9 37.1

Crude fat % 16.2 17.5 20.0 20.8
Ash % 6.3 11.1 16.8 23.0
N-free extract % 29.7 23.1 15.6 10.2
Metabolisable kcallkg 3.206 3,256 3,328 3,274
energy' MJlkg 13.4 13.6 13.9 13.7
--------------------------------------------------------------
Digestibility:
Crude protein % 87.8 87.9 86.9 86.2
Crude fat % 88.6 85.8 88.0 85.5
--------------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain g 132.5 147.6 146.7 158.6
% 100.0 111.0 lIO.7 119.7
Length cm 28.7 29.0 28.7 29.4
% 100.0 101.0 100.0 102.4
Dressing-out % 87.0 87.1 86.9 86.8

• Calculated as follows: 1.0 g fat = 8.0 kcal ME; 1.0 g protein = 3.9 kcal ME; 1.0 carbohydrate
(raw starch) = 1.6 kcal
68 CHAPTER 5

5.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

The use of UBE is limited by the high ash content. Recommendable inclusion rates for
fishes are as follows:
Starter feed: none
Grower feed: 3.0 to 7.0%
Finisher feed: 5.0 to 10.0%.
Used bleaching earth should not be used in feed for crustaceans.

5.6 Legal Aspects

Bleaching earth is a clay. Used Bleaching Earth is a clay plus residual vegetable oil
or/and animal fat. It has been given the GRAS status (Generally Recognised As Safe)
by the authorities in the U.S.A. Clay is also listed in Section L, Annex I, No. E 588 of
the Directive on Feed Additives of the competent EU authorities.

5.7 References

1. Anonymous (1989): Wembley activated clay - Technical data sheet.

2. Austreng, E. (1978): Fat-containing bleaching earth as a feed constituent for rainbow trout. Aquaculture,
15., 333-343.
3. Dressler, D. (1971): Mineralische Elemente in derTierernahrung. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
4. Grim, R.E.; Guven, N. (1978): Bentonite - Geology, Mineralogy, Properties and Uses. Elsevier Scientific,
Amsterdamffhe Netherlands.
5. Gutcho, M.H. (1973): Feeds for livestock, poultry and pets. Noyes Data Corp., LondonlEngland.
6. Herstad, O. (1976): Waste fat in fat-containing bleaching earth as feed for chickens. Acta Agric.
Scandinavica, 26., 87-93.
7. Oon, S.K. (1990): Private communication.
 6. BLOOD PRODUCTS

6.1 Rationale

Blood products are protein feedstuffs. Blood from slaughtering productive farm animals
is used for human consumption but large quantities are still discarded. It is estimated that
blood amounts to about 7.5% of the animals' liveweight, ranging from 4.5% for pigs
and 8.0% for cows(23). The longer the bleeding time, the more blood can be collected
(Figure 6-01)129).
In Norway an estimated 65 to 70% of the collected blood is used as animal feed, 5.0 to
10.0% is consumed as food and 15 to 25% is discarded. However worldwide, the percent-
age of discarded blood is much higher due to lack of processing facilities. In several
countries work has been done to find new ways of utilising bloodl2. 3. 4.7.8.15.27.29).

~ 18.0
16.0
.," H.O
..;
... 12.0
d
~ 10.0
::s
01 8.0
6.0
~
0
.... 4.0
III
2.0
iii iii
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Bleeding Time (sec.)

Figure 6-01. The quantity of collected cattle blood in relation to the bleeding timel Z9!.

6.2 Collection and Processing

Three methods are used for the collection of blood at slaughter facilities:
• Use of drain tubes,
Use of a gully or vat,
A blood-drain on the floor.
The first method is very labour-intensive and only practiced in the collection of blood
for processing of high quality products, e.g for human consumption and pharmaceutical
preparations. The second and third methods are more commonly used in blood collection
but the latter is less hygienic l23. 29).
70 CHAPTER 6

Fresh blood coagulates quickly and deteriorates easily. Thus immediately after
collection, treatment by preservation or drying is necessary. Stirring fresh blood and/or
adding chemical anticoagulants, such as oxalic acid or trisodium citrate solution,
prevents coagulation(29. 43).

Preserving fresh Blood

Fresh blood can be preserved by adding formic acid, salt (NaCI) and unslaked lime,
sulphuric acid (HzSO4)' and potassium-metabisulphite (~SzD5)' Not all of these preser-
vatives have the same degree of efficacy. Acids kill and control growth of germs
aside from being a preservative(43). Deep-freezing is another practice of preserving
fresh blood(·l).

Drying of Blood
Drying is the most effective mode of preserving fresh blood. However, processes where
high temperature is applied for a long period are disadvantageous. The high temperature
damages the protein and reduces the digestibility of the blood meal(l4. 20. 41). Spray-
drying gives a better blood meal quality than drum-drying. When spray-drying, the blood
is evaporated to 40 to 50% solids in a vacuum at low temperature (49°C) after which
the material is sprayed into a hot air stream of 316°C(4, 43).
Coagulated blood is used in the ring drying process (also called flesh-drying).
The fluid is pressed-out from the coagulant and the solid matter enters an elliptical hot
air stream at 400°C where it stays for less than one minute. Drum-drying follows a
similar process(26).
Blood meal made from de-fibrinated blood is water soluble, while the meal from
coagulated blood is insoluble. The quality of blood meal depends very much on the
drying temperature. High quality blood meal is of reddish to dark-greyish colour.

6.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The nutrient content of blood meal varies widely (Table 6-01). The fat and carbohydrate
content is rather low.

Table 6-01: Chemical composition of fresh blood and blood meal (% in dry matter)(lO, /4,28,30,43)

Fresh blood Blood meal

Mean Variation

Dry matter 90.3 87.8 93,0

Crude protein 90,8 92.5 72.3 96.6
Crude fat 0.5 1.2 0 5.9
Crude fibre 0.9 0.4 1.0
Crude ash 5.8 5.3 2,0 15.6
N-free extract 2,9 3.3 0 10,7
Organic matter 93,2 92.9 73,8 97,8
 BLOOD PRODUCTS 71

Protein is the most important component of blood meal and is affected by means of
drying (Table 6-02). The variation of the essential amino acids of blood meal is generally
not wider than in other feedstuffs, however there is some disproportion(32. 43). Blood meal
is a rich source of leucine but a poor source of methionine and isoleucine(2l). Compared
to whole chicken egg protein blood meal is low in isoleucine, cystine and methionine.
The aromatic amino acids tyrosine and phenylalanine are sufficiently present and the
lysine content is high (Table 6_03)129).

Table 6-02: Effect of drying procedure of blood meal on the crude protein (%) and
amino acid (gl16 g N) content(4)

Drying procedure Crude protein Amino acids

Lysine Methionine Cystine Arginine

Freeze drying 93.5 9.6 1.3 1.5

Dried at l00°C/24 hours 94.3 9.2 1.2 1.5
Ring-drying 90.0 9.7 1.4 1.4 4.1
Open-air drying 87.3 7.8 1.0 0.7
Norwegian Standard! 81.5 8.5 1.3 4.3

! Minimum requirement

Table 6-03: Essential amino acid content of the protein (g/16g N)

of blood meaP, /0. 14, 29.30, 43

Mean Variation

Arginine 4.01 3.28 4.60

Histidine 5.49 4.43 5.70
Isoleucine 1.08 0.71 1.40
Leucine 11.82 10.18 -13.40
Lysine 8.53 6.90 9.60
Methionine 1.19 0.87 - 1.50
Phenylalanine 6.44 5.66 - 7.30
Threonine 4.50 3.62 - 5.40
Tryptophan 1.21 1.04 1.30
Valine 8.10 6.76 9.60

The vitamin content of blood meal is quite insignificant. Except for the iron content,
provided by haemoglobin which is an organic compound of iron, the macro and trace
mineral content of blood meal is low for practical feeding (Table 6-04). The calcium:
phosphorus ratio is 1: 1.36.
72 CHAPTER 6

Table 6-04: Macro and trace minerals and vitamin content of blood meal! 14. 30. 37. 43)

Minerals Vitamins (per 1,000 g)

Calcium % 0.30 Vitamin D I.U. 600

Phosphorus % 0.22 Vitamin E mg 20.0
Sodium % 0.69 Vitamin BI mg 0.4
Potassoium % 0.35 Vitamin B2 mg 2.5
Magnesium % 0.07 Vitamin B6 mg 2.0
Sulphur % 0.33 Vitamin BI2 mcg 14.8
Manganese mglkg 11.2 Biotin mg 0.2
Iron mg/kg 2,273.0 Folic acid mg 0.2
Zinc mglkg 82.8 Nicotinic acid mg 27.2
Copper mg/kg 9.2 Pantothenic acid mg 2.8
Fluorine mg/kg 36.7 Choline mg 818

Physiological Properties
Energy content and digestibility of blood meal are highly affected by the method of
drying and the drying temperature (Table 6-05, 6-06). In rats the true digestibility
of blood meal protein is as high as 99.0%(13). The apparent digestibility of blood meal
for salmonids (97.0%) and chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschwawytscha) (95.4%) is
high(2. /8) but it is low for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) (89.4%) (30) •

Table 6-05: Digestibility, and metabolisable and digestible energy of differently processed blood
meals (basis: dry matter) for rainbow trout (Salrna gairdneri) (RT) and chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) (CS)(/8. 30)

Blood meal Digestibility Energy

drying process
Protein Energy Metabolisable Digestible
% % kcal/kg kcaIlkg

De-hydrated l .4 RT 32.4 44.8 2,441 2,514

Spray-dried4 RT 65.2 65.8 3,440 3,406
Ring-de-hydrated3•4 RT 87.0 76.7 3,935 4,383
Ring de-hydrated l •4 RT 89.4 89.0 4,483 5,086
Disc-dried (30%2) CS 29.4 31.9 1,864

1 50% of diet; 230% of diet; 3 25% of diet; 4 determined in the metabolism chamber
 BLOOD PRODUCTS 73

The average availability of lysine ranges between 70 and 75%. Poorly processed
blood meals still have a lysine availability of 65 to 69%(/4,43). After three months of
storage of blood meal, the lysine activity declined by 25% The content of available
amino acids is also affected by the analytical procedure used. The microbiological assay
provides the highest results (12.6 mg/16 g N), followed by biological tests (9.5 mg/16 g N)
and chemical analysis (7.7 mg/16 g N)(43).

Table 6-06: Effect of the drying temperature in the cylindrical dryer

on the protein digestibility of blood meal in pigS(43)

Drying temperature Protein digestibility

°C %

180 64 to 67
80 to 90 87 to 90

Hygienic Aspects
The bacterial count is a significant criteria for the quality of blood meal. It is greatly
influenced by the hygienic methods used in the collection of fresh blood and the storage
conditions of the processed product. Up to 100 to 100,000 germs per ml were found in
fresh blood and blood meal(22). Acid treated blood is less contaminated with germs than
untreated blood because the total bacterial count is related to the pH of the material(24).
Germ count increases rapidly and as much as 25-fold (Table 6-07), even if blood has
been collected under very hygienic conditions and is refrigerated(29).

Table 6-07: Refrigerated storage of blood and the effect on the bacterial count(29)

At time Days of storage

of collection
2 3 6

Blood, collected by drain-tube 400 400 500 2,000 10,000

Blood, prior to centrifuging 500 1,000 400 70,000 7,900,000
Blood plasma 90 140 900 21,000 8,600,000
Blood corpuscle fraction 400 600 1,000 200,000 9,000,000
74 CHAPTER 6

6.4 Feeding Value

Carefully processed blood products are useful protein feedstuffs for aquatic animals.
In land animals blood meal has been tested widely, but it is not recommended for use as
the only protein source of the feed formulation(3. 4. 26. 43). Blood and blood meal in mink
diets contribute to the prevention of fish-induced anaemia after feeding raw fish of
certain fish species(35.36).

6.4.1 Blood meal

Fishes
In chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) positive effects were observed
when up to 5.0% fish meal in starter diets were replaced by spray-dried blood meal.
At a level of 17.5% blood meal in exchange for fish meal, pathological effects in fish
were noted(16). Chinook salmon responded poorly to a diet containing 30% of a disc-dried
blood meal of inferior quality(18).
Two different sources of blood meal replaced herring meal at levels of 13.6% and
27.2% in diets for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).
At the lower blood meal level fish yield was significantly better than the control. At the
higher inclusion rate there was no difference when compared to the control(4).
There was little difference in weight gain of rainbow trout when 1/3 of the standard
protein (casein-gelatin protein [75:25]) was replaced by blood-feather meal (50:50), but
when 2/3 of the standard protein was replaced, weight was reduced. Pathological
changes of any organs were not noted. Blood-feather-poultry meal (1/2:1/3:1/3) as the
only protein source for rainbow trout is a better combination(33. 34).
Inconclusive test results were seen when 10% blood meal replaced feather meal of
a diet for rainbow trout composed of feather meal and poultry offal meal as the only
animal protein sources(38). Replacing 75% of the fish meal in a diet for rainbow trouts by
a combination of blood meal and rendered carcass meal depressed weight gain and feed
conversion by 19% and 20%, respectively. But reducing the replacement level to 25%
gave almost similar results as with pure fish meal (Table 6-08)(17).

Table 6-08: Replacement of fish meal by a combination of blood meal and rendered carcass meal in diets for
rainbow trout (Salma gairdneri)(17)

Control Test Test

Protein provided by:

Fish meal % 100.0 25.0 25.0
Poultry offal meal % 50.0
Blood meal/rendered carcass meal % 75.0 25.0

Weight gain g 133 108 130

reI. 100.0 81.2 97.7
Feed conversion 1: 1.33 1.59 1.34
reI. 100.0 119.5 100.8
 BLOOD PRODUCTS 75

Blood meal trials with til apia (Oreochromis spp.) gave inconsistent results. Best per-
formances of tilapia fingerlings were noted when 10% of the diet's protein was blood
meal, but replacement levels of more than 50% of the dietary protein reduced growth
rate and feed conversion(3/). However, in the supplemental diet for cage-cultured Nile
tilapia around 40 to 60% of the fish meal could be replaced by blood meal without
negative response(40). Exchanging all fish meal with blood meal in the diet for juvenile
tilapia resulted in a progressive reduction in growth rate and feed utilisation (Table 6-09y9).

Table 6-09: Blood meal replaces fish meal in diets for juvenile tilapia
(Oreochromis mossambicus) (Feeding period: 7 weeks)l9)

Fish meal % 21.8

Meat and bone meal % 10.0 32.0 18.7
Blood meal % 5.0 10.0
Crude protein % 35.9 36.6 35.7
Fat % 12.6 12.5 12.5
Ash % 13.2 13.4 11.3

------------------------------------------------------
Initial weight g l.l3 1.05 1.07
Weight gain % 302 266 227
Specific growth rate % 2.84 2.65 2.42
Feed conversion 1: 2.24 2.47 2.70
PER l.l4 1.01 0.94

Carcass composition (in the dry matter)

- Crude protein % 58.5 60.0 62.2
-Lipid % 21.9 20.3 19.1
-Ash % 15.5 15.6 16.7

The combination of blood meal (52%) and algae meal (32%) as the major protein
sources in the diet for the carnivorous African catfish (Clarias lazera) performed better
than feeding blood meal or algae meal alone(39). Blood meal in the diet for juvenile
Colossama macropomum was found to be inadequate as the only protein source(l2).

Crustaceans
The partial protein replacement of fish meal by blood meal at inclusion rates ranging
from 5.0 to 10.0%(6) in diets for the yellow leg shrimp (Penaeus californiensis) showed
growth depression. Blood meal was also found to be inferior in diets for the Sao Paulo
shrimp (Penaeus paulensis) when it replaced fish meal, shrimp meal, clam, soybean
meal and even rice bran(25).
Marine, white leg shrimps (Penaeus vannamei) did not show significant differences
in weight gain, feed conversion and survival when fed diets containing 10% levels of
differently processed blood meals (Table 6-10). Blood meal, therefore, may replace
marine proteins in grow-out diets for medium sized shrimps(ll).
76 CHAPTER 6

Table 6-10: Differently processed blood meal as a protein source in diets for Penaeus vannamei
(42 days test)(II)

Blood meal:
- Ring-dried % 10.0
- Acidulated I % 10.0
- Acidulated2 % 10.0
- Acidulated3 % 10.0
Methionine % 0.90
Protein-mix4 % 45.00 30.65 31.80 30.20 30.60
Crude protein % 55.40 55.38 55.40 55.39 56.37
Fat % 5.38 5.38 5.38 5.36 5.36

Mean weight gain g 4.52 4.50 4.15 4.00 3.69

Feed conversion 1: 1.63 1.91 1.76 2.00 1.99
Survival rate % 100.0 96.8 96.8 93.6 96.8

I Acidulated. sun-dried blood meal; 2 Acidulated. sun-dried blood meal with crystalline methionine
added; 3 Acidulated. sundried blood meal with covalently linked methionine; 4 Marine protein-
mix = 1/3 squid meal. 1/3 shrimp meal. 1/3 fish meal

6.4.2 Preserved Blood

Growth was poor, but the fish appeared to be healthy when fed blood preserved by acid
as the sole protein source for several weeks(5).
Acid preserved blood and blood preserved by freezing replaced half the amount of
raw fish or fish offal in moist diets for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar) without resulting in significant differences from the control in
weight gain and health (Table 6-11). This also does not significantly affect the fish
quality such as dressing percentage, chemical composition of fish fillets, pigmentation,
taste and texture and colour of the liver. Without any performance depressing effect, 17%
of the protein in a moist diet for salmonids can be replaced by preserved bloodW

6.S Recommended Inclusion Rates

Blood meal is a useful protein source for aquatic animals. Its nutritional value highly
depends on the drying process of the blood. Blood meal of good quality may replace
25% of the diet's protein content without significant depressing effects. For practical
conditions blood meal in aquaculture diets should not exceed 5.0% for young animals
and 10.0% for older animals.

Preserved blood is more suitable for older than for young fish. In most diets the appli-
cation rate is in the range of 15 to 20% of the total protein content.
 BLOOD PRODUCTS 77

Table 6-11: Effect of blood silage in the moist diet for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)131

Control Test Change l

Fish, frozen % 60.0 30.0

Blood silage % 32.6
Crude protein2 % 49.4 49.8
Metabolisable energy2 kcallkg 3,560 3,560
MJ/kg 14.9 14.9
Protein from blood % 0 18.8

1. Rainbow trout:
Weight gain g 944 874 -7.4
Daily growth rate % 0.50 0.54 +8.0
Condition factor 1.59 1.58 -0.6
Dressing percentage % 79.1 79.0 -0.1

2. Atlantic salmon:
Weight gain g 681 742 +8.8
Daily growth rate % 0.67 0.71 +6.0
Condition factor U8 U8 ±O
Dressing percentage % 88.4 89.0 +0.7

I Control = 100%; 2 In the dry matter

6.6 Legal Aspects

AAFCO(l) has listed two blood meal products:

Blood meal (No. 9.61) (Requirement: The drying process has to be labelled
[conventional cooker dried, steamed, hydrolysed]);
Blood meal, flash dried (No. 9.62) (Requirement: Min. 80% biological activity
oflysine).
According to the German feedstuff legislation blood meal is a permitted single feedstuff
and defined as "a product derived from blood of slaughtered animals, inclusively poultry
blood. It has to be free of impurities"(42) and has to meet the following requirements:
• Moisture: max. 10.0%
Crude protein: min. 80.0%
• Protein digestibility
(Pepsin digestibility): min. 90.0%
• Ash: max. 4.5%.
There are no legal restrictions with regard to the use of blood meal provided it is not
contaminated with pathogenic organisms such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella.
78 CHAPTER 6

6.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher). Sacramento.
CAIUSA.
2. Abou-EI-Hassan. A.; EI-Abbady. M.R.; Shahein, A.I.H. (1970): A study on the net protein utilization of
blood meal prepared by different methods for feeding poultry. U.A.RJ. Anim. Prod .• /0.• 317-328.
3. Asgard, T.; Austreng, E. (1986): Blood. ensiled or frozen. as feed for salmonids. Aquaculture. 55.• 263-284.
4. Auklend, G./. (1983): Blod som fOr tillaksefisk. Hovedoppgave ved Inst. for fj~rfe og pelsdyr. Norges
Landbruksh~gskole. As-NLHlNorway.
5. Austreng E.; Refstie (1973): Quoted from: Asgard and Austreng (1986).
6. Brand, e. w,; Colvin, L.B. (1977): Compounded diets for early postlarval Penaeus californiensis. Proc.
8th Annu. Meeting World Maricult. Soc., 8.,811-820.
7. Brunner, M. (1978): Verarbeitung und Verwertung von Schlachtblut und Knochen. Ubersichten zur
Tiererniihrung. 6.. 180-181.
8. Coser, A.M.L.; Jokl, L.; Vieira (1971): Effects of temperature of processing and of isoleucine fortification
on the nutritive value of blood meal. Arch. Latinoam. Nutrition, 27.• 297-309.
9. Davies, S.J.; Williamson. J.; Robinson. M.; Bateson. R.I. (1989): Practical inclusion levels of common
animal by-products in complete diets for tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus. Peters). Proc. 3m Int. Symp.
on Feeding and Nutrition in Fish. Toba/Japan. 28.8-1.9. 325-332.
10. De Boer, F.; Bickel, H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. E.A.A.P.
Publication No. 37. Elsevier Science Publishers B.Y.. Amsterdamffhe Netherlands.
11. Dominy, w'e.; Aka. H. (1988): The utilization of blood meal as a protein ingredient in the diet of the
marine shrimp Penaeus vannamei. Aquaculture, 70., 289-299.
12. Eckmann, R. (1987): Growth and body composition of juvenile Colossoma macropomum, Cuvier 1818
(Characoides) feeding artificial diets. Aquaculture, 64.• 293-303.
13. Eggum, B.O. (1968): Aminosyrekoncentration of proteinkvaliteit. Stougaards Forlag. Copenhagen/Denmark.
14. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Ind .• Info Series QI85001. Brisbane/Australia.
15. Fang, H. v.; Devendra. e. (1977): Protein source for feeding pigs in Malaysia, 3. Blood meal. MARDI
Res. Bull .• 5., 104-110.
16. Fowler, L.G.; Banks. J.L. (1976): Animal and vegetable substitutes for fish meal in the Abernathy diet.
Prog. Fish. Cult .• 38.• 123-126.
17. Gropp, J.; Koops, H.; Tiews, K.; Beck, H. (1976): Ersatz von Fischmehl im Forellenfutter. Arb. Deutscher
Fischerei-Verb .• No. 19, 85-102.
18. Hajen, W,E.; Higgs, D.A.; Beames, R.M.; Dosanjh, B.S. (1993): Digestibility of various feedstuffs by
post-juveniles chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) in sea water. 2. Measurement of digestibility.
Aquaculture, 112., 333-348.
19. Halver. J.E. (1989): Fish Nutrition. Academic Press. Inc .• London (2nd ed.).
20. Hamm, D.; Searcy, G.K. (1976): Some factors which affect the availability of lysine in blood meal.
Poultry Sci .• 55., 582-587.
21. Hardy, R.P. (1989): Quoted from: Halver, J.E. (1989).
22. Hrusovska, A.K.; Stefunka, M.; Muransky, M. (1974): Microbiological picture of fresh blood. Folia Vet..
18. (3/4). 513-528.
23. Jordfald, G. (1975): Blod som forurensningskomponent. PRA-Rapport No.3, Landbrukets Bygge- og
Rasjonaliseringskontor AIL, SandvikfNorway.
 BLOOD PRODUCTS 79

24. LBR (1975): Quoted from: Auklend (1983).

25. Marchiori, M.; Magalhaes, e. v,; funes, J.S.; Levy, J.A. (1982): Studies on artificial feeding of Penaeus
paulensis. Atlantica, 5., (1),43-48.
26. Miller, E.R. (1990): Blood meal: Flesh-dried. In: Thacker, P.A.; Kirkwood, R.N. (1990): Nontraditional
feed sources for use in swine production. Butterworth Publishers, Stoneham, MAIUSA.
27. Neelakantan, S. (1975): Preparation and nutritive value of serum and whole blood protein meals from
slaughter animal blood. J. Food Sci. Technology, 12., 289-291.
28. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp. Aquaculture Dev. and Coord, Progr.
(ADCPIREP) 87/26, UNDPIFAO, Rome/ltaly.
29. Nordal, J.; Fretheim. K. (1978): Utnyttelse av slakteriblod i nreringsmidler. Rapport no. 27, Norsk
Institutt for Nreringsmiddelforskning, As-NLHlNorway.
30. NRC (1981): Nutrient requirement of coldwater fish. Natl. Res. Council, No. 16, Natl. Acad. Press,
Washington, D.C.
31. Otobusin, S.O. (1987): Effects of different levels of blood meal on pelleted feeds on tilapia, O. niloticus,
production in floating bamboo net-cages. Aquaculture, 65., 263-266.
32. Pavlasova, M.; Vesley, Z. (1983): Amino acid composition of animal meals in relation to possibility of
replacing fish meal. Zivoc. Vyr., 28., 481-486.
33. Schulz. D.; Hartfiel, w.; Greuel, E. (1982): Verwendung von Nebenprodukten tierischer Herkunft in der
Ernllhrung von Regenbogenforellen (Salmo gairdneri).1. Einsatz von Blut- und Federmehl in einer gere-
inigten Dial. Z. Tierphysiol., Tieremahrung, Futtermittelkd., 47., 79-85.
34. Schulz, D.; Hartfiel, w.; Greuel, E. (1982): Verwendung von Nebenprodukten tierischer Herkunft in der
Ernahrung von Regenbogenforellen (Salmo gairdneri). II. Einsatz von Blut-, Feder- und
GeflUgelschlachtabfallmehl sowie Gelatine in einer gereinigten Diat. Z. Tierphysiol., Tierem!lhrung,
Futtermittelkd., 48., 267-275.
35. Skrede, A. (1970): Dietary blood in the prevention of fish-induced anaemia in mink. I. Iron absorption
studies. Acta Agric. Scandinavica, 20., 265-274.
36. Skrede, A. (1970): Dietary blood in the prevention of fish-induced anaemia in mink. II. Feeding experi-
ments. Acta Agric. Scandinavica, 20., 276-285.
37. Steffens, W. (1985): Grundlagen der Fischernahrung. VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
38. Tiews, K.; Koops, H.; Beck, H.; Schwalb-Biihling, A.; Gropp, J. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfutter fUr
die Regenbogenforelle. Bundesforschungsanstalt fLir Fischerei, Veroffentl. des Inst. fUr KUsten- und
Binnenfischerei, Hamburg/Germany, Publ. No. 75.
39. Ufodike, E.B.e.; Ekokotu, P.A. (1986): Protein digestibility and growth of African catfish (Clarias lazera)
fed blood meal and algal diets. Acto Hydrobiol., 28., 237-243.
40. Ufodike, E.B.e.; Ugwuzor, G.N. (1985): Effects of fish meal, cow blood meal, and sorghum diets in food
utilization and growth of cage-cultured Orechromis niloticus. BioI. Afric., 2., 69-74.
41. Waibel, P.E.; Cuperlovic, M.; Hurrell, R.F.; Carpenter, K.J. (1977): Processing damage to lysine and
other amino acids in the manufacture of blood meal. Food Chern., 25., 171-174.
42. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v,; Knippel, J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
43. Wohlbier, w.; Tran Thu, D. (1977): Blutmehl. In: Kling, M.; Wohlbier, w.: Handelsfuttermittel. Verlag
Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
 7. BREWERS' GRAINS (DE-HYDRATED)

7.1 Rationale

Brewers' grains is a by-product of beer brewing which has been practised by the ancient
Egyptians 5,000 years ago. Beer is an alcoholic, carbon dioxide-containing beverage.
It is produced by fermentation, predominantly from barley, yeast, hops and water.
Wheat, rice, maize, sugar cane and tapioca can also be used for beer making. Even in
Great Britain alone, about 900,000 MT fresh brewers' grains, equivalent to 200,000 MT
dried brewers' grains, are available annually(J7).

7.2 Manufacture and Processing

After the initial stage of malting grains (barley), enzymes (amylases) are formed and
convert the starch into sugar. Enzymatic activity is stopped by drying the sprouted barley.
Malt hulls are removed and the pure malt is mashed together with other components.
The mash is pressed to separate the liquid (wort) from the solids (brewers' grains)l5. 9).
Only the liquid wort is of interest for beer brewing (Figure 7-01). Fresh brewers' grains
contain only 20 to 24% dry matter and cannot be stored because at high environmental
temperature fresh brewers' grains decay rapidly.
De-hydration of brewers' grains is costly(9). Between 110 to 130 kg fresh brewers'
grains (20% dry matter) are obtained from 100 kg barley. Dried brewers' grains may
contain 3.0% dried spent hops and 0.25 to 0.80% of the malt dry matter as dreg(5).

7.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The raw materials used affect the chemical compOSItIOn of dried brewers' grains.
When dried spent hops and dreg are added to dried brewers' grains, the chemical
composition is adulterated and no longer typical of the productl5). The chemical compo-
sition of dried brewers' grains is compiled in Table 7-01. Seriously limiting amino
acids are lysine and methionine + cystine(l2). Lysine availability amounts to only
0.78 g/16 g N (total lysine: 0.88 g/16 g N) (Table 7-02)(7). The crude fat contains 3.0%
linoleic acid (18:2n-6). Of the total phosphorus content only 0.15% are available
phosphorus (Table 7-03)(7).
 BREWERS' GRAINS (DE-HYDRATED) 81

BARLEY
(100 kg)

I
I
Mal t Sprouts
Barley Malt
and Hulls
(100 kg)
(3.0 50 5.0 kg)

Wort Brewers' Grains

I I
(further (fresh)
processing (110 to 130 kg
to beer) - 20.0\ 1M)

Dried Brewers'
Grains
(25.5 to 29.0 kg
- 90\ 1M)

Figure 7-01. Diagram of the processing of dried brewers' grains (data/", ... , (4)).

Table 7-01: Chemical composition of dried brewers' grains (as fed)!3.6. 7, 9. 14)

Mean Variation

Dry matter % 92.3 92.0 93.0

Crude protein % 25.9 23.4 27.2
Crude fat % 7.0 5.9 9.2
Ash % 4.3 3.6 5.2
Crude fibre % 14.4 12.0 18.5
N-free extract % 44.5
82 CHAPTER 7

Table 7-02: Essential amino acid profile of dried brewers' grains (gl16 g N)

(7) (15)
Mean

Arginine 1.30 1.27 1.29

Histidine 0.60 0.52 0.56
Isoleucine 2.00 1.54 1.77
Leucine 3.20 2.49 2.81
Lysine 0.88 0.88 0.88
Methionine 0.45 0.46 0.46
Phenylalanine 1.80 1.44 1.62
Threonine 1.00 0.93 0.97
Tryptophan 0.37 0.37 0.37
Valine 1.20 1.61 1.41

Table 7-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of dried brewers' grains

Minerals(3. 7. )3. /5) Vitamins (per 1,000 g)i7- /4. /5)

Calcium % 0.30 Vitamin E mg 26.60

Phosphorus % 0.54 Vitamin Bl mg 0.63
Sodium % 0.23 Vitamin B2 mg 1.40
Potassium % 0.08 Vitamin B6 mg 1.03
Magnesium % 0.15 Vitamin B12 mcg 40.00
Chlorine % 0.15 Biotin mg 0.44
Sulphur % 0.30 Folic acid mg 0.38
Manganese mg/kg 37.3 Nicotinic acid mg 43.70
Iron mglkg 245.0 Pantothenic acid mg 8.33
Zinc mg/kg 27.5 Choline g 1.79
Copper mg/kg 21.2
Selenium mg/kg 0.7
Iodine mglkg 0.06
Cobalt mg/kg 0.07

Physiological Properties
Dried brewers' grains is merely a feedstuff for ruminants and the use for monogastric
land animals is Iimited(8) due to its high crude fibre content. Its protein fraction is
relatively insoluble in the rumen(2).
The metabolisable energy of dried brewers' grains for cold water fish and for poultry
is not much different (Table 7-04), The digestibility of dried brewers' grains in aquatic
animals has not yet been established but the digestibility of the organic matter for pigs
and ruminants is only 46% and 64%, respectively(9).
 BREWERS' GRAINS (DE-HYDRATED) 83

Table 7-04: Metabolisable energy values of dried brewers' grains (as fed)

Species kcal/kg MJ/kg Reference

Cold water fish 2,392 10.01 (/3)

Poultry 2,510 10.50 (7)

Other Properties
Dried brewers' grains has a bulk density of 0.22 to 0.25 MT/m3• It is an ingredient
antagonistic to water durability of aquaculture feed pellets, particularly if used at high
levels(l2). The pelletising ability is low and the molasses-absorption capacity amounts
to only 9.0%(10).

7.4 Feeding Value

Comparable experiments with dried brewers' grains in aquatic animals have not been
carried-out. Under extensive systems of fish production dried brewers' grains have been
used for fishes which are not too finicky with regard to their diet (Table 7-05). The feed-
ing value of dried brewers' grains for aquaculture diets is low just like experiences with
terrestrial farm animals, except of ruminants(4, 8, 9). Nevertheless, it can be a source of
protein and energy for aquaculture diets(l2)

Table 7-05: Dried brewers' grains in practical fish diets

Fish species Inclusion Type of feedJ Country Reference

rate weight of animal

African catfish
(18)
Clarias gariepinus 10.0 grower CAR'

Tilapia
(16)
Tilapia discolor 12.0-19.0 3,0-10,0 g Ghana

, Central African Republic

7.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Dried brewers' grains is a feedstuff for undemanding aquatic animals that are produced
under extensive conditions. The inclusion rate of the completed feed ranges between 10
and 15%.
84 CHAPTER 7

7.6 Legal Aspects and Precautions

Legal Aspects
Brewers' dried grains is a permitted single feedstuff in the U.S.A. and EU. In U.S.A.
brewer's dried grains (No. 15.01) may contain not more than 3.0% pulverised dried
spent hops(l). The EU regulation does not have any specific requirements for brewers'
grains, de-hydrated (No. 1.41). The German feedstuff legislation rules that brewers' grains,
de-hydrated, has to meet the following specification(J9):
• Moisture: max. 13.0%
Crude fibre: max. 17.0%
Crude ash: max. 4.5%.

Precautions
Dried brewers' grains should not be used if infected with the pathogenic Bacillus cereus
which is the cause of food and feed poisoning and also of bovine mastitis(20). According to
U.S.A.-estimates in 1989 about 84,000 cases of Bacillus cereus infections were recorded(l/)

7.7 References

1. MFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher),
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
2. Barber; w.P.; Lonsdale, C.R. (1980): By-products from cereal, sugar beet and potato processing. In:
Oerskov, E.R.: By-products and wastes in animal feeding. Occasional Pub!. No.3, British Soc. Anim.
Prod.
3. Castaldo, D.J. (1994): Squeezing more out of by-products. Feed International, 15., (10), 34-38.
4. Cheeke, P.R. (1987): Rabbit feeding and nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, Florida/U.S.A.
5. De Boer, F.; Bickel, H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. Elsevier Sciences
Publishers, Arnsterdamffhe Netherlands.
6. Dupree, H.K.,· Huner, J. V. (1984): Third report to the fish farmers. Pub!. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, D.C.
7. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pig and pOUltry. Queensland Dept. Primary Ind.,
Brisbane/Australia (Series Q 185(01).
8. Feltwell, R.: Fox, S. (1978): Practical poultry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
9. Friesecke, H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung von Rind, Schaf, Pferd, Schwein, GeftUgel
und SU6wasserfischen. BLV Verlagsges .• MiinchenlGermany.
10. Hertrampf, J. W. (1992): On the water durability of aquaculture feed pellets - A review. Advances in Feed
Techn., (7), 18-38.
11. Miller Jones, J. (1992): Food safety. Eagan Press, SI. Paul, Minnesota/U.S.A.
12. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAOIADCPIREP/87126, Romelltaly.
13. NRC (1981): Nutrient requirements of coldwater fishes. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
14.NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington, D.C.
15. NRC (1989): Nutrient requirements of horses. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
 BREWERS' GRAINS (DE-HYDRATED) 85

16.0duro-Boateng, F. (1986): Quoted from: New, M.B. (1987).

17.0erskov, E.R. (1988): Feed Science, B 4, Disciplinary approach. Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam.
18. Viveen, W.f.A.R. et al. (1985): Quoted from: New, M.B. (1987).
19. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, 11.; Knippel, J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
20. West, G.P. (1992): Black's veterinary dictionary. A & C Black, London, 17th Edition.
 8. CASEIN (DE-HYDRATED)

8.1 Rationale

Casein is the protein of milk and the basic component of cheese. The term "casein" is
derived from the Latin word "caseus" for cheese. World production of casein is growing
steadily with New Zealand as the main producer. In Norway about 80% of casein
production is extracted from cow's milk and the remaining 20% from goat's milk(7).
Casein is used in diets for human and animal (land and aquatic) consumption.
Dehydrated casein has a wide field of application and is primarily used for industrial
purposes, as in the paper, paint, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and food industries, leather
processing, plastics and industrial glues. A new product is garment buttons from
casein(l5).

8.2 Manufacture and Processing

Skimmed milk, derived from the separation of the butterfat from whole milk, is the basis
for casein production. It is pasteurisised prior to adding coagulants. By addition of acid
or rennet the precipitation of casein as casein curd in the watery media is achieved.
The curd is extensively washed, dried and ground. A dehydrated casein with a brownish
colour may be obtained due to lactose that has not been removed before drying. Sodium
caseinate and calcium caseinate are salts of casein.

8.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
Casein is a protein feedstuff with a mean crude protein content of 87.9% (Table 8-01).
Not less than 78% of the milk's total nitrogen content is casein-nitrogen (Figure 8-01).
The protein is available in the form of phosphoprotein.
Table 8-01: Chemical composition (%) of casein (dehydrated) (as fed)(4. II. /2. /4.3/.49)

Mean Variation

Dry matter 91.2 88.4 - 94.0

Crude protein 87.9 84.0 92.5
Crude fat 0.7 0.2 1.1
Ash 3.3 1.8 5.5
Crude fibre l.l 0.2 2.0
N-free extract 5.9
Lactose <0.1
 CASEIN (DE-HYDRATED) 87

MILK TOTAL N

Figure 8-01. Composition of the nitrogen fraction of milk(dalafivm, (14).

Casein contains adequate amounts of all the essential amino acids but with a wide
variation within the individual amino acid (Table 8-02). This variation is influenced by
seasonal changes (Figure 8-02)(/9), location of the dairy farms, species and breeds(3. 25.39,
40. 41, 48. 54).

Table 8-02: Essential amino acid profile of dehydrated casein (g/16 g N)(4. 7. 11. 12.31.43.49)

Mean Variation

Arginine 3.69 3.32 - 4.00

Histidine 2.54 2.59 - 3.40
Isoleucine 5.26 4.10 - 7.70
Leucine 9.41 8.70 - 11.00
Lysine 7.89 7.14 - 8.40
Methionine 2.91 2.19 - 3.40
Phenylalanine 5.22 4.67 - 5.60
Threonine 4.16 3.71 - 4.60
Tryptophan 1.20 0.92 - 1.50
Valine 6.37 5.40 - 7.50
88 CHAPTERS

Argini:.::n:;c:eo.-_ __
7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0
/
3.0

'2.0 -

1.0

'---'-_ _'---_---'.____1_ _ L __ . L_ _L~ _ ___'__ _-'-_ __'__ _ J... ...

Apr. Jun. Aug. Oct. Feb.

Figure 8-02. Seasonal variation of casein's amino acids(duru/rom, (19).

Fat-soluble vitamins are associated with butterfat, hence casein contains only traces
of them. The water-soluble vitamins are available in nutritionally significant amounts
(Table 8-03). The content of macro and trace minerals of casein are in Table 8-03.

Table 8-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of de-hydrated casein

Minerals(5. 12.31) Vitamins (per 1,000 g)!'. 12.31)

Calcium % 0.32 Vitamin A LV. 69

Phosphorus % 0.58 Vitamin E mg 0.5
Phosphorus, Vitamin BI mg 0040
available % 0041 Vitamin B2 mg 1.50
Sodium % 0.01 Vitamin B6 mg 0.63
Potassium % 0.01 Vitamin BI2 mcg 14.00
Magnesium % 0.01 Biotin mg 0.03
Manganese mglkg 4.2 Folic acid mg 0.37
Iron mg/kg 14.0 Nicotinic acid mg 1.43
Zinc % 27.0 Pantothenic acid mg 2.60
Copper mg/kg 4.0 Choline g 208.50
 CASEIN (DE-HYDRATED) 89

Physiological Properties
The protein digestibility of casein depends on the species (Table 8-04), the period
of feeding, size of the animal and the starch content of the diet. The higher the dietary starch
content, the lower the protein digestibility of the casein(2/). The apparent digestibility in
juvenile rainbow trouts (Salmo gairdneri) is lower than that of larger fish(20).

Table 8-04: Protein digestibility (%) of casein

Species Digestibility Reference

1. Allllarent dig;estibility
Salmonids (Salmo spp.) 92.0 1 ( 17.20.22.37.44)

(17)
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 92.4 2
(17)
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) 92.6 3
European eel (Anguilla anguilla) 99.0 (42)

Tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 97.9 (9)

2. True dig;estibility
(32)
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 99.0
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 99.0 (20)

I average of 24 analysis; 2 average of 18 analysis; 3 average of 8 analysis

The Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER), Net Protein Utilisation (NPU) and the Biological
Value (BV) of casein protein, range between 2.0 and 3.9, 38 and 63, and 38 and 80,
respectively(8. 28. 30, 33. 34).
The gross energy of casein-silage (33.3% dry matter) for rainbow trout is 7.27 MJlkg
(1,737 kcal/kg) and the metabolisable energy is 5.04 MJlkg (1,205 kcal/kg)(7). The digestible
energy of de-hydrated casein for rainbow trout is 21.80 MJlkg (5,210 kcal/kg)(27).
The energy digestibility of casein for the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is 98.0%(42).
Salinity does not affect the apparent digestibility of dry matter and protein by the tiger
prawn (Penaeus monodon) (Table 8-05). The amino acid digestibility was lowest for
phenylalanine (71.0%) and best for lysine (94.5%)145).
The phosphorus availability of casein is 90% for rainbow trout, 97% for common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and 90% for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus)l35, 53).

Table 8-05: Apparent digestibility of casein by penaeid shrimps

Species Salinity Digestibility (%) Reference

ppt
Dry matter Protein

Penaeus vannamei 91.4 91.1 (2)

Penaeus monodon 16 84.3 93.3 (45)

(45)
32 83.5 93.0
90 CHAPTER 8

Other Properties
Since casein is used in technical glues it has a good pellet binding capacity and improves
the water durability of aquaculture feed pellets(27}. Dietary amino acids coated with
casein are better utilised by the common carp than blends of amino acids and casein(26}.
Finally, casein is non-toxid36}.

8.4 Feeding Value

Semi-purified and Purified Diets

Semi-purified and purified research diets are made from refined ingredients with
defined analysis. Casein has been found to be a good protein source for test diets and
can be made vitamin-free for requirement studies. For test diets casein can be combined
with gelatine in the ratio of 5: 1.
Diets with casein as the major protein source could nourish test animals without
showing symptoms of deficiencies or abnormal mortality rates( /6, /8,43). On the contrary
some research workers have reported lower feed intake, poorer growth rates and fatty
livers when casein was the only or the major protein source of a purified test did37, 38}.

Fishes
About 1,000 g trout protein was produced from 2,000 g feed protein from casein as the
only protein source in a rainbow trout diet(46, 47). Lower performances were obtained
when moist diets containing casein silage were fed to rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar) (Table 8-06)17). The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) responded better on
untreated casein than on casein hydrolysate(6).

Table 8-06: Effect of preserved crude casein in moist pellets on performances of

rainbow trout (Salrna gairdneri) and Atlantic salmon (Salrna salar)(7)

Casein % 18.6 18.6

Raw fish % 60.0 33.6 33.6
Crude protein % 49.4 49.6 49.6
------------------------------------------------------
I. RainQQw trout
Weight gain g 944 900 811
Dressing percentage % 79.1 78.5 79.0
Colour of liver score 0.6 0.5 0.5

2. Atlimtil< ~illmQD
Weight gain g 681 704 671
Dressing percentage % 88.4 88.6 88.3
Colour of liver score 1.5 1.6 1.4
 CASEIN (DE-HYDRATED) 91

The total replacement of protein from fish meal or krill meal by casein in diets fed to
rainbow trouts resulted in poor feed conversion and insufficient growth rates. The poor
effect could have been due to the low availability of some amino acids of casein and
inadequate supply of non-lipid nutrients(36, 38). Insufficient growth rates were also
obtained when part of the animal protein (fish meal, feather meal, poultry offal-meal)
were replaced by casein(24, 49).
Feeding casein to rainbow trouts at varying levels also caused changes in the liver and
fatty livers (Table 8_07)(23,36,38).

Table 8-07: Casein as the protein source in diets fed for 100 days to rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri)(36)

Casein % 20.0 40.0 40.0

Krill meal % 30.0 30.0
Crude protein % 36.3 36.4 55.4

Slaughter weight g 114 81 159

Feed conversion 1: 1.14 1.63 0.92
Hepato-somatic index! 2.74 2.26 1.70

liver weight (g) x 100

Body weight (g)

Crustaceans
Partial replacement of short-necked clam (Venerupis philippinarum) by casein in purified
basal diets for the kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) did not give results comparable to
the nutritional value of the protein from short-necked clam. Furthermore, supplementation
of the diet with apparently deficient amino acids as well as the treatment of casein
hydrolysate with various types of protease did not improve performances(lO). However,
by reducing the casein level in the diet to only 17.9%, prawns performed equally well as
compared to those fed the clam-protein diet. But by increasing the casein inclusion rate
to 36.4%, the performances of the prawns were inferior in growth and feed efficiency
(Table 8-08)(11).

Molluscs
Casein is considered as the most suitable protein source for maximising growth and
survival of cultured abalone (Haliotis spp.) and is even better than diets containing fish
meaJ!l3. 50, 51). Feeding the terrestrial snail Arion ater until maturity with casein containing
diets gave adequate growth and survival while reproduction performance was poor 55).
92 CHAPTER 8

Table 8-08: Replacement of clam protein by casein and other animal

protein sources in diets for Penaeus japonicui 11)

Casein % 17.9 36.4

Clam protein % 75.3
Other animal protein % 41.6 24.4
Crude protein % 59.3 56.5 56.7

Body weight g 1.92 2.05 1.72

Daily feed intake % 5.3 9.6 15.3
Weight gain % 200.0 210.6 164.6
Feed efficiency! % 67.4 38.0 21.1

Body weight (g) x 100

Feed intake (g)

8.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Casein may not be used as the only protein source, but can partly replace other protein
sources. The following inclusion rates are recommended:
Fish feed: 10 to 15% casein (de-hydrated)
Prawn feed: 10 to 15% casein (de-hydrated)
Mollusc feed: 20 to 30% casein (de-hydrated).

8.6 Legal Aspects

Casein is approved as a single feedstuff (No. 8.06) by the EU (EU-Directive 92/87 EEC
of 26 October, 1992). The feedstuff legislation of the Federal Republic of Germany
rules, that de-hydrated casein should contain not more than 12% moisture and at least
75% crude protein(52). Two different casein products are approved in the U.S.AP):
• Casein, acid precipitated and de-hydrated (min. 80% crude protein) (No. 54.16);
• Casein, hydrolysed and de-hydrated (min. 74% crude protein) (No. 54.21).

8.7 References

I. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher),
Sacramento, CNUSA.
2. Akiyama, D.M. (1988): Soybean meal utilization by marine shrimp. Proc. AOCS World Congress on Veg.
Protein Utilization in Human Food and Animal Feedstuffs, Singapore, 2-7 October.
 CASEIN (DE-HYDRATED) 93

3. Alais. c.; Jolles. P. (1967): Isolation. purification and analysis of two k-casein-like fractions from sheep
casein. J. Dairy Sci.. 50., 1555-1561.
4. Anonymous (w/o years): Typical amino acid profiles for casein products. New Zealand Dairy Board.
Wellington, EC01.
5. Anonymous (w/o year): A vitamin guide for the ALA range of milk protein products. New Zealand Dairy
Board, Wellington. EZI0.
6. Aoe. H; Abe. /.; Fukawa. H; Koyama. H (1974): Nutrition of protein in young carp. II. Nutritive value
of protein hydrolysates. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries. 40., 375-379.
7. Asgard. I; Austreng. E. (1985): Casein silage as feed for salmonids. Aquaculture. 48.• 233-252.
8. Atack. T.; Matty. A.J. (1979): The evaluation of some single-cell proteins in the diet of rainbow trout.
In: Halver, J.E.; Tiews. K. (eds.): Finfish Nutrition and Fish Feed Technology. Hamburg, 2., 261-273.
9. Catacutan. R.M. (1994): Apparent protein digestibility of feedstuffs in Penaeus monodon Fabricius.
(unpublished mimeograph).
10. Deshimaru. O. (1981): Studies on nutrition and diets of prawns, Penaeus japonicus. Mem. Kagoshima
Pref. Fish. Exp. Station, (12), December.
II. Deshimaru. O. (1982): Protein and amino acid nutrition of the prawn Penaeus japonicus. Proc. 2nd Intern.
Conf. Aquaculture Nutrition, 27 to 29 October, 106-123. (Louisiana State Univ., Baton RougeIUSA).
12. Evans. M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and pOUltry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Ind., BrisbanelAustralia, Info. Series Q 18500 1.
13. Fallu. R. (1991): Abalone farming. Fishing News Books, OxfordlEngland.
14. Friesecke. H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung von Rind, Schaf, Pferd, Schwein, GeflUgel und
SUBwasserfischen. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, MUnchenlGerrnany.
15. Gilbert. R. (1993): Casein country. Extrusion Communique, 6., (4), 5-6.
16. Halver, J.E. (1957): Nutrition of salmonoid fishes. IV. An amino acid test diet for chinook salmon.
J. Nutrition, 63., 245-254.
17. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, CambridgelEngland.
18. Kanazawa. A. (1982): Penaid nutrition. Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Aquaculture Nutrition, 27 to 29 October,
87-105. (Louisiana State Univ., Baton RougeIUSA).
19. Kiermeier, F.; Kirchmeier, O. (1963): Uber fiitterungsbedingte, jahreszeitliche Veranderungen der
Aminosliurezusammensetzung des Caseins. Biochemische Zeitschrift, 337., 519-524.
20. Kitamikado. M; Morishita. T.; Tachino. S. (1964): Digestibility of dietary protein in rainbow trout. I.
Digestibility of several dietary proteins. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 30., 46-49.
21. Kitamikado. M; Morishita. I; Tachino. S. (1964): Digestibility of dietary protein in rainbow trout. II.
Effects of starch and oil contents in diets, and size of fish. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 30., 50-54.
22. Lall. S.P.; Bishop, F.J. (1977): Studies on mineral and protein utilisation by Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
grown in seawater. Fish. Mar. Servo Techn. Report, (688), 1-17.
23. Lee. D.; Wales. J.H. (1973): Observed liver changes in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed varying levels
of casein-gelatine mixture and herring oil in experimental diets. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada, 30., 1017-1020.
24. Lee. D.1.; Sinnhuber, R.O.; Wales. J.H; Putnam. G.B. (1978): Effect of dietary protein on the response of
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to aflatoxin B,. J. National Cancer Inst., 60., 317-320.
25. Lyster, R.L.J. (1972): Reviews of the progress of dairy science. Sec. C. Chemistry of milk protein.
J. Dairy Sci., 39., 279-318.
26. Murai. I; Ogata. H.; Nose. I (1982): Methionine coated with various material supplemented to soybean
meal diet for fingerling carp, Cyprinus carpio, and channel catfish,lctalurus punctatus. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci.
Fisheries, 48., 85-88.
94 CHAPTER 8

27. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps. A manual on the preparation and presentation of
compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAOIADCP/REP/87126, Rome, Italy.
28. Nose, T. (1963): Determination of nutritive value of food protein in fish. 2. Effect of amino acid compo-
sition of high protein diets on growth and protein utilization of the rainbow trout. Bull. Freshwater Fish.
Res. Lab. Tokyo, 13.,41-50.
29. Nose, T. (1967): On the metabolic fecal nitrogen in young rainbow trout. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab.
Tokyo, 17., 97-lO5.
30. Nose, T. (1971): Determination of nutritive value of food protein in fish. ill. Nutritive value of casein, white
fish meal and soybean meal in rainbow trout fingerlings. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab. Tokyo, 21., 85-98.
3l. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirement of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press,
Washington, D.C.
32. Dgino. G.; Chen. M. (1973): Protein nutrition in fish. III. Apparent and true digestibility of dietary
protein in carp. Bull. lap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 39., 649-65l.
33. Dgino. G.; Chen. M. (1973): Protein nutrition in fish. IV. Biological value of dietary proteins in carp. Bull.
lap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries. 39.• 797-800.
34. Dgino G.; Nanri. H. (1980): Relationship between the nutritive value of dietary protein for rainbow trout
and the essential amino acid composition. Bull. lap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries. 46., lO9-112.
35. Dgino. G.; Takeuchi. L.; Takeda. H.; Watanabe. T. (1979): Availability of dietary phosphorus in carp and
rainbow trout. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 45., 1527-1532.
36. Petrasch. R.; Pfeffer; E. (1982): Studies with rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) on the optimum level of
dietary protein and on the utilisation of casein. Arch. Tierernahrung, 32., (7/8). 563-568.
37. Pfeffer; E. (1993): Ernahrungsphysiologische und Okologische Anforderungen an Alleinfutter flir
Regenbogenforellen. Ubers. Tieremahrung. 21., 31-54.
38. Pfeffer; E.; Petrasch. R.; Eckhardt. D. (1980): Untersuchungen tiber milgliche Protein- und Fettrager in
gereinigten Diaten fUr Regenbogenforellen (Salmo gairdneri R.). Z. Tierphysiol, Tierernahrg.,
Futtermittelkd, 43.,254-263.
39. Resmini. P.; Semenza. F.; Zanini. A. (1967): Studi sui latti di divers specie. Ric. Sci., Pane 1. Rivista,
37.,74-78.
40. Richardson. B.G.; Creamer; L.K. (1975): Comparative micelle structure. III. The isolation and chemical
charcaterization of caprine B,-casein and B2-casein. Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 365., 133-137.
4l. Richardson. B.G.; Creamer; L.K.; Munford. R.E. (1973): Comparative micelle structure. I. The isolation
and chemical characterization of caprine k-casein. Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 310., 111-117.
42. Schmitz. D.; Greuel. E.; Pfeffer; E. (1984): Digestibility of crude protein and organic matter of potential
sources of dietary protein for eels (Anguilla anguilla). Aquaculture, 41., 21-30.
43. Schulz. D.; Hartfiel. w.; Greuel. E. (1981): Eignung einer gereinigten Diat fUr vergleichende
Untersuchungen an Regenbogenforellen (Salmo gairdneri) und Coho-Lachsen Dncorhynchus kisutch.
Z. Tierphys., Tiererniihrg., Futtermittelkd., 45., 252-26l.
44. Shanks et al. (1964): Quoted from: NRC (1981).
45. Shiau. S.-Y.; Lin. K.-P; Chiou, C.L. (1992): Digestibility of different protein sources by Penaeus monodon
raised in brackish water and sea water. l. Appl. Aquaculture. I .. (3),47-53.
46. Takeuchi. T.; Arai. S.; Watanabe. T.; Shimma. Y. (1978): Optimum ratio of protein to lipid for trout. Bull.
Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries. 44., 683-688.
47. Takeuchi. T.; Yokoyama. M.;Watanabe. T.; Dgino. G. (1978): Optimum ratio of dietary energy to protein
for rainbow trout. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 44., 729-732.
48. Thompson. M.P.; Kiddy, G.A.; Pepper; L.; Zitt/e. G.A. (1962): Variation in the a,-casein fraction of
 CASEIN (DE-HYDRATED) 95

individual cow's milk. Nature, 195., 1001-1002.

49. news, K.; Koops, H.; Beck, H.; Schwalb-Biihling, A.; Gropp, 1. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfuttem fUr
die Regenbogenforelle. VerOffentl. Inst. KUsten- und Binnenfischerei, Hamburg/Germany, No.75/198!.
50. Ushi, N. (1994): Quoted from: Walker, N. (1994).
51. Walker. N. (1994): A revolutionary feedingstuff. Extrusion Communique, 7., 0), 12-13.
52. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, V; Knippel, 1. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
53. Wilson, R.P.; Robinson, E.H.; Gatlin, D.M.; Poe, WE. (1982): Dietary phosphorus requirement for channel
catfish. J. Nutrition, 82., 475-482.
54. Woodward, D.R. (1976): The chemistry of mammalian caseins: A review. Dairy Sci., 38.,137-150 (Abstr.).
55. Wright, A.A. (1973): Evaluation of a synthetic diet for the rearing of the slug Arion ater. Compo Biochem.
Physiol., 45A., 593-603.
 9. CHEESE SCRAP

9.1 Rationale

Cheese is a food made from the curds of soured milk or fresh milk coagulated by rennet.
The major portion of cow's milk is processed in dairy factories into buttcr and cheese.
Denmark produces not less than 40 different types of cheese amounting to 280,000 MT
a year8), and the Netherlands export around 500,000 MT of a total production of
580,000 MT(3). The entire Europe produces more than 1.7 million MT of all kinds
of cheese(4).
A by-product of processing, trimming and packing of cheese is cheese scrap.
The available quantity of cheese scrap is unknown because it is used for making cheese
spread and cheese powder for human consumption. Dairy factories also extract the
protein and fat from the scrap or throw into the dairy's waste-water treatment(6. 9. 13. 14).

9.2 Processing

There are various methods used to dry cheese scrap. But it is also fed as is or mixed with
a carrier.

9.3 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Cheese scrap is both a protein and energy source. The percentage of the latter depends
merely on the fat content of the cheese used as food. Analytical data are shown in
Tables 9-01, 9-02 and 9-03.

Physiological Properties
Cheese protein is highly digestible. In dogs digestibility was found to be 88.7%.
The digestible energy varies with the fat content. The digestible energy of cheese in dogs
is 4,183 kcal/kg (17.5 MJ/kgyJO). Cheese is also considered as a good source of biotin(l2).
Cheese scrap contains nitrosamines which are known to be a powerful chemical
carcinogen(l5). The estimated exposure to nitroso compounds of cheese in the U.S.A
amounts to 0.03 mcg per person per day(ll)
 CHEESE SCRAP 97

Table 9-01: Chemical composition of cheese and cheese scrap (in dry matter)

Cheese l Cheese scrap

(/0) (7) (Z)

Dry matter % 35.0 62.0 91.0

Crude protein % 41.5 23.8 37.3
Crude fat % 46.2 30.7 22.0
Ash % 6.2 3.8 6.6
Crude fibre % 1.1
N-free extract % 6.1 41.7 33.0
Carbohydrates % 3.8
Protein digestibility % 88.7
Digestible energy kcal/kg 4,183 3 4,355 4
MJlkg 17.5 18.2

I Swiss Emmental; Z Manufacturer's data; 3 in dogs, 4 calculated

Table 9-02: Profile of essential amino acids of cheese and cheese scrap (gl16 g N)

Cheese(JO) Cheese scrap I

Arginine 0.91 1.31

Histidine 0.73 0.94
Isoleucine 1.43 1.54
Leucine 2.26 4.17
Lysine 1.73 3.00
Methionine 0.60 0.96
Phenylalanine 1.70 1.75
Threonine 0.91 1.51
Tryptophan 0.28 0.39
Valine 1.48 1.74

I Manufacturer's data

Table 9-03: Macro and trace mineral and vitamin contents of cheese (in dry matter)(lO)

Minerals Vitamins (per 1,000 g)

Calcium % 1.01 Vitamin A IU 9,191

Phosphorus % 1.08 Vitamin BI mg 0.7
Sodium % 0.53 Vitamin B z mg 4.8
Potassium % 0.45 Vitamin B6 mg 2.65
Magnesium % 0.01 Vitamin BIZ mcg 23.1
Iron mg/kg 16.5 Biotin meg 23.1
Copper mg/kg 1.8 Nicotinic acid mg 1.45
Iodine mcg/kg 50.0 Pantothenic acid mg 3.85
98 CHAPTER 9

9.4 Feeding Value

Cheese and cheese scrap are a high quality protein source in feed formulations for poultry
and dogs(5, 10).
Cheese scrap was tested in diets for the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fishes
of two sizes (23.0 to 25.4 cm and 5.0 to 7.5 cm) were used for the experiment. The test
diets contained unprocessed cheese scrap (38% moisture) and were supplemented with
some amino acids. Weight gain of the small fish responded best on the cheese scrap diet
but feed efficiency was low. This indicates that the small fish may have difficulty utilising
the high fat content of the test diet (22.0%) compared to the control group (5.0% fat).
For the larger trout the cheese scrap diets were significantly (P <0.05) superior to the
control diet in both weight gain and feed efficiency. However, cheese scrap group had
a larger amount of abdominal fat than the control(7).

9.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Cheese scrap appears to be a satisfactory ingredient in the diets of fish(7). Manufacturers

of cheese scrap recommend inclusion rates of 3.0 to 6.0%.

9.6 Legal Aspects and Precautions

Legal Aspects
AAFCO(l) has listed cheese scrap under No. 54.17 as "cheese rind" which is obtained by
cooking cheese trimmings devoid of fat other than milk fat. No other requirements have
to be met.

Precautions
When not carefully handled and stored cheese scrap might be contaminated with
mycotoxins which are toxic to aquatic organisms. Aflatoxin can penetrate as deep as
4.0 cm from the surface of a whole cheese 10af(1l). Adulteration with other by-products
from cheese making might cause a high salt content of the cheese scrap(5).

9.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (Publisher),
Sacramento, CA/USA.
2. Anonymous (1989): Alternate feeds for trout. Feed Management, 40., (5), 32-33. - 17-
3. Anonymous (1993): Lebensrnittelindustrie. Agrar-Holland, (3+4), 5.
4. De Boer, E.; Bickel, H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. Elsevier Sciences
Publishers B.v., Amsterdamffhe Netherlands.
5. Feltwell, R.; Fox, S. (1978): Practical poultry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
6. Hansen, R. (1989): Mejerispildevand er ikke lrengere noget problem. North European Food and Dairy 1.,
 CHEESE SCRAP 99

55., (2), 30-39.

7. Haskins; Katayama (1988): Quoted from: Anonymous (1989).
8. Imhof, W (1995): Private communication.
9. Lund, H.H. (1995): Private communication.
10. Meyer, H. (1990): Ernahrung des Hundes. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany (2 od ed.).
11. Miller Jones, J. (1992): Food safety. Eagan Press, St. Paul, MinnesotaJUSA.
12. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPfFAO/ADCP/REP/87126, Romelltaly.
13. Rusten, B.; Lundar, A.; Eide, 0.; 0degaard, H. (1993): Chemical pretreatment of dairy wastewater. Water
Sci. Technology, 28., (2), 67-76.
14. Schmidt, J. (1995): Private communication.
15. West, G.P. (1992): Black's veterinary dictionary. A&C Black, London, (l7 th ed.).
 10. COCOA-POD HUSK MEAL

10.1 Rationale

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) of the family Sterculiaceae, is the ever-green tree of 6.0 to
8.0 m height of the tropical rainforest. The cocoa bean is an old Mexican stimulant and
foodstuff. From Mexico, it spread to all over the world. Africa is the major producer of
cocoa beans (53% of the total world production) followed by Latin America (31.3%) and
Asia (8.8%). The five most important cocoa producing countries supply almost 75% of
the total production (Ivory Coast, 26.0%; Brazil, 22.9%; Ghana, 12%; Malaysia, 6.5%;
Nigeria, 6.2%).
In Nigeria, more than 1.5 million MT of cocoa-pod husk are wasted annually<I7) and in
Malaysia, an estimated 217,600 pods and 9,500 MT of bean shells are available(22).
In Nigeria, cocoa-pod husk is used as organic fertilizei I5 ) in soap manufacture(l7) and animal
feeds(2, /4), Cocoa-pod husk has been utilised in poultry feed(l), pigs(6) and in ruminants(3,4, 5).
The use of cocoa-pod husk meal (CPHM) has been found to be a potential feedstuff
in semi-intensive fish culture(8, 9, /0, 12).

10.2 Manufacture and Processing

Cocoa berries which contain about 20 to 50 cocoa beans are fermented for the removal of
the pulp. After drying, either under the sun or in a drier, the beans are screened and crushed
and separated into broken cocoa beans, husks and slacks (Figure 10-01)120).
Husks can be also sliced from fresh ripe cocoa-pods into flakes, oven-dried at 80°C to
moisture content of 10 to 12%. The dry husks are then milled(9).
Theobromine as well as fat, are also extracted for pharmaceutical use from the pod huskS20).

10.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
CPHM is low in protein and high in crude fibre and N-free extract and the lipid content
is quite low (Table 10-01) and majority of the glycerides are available in the form of
triglycerides.
The most important fatty acids of cocoa fat are:(23)
Palmitic acid 16:0 22.0 to 30.0%
Stearic acid 18:0 32.0 to 37.0%
Oleic acid 18:1n-9 30.0 to 37.0%
Linoleic acid 18:2n-6 2.0 to 4.0%
 COCOA-POD HUSK MEAL 101

COCOA BRANS

lay screening
(
Toasting (100 TO 200'C)
<
Crushing
<
2 •• screening

Solvent extraction
(

!or further processing

for bwoan consumption

Drying I grinding

COCOA HUSK MEAL

Figure JO-01. Flow diagram in the processing of cocoa beans (Darafrom .. 20).

Table 10-01: Chemical composition (%) of heat-processed cocoa-pod husk meal (CPHM),
cocoa pods, cocoa shells and cocoa beans. (10. 20)

CPHM Cocoa pods Cocoa shells Cocoa beans

Dry matter 87.7 90.4 91.8 94.0-95.0

Crude protein 9.0 6.3 8.0 17.0
Crude fat 2.5 0.5 1.7 50.0-60.0
Crude fibre 23.4 24.0 30.6
Carbohydrates 9.0
Ash 7.4 7.8 8.3
N-free extract 57.7 61.4 51.4 14.0
Calcium 0.41 0.41
Phosphorus 0.39 0.41
Theobromine 0.15
Caffeine 0.2
102 CHAPTER 10

Physiological Properties
Cocoa-pod husk meal has a high gross energy content but the digestible and metabolisable
energy is low. The following energy values were found in the African catfish (Clarias
isheriensis y11)
Gross energy: 4,293 kcallkg (18.0 MJlkg)
Digestible energy: 2,146 kcal kg ( 9.0 MJlkg)
Metabolisable energy 1,690 kcallkg ( 7.1 MJlkg)
One drawback on the use of CPHM is its theobromine content but there is no adverse
effect at certain levels in the fish diet. Apparent digestibility decreases with increase in
levels of CPHM (Table 10-02)19). In vitro dry matter digestibility and organic matter
digestibility of dried, chemically treated or ensiled cocoa-pods is lower than that of fresh
or frozen cocoa-pods(23).

Table 10-02: Apparent digestibility (%) of CPHM in diets for African catfish
(e/arias isheriensis)(ll)

CPHM 0 15 30 45

Dry matter 83.0 75.9 73.5 69.7

Protein 85.0 76.9 72.6 69.0
Fat 86.2 78.3 76.0 75.7
Crude fibre 71.3 65.3 63.1 61.4
N-free extract 82.1 77.8 77.6 77.7

Other Properties
Theobromine (C7Hg0 2N4 ) a 3, 7-dimethylxanthine is a bitter, crystalline and toxic alkaloid.
It has diuretic and corona-widening properties(20). A high theobromine content is due to
fermentation of the shells before drying. Combined heat and chemical treatment can
reduce theobromine markedly(l6.18). Cocoa-pod husk meal contains much lower theo-
bromine than other cocoa by-products. Depressed digestibility may be caused also by
tannins and related phenols(7). Theobromine has deleterious effects on animals which
may restrict the use of cocoa by-products(l9). However, an intake of 24 mg theobromine
per kg liveweight did not harm sheep or cattle(22).

10.4 Feeding Value

CPHM has been studied as an alternative energy source in low cost diets for the African
catfish where up to 45% maize was replaced(J2). With increasing levels of CPHM in
the diet, the performances declined due to the increasing content of crude fibre and
theobromine (Table 10-03)(9). A protein:energy ratio of 120 mg protein:1.0 kcal
digestible energy is required for optimum growth and maximum body protein deposition
in African catfish(ll).
 COCOA-POD HUSK MEAL 103

Cocoa-pod husk has been also found to be useful in supplemental diets in semi-
intensive culture of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and common carp (Cyprinus
carpio)(8,13).

Table 10-03: Performances by African catfish (C/arias isheriensis) fed increasing levels of
CPHM for 180 days(9)

CPHM % 0 15 30 45

Mean initial weight g 60.42 60.42 60.42 60.42

Mean final weight g 225.24 220.52 213.97 210.86
Mean weight gain g 164.82 160.10 158.55 150.44
SGR/day % 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.69
PER 1.46 1.39 1.30 1.28
Feed conversion 1: 1.85 1.94 2.07 2.11

10.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Cocoa-pod husk meal may serve as an energy feedstuff for less demanding fish species
in extensive fish culture. The crude fibre content is the limiting factor. Levels between
15 and 25% in diets for these species of fish are recommended.

10.6 Legal Aspects

Trading of cocoa-pod husk meal is not allowed in certain countries(20). In Germany, only
the meal of solvent extracted cocoa beans is a permitted feedstuffl'21), which must meet
the following requirements:
Moisture: max. 13.0%
Crude protein: min. 23.0%
Crude fat: max. 4.0%
According to German feedstuff legislation theobromine is an undesirable substance,
and not more than 300 ppm are permitted in a single feedstuffl'21).

10.7 References

1. Adeyanju, S.A.; Ogutuga, D.B.A.;Ilari, 1.0.; Adegbala, A.A. (1975): Cocoa husk in poultry diets. Mal.
Agric. Res., 4., 131-136.
2. Aletar, v.A. (1986): Agro-indistrial by-products and wastes in livestock feeding. World Review of Animal
Production, 22., 35-41.
104 CHAPTER 10

3. April. R.D.; Ellenberger, H.B. (1927); Effect of feeding cocoa meal to milking cows. VI. Agr. Exp. Sta.
Bull .• No. (272). 3-19.
4. Bateman. f.F.; Larrangan. A. (1966); El use de cassava de cocoa en racioness pars al engorde de bovinos.
Turrialba. 16.• 25-28.
5. Bateman. f. v.; Frensillo, O. (1967); Digestibility of theobroma cocoa-pods when fed to cattle. J. Agric.
Sci., 68., 23-28.
6. Braude. R.; Foot, A.S. (1942); Cocoa by-product in pig feeding; cocoa cake meal and detheobromined
cocoa-cake meal as feedingstuffs for pigs. Emp. J. Expt. Agric., 10., 182-189.
7. Devendra, C. (1985); Non-conventional feed resources in Asia and the Pacific. 2,d ed. FAO Regional
Animal Production and Health Commission for Asia. the Far East and the South-West Pacific,
Bangkokffhailand.
8. Fagbenro, O.A. (1988); Results of preliminary studies on the utilization of cocoa-pod husks in fish
production in South-West Nigeria. Biological Wastes, 25., 233-237.
9. Fagbenro. O.A. (1992); Utilization of cocoa-pod husk in low-cost diets by the elarid catfish (Clarias
isheriensis Sydenham). Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 23., 175-182.
10. Fagbenro, O.A. (1995); Evaluation of heat processed cocoa-pod husk meal as energy feedstuff in
production diets for the clariid catfish (Clarias isheriensis, Sydenham). Aquaculture Nutrition, 1.• 221-225
11. Fagbenro, O.A. (1996); Apparent digestibility of crude protein and gross energy in some plant and
animal-based feedstuffs by Clarias isheriensis (Siluriformes; Claridae) (Sydenham, 1980). J. Appl.
Ichthyol. 12.,67-68.
12. Fagbenro. O.A.; Sydenham, D.H.J. (1988): Evaluation of Clarias isheriensis (Sydenham) under semi-
intensive management in ponds. Aquaculture. 74.,287-291.
13. Falaye, A.E. (1987): Utilization of cocoa husk in the nutrition of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus
Twevavas. 1985) under tropical conditions. University of Ibadan/Nigeria (Mimeograph).
14. Fetuga, B.L.; Tewe, 0.0. (1984): Potentials of agro-industrial by-products and crop residues as animal
feeds. Nigeria Food Jour., 2 .• 136-142.
15. Oladokun. M.A.O. (1986): Use of cocoa-pod husk as fertilizer for maize production. Nigerian J.
Agronomy. 1 .• 103-109.
16. Omole, T.A. (1970): An investigation into the use of discarded cocoa beans on the metabolism of
growing pigs. M.P.H. Thesis. U niv. of Ife/Nigeria.
17. Opeke, L.K. (1984): Optimising economic returns from cacao cultivation through efficient use of cocoa by-
products. Proc. 9th Inter. Cocoa Res. Conf. 489-493, (Lomeffogo. Cocoa Producers Alliance. London).
18. Orok, E.F.; Bowland, f.P. (1974): Nigeria cocoa husk and cassava meal as sources of energy for rats fed
soybean meal or peanut meal supplemented diets. Can. 1. Anim. Sci., 54, 229-238.
19. Owusu-Domfeh, K. (1972): The future of cocoa and its by-products in the feeding of livestock. Ghana,
J. Agri Science, 5., 57-64.
20. Tiiufel. A.. Ternes. w., Tunger, L. Zobel M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexicon. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg/Germany.
21. Weinreich. 0.; Koch. v.; Knippel, f. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
22. Wong. H.K.; Abu Hassan. 0.; Mohd. Sukri. H.i. (1987): Utilization of cocoa-by products as ruminant
feed. In: Dixon. R.M. (ed.): Ruminant feeding systems utilizing fibrous agricultural residues, 1987. Intern.
Dev. of Australian Universities and Colleges Ltd. Canberra/Australia.
23. Wong, H.K.; Osman, A.H.; Kumaran, N. (1987): The effects of drying. ensilage and alkali treatment on
in vitro digestibility of cocoa-pods. In: Dixon. R.M. (ed.): Ruminant feeding systems utilizing fibrous
agricultural residues, 1986. Intern. Dev. of Australian Universities and Colleges Ltd. Canberra/Australia.
 11. COFFEE PULP (DE-HYDRATED)

11.1 Rationale

Coffee is a drink brewed from coffee beans that comes from the tropical shrub of the
genus Coffea, botanical family Rubiaceae. Coffee beans are the shrub's seeds embedded
in red berries. The botanical variety and the area where the coffee is grown are factors
that determine the quality of the coffee.
World-wide, about 5.5 to 6.0 million MT green coffee beans are produced a year, of
which more than 50% are grown in Central and South America. The coffee seed amounts
to about 20 to 25% of the weight of the red coffee berry. This means that a total of about
18 to 20 million MT of fresh coffee pulp is annually available. Only a small amount
is used as fertiliser for coffee plantations and as feed for cattle. The major portion of
the available coffee pulp is a pollutant to the environment.
Coffee hulls and spent coffee, the residues of instant coffee production, are not
suitable as a feedstuff for aquaculture!3, 6).

11.2 Processing

The coffee bean is obtained by either removing the fruit-flesh (wet process) by fermen-
tation or by removing the flesh mechanically from the seed. After that the beans are dried
under the sun(l2). Fresh coffee pulp which deteriorates quickly, if not preserved by
drying, consists of the exocarp (outer fruit skin), the fruit-flesh and the seed skin
(endocarp)!/'IO).

11.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

The chemical composition of the individual components of coffee pulp (exocarp, fruit-
flesh, endocarp) is considerably different (Table ll-Ol), Dried coffee pulp has a crude
protein content similar to that of maize. The amino acid composition is given in Table
11-02. Crude fibre, ash content and also N-free extract are high. Coffee pulp, therefore,
is merely an energy feedstuff (Table 11-02).
The fat of coffee pulp contains:
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 28%
Stearic acid (CI8:0) 13%
Oleic acid (CI8:l) 17%
Linoleic acid (CI8:2) 36%.
106 CHAPTER II

The unsaponifiable matter is around 28% and contains among others y-sitosterine and
di-terpenoids(l2) .
Coffee pulp also contains alkaloids and hydrocarbons such as caffeine (2.0%), tannic
acid (5.0%), polyphenols (3.0%) and chlorogenic acidW In seed skin 0.25% caffeine
were found but in hulls only 0.07 to 0.12%(10). High mortalities and weight losses were
observed in chicks and rats when diets contained 30 to 50% coffee pulp. Fermentation
of the pulp not only reduces and eliminates the toxic effects(4) but also lowers the
palatability of the dry pulp when fed to steers(5).

Table 11-01: Chemical composition of the components of coffee pulp and spent coffee(1O)

Exocarp Fruitftesh Endocarp Spent coffee

(dried) (dried)

Dry matter % 85.5 96.4 89.6 91.3

Crude protein % 8.6 6.6 2.9 13.2
Crude fat % 1.6 2.4 0.5 6.9
Ash % 6.8 7.8 1.4 5.1
Crude fibre % 31.0 63.7 33.9
N-free extract % 24.5 31.2

Table 11-02: Essential amino acid content of dried coffee pulp(/II

Arginine % 0.55
Isoleucine % 0.47
Leucine % 0.86
Lysine % 0.76
Methionine % 0.15
Pheny lalanine % 0.55
Threonine % 0.52
Valine % 0.83

11.4 Feeding Value

Coffee pulp has been used as cattle feed at various inclusion rates. With increasing
levels of coffee pulp in the ration, the weight gain and feed conversion decreased.
However, coffee pulp inclusion of 10% gave a favourable economic conversion(7. 9).
In tilapia (TiZapia au rea) a supplementary feed containing 30% coffee pulp was
evaluated against a feed without coffee pulp as a positive control. Compared with the
 COFFEE PULP (DE-HYDRATED) 107

control group there were no significant differences in mean weight gain and feed
conversion (Table 11-03). Coffee pulp was efficiently and economically converted into
fish flesh{l).

Table 11-03: Effect of dried coffee pulp in the diet for male tilapia
(Tilapia aurea) fingerlings (trial period: 70 daysjO)

Trial Control

Positive Negative l

Coffee pulp % 30
Wheat bran % 10 25
Groundnut seeds % 24 24
Cottonseed meal % 15 9
-------------------------------------------------
Fishes Nos. 100 100 100
Initialliveweight g 50 51 56
Finalliveweight g 92 94 79
Daily weight gain g 1.21 1.24 1.06
Feed conversion 1: 1.95 1.96 NIR2

I Chicken manure as the only feed; 2 Not recorded

Coffee pulp at a level of 30% in the diet of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and catfish
(Clarias mossambicus) did result in decreased growth rates compared to the control
group. Daily weight gain of common carp was reduced by 79.3%. Catfish which were
tested in earthem pond, floating cages and concrete tanks showed, for all treatments, daily
growth rates which were 45% lower than in the control group. Hence it was concluded
that the low cost coffee pulp is not an economical feed ingredient for common carp and
cat fish(2).

11.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Coffee pulp may be a feed component for fish species that are not very demanding as to
the feed quality. The inclusion rate of dried coffee pulp in fish diets should not exceed
10 to 12%.

11.6 Legal Aspects and Precautions

German legislation prohibits trading of coffee pulp because it does not meet the require-
ment of a feedstuffT lO). Otherwise no legal restrictions are known. However, due to the
108 CHAPTER II

relatively high content of substances with toxic properties, the use of coffee pulp in feed
for aquatic animals should be carefully considered. Caffeine received a category III
GRAS-rating. This indicates that the use of caffeine is not a hazard but uncertainties exists.
Polyphenols, tannic acid and chlorogenic acids are naturally occurring toxicants(8).

11.7 References

1. Bayne, D.R.; Dunseth, D.; Ramirios, CG. (1976): Supplemental feeds containing coffee pulp for rearing
tilapia in Central America. Aquaculture, 7., 133-146.
2. Christensen, M.S. (1981): Preliminary tests on the suitability of coffee pulp in the diets of common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and catfish (Clarias mossambicus). Aquaculture, 25., 235-242.
3. Devendra, C. (1985): Non-conventional feed resources in Asia and the Pacific. FAO-UN, Reg. Anim.
Prod. and Health Commission, Bangkok (2nd ed.).
4. Flores Soriano, J.A. (1970): Contribucion al estudio de la pulpa de cafe en la alimentacion del ganado.
Thesis Univ. Veracruzana, Veracruz.
5. Fonseca, H.A (1973): Need for new improved technology in the processing of feeds in Latin America.
College Agric. Univ. Costa Rica (Mimeograph).
6. Hertramp! J.w. (1980): Mischfutter 2000. Die MUhle + Mischfuttenechnik, 117., (19), 235-238.
7. Jaraqu'n, R.; Bressani, R.; Gonzales, J.M.; Braham, E. (1971): Pulpa de cafe en alimentacion de ruminantes.
Mem. Assoc. Latino-Americano Prod. Animale, Mexico, (1).
8. Miller Jones, J. (1992): Food safety. Eagan Press, St. Paul, MinnesotalUSA.
9. Osegueda, F.L.; Quiteno, R.A.; Martinez. R.A.; Rodriguez. CM. (1969): Uso de la pulpa cafe seca en el
engorde de nonllos en confinamento. Agric. EI Salvador, 10., (1), 3-9.
10. Sttihlin, A. (1957): Methodenbuch, Vol. XII. Die Beuneilung der Futtermittel. Neumann Verlag, Radebeul
and Berlin/Germany.
11. Tacon, AG.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for warmwater fish, fish meal and other processed feedstuffs.
FAO Fisheries Circular No.C 856 (FIRIlC 856), FAO-UN, Romelltaly.
12. Taufel, A; Ternes, w.; Tunge" Liselotte; Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag,
Hamburg/Germany.
 12. CRAB MEAL

12.1 Rationale

Crabs are crustaceans and belong to the zoological order of Decapoda and the huge class
of gill-breathing Articulata and are important for human nutrition. They are found in
cold and warm waters, and live in freshwater and seawater20).
World-wide about 1,720,800 MT of crabs were landed in 1993(6). Crab meal is a
by-product from the processing of crabs for canning and deep-freezing. Depending on
the mode of processing and the species, about 60 to 80% of a crab is offal(20), composed
of shells, viscera and unextracted meat. Waste as well as whole animals from various
species are used for producing crab meal(3, 8, 21, 23).

12.2 Manufacture and Processing

Crab meal is produced by drying the waste from crab processing and/or whole crabs.
Screening the crab waste prior to drying to remove the larger portion of shells, improves
the nutrient content of the crab meal. Sun-drying, produces poor quality crab meal,
due to the fast deterioration of the material. The use of drying equipment gives better
quality meal. After drying, the product is ground and screened(2l).
Crab protein concentrate is obtained from deboned crabs and purifying the meat with
isopropanol (Figure 12-01).

Rock Crab
(Cancer irroratus)

CT•
Deboning

~
Maintained
at 40°C

~ ........ . _ - - - - Extraction with 99% isopropanol

Purified crab protein
concentrate

Figure 12-01, Flow diagram for processing of crab protein concentrate(4),

11 0 CHAPTER 12

12.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of crab meal is rather heterogeneous due to the variability
of the raw material. The average crude protein is about 32.2% with a wide variation
(Table 12-01)18). Pure crab meal contains 89% protein(20). Crab protein concentrate on
the other hand has a crude protein content almost double that of crab meal (Table 12-01).
The highest protein content is in the shoulder of the snow crab (Chinoecetes opilio)
(24.0%) and the lowest is in the legs (15.7%). While the lysine content is relatively high,
the methionine content is low (Table 12-02), the lysine:methionine ratio for crab meal
and crab protein concentrate is 2.6 and 2.9, respectively(15).

Table 12-01: Chemical composition of crab meal, crab protein concentrate and pure
crab meal

Crab meal (as fed) Crab protein

(7. II. 12. 19. 2/) concentrate
(as fed)02)
Mean Variation

Dry matter 92.7 92.0 - 93.5 90.0

Crude protein 32.2 31.0 - 37.6 60.5
Crude fat 2.8 2.0 - 5.0 0.4
Ash 39.4 36.1 - 41.2 6.1
Crude fibre (chitin) 10.6 10.5 - 10.7
Carbohydrate (glucose) 21.6
N-free extract 7.7

Table 12-02: Essential amino acid profile of crab meal and crab protein concentrate (gl16 g N)

Crab meal Crab protein concentrate

(/2.15.17.21) (12.15.17.22)

Mean Variation Mean Variation

Arginine 1.94 1.6 - 2.5 6.48 5.5 - 7.6

Histidine 0.93 0.5 - 1.8 2.76 2.3 - 3.6
Isoleucine 1.62 1.2-2.5 3.36 2.7 - 3.7
Leucine 2.24 1.5 - 3.6 5.56 5.1 - 6.0
Lysine 2.26 1.4 - 4.0 4.19 2.5 - 6.7
Methionine 0.86 0.5 - 1.2 1.43 0.8 - 2.1
Phenylalanine 1.38 1.2 - 1.8 5.44 5.1 - 6.0
Threonine 1.03 1.0 - 1.1 4.00 3.5 - 4.7
Tryptophan 0.67 0.3 - 1.3 1.18 0.8 - 1.6
Valine 1.82 1.5 - 2.5 6.39 5.0 - 7.9
 CRAB MEAL 111

The mean fat content of crab meal is low (Table 12-01). However, crab meal is rich
in poly-unsaturated fatty acids (38.6%) which are essential for penaeid shrimpsl2J.
Furanoid fatty acids also referred to as "F-acids" have been found in tissues of crayfish
(Procambarus clarkii), particularly in the hepato-pancreas. They are components of
cholesteryl esters and triglycerides(18).
The crude fibre content of about 10% is moderately high due to the presence of chitin
which has a molecular structure similar to that of cellulose (Table 12-01)(14). The chitin
content of snow crab averages to 16%(13). The highest chitin content was found in
softshell crab backs (32.3%) and legs (32.3%) and lowest in hardshell crab backs
(18.7% )(15).
The high ash content of crab meal (Table 12-01) is due to the exoskeleton of crabs
which is particularly high in calcium (Table 12-03) with levels between 9.0 and 21 %(7).
There is little information on the vitamin content of crab meal but the contents of
Vitamin B12 and choline are relatively high (Table 12-03). Crabs are rich in carotenoids
whose distribution in the different parts of the crab vary widely. The back parts of
the exoskeleton have the highest pigment content (14.0%)(15).

Table 12-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of crab meal and crab protein concentrate

Minerals Vitamins (per I,OOOg)

Crab Meal Crab protei n Crab Meal(12)

(/2.31) concentrate( 12)

Calcium % 16.03 0.10 Vitamin B, mg 0.5

Phosphorus % 1.72 0.66 Vitamin B2 mg 6.7
Sodium % 0.99 VitaminB 6 mg 7.2
Potassium % 0.51 Vitamin B'2 mcg 475.0
Magnesium % 0.99 Biotin mg 0.07
Chlorine % 1.64 Folic acid mg 0.1
Sulphur % 0.31 Nicotinic acid mg 49.0
Manganese mg/kg 145 Pantothenic acid mg 7.0
Iron mglkg 4,724 Choline g 2.18
Copper mglkg 35.3
Iodine mglkg 2.6

Physiological Properties
Limited information on energy values of crab meal are available. They are in Table 12-04.
The digestibility of whole crab (dehydrated) in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) is 71.9%
for protein and 85.1 % for energy(17). The relatively low protein digestibility may be due
to the high ash content of crab meal and the practically indigestible, tough and horny
polysaccharide chitinllO. 21).
112 CHAPTER 12

Table 12-04: Energy values of crab meal per kg

Gross energy Metabolisible Digestible Reference

energy energy

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

(20)
3.983 16.7
(16)
Rainbow trout 3.214 13.4 3.878 16.2
(1/)
Fish l 2.957 12.4
(21)
Pigs 1.380 5.8

1 species not stated

Other Properties
Crab meal is a good source of cholesterol and an excellent chemo-attractant(J3J. In addition,
it supplies phospholipids.

12.4 Feeding Value

Crab meal and crab protein concentrate are preferably used in crustacean diets rather
than in fish diets as a protein source and chemo-attractant.

Crab Meal
In diets for post-larvae and juvenile brown shrimp (Penaeus californiensis) red crab
meal replaced shrimp meal. The post-larvae shrimps responded better on crab meal than
the juveniles (Table 12-05)(22· 23).

Table 12-05: Response of the brown shrimp (Penaeus californiensis) post-larvae and juveniles fed
diets containing crab meal instead of shrimp meaJf23) (Basal crude protein:38%)

Crab meal % o 10
Fish meal % 25 25
Shrimp meal % 10 o
Soy bean meal % 27 27

Post-larvae:
Daily weight gain g 0.350 0.044
Survival % 85.0 85.0
Feed conversion 1: 5.0 4.1
Juveniles:
Daily weight gain g 0.040 0.037
Survival % 66.7 70.0
Feed conversion 1: 4.1 4.4
 CRAB MEAL 113

Feeding crab meal as supplemental food for hard clam juveniles (Mercenaria
mercenaria) for 30 days showed that growth from final and dry weight were 2.5 times
significantly greater in the crab meal-fed clams than those of the non-fed control which
were kept only in flowing seawater'5).

Crab Protein Concentrate

Crab protein concentrate is a suitable protein source for purified diets for crustacean
nutrition research(4). Crab protein concentrate, and other animal and vegetable proteins
were used in determining the effect of protein on energy utilisation of kuruma prawn
(Penaeus japonicus). The better growth of prawns fed crab protein concentrate was due
to the efficient energy utilisation and the better digestibility of the crab protein compared
to fish meal with its lower digestibility(8).

12.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Recommended inclusion rates for crustacean feed:

Crab meal 5.0 to 10.0%
Crab protein concentrate 5.0 to 15.0%
These inclusion rates provide sufficient chemo-attractant power. Pelletising will be more
difficult if higher levels are used and crab meal will provide too much calcium to the diet.

12.6 Legal Aspects and Precautions

Legal Aspect
By-products of the processing of crustaceans are permitted as feedstuff by German
feedstuff legislation. It should contain not more than 4.0% ash and 12.0% moisture.
Crude protein, crude ash, and CaC0 3 content have to be declared on the label(24).
Crab meal (AAFCO No. 51.4) in the United States has to contain not less than 25%
crude protein. A salt (NaCl) content of more than 3.0% has to be declared. In no case
must the salt content of crab meal exceed 7.0%(1).

Precaution
The use of a good quality crab meal is important because a nearly all shell crab meal has
very little feeding value(lO). Crab meal is prone to contamination with salmonella.
Requirements of the USA Feed and Drug Administration, therefore, have to be observed.
Not properly heated and processed crab meal also may be contaminated with other
microbe-producing toxins(9).

12.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official Publication 1995. Ass. of American Food Control Officials (publisher).
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
114 CHAPTER 12

2. Akiyama. D.M.; Dominy. w.G. (1989): Penaeid shrimp nutrition for the commercial feed industry. In:
Texas Shrimp Farming Manual, vol. I. Grow-Out Technology. Texas Agricultural Extension Services and
Texas A&M University Sea Grant College Program. 50.
3. Castell, J.D. (1989): Reference diet for crustaceans: Principles of experimentation. Advances in Tropical
Aquaculture, Tahiti,. Aquacop Ifremer Actes de Colloque, 9., 339-354.
4. Castell, J.D.; Kean, J.C; McCann, D.G.C; Boghen. AD.; Conklin. O.E., D'Abranno L.R.D. (1989):
A standard reference diet for crustacean research. II. Selection of a purification procedures for
production of the rock crab (Cancer irroratus) protein ingredient. J. World Aqua.Soc. 20., 100.
5. Duncan. P.L.; Castagna. M.; DuPaul. W.D. (1984): Preliminary data on the use of crab meal as a
supplemental food for juveniles of Mercenaria mercenaria (Linne). J. Shellfish Res., 4., 87.
6. Globefish, 1995. The world market for crabs. FAO/Globefish research program Vol. 37, RomeIFAO.
7. Johnson. D. (1988): Crab meal as feed for hogs. Prince Edward lsI. Agric. and Food Dev. Sub-Agreement
Rep., Technology Dev. 1-53.
8. Koshio. S.; Tasuno. K.; Teshima. S.; Kanazawa. A. (1995): The effect of protein sources on the energy
budget of juvenile kuruma prawn, Penaeus japonicus. 5 th International Working Group on Crustacean
Nutrition Symp., 22 to 24 April. Kagoshima University. Kagoshima, Japan. (Abstr.).
9. Miller Jones, J. (1992): Food safety. Eagan Press, St. Paul, MinnesotalUSA.
10. New. M.B. (1987): Feeds and feeding of fish and shrimp - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCPIREP/87/26 Rome.
11. NRC (1981): Nutrient requirements of coldwater fishes. National Academy Press. Washington D.C.
12. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes. National Academy Press. Washington D.C.
13. Paulraj (1995): Aquaculture: Marine Prod. Export Dev. Authority. KochilIndia 2nd ed. (Publisher).
14. Pond. w.G.; Maner, J.H. (1994): Swine production and nutrition. AVU Publishing Co .. Westport,
ConnecticutlUSA.
IS. Shahidi. F.; Synowiecki. J. (1991): Isolation and characterization of nutrients and value-added products
from snow crab (Chinoecetes opilio) and shrimp (Pandalus borealis) processing discards. J. Agric. Food
Chern., 39.,1527-1532.
16. Smith. R.R.; Peterson. M.C; Allred. AC (1980): The effect of leaching on apparent digestion coefficients in
determining digestibility and metabolizable energy of feedstuffs for salmonids. Prog. Fish. Cult., 42., 195-199.
17. Spinelli. J.; Lehman. L.; Wieg. D. (1975): Composition processing and utilization of red crab (Pleuroncodes
planipes) as an aquacultural feed ingredient. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 31., 1025-1029.
18. Stansby. M.E.; Schlenk, H.; Gruger, E.G. (1990): Fatty acid composition of fish. In: Stansby. M.E. (ed.):
Fish oils in nutrition. Van Norstrand Reinhold, New YorklUSA.
19. Tacon. A.GJ (1987): The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp. 2. A training manual on nutri-
ent sources and composition. Field Document 5/E GCPIRLN075IITA, FAO. 129 pp. BrasiliaIBrazil.
20. Taufel. A; Ternes. w.; Tunger, L.; Zobel. M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon Behr's Verlag, Hamburg/Germany.
21. Van Lunen. T.A.; Anderson. D.M. (1990): Crab meal. In: Thacker, P.A.; Kirkwood. R.N. (eds.): Nontraditional
feed sources for use in swine production. Butterworths Publishers. Stoneham, MNUSA.
22. Villareal. H.; Castro. M.P. (1992): Preliminary studies on the effect of protein content on the growth of
Penaeus vannamei at marine salinities. Aquaculture'92: Growing Toward the 21st Century. 225-226.
(Summary only).
23. Villareal. H.; Rivera. M.C; Millan. A. (1991): Penaeus californiensis. The Crustacean Nutrition Newsletter,
7., (1), 12-23.
24. Weinreich. 0.; Koch. v.; Knippel. J. (1994): Futtermittlrechtliche Vorschrifter. Buchedition Agrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
 13. DISTILLERY BY-PRODUCTS

13.1 Rationale

Fermentation and distillation of alcohol from grains has been known for at least 10,000
years(4). The earliest recorded reference to distilling whisky in Scotland dates back to
l494!3!. The recovery of materials from grains which has undergone fermentation (dis-
tillers' feed) was developed by the beverage distilling industry(8).
Originally distillers' feeds were by-products from malted barley only. Nowadays, all
kind of grains are used for transforming starch into spirit(2). There are four different prod-
ucts of distillers' feed(8):
Distillers' dried grains (DDG)
Distillers' dried solubles (DDS)
Distillers' dried grains with solubles (DOGS)
Condensed distillers' solubles (CDS).
Current annual production of distillers' dried grains in USA exceeds one million
tonnes. Twenty kg distillers' dried grains (90% dry matter) and 12.6 kg distillers' dried
solubles (90% dry matter) are recovered after de-alcoholisation from 100 kg maize(7).

13.2 Manufacture and Processing

Distillers' grains are simply spoken "grains minus the starch". They are obtained from
the de-a1coholised fermentation residues which remain after grains have been fermented
by the yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae. All the important starchless nutrients are
recovered as distillers' grains by condensing the remaining nutrients after starch removaJ!8).
Because of the high moisture content fresh distillers' grains cannot be stored, particularly
under hot weather conditions. To make them an easy to handle feedstuff, they have to be
drum-dried and preferably pelletised.
"Light" distillers' dried grains (DDG) are obtained when the whole stillage is screened
for the removal of the coarser particles, pressing out the excess water and drying. "Dark"
distillers' dried grains (DDG) are derived from processing the whole stillage. The latter
is more common(3. 8).
The "thin stillage" is very watery, but contains large quantities of water soluble material
(e.g. protein, vitamins). The dry matter content amounts to 4.0% only. Thin stillage is
also named "pot ale", if it comes from a malt distillery and "spent wash", if the source
is from a grain distillery(3).
Condensed distillers' solubles (distillers' syrup) (C~S) are derived from condensing
the material to a dry matter content of 40 to 50%. Distillers' dried solubles (DDS) is then
the spray or drum dried "pot ale syrup" and "evaporated spent wash", respectively
116 CHAPTER \3

(Figure 13-01)(3). Condensed distillers' solubles are not used in the feed milling industry
as a feedstuff.
Distillers' dried solubles (DDS) is a superior feedstuff. Since its processing is costly,
the distilling industry adds back the condensed distillers' solubles to the press cake prior
to drying{l7). "Distillers' dried grains with solubles" (DDGS) is now the prevailing
distillery by-product. It represents over 95% of the distillers' feeds used in animal feed
such as in pig formulations(U).

DISTILLATION

Distillers·
Dried
Grains

Figure 13-01. Diagram of the processing of distillers' dried feeds.

13.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of distillers' feeds is influenced by the raw materials used as
well as by the processing procedure and the type of equipment used in distillation(5).
In general, distillers' dried products are medium high protein feedstuffs (Table 13-01).
Wheat DDG have the highest crude protein content while rye DDG have the lowest
(Figure 13-02). However, the quality of the protein is not satisfactory due to an imbal-
ance of several amino acids (Table 13-02)124).
The fat content of maize DDG is considerably higher than those of other grains used
for distilling. The fat of maize DDG is rich in linoleic acid (18:2n-6) (3.0%) and
linolenic acid (18:3n-3) (0.4%). DDG and DDS also contain lactic acid at levels of about
4.0 and 8.0%, respectively(8).
 DISTILLERY BY-PRODUCTS 117

Table 13-01: Chemical composition of distillers' dried products (% dry matter)

DDG from: DDGS from: DDS

Maize Wheat Rye Malt Milo Maize Maize

(2.3.6.23.24.26) (2.3./3) (/3) (3) (B) (6. B,/7.24) (3./7.24)

Dry matter 92.3 89.5 90.0 90.8 90.6

Crude Protein 28.5 31.8 21.2 27.5 27.0 27.8 29.5
Crude fat 10.2 6.6 6.9 3.5 7.0 10.0 11.3
Ash 4.6 4.9 4.4 6.0 5.0 4.7 9.0
Crude fibre 11.3 8.0 11.2 12.1 8.0 10.9 5.4
N-free extract 46.9 54.6 56.3

"
40 r-

30 I- 31.8

28.5
I 29.5

27. :l:

~
~

r- 21.1 :a
....~
0
~

.ll
oJ
~o C- ."J ~

~
>.
."•m
~ oJ
~
~
.t:
~

."=
~
,
....~
,ll
...0
til X J w
CI III

Distillers' dried grains from ... Distillers' dried .:.

Figure 13-02. Variation of the crude protein content of distillers' dried products.

Table 13-02: Essential amino acid profile of distillers' dried

products (g/16 g N)lB. 24. 26)

DDG DDS DDGS

Arginine 1.10 0.97 1.34

Histidine 0.60 0.67 0.67
Isoleucine 1.00 1.32 1.30
Leucine 3.00 2.34 2.91
Lysine 0.60 0.91 0.76
Methionine 0.50 0.56 0.52
Phenylalanine 1.20 1.48 1.49
Threonine 0.90 1.01 0.93
Tryptophan 0.20 0.55 0.35
Valine 1.30 1.54 1.42
118 CHAPTER \3

The variation of the mineral content of distillers' dried products is wide. They are
a good source of phosphorus, but the calcium content is low. Compared with maize
(0.07 mg/kg) the selenium content appears to be high (Table 13-03).
Distillers' dried products are good sources of vitamins. They contain at least three-fold
as much Vitamin B2, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, folic acid and choline than the raw
grain (Table 13-04)(8).

Table 13-03: Macro and trace mineral contents of distillers' dried products
(as fed)(3.8. 24. 15. 16)

DDG DDS DDGS

Calcium % 0.14 0.35 0.15

Phosphorus % 0.70 1.24 0.70
Sodium % 0.15 0.14 0.43
Potassium % 0.71 1.40 0.55
Magnesium % 0.20 0.66 0.21
Chlorine % 0.08 0.26 0.17
Sulphur % 0.42 0.36 0.31
Manganese mg/kg 25.00 63.00 23.67
Iron mg/kg 214.00 555.00 269.00
Zinc mg/kg 42.75 131.50 77.33
Copper mg/kg 41.72 124.50 47.45
Selenium mg/kg 0.27 0.36 0.39
Cobalt mglkg 0.14 0.12

Table 13-04: The vitamins of distillers' dried products (1,000 g, as fed)

(8.24.25. 26)

DDG DDS DDGS

Vitamin A I.V. 1,104 1,363

Vitamin D3 I.V. 600
Vitamin E mg 50.5 40.7
Vitamin B1 mg 1.83 6.6 5.9
Vitamin B2 mg 4.25 17.0 8.39
Vitamin B. mg 5.59 10.9 4.60
Vitamin B12 mcg 0.30 7.00 1.50
Biotin mg 0.34 1.60 1.04
Nicotinic acid mg 39.40 122.0 88.50
Folic acid mg 0.98 1.30 0.73
Pantothenic acid mg 9.05 22.9 13.83
Choline mg 1,080 4,687 2,548
 DISTILLERY BY-PRODUCTS 119

Physiological Propenies
Distillers' feeds are both protein and energy sources. However, only few information is
available on the energy value for aquatic animals (Table 13-05). The digestibility of
maize distillers' dried solubles in rainbow trouts (Salmo gairdneri) is 71.9% for protein
and 58.6% for carbohydrates(30). In channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) the apparent
protein digestibility is 67.0%(21).
DDG and DDGS are relatively high in crude fibre which may limit their use as an
energy source, especially for salmonids(27). The fortification of the compound feed with
lysine may be necessary when the source of distillers' feeds is maize,

Table 13-05: Energy values of distillers' dried products

Type of energy Product Species kcal/kg MJlkg Ref.

(30)
Metabolisable DDS Trout 2,283 9.55
Digestible DDS Trout 2,436 10.19
(24)
Digestible DDGS Pig 3,640 15.23
(3)
Digestible DDS Pig 3,346 14.00
Digestible DDGS Pig 2,271 9.50

Other Properties
Although distillers' feeds are reported to have a positive effect on the pellet quality of
pelletised feed(2), according to CPM-tests the pelletising ability and abrasiveness of these
products ranges only between low and medium(15).
Distillers' feeds are also a source of unidentified growth factors (UGF) (see chap-
ter 44)18. 9. 22).
The toxicity to salmonid fishes of certain distillers' feeds due to the relatively high
copper content is questionable(27).

13.4 Feeding Value

Fishes
In feeds for salmonids maize distillers' dried solubles at levels of up to 10.0% have not
shown any negative response(16. 29). DDS when replaced by DDG in diets for the chinook
salmon (Oncorhynus tschawytscha) significantly reduced growth due to poor acceptance
of the did10. n. 12).
In the lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) no substantial differences were found when
maize DDS and maize DDGS levels of 8.0% were compared. Weight and protein
efficiency ratio were not significantly different. Feed efficiency was significantly greater
in fish fed DDS but carcass protein of fish fed DDGS was significantly higher than fish
fed DDS(17· 18).
120 CHAPTER I3

Distillers' feeds are more useful in feeding of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus).
With DDS at levels of 5.0 to 14.0% good results were obtained(14). A suitable ingredient
for channel catfish diets is DDGS which has been used at inclusion rates of up to 40%.
Juvenile channel catfish fed diets wherein fish meal was partially or totally replaced with
DDGS and soybean meal showed no significant differences in weight gain, feed conver-
sion and survival rate to that of the control (Table 13_06)(22.28.31,34,35). However, at a level
of 70% DDGS the diet was lysine-deficient since the addition of chrystalline lysine sig-
nificantly improved growth(35).

Table 13-06: Replacement of fish meal by a fixed level of distillers' dried grains with solubles (ooaS) and
soy-bean meal in diets for juvenile channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) (trial period: 12 weeks)(36)

DOGS % 0 35.0 35.0 35.0 35.0

Menhaden meal (67%) % 12.0 8.0 4.0 0 0
Soybean meal (44%) % 48.0 35.0 42.0 39.0 48.5
Lysine (added) % 0 0 0 0 0.4
Methionine (added) % 0 0 0 0 0.1
Crude protein % 35.8 36.1 35.3 36.0 35.5
Fat % 6.2 10.0 8.4 8.7 8.4
Digestible energy kcallkg 2,880 2,930 2,920 2,900 2,900
Lysine (total) % 1.80 1.70 1.79 1.72 1.81
Methionine (total) % 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.60 0.63
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain g 41.6 42.5 36.7 38.0 42.0
% 362 354 299 337 406
Feed conversion 1: 2.16 2.09 2.29 2.36 2.05
Survival rate % 100.0 100.0 100.0 97.5 100.0

Feeding of DDGS does not significantly affect dressing percentage and carcass
composition of channel catfish (Table 13-07)(34).
Under extensive conditions in Puerto Rico, Tilapia (Tilapia aurea) were fed with raw,
viscous distillers' soluble from rum distillation which were dumped into the ponds at
2,010 to 4,000 l/ha. The distillers' soluble-treated ponds yielded 100% more than the
ponds without any feeding but 50% less than fish meal-fed ponds(20).

Crustaceans
Information on the use of distillers' feeds in crustaceans diets is scarce. Inconclusive
results were obtained when DDGS were fed to marine shrimps(l9). More promising results
were observed in the pond culture of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
Results of increasing levels of DDGS up to 40% demonstrated its suitability as a feedstuff
for the freshwater prawn (Table 13_08)(32,33).
 DISTILLERY BY-PRODUCTS 121

Table 13-07: Effect of increasing levels of distillers' dried grains with solubles (DOGS) on dress-
ing percentage and body composition of channel catfish (Ietalurns punctatus)(34)

DOGS % 0 10 20 30

Final body weight g 217.6 207.8 224.4 226.4

Dressing percentage 53.4 52.2 54.0 54.4
Carcass composition:
- Protein % 59.2 59.9 55.3 54.8
- Fat % 36.1 36.7 40.6 39.4
-Ash % 5.9 5.6 5.9 6.5

Table 13-08: Effect of distillers' dried grains with solubles (DOGS) as an ingredient in diets
for the freshwater prawn Maerobrachium rosenbergii(32)1

DOGS % 0 20.0 40.0

Fish meal % 15.0 15.0 15.0
Crude protein % 29.4 28.7 29.3
Fat % 5.2 5.5 6.9

-----------------------------------------------------------
Body weight at harvest g 59.0 60.7 50.9
Feed conversion 1: 3.1 3.1 3.2
Survival rate % 68.6 75.5 81.3
Tail composition:
- Protein % 20.3 20.5 20.0
- Fat % <0.1 <0.1 <0.1

I There were no significant differences (P >0.05) for any variables among treatments

13.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Distillers' dried grains with solubles (DDGS) and distillers' dried solubles (DDS) are
suitable feedstuffs for aquaculture feed. DDGS may replace animal and vegetable
protein feedstuffs. Distillers' dried grains (DDG) are less useful for aquatic animals.
Practical application rates are as follows:
DDS: Fishes: 3.0 to 10.0%
Crustaceans: 4.0 to 6.0%
DDGS: Fishes: 10.0 to 35.0%
Crustaceans (marine): nil
Crustaceans (freshwater): 10.0 to 40.0%
122 CHAPTER 13

13.6 Legal Aspects

AAFCO(l) has listed the following five different distillers' feeds:

Distillers' dried soluble (No. 27.4),
Distillers' dried grains (No. 27.5),
Distillers' dried grains with solubles (No. 27.6),
Condensed distillers' solubles (No. 27.7),
Distillers' wet grains (No. 27.8).
The products may be obtained from the distilling of barley, maize, rye, sorghum,
wheat and mixtures thereof. The predominant grain of distillers' feed must be declared
and used as the first word in the labels of commercially available products in the U.S.A.
as e.g. "Maize distillers' dried grains with solubles"(8).
The EU-Directive accordingly lists distillery by-products as:
Distillers' grains, dried,
Distillers' grains, dried and dark.
The approved products by the German feedstuff legislation and their specification are
in (Table 13-09).

Table 13-09: Specification for distillers' feeds by the German feedstuff legislation(37)

Moisture Crude protein Crude fibre Ash

max.% min % max. % max. %

Distillers' grains (wet)

Distillers' grains, dried 13.0 20.0 17.0 5.5
Insoluble matters of distillers' grains, dried 13.0 22.0 12.0 5.0
Soluble matters of distillers' grains, dried 13.0 25.0 10.0

13.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (Publisher),
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
2. Anonymous (w/o year): A guide to using distillers' feed on the farm. Trident Feeds, PetersboroughlU.K.
(broschure).
3. Black, H.; Edwards, S.; Kay, M.; Thomas, S. (1991): Distillery by-products as feed for livestock. Report
to Malt Distillers' Ass. of Scotland.
4. Brooke, M. (1992): A wee drop of Scotch. Silver Kris, 19., (9), 19-24.
5. Carpenter, L.E. (1970): Nutrient composition of distillers' feed. Proc. 25 th Distillers Feed Conf., 25., 54-61.
6. Castaldo, D.J. (1994): Squeezing more out of by-products. Feed International, 15., (10), 34-38.
7. De Boer, F.; Bickel, H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. Elsevier Sciences
Publishers, AmsterdamlThe Netherlands.
8. DFRC (w/o year): Distillers grains. Distillers Feed Research Council, Des Moines, Iowa/USA.
 DISTILLERY BY-PRODUCTS 123

9. Fairbanks, B. w.; Krider, J.L; Carroll, W. E. (1944): Distillers by-products in swine rations. I. Creep feed-
ing and growing fattening rations. J. Animal Sci., 3., 29-40.
10. Fowler, L.G.; Banks, J.L. (1972): Alteration tests for the Abernathy salmon diets. U.S. Bur. Sport Fish.
Wild!. Techn. Paper, 64.
11. Fowler, L.G.; Banks, J.L. (1976): Fish meal and wheat germ substitutes in the Abernathy diet. Prog.
Fish-Culturist. 38.• 127-130.
12. Fowler, L.G.; Banks. J.L; Elliot, J. W. (1972): Tests of variations of the Abernathy salmon diet. U.S. Bur.
Sport Fish. Wild!. Techn. Paper. 61. 14.
13. Friesecke. H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung von Rind. Schaf. Pferd. Schwein. GeflUgel
und SUBwasserfischen. BLV Verlagsges .• MUncheniGermany.
14. Hastings. w.H. (1967): Reviews of the nutritional needs of warmwater fish. Feedstuffs. 39.• (24). 31.
15. Hertramp/. J. W. (1992): On the water durability of aquaculture feed pellets - A review. Advances in Feed
Techn .• (7). 18-38.
16. Hilton. J. w.; Slinger, S.J. (1981): Nutrition and feeding of rainbow trout. Can. Spec. Pub!. Fish. Aqua!.
Sci.• 55.• 15.
17. Hughes, S.G. (1986): Replacement of distillers' dried grains with solubles compared for salmon diet
formulation. Feedstuffs. 58., (53). 10.
18. Hughes. S.G. (1987): Distillers products in salmon diets. Proc. Distillers Feed Conf.• 42 .• 27-31.
19. Kohler, e.e. (1987): The use of ethanol distillery by-products in aquaculture. Report to Illinois Dept. of
Energy and Natural Resources. Springfield. IllinoisfUSA
20. Kohler, C.e.; Pagan-Font. F.A (1978): Evaluation of rum distillation wastes. pharmaceutical wastes and
chicken feed for rearing Tilapia aurea in Puerto Rico. Aquaculture. 14.• 339-347.
21. Lovell, R.T. (1977): Feeding practices. In: Nutrition and feeding of channel catfish. Southern Cooperative
Series. 218.• SO-55.
22. Lovell. R. T. (1980): Nutritional value of solid by-products from ethanol production of com. Auburn Techn
Assistance Center. Auburn, ALfUSA.
23. New. M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCPIREP/87126. Romelltaly.
24. Newland. H. w.; Mahan. D.C. (1990): Distillers by-products. In: Thacker, P'A.; Kirkwood. R.N.: Non-
traditional feed sources for use in swine production. Butterworth Publishers. BostonfUSA.
25. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington. D.C.
26. NRC (1989): Nutrient requirements of horses. National Academy Press. Washington. D.C.
27. Pass, R.T. (1994): Private communication.
28. Robinette, H.R. (1984): Feed formulation and process. In: Robinson, E.H.; Lovell. R.T. (Eds.): Nutrition
and feeding of channel catfish (review). South Coop. Techn. Bull. 296. Texas A&M Univ. College
Station, TX, 29-33.
29. Sinnhuber, R.D. (1964): Pelleted fish feed. Feedstuffs, 36., (28), 16.
30. Smith, R.R.; Peterson, M.e.; Allred, A.e. (1980): The effect of leaching on apparent digestion coefficients
in determining digestibility and metabolizable energy of feedstuffs for salmonids. Progr. Fish Culturist,
42.,699-718.
31. Tidwell, J.H.; Webster, e.D.; Yancey, D.H. (1990): Evaluation of distillers' dried grains with solubles in
prepared channel catfish diets. Trans. Ky. Academy Sci .• 51., (2/4), 135-158.
32. Tidwell, J.H.; Webster, e.D.; Clark, J. A, D'Abramo, L.R. (1993): Evaluation of distillers' dried grains with
solubles as an ingredient in diets for pond culture of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
124 CHAPTER 13

J. World Aquaculture Soc., 24., (1), 66-70.

33. Tidwell, J.H.; Webster, C.D.; Yancey D.H., D'Abramo, LR. (1993): Partial and total replacement of fish
meal with soybean meal and distillers' by-products in diets for pond culture of the freshwater prawn
Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Aquaculture, 118., 119-130.
34. Webster, C.D.; Tidwell, J.H.; Goodgame, LS. (1993): Growth. body composition and organoleptic evalu-
ation of channel catfish feed diets containing different percentage of distillers' dried grains with solubles.
Progr. Fish Culturist. 55.• (2). 95-100.
35. Webster, C.D.; Tidwell. J.H.; Yancey. D.H. (1991): Evaluation of distillers' dried grains with solubles as
a protein source in diets for channel catfish. Aquaculture. 96.• 179-190.
36. Webster, C.D.; Tidwell, J.H.; Yancey. D.H.; Goodgame. LS.; Mackey. L (l992): Use of soybean meal and
distillers' dried grains with solubles as partial or total replacement of fish meal in diets for channel
catfish (lctalurus punctatus). Aquaculture, 106.• 301-309.
37. Weinreich. 0.; Koch. 11.; Knippel. J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
 14. EGG POWDER

14.1 Rationale

Processed eggs are widely used in the food industry, for pet foods and aquaculture feed.
Culture media, vaccine production, cosmetics, and shampoos are the areas for the non-
food application of processed eggs.
The chicken (Gallus domesticus) egg consists of the embryo, yolk or vitellus, white
or albumin, two membranes and the shell (Table 10-01)(10).

Table 14-01: Constituents of eggs of some fowl species(5)

Egg weight Egg white Egg yolk Shell

g % % %

Ostrich 1,400 53.4 32.5 14.1

Goose 250 52.5 35.1 12.4
Duck 80 52.6 35.4 12.0
Turkey 85 55.9 32.3 11.8
Chicken 58 55.8 31.9 12.3
Pigeon 17 74.0 17.9 8.1

14.2 Manufacture and Processing

Egg powder as a feedstuff is generally processed from eggs cracked and/or not fit for
human consumption. Increasing quantities of fresh eggs are also processed into egg
powder and used for human as well as animal food.
The whole eggs are washed, broken and the liquid is pasteurised, and in a vacuum
concentrated to 30 to 40% solids prior to spray-drying the material (Figure 14-01)(6).
The drying process can significantly affect the nutritional value of the product.
Drying at high temperature damages the nutrients. Antioxidants and anti-caking agents
are commonly added to commercial egg powder for avoiding autoxidation of the high
fat content of the egg and lumping of the hygroscopic product.
126 CHAPTER 14

Whole e99
powder

Figure 14-01. Diagram of processing whole egg powder.

14.3 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
The whole egg has an ideal combination of all nutrients which the embryo needs for its
development. The crude protein content of whole egg powder is about 47.0% but that
of egg albumin is as high as 77.4% (Table 14-02). Egg white protein is a conglomerate
of at least 50 different proteins. The principal egg white proteins are in Table 14-03112).
The amino acid composition of whole egg powder is balanced (Table 14-04). The fat
content of 41.8% consists of14 ):
Saturated fatty acids: 32.1 %
Mono-unsaturated fatty acids: 55.4%
Poly-unsaturated fatty acids: 12.5%
 EGG POWDER 127

Table 14-02:Chemical composition of spray-dried egg products (% as fed)(2. 3. 5. 9)

Whole egg Egg white

Dry matter 95.3 91.0

Crude protein 47.2 77.4
Fat 40.5
Ash 4.4 4.3
Crude fibre 0.1
N-free extract 3.0

Table 14-03: Principal egg white protein (%) in the domestic fowl(12)

Protein type Egg white Protein type Egg white

Ovalbumin 54.0 Ovoglycoprotein 1.5

Ovotransferrin 12.0 Faloprotein 0.8
Ovomucoid 11.0 Ovomacroglobulin 0.5
Lysozyme 3.4 Avidin 0.05
Ovomucin 2.9 G 2-Globulin 1.0
Ovoinhibitor 1.5

Table 14-04: Essential amino acid content of whole egg powder (gl16 g N)
(2. 4. 8. 9. JJ)

Mean Range

Arginine 4.36 2.83 - 6.40

Histidine 1.79 1.04 - 3.20
Isoleucine 4.47 2.59 - 7.70
Leucine 6.05 3.90 - 9.20
Lysine 4.63 3.10 - 7.00
Methionine 2.38 1.48 - 4.00
Phenylalanine 3.91 2.50 - 6.30
Threonine 3.31 2.26 - 5.20
Tryptophan 1.03 0.71 - 1.50
Valine 4.93 3.16 - 7.30
128 CHAPTER 14

The vitamin and mineral contents of egg powder are in Table 14-05. The phosphorus
content is 2.7 times higher than the calcium content. A high calcium content indicates
a high portion of egg shells in the egg powder.
Table 14-05: Mineral and vitamin contents of whole egg powdet2•3• 4. 5. 9)

Minerals Vitamins (per 1,000 g)

Calcium % 0.29 Vitamin A IV 40,000

Phosphorus % 0.78 Vitamin E mg 57
Potassium % 0.53 Vitamin K mcg 76
Chlorine % 0.68 VitaminB, mg 3.6
Magnesium % 0.05 Vitamin B2 mg 11.5
Sodium % 0.55 Vitamin B6 mg 6.0
Iron mg/kg 39.5 Vitamin B'2 mcg 39.4
Zinc mg/kg 55.0 Biotin mcg 2.4
Iodine mg/kg 0.04 Folic acid mg 0.8
Nicotinic acid mg 3.3
Pantothenic acid mg 75.8
Choline g 20.1

Fresh whole eggs without shells have a cholesterol content of 3.2% in the dry
matter<41. The total sterol content of whole egg powder ranges between 1.2 to 1.5% with
the following breakdown(21:
• Cholesterol: 92.2%
• Cholesterol ester: 5.0%
Brassicasterol: 1.2%
Campesterol: 1.2%
Stigmasterol: 0.2%
~-sitosterol: 0.2%
Egg powder is also a source of phospholipids. The dry matter of whole egg powder
without shells contains 12.3% phospholipids(4) (see chapter 41).

Physiological Properties
The crude protein digestibility is 87% in vitro and has been found to be 100% soluble.
The digestible energy is estimated to be 5,140 kcal/kg (21.5 MJ/kg) and the metabolisable
energy is computed to be 4,950 kcal/kg (20.7 MJ/kg).
Eggs might also be toxic. Rats fed raw egg white showed signs of toxicity similar
to those fed raw soybeans. These so called toxic factors were subsequently shown to
be enzyme inhibitors(7). Such proteinase inhibitors are ovomucoid and ovoinhibitor
(Table 14-03)112).
The whole egg protein is often used to compare the protein value of other feedstuffs
by computating the "Egg Protein Ratio" (EPR) and the "Essential Amino Acid Index"
(EAA-Indexylll (see Table 2-04).
 EGG POWDER 129

14.4 Feeding Value

Whole egg powder when carefully processed has a high feeding value for aquaculture feeds.
It provides protein, fat, cholesterol and phospholipids. Whole egg powder is a feedstuff
particularly for very young aquatic organisms and is widely used in commercial aqua-
culture feed. There is still a lack of scientific studies showing the feeding value in
aquaculture diets.
The feeding value of chicken egg lecithin as a source of phospholipids is discussed
in Chapter 41.

14.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Whole egg powder is widely used in fish and shrimp feed, particularly in larvae feed.
An inclusion rate of 1.0 to 3.0% is commonly practised.

14.6 Legal Aspects

The use of whole egg powder in feed is unrestricted. However, according to the "Egg
Products Inspection Act of 1970" egg processing plants in the U.S.A. have to undergo
continuous inspections(7). In the U.S.A. all egg powder used for feeding purposes has to
be denaturated with addition of green or brown dye in order to make sure that feed grade
quality is not used for human consumption. From the safety standpoint, the product
should be free of any pathogenic organisms, particularly salmonella.
AAFCO(l) specifies egg powder as "egg product" (No. T9.74). It should be free of
shells or other non-egg materials except in such amounts which might occur unavoidably
in good processing practices. The maximum ash content should not exceed 6.0% on
a dry matter basis

14.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (Publisher).
Sacramento. CAIUSA.
2. Anonymous (1993): Animal Feed is our concern. ingredients for aquaculture. livestock and poultry feeds
(product specifications). Tesgo Services B.V. Hoogerheiderrhe Netherlands.
3. Anonymous (1994): Spray dried egg product (specification). California Spray Dry Co .• Stockton. CAIUSA.
4. Feltwell. R.; Fox. S. (1978): Practical poultry feeding. Faber and Faber. London & Boston.
5. Kolb. E. (1989): Lehrbuch der Physiologie der Haustiere. Vol. II. VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
6. MacNeil. J.H. (1994): Eggs for the 21 st century. Poultry International. 33.• (4). 20-24.
7. Miller Jones. J. (1992): Food safety. Eagan Press. SI. PaulfUSA.
8. Nordal, J.; Fretheim, K. (1978): Utnyttelse av slakteriblod i nreringsmidler. Rapport no. 27, Norsk
Institutt for Nreringsmiddelforskning. As-NLHINorway.
9. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. Natl. Res. Council (Revised ed.).
130 CHAPTER 14

Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, D.C.

10. Say, R. (1987): Manual of poultry production in the tropics. CAB International, Wallingford, OxonlUK.
II. Steffens, W (1985): Grundlagen der Fischernahrung, VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
12. Stevens, L. (1991): Genetics and evolution of the domestic fowl. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/UK.
13. Wohlbier, W; Tran Thu, D. (1977): Blutrnehl. In: Kling, M.; Wohlbier, W: Handelsfuttermittel. Verlag
Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
 15. FEATHER MEAL (HYDROLYSED)

15.1 Rationale

Feathers are the very complex derivatives of the integuments to be found in any vertebrate.
They can be divided into three categories:
Contour feathers, inclusively the remiges of the wings and the rectrices of the tail;
Down feathers;
Filoplume.
They can be further subdivided into the barbules and barbicels(3l). Feathers consist of
several morphological different parts, the horny central shaft (quill), partly hollow, from
which soft and narrow barbs extend. The composition depends on the type of feather
(Figure 15-1). The remiges of the wings are composed of the(36):
Quill 55.0%
thereof: Rachis 19.0%
Shaft 36.0%
Barb 32.0%
Down traces
Quill marrow 13.0%
Quill

Barb down Shaft

Figure 15-OJ. The parts of the poultry feather.

The chemical composition and the amino acid profile of the individual parts of the
feather are different (Table 15-01).
Feather meal is a by-product of poultry meat processing. Annually large quantities
of feathers are available. World-wide more than 25,000 million broilers are slaughtered
per year. A 2.0 kg live chicken produces 180 g of feathers(26) which gives a potential
132 CHAPTER 15

of 4,500 million MT of fresh feathers. In the USA only more than one million MT of
feather meal are produced a year<'26).
Fresh feathers contain about 90% crude protein!3!). Due to the high level of keratin,
which is a tough, fibrous, insoluble protein, and the strong disulphide bonding, the
digestibility of fresh feathers is less than 5.0%. However, with proper processing, raw
feathers can be converted into a valuable protein feedstuft1J1· 26). This kind of recycling
of feathers is environmental friendly.

Table 15-01: Chemical composition and the profile of essential amino acid of the individual
parts of the feather (% or g/16 g N)(36)

Rachis Shaft Barb Feather marrow

Nitrogen 16.62 16.40 16.28 16.36

Ash 0.87 0.80 0.86 0.77
Sulphur 2.47 2.32 2.85 2.40
-----------------------------------------------------------
Arginine 6.45 6.46 6.69 6.78
Histidine 0.36 0.31 0.26 0.27
Isoleucine 4.04 3.67 5.02 4.11
Leucine 10.52 8.71 7.94 9.44
Lysine 0.91 0.76 1.04 0.95
Methionine 0.12 0.19 0.22 0.27
Phenylalanine 4.96 5.27 4.89 5.45
Threonine 4.78 4.11 5.21 3.36
Tryptophan 1.48 1.58 0.45 1.53
Valine 8.86 7.88 8.26 9.01

15.2 Manufacture and Processing

Hydrolysing Process
Hydrolysed feather meal is derived by pressure cooking the clean, undecomposed feathers
from slaughtered poultry. This process actually is not a hydrolysis but a denaturation
process whereby some compounds are split, while the properties of protein remain(36).
The quality of the final product depends on the hydrolysing process. Processing methods
are! II. 26):
Low pressure « 207 kPa) at 130°C for 150 minutes;
High pressure (> 207 kPa) at 145°C for 30 minutes.
Feather meal is produced in batch cookers and in high-volume continuous hydrolysers,
respectively.
Autoclaving of the feathers breaks down the keratin by destroying the linkage of the
high level of cystine. As a result, the value of the product improves(ll. 2!). After cooking
 FEATHER MEAL (HYDROLYSED) 133

the material is dried at 60°C and ground. The physical appearance of feather meal varies
according to the feathers used. Feathers of a light colour result in a light golden, brown
meal while feathers of dark colour give a dark, brown-black meal(2l). Feather meal has
a fresh odour. It can be stored without fear of rotting(ll).
The quality of feather meal is affected by the degree of hydrolysation. Too high auto-
c1aving (pepsin digestibility = 90%) will produce overcooked meal with a lower protein
quality. Also, undercooked meal (pepsin digestibility below 65%) results in a lower
protein quality(2l). Steaming for a long time decreases the true availability of many
amino acids(24).

Other Processes
Feathers could be denaturated also into a feedstuff by treatment with sodium hydroxide
(0.25% NaOH)(30). The process significantly increases dry matter and protein digestibility
of feather meal in vitro. However, the difficulty in handling, disposal or neutralisation of
NaOH may limit this type of treatment on a commercial scale.
Another technology for making feather meal is bacterial fermentation, whereby the
feathers are autoc1aved and inoculated with a bacterial culture of Bacillus licheniformis.
Processing time is as much as five days and is uneconomical(35).
Dry extrusion technology has been tried for converting feather meal into a feedstuff.
The product from this process has similar feeding value as feather meal from the hydrolysing
process(9), but the process is uneconomical(26).

15.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The crude protein content of feather meal in the dry matter averages 86.9% with a variation
of more than 20% (Table 15-02).

Table 15-02: Chemical composition of feather meal

(in dry matterF 3. II. 13. 14. 18.20.23.36)

Mean Variation

Dry matter % 93.3 90.0 - 92.5

Crude protein % 86.9 71.7 - 92.7
Crude fat % 3.6 1.8 5.0
Ash % 3.1 1.9 - 4.6
Crude fibre % 0.8 0.4 - 2.0
N-free extract % 0.6 0.5 0.9

The level of the essential amino acids histidine, lysine, methionine and tryptophan
is deficient(36). In general, the amino acid content of feather meal is lower than of
untreated feathers (Table 15-03). Pressure used in the processing may affect the amino
acid content to a certain extent(l8). Cystine is particularly affected by pressure. It is partly
134 CHAPTER 15

destroyed and converted into the amino acid lanthionine and loses half the sulphur in
the process«(l8. 25. 36).

Table 15-03: Essential amino acid profile of hydrolysed feather meal and
untreated feathers (g/16 g N)f II. 19. 23. 36)

Hydrolysed feather meal Untreated feathers

Mean Variation

Arginine 6.11 4.99 - 7.58 5.61

Histidine 0.80 0.99 - 1.06 0.42
Isoleucine 4.29 3.92 - 4.63 4.28
Leucine 6.96 6.37 - 7.73 8.65
Lysine 2.28 1.72 - 2.98 1.03
Methionine 0.65 0.59 - 0.72 0.30
Phenylalanine 4.01 3.28 - 4.57 5.22
Threonine 0.58 0.51 - 0.67 4.68
Tryptophan 3.75 3.16 - 4.27 1.25
Valine 5.73 4.27 - 7.62 8.37

The fat content varies significantly from 1.8 to 4.6% with a mean value of 3.6%
(Table 15-02). A high level of fat indicates feather contamination with skin tissue.
High quality feather meal should have a fat content not exceeding 5.0%(2l).
The crude fibre content of feather meal is most probably an insoluble nitrogen-
containing substance which is already included in the protein content(36).
The ash content depends on the cleanliness of the feathers. The mineral and vitamin
contents of feather meal are compiled in Table 15-04.

Table 15-04: Mineral and vitamin contents of hydrolysed feather meal

Minerals(3. II. 2IJ. 22. 36) Vitamins (per 1,000 g)fll. 22.23. 36)

Calcium % 0.45 Vitamin BI mg 0.1

Phosphorus % 0.55 Vitamin B2 mg 2.2
Sodium % 0.54 Vitamin B6 mg 3.,2
Potassium % 0.25 Vitamin BI2 mcg 84.9
Magnesium % 0.15 Biotin mcg 80.0
Chlorine % 0.22 Folic acid mcg 170.0
Sulphur % 1.60 Nicotinic acid mg 21.4
Manganese mg/kg 27.9 Pantothenic acid mg 9.3
Iron mg/kg 116.0 Choline mg 493.0
Zinc mg/kg 101.4
Copper mg/kg 15.6
Selenium mg/kg 0.9
 FEATHER MEAL (HYDROLYSED) 135

Physiological Properties
Few data are available on the energy content of hydrolysed feather meal (Table 15-05).
Feather meal has a high crude protein content but its digestibility, ranging between
52% and 74%, is unsatisfactory (Table 15-06). With increasing processing pressure,
the pepsin digestibility increases (Figure 15-02). Recent studies have demonstrated that
when the concentration of pepsin is 0.002% rather than the normal 0.2%, the pepsin
digestibility value is more closely related to in vivo performances(2}).
The amino acid digestibility of feather meal manufactured by using different process-
ing pressures declines as the pressure increases(l8).
The lipid digestibility of feather meal is better than that of protein but this is of less
importance because it has low fat content (Table 15-06).

Table 15-05: Energy values of hydrolysed feather meal (in dry matter)

Type of energy Species kcallkg MJlkg Reference

(6)
Digestible Rainbow trout 3,753 15.7
(ZO.Z3)
Digestible Fish' 3,689 15.5
Digestible Poultry 2,730 11.4 (II)

(33)
Metabolisable Carp 2,904 12.2
(21)
Metabolisable Fish' 3,096 13.0
(II)
Metabolisable Poultry 3,220 13.5
Metabolisable Pigs 2,360 9.9 (36)

, species not specified

Table 15-06: Digestibility of hydrolysed feather meal ('Yo)

Species Digestibility
Reference
Dry matter Crude protein Fat Gross energy

(16)
Salmonids 62.3 68.0 73.7
(5.6.29)
Rainbow trout 75.0 55.2 68.0 70.0
(10.16)
Channel catfish 65.8 83.0 66.6

Other Properties
Feather meal most probably contains unidentified growth factors (UGF) as observed in
broilers and hatchability rate of chicks(36) (see chapter 44). Feather meal may be con-
taminated with salmonella, if improperly processed.
136 CHAPTER IS

,
90

80
80.n
79.0\

I
76.n
70

65.8\
60

:: SO
.~

~...
~ 40 -
..,.~
i" 30
.•
20 -
16.0\

10 f-

207 310 414 283

kPa kPa kPa kPa

Continous processing Untreated Batch

treatment

Figure /5-02. The effect of increasing processing pressure on the pepsin digestibility of continuously and
batch processed hydrolysed feather meal(dara/""", /8).

15.4 Feeding Value

Feather meal is used to partly replace the costly fish meal in aquaculture diets_ However,
only few trials have been carried out where the effect of feather meal on the animal's
performances could be objectively determined_ In most feeding trials, mixtures of animal
protein, containing feather meal, blood meal, meat and bone meal and poultry by-product
meal, replaced fish meal in the diets for aquatic animals. These mixtures of various
animal proteins are also called "fish meal analog". Hence the effectiveness of pure
feather meal could not be established_

Fishes
A combination of feather meal and poultry by-product meal (low and high fat content)
replaced partially herring meal in the diet for coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch).
Replacing 35 % to 75% of herring meal protein by protein from a mixture of feather meal
 FEATHER MEAL (HYDROLYSED) 137

and poultry by-product meal did not show any substantial difference in the performance
to the herring meal control group. Supplemental methionine may be required at high
level replacement of herring meal protein(J7).
In diets for the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) combinations of feather meal and
poultry by-product meal (Table 15-07)115) or feather meal and blood meal (1:1)(27) or
feather meal, poultry by-product meal and blood meal (113: 113: 113)(28) could fully meet
the protein requirement of the fish provided the substitutes only may replace half of
the available protein in the diet. In addition the diet has to be supplemented with amino
acids(l5. 27. 28. 32).

Table 15-07: Replacement of fish meal by feather meal and pOUltry by-product meal in diets for rainbow trout
(Sa/rno gairtineri) (trial period: 88 days)(1jJ

Fish meal % 70.0 52.5 35.0

Feather meal % 7.5 15.0 30.0 30.0
Poultry meal % 10.0 20.0 40.0 40.0
Amino acid supplement +1
Crude protein % 46.1 47.2 50.2 48.1 48.9
Fat % 12.2 13.3 11.5 12.3 12.8

Weight gain g 133 142 127 117 126

Feed conversion 1: 1.33 1.24 1.41 1.52 1.37

1 1.7% lysine, 0.48% methionine, 0.144% tryptophan

A "fish meal analog" made from equal parts of feather meal, poultry by-product
meal, blood meal and meat and bone meal has been used to replace 25%, 50%, 75% or
100% of the fish meal in the diet for rainbow trout fingerlings. Up to 75% of the fish
meal could be replaced by fish meal analog without any negative effect on performances.
However, full replacement of fish meal resulted in a significant decrease in weight gain
of the fish(7).
Total replacement of fish meal by feather meal in diets for tilapia (Tilapia mossambicus)
resulted in a reduction in performance (Table 15-08). In this trial with juvenile tilapia,
feather meal proved unfeasible, alone or in combination with blood meal (50:50), and as
either a partial or total substitute for fish meal(8).
Channel catfish (Ictalarus punctatus) fingerlings were fed isonitrogenous diets
containing either maize gluten meal (60% crude protein) alone or in combination with
feather meal. While weight gain was not significantly reduced in fish fed feather meal,
feed conversion was higher for the feather meal diet. Total sulphur amino acid (TSAA)
content was the same for both diets but the TSAA availability tended to be lower for
feather meal compared to maize gluten meal (Table 15-09)(1).
138 CHAPTER IS

Table 15-08: Feather meal and feather meallblood meal as a substitute for fish meal in
diets for tilapia (Tilapia mossambicus) (trial period: 49 days )(8)

Fish meal (Chile) % 47.2 10.8

Feather meal % 8.8 20.6 8.3
Blood meal % 8.3
Meat and bone meal % 10.0 10.0 10.0
Crude protein % 38.8 37.3 39.2 37.1
Fat % 13.5 13.0 13.0 13.1
--------------------------------------------------------
Initial weight g 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.81
Specific growth rate % 3.71 3.46 2.83 2.90
Daily weight gain mg 84.0 72.4 50.1 52.0
Feed conversion 1: 2.16 2.32 2.93 2.91
PER 1.20 1.16 0.87 0.93

Table 15-09: Feather meal replaces maize gluten meal in diets for
catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) (trial period: 42 days)(/)

Maize gluten (60%) % 20.0 10.0

Feather meal % 10.0
TSAAI g/16g N 1.02 1.02

Weight gain g 42.6 40.7

Feed conversion I: 2.09 2.26
TSANlweight gain 0.021 0.023

1 Total sulphur amino acids

Crustaceans
In a semi-purified diet for juvenile Penaeus vannamei (white shrimp) 2.5%, 5.0% and
10.0% of the diet's protein were replaced by feather meal. There was no difference in the
survival rate between the control group and the protein replacement by feather meal.
Shrimp growth for the fish meal control diet was better than for the partial fish meal
replacement by feather meal. Feather meal at levels of 5.0 to 10.0% of the protein are
suitable for shrimp diets as long as the shrimps' requirement for essential amino acids
and minerals are met(19).
 FEATHER MEAL (HYDROLYSED) 139

Molluscs
Feather meal may be an alternative protein source for abalone of the genus Haiiotis(l2).
However, it does not contain phagostimulatory components such as free glutamic acid
and aspartic acidW Feather meal as a protein source may also negatively affect water
quality and may cause bloat in the abalone (12).

15.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Feather meal has a high crude protein content but the digestibility of the nutrients is
rather low (Table 15-06). It can partly replace fish meal in aquaculture diets but may not
perform as well as diets with fish meal as the only protein source. The use of feather meal
may require an extra fortification of the diet with amino acids. In commercial aquaculture
diets, feather meal may be used at levels of 5.0 to 10.0%.

15.6 Legal Aspects

Feather meal is defined by the "American Feed Control Officials" (AFCO) as:
"The product resulting from treatment under pressure of clean, undecomposed feathers
from slaughtered poultry, free of additives and/or accelerators. Not less than 75% of
the crude protein must be digestible as determined by the Association of Official
Analytical Chemists' pepsin digestibility method 7.048"(26).
ED-Directive 92/87 EEC of 26 October, 1992, has listed feather meal as No. 9.06
and is described as a "Product produced from hydrolysed, dried and ground poultry
feathers". The same definition is given by the German feedstuff law (Table 15_10)134).

Table 15-10: Nutritional standards of feather meal required by German feedstuff law(34) and NRA(21)

German feed stuff law NRA-Standard

Moisture max. 11.0 max. 10.0

Crude protein min. 80.0 min. 80.0
Pepsin digestibility min. 70.0 min. 75.0
Fat max. 6.0
Crude fibre max. 4.0
Ash max. 3.4 max. 4.0
Phosphorus min. 75.0
140 CHAPTER IS

15.7 References

I. Andrews. J. W. (1991): A comparison of several by-products and plant proteins as sources of essential
amino acids for catfish. Director's Digest. No. 12 (Fats and Proteins Res. Found. Bloomington. IlI.IUSA.
2. Anonymous (1987): Byproduct meals may have place in turkey diets. Feedstuffs. 59.• (51). 13-14.
3. Bath, D.• Dunbar, J.• King. J.• Berry. S.• Leonhard. R.O.• Olbrich. S. (w/o year): Composition of by-products
and unusual feedstuffs (Mimeograph).
4. Care/oot. T.H. (1982): Gastropod nutrition. Proc. 2nd Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochem. and
Physiol. Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition. Rohoboth Beach. DelawarelU.S.A.• October. 321-337.
S. Cho. e.Y.; Slinger, S.J. (1979): Apparent digestibility measurement in feedstuffs for rainbow trout. Proc.
World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn .• Hamburg/Germany. Vol. II. 20-23 June. 1978.
6. Cho. e.Y.. Cowey. e.B.. Watanabe. T. (1985): Finfish nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IFRC. No. 233e. Ottawa/Canada.
7. Dabrowski. K. et af. (1995): Quoted from: Rowland. R.D. (1995).
8. Davies. S.J.; Williamson. J.; Robinson. M.; Bateson. R.I. (1989): Practical inclusion levels of common
animal by-products in complete diets for tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus. Peters). Proc. 3nl Int. Symp.
on Feeding and Nutrition in Fish. Toba/Japan. 28.8-1.9. 325-332.
9. Davis. J. (1989): Feed from poultry waste - a new process. Poultry International. 28.• (3). 40-44.
10. Dupree. H.K.; Huner, J. V. (1984): Third report to the fish farmers. Publ. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, D.C.
II. Evans. M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. Primary
Ind.• Brisbane/Australia (Series Q 185001).
12. Fallu. R. (1991): Abalone Farming. Fishing News Books, OxfordlEngland.
13. Feltwell. R.; Fox. S. (1978): Practical pOUltry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
14. Friesecke. H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen Ftitterung von Rind. Schaf, Pferd, Schwein, Gefltigel
und StiBwasserfischen. BLV Veriagsges., MtinchenlGermany.
15. Gropp. J.; Koops. H.; TIews. K.; Beck. H. (1976): Ersatz von Fischmehl irn Forellenfutter. Arb. Deutscher
Fischerei-Verb., No. 19, 85-102.
16. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, CambridgelU.K.
17. Higgs. D.A.; Markert. J.R.; Macquarrie. D. w.; McBride. J.R.; Dojanjh. e.; Hoskins. G. (1979):
Development of practical diets for coho salmon. Oncorhynchus kisutch. using pOUltry by-product meal.
feather meal. soybean meal and rape seed meal as major protein sources. Proc. World Symp. on Finfish
Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn .• Hamburg/Germany. Vol. II. 20-23 June. 1978. 191-216.
18. Latchaw et al. (1994): Quoted from: Rowland. R.D. (1995).
19. Lawrence. A.K; Castille. F. (1991): Nutritive response of a western hemisphere shrimp Penaeus van-
namei. to meat and bone. feather and pOUltry by-product meal. Director's Digest. No. 215 (Fats and
Protein Res. Found. Bloomington. IllIUSA.
20. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCPIREP/87126. Rome/Italy.
21. NRA (1993): Pocket information manual- a buyers guide to rendered products. National Renderers Ass .•
Inc .• Alexandria. Vir.IUSA.
22. NRC (1981); Nutrient requirements of coldwater fishes. National Academy Press. Washington. D.C.
23. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington. D.C.
24. Papadopoulos. M.e. et al. (1985): Quoted from: Rowland. R.D. (1995).
 FEATHER MEAL (HYDROLYSED) 141

25. Robbins. K.R .. Bauer, D.H. (1980): Studies on the utilization oflysine-alanine and lanthionine. J. Nutrition.
110.• 907-915.
26. Rowland. R.D. (1995): Nutrition value of hydrolysed feathers for use in non-ruminant. ruminant and
aquaculture feeds. National Renderers Ass .• Inc .• Alexandria. Virg.IUSA (Mimeograph).
27. Schulz. D.; Hartfiel. W; Greuel. E. (1982): Verwendung von Nebenprodukten tierischer Herkunft in der
Emahrung von Regenbogenforellen (Salmo gairdneri).1. Einsatz von Blut- und Federmehl in einer gere-
inigten Diiil. Z. Tierphysiol., Tieremiihrung, Futtermittelkd., 47., 79-85.
28. Schulz, D.; Hartfiel, W; Greuel. E. (1982): Verwendung von Nebenprodukten tierischer Herkunft in der
Emahrung von Regenbogenforellen (Salmo gairdneri). II. Einsatz von Blut-, Feder- und GeflUgel-
schlachtabfallmehl sowie Gelatine in einer gereinigten Dial. Z. Tierphysiol., Tieremahrung, Futtermittelkd.,
48., 267-275.
29. Shanks (164): Quoted from: NRC (1981):
30. Steiner, R.J.; Kellers, R.D.; Church, D.e. (1983): Feather and hair meals for ruminants. IV. Effects of
chemical treatments of feathers and processing times on digestibility. J. Anim. Sci., 57., 495.
31. Stevens, L. (1991): Genetics and evolution of the domestic fowl. Cambridge University Press,
CambridgelUK.
32. TIews, K.; Koops. H.; Beck, H.; Schwalb-Buhling, A.; Gropp, J. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfutterfur
die Regenbogenforelle. Bundesforschungsanstalt fUr Fischerei, Veroffentl. des Inst. fUr KUsten- und
Binnenfischerei, Hamburg/Germany, Publ. No. 75.
33. Viola, S. (1977): Energy values of feedstuffs for carp. Bamidgeh, 29., 29-30.
34. Weinreich, 0.; Koch. v,; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
35. Williams, e.M.; Lee, e.G.; Garlich, J.D.; Shih, J.e.H. (1991): Evaluation of a bacterial feather fermen-
tation product, feather-lysate, as a feed protein. Poultry Sci., 70., 85-94.
36. Wohlbier, W (1977): Keratinhaltige Futtermittel. In: Kling. M.; Wohlbier, W: Handelsfuttermittel. Verlag
Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
 16. FEED CAROTENOIDS

16.1 Rationale

Carotenoids are widely distributed in nature occurring in plants and animals. They are
produced by all photosynthetic active microorganisms and plants. In green plants
they are covered by chlorophyll and are the cause for the colourful nature in autumn(25).
About 600 different natural carotenoids have been identified and thereof possibly 10%
are precursors of Vitamin N39). Total annual production is estimated at over 100 million
MT(29). Some examples of tissues whose pigmentation are due to carotenoids are:
Corpus luteum
• Egg yolk
Pink flesh of salmonids
Red exoskeleton of boiled crustaceans
Pink plumage of flamingos
For certain farm animals, feeds are fortified with specific carotenoids in order to
obtain the natural colour of animal products(15). The carotenoid content of some plant
materials may vary in a wide range and the astaxanthin content of animal origin depends
on treatment and processing of the material (Table 16-01).

16.2 Biochemical, Biological and Other Properties

Biochemical Properties
Carotenoids are lipochromes. They are fat soluble, yellow to red polyen-pigments of
plant origin, and are classified into(l5):
Carotenes = oxygen-free hydrocarbons:
<x-carotene
~-carotene
• y-carotene
• Lycopine
Xanthophylls - oxygen-containing hydrocarbons:
• Astaxanthin
• Canthaxanthin
Cryptoxanthin
Zeaxanthin
There are many pigmenting carotenoids but only few of them, astaxanthin and canthaxan-
thin, are of significant importance for aquaculture feed. Synthetic carotenoids and xantophylls
such as ~-apo-8' -carotinal, ~-apo-8' -carotene acid-ethylester, capxanthin, citranaxanthin,
cryptoxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin are used as pigmenters in poultry feeds(24).
 FEED CAROTENOIDS 143

Table 16-01: Xanthophyll content of plant materials(35) and astaxanthin content of animal products used in
aquatic feed(52)

Materials mglkg

1. Plant Materials
Alfalfa meal 260 - 330
Alfalfa juice protein 800
Algae meal 2,000 - 4,000
Maize, yellow 17
Maize gluten meal 175 - 290
Marigold petal meal 7,000
Capsicum, Spanish 275
Seaweed 340 - 920
Yeast (Phaffia rhodozyma) 30 - 800
2. Animi!! PrQ!;h!cts
Capelin oil Mallotus villosus 6- 94
Copepod Calanus finmarchicus 39 - 84
Copepodoil Calanus finmarchicus 520
Crab. red Pleuroncodes planipes 100 - 160
Crab. red, oil extract Pleuroncodes planipes 1,500
Crab, vacuum dried Chinochetes opilio 5
Crab, freeze dried Geryon quinquedens 76
Crayfish. oil extract Procambrus clarkii 750
Crayfish. meal Procambrus clarkii 137
Krill Euphausia pacifica 100 - 130
Krill. co-dried with oil Euphausia pacifica 200
Krill. oil Euphausia pacifica 727
Krill Megannyctiphanes norvegica 46 - 93
Mackerel Scomber scomburs 6- 11
Shrimp Pandalus borealis 20 - 128
Shrimp, vacuum dried 1 Pandalus borealis 100
Shrimp, steam dried2 Pandalus borealis 192
Shrimp, oil Pandalus borealis 1,095

lStabilized with antioxidant; 2Preeze-dried caroteno protein

Biological Properties
Aquatic animals cannot bio-synthesise carotenoids de novo. They depend entirely on
feed for their supply of carotenoids{4. 16.48.57). During metabolism. carotenoids are either
converted into other carotenoids or are esterified, saponified, or bound to proteins or
glycerides. Utilisation and metabolic transformation of carotenoids are species specific.
Lower classes of animals are able to convert carotenoids to a far greater extent than e.g.
144 CHAPTER 16

birds and mammals(l6). The predominant carotenoids in wild salmonids are astaxanthin
and canthaxanthin which originate from the food they live on(25, 48), and are mainly from
zooplankton(35). The carotenoids in crustaceans are mainly from algae, where the original
carotenoid mainly occurs(32). Carotenoid levels in flesh of wild fish varies according
to prey, fish size, stage of maturity and specific pigment metabolism as e.g. for some
selected species(53):
• Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) 26-39 mglkg flesh
• Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschwytscha) 8-9 mglkg flesh
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 73 mglkg flesh
Astaxanthin is absorbed from the digestive tract of fish(40). In salmonids, absorption of
astaxanthin and canthaxanthin is 10 to 20 times better than that of lutein and zeaxanthin(43).
Apparent digestibility of carotenoids in salmonids is between 39 and 49%(53). Free asta-
xanthin is better absorbed than astaxanthin dipalmitate.
Apparent digestibility of canthaxanthin may be affected by antibiotic supplementation
of the feed and levels of dietary fat(9).
The metabolic pathways of astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are rather complex.
Invertebrates such as crustaceans, that feed on plant materials can convert some carotenoids
to astaxanthin and canthaxanthin(32). Aside from kuru rna prawn (Penaeus japonicus)
they are capable to directly deposit astaxanthin in their tissues and can transform
~-carotene and zeaxanthin to astaxanthin(57).
The present knowledge does not indicate that carotenoids are toxic when over-supplied.
The acute toxicity in the form of LDso is not uniform and differ between species and
form of administration (Table 16-02)(15).

Table 16-02: Acute toxicity of carotenoids(l5)

Species Fonn of administration LDso (mg/kg liveweight)

I. lH:w:otene
Rat i.m. more than 1,000
Dog oral more than 8,000
2. Canlh!lllanthin
Mouse oral 10,000
Dog oral more than 500

To meet consumers' demand for pigmented flesh and exoskeleton, aquaculture diets
are fortified with carotenoids(26).
Additional functions of carotenoids are: Enhancement of the immune system; ultraviolet
protection; Vitamin A precursor; increasing tolerance to environmental stress, necessary
in fecundity of broodstock and for better growth and survival(2S, 31,52).
The efficacy of carotenoids may be affected by certain factors such as:
• Pigment source, form and concentration
Diet composition
• Dietary fat content and quality
 FEED CAROTENOIDS 145

• Fish size and physiological state

State of sexual maturation
Genetic background

Carotenoid Stability in Cultured Fish and Crustacean

Carotenoids are labile to light, heat and oxygen. They may fade in flesh of aquatic
animals during storage and processing. The stability of carotenoids in salmonid flesh
under various processes such as cooking, canning, smoke-curing and storage conditions
is important in final product acceptability(lO, 37, 44). Fading of astaxanthin and canthaxanthin
in vacuum-packed rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fillets during cold storage cannot be
excluded(7, 36, 41).

Other Properties
Astaxanthin, zeaxanthin and canthaxanthin are Vitamin A precursors in aquatic animals,
The conversion rate into Vitamin A increases with the age and size of fish( 16,43).
Astaxanthin is also a powerful antioxidant!34), It protects biological membranes from
oxidative injury, e.g. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis nilotica )(23).
The antioxidant nature of a-carotene differs from the anti oxidative property of
Vitamin E because a-carotene is most effective at low oxygen pressures and a very
efficient single oxygen precursor(5).
In addition, salmonids having a higher content of astaxanthin are more resistant to
bacterial and fungal diseases( II) and carotenoids are direct precursors to convert fatty
acids to a salmon aroma(31.55).
The "blue disease" in farmed tiger prawns is attributed to the lack of astaxanthin(J7, 19).
Wild shrimps had 26.3 ppm of total carotenoid in the exoskeleton compared to 4.3 to
1.7 ppm in the "blue diseased" prawns. Low oxygen levels could deplete carotenoid
through enhanced fecal release(17).

16.3 Carotenoid Products

Major pigmenting substances used in feeds for cultured aquatic animals are:
Synthetic astaxanthin,
• Synthetic canthaxanthin,
• Yeast astaxanthin,
• Algal astaxanthin.
• Astaxanthin from crustacean wastes
For pigmenting properties of other feedstuffs such as krill meal and shrimp meal refer
to the respective chapters.

16.3.1 Synthetic Astaxanthin and Canthaxanthin

Description
Synthetic astaxanthin and canthaxanthin for feeding purposes are produced on an
industrial scale. The basic raw material for the synthesis is crude mineral oil of which
146 CHAPTER 16

intermediates such as acetone, acetylene and aldehyde are produced. In most cases the
starting material for the synthesis is ~-ionone(40).

Properties
Synthetic astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are chemically identical to the naturally occurring
compounds in aquatic animals. Pigmentation strength of canthaxanthin is only half of that
of astaxanthin. Specifications for synthetic carotenoids, astaxanthin and canthaxanthin
are in Table 16-03.

Table 16-03: Specification of synthetic carotenoids l

Astaxanthin Canthaxanthin

Carotenoid content min. % 8.0 10.0

Loss of drying max. % 8.0 8.0
Appearance violet-brown to violet-red, red-violet, free
free flowing powder flowing powder
Fineness2 No. 20 % 100 100
No. 40 min. % 90 90
No. 10 max. % 15 15
Shelf-lifel months 12 36

IData from the manufacturers; 2U.S. standard sieves; JIn the unopened container

Feeding Value

Fishes: Pigmentation of salmonids changes throughout life. Generally, fingerlings have

limited capacity for carotenoid deposition in the flesh, while significant amounts are
deposited in the skin(48). The carotenoid concentration in the skin of e.g. immature rainbow
trout increased until week 49 and decreased thereafter(3).
Redness is normally higher for astaxanthin-pigmented flesh than for canthaxanthin-
pigmented flesh(38). The effect of water salinity on carotenoid concentration in rainbow
trout depends most probably on the pigment concentration in the feed. At higher levels
of astaxanthin (50 mg/kg) and canthaxanthin (100 mglkg), respectively, the water salinity
had no effect on the carotenoid retention(38) while at lower levels of both synthetic
pigmenters 25 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg, respectively, the carotenoid concentration was
higher in freshwater than in seawaterl49).
In salmonids, water temperature did not signifcantly affect total retention of astaxanthin.
However, the skin accumulated more carotenoids at 5°C than 15°C water temperature(50).
The effect of carotenoids in reproduction showed that sexually mature rainbow trout
females retained about four times more total carotenoids than males after feeding of
astaxanthin and canthaxanthin at levels of 100 mglkg each for 140 days. Females deposit
carotenoids predominantly in the gonads while males show lipid levels in the skin{3}.
 FEED CAROTENOIDS 147

Aside from the efficacy of synthetic astaxanthin and cantaxanthin on their deposition
in the flesh and skin and the effect on reproduction, the carotenoids also promote growth
and good feed conversion of salmonids(3, /2,49>.
The positive effect of carotenoids on the reproduction of salmonids is particularly
pronounced in eggs exposed to sunlight and kept at elevated water temperature or at low
oxygen content of water(l6>, The number of total eggs doubled when 40 mg/kg canthax-
anthin were fed to rainbow trouts and the portion of non-fertile eggs was only 0.1 % com-
pared to 4.1 % in the control(l2>. There is a positive relation between egg mortality and
egg astaxanthin content in rainbow trout before hatching (32). With increasing astaxanthin
content in the egg, the survival before hatching increases (Table 16-04)128>.

Table 16-04: Relation between egg mortality and egg astaxanthin content in rainbow
trout (Salrno gairdneri)(28)

Astaxanthin Mortality of eggs

content of eggs before hatching
Egg colour mg/kg %

Bright 1.7 13.2

Less bright 1.3 16.3
Pale traces 24.4
Very pale 0 36.4

Crustaceans
Pigmentation of crustaceans is very complex and influenced by many factors (Figure 16-01).
The main inherent carotenoids in tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) exoskeletons are
astaxanthin, astaxanthin esters and ~-carotene( /9). They are deposited mainly in the head
and shells with the exception of farmed tiger prawns where 113 of astaxanthin is deposiled
in the flesh (Table 16-05)(2).
Feeding tiger prawns with increasing levels of astaxanthin and cantaxanthin for two
months, improved their pigmentation. Astaxanthin was more effective than canthaxanthin
or other carotenoids in pigmenting the prawns (Table 16-07)129>.

Table 16-05: Distribution of astaxanthin in shrimp (%)(2)

Flesh Shell Head

Tiger prawn (wild) 13.2 47.2 39.6

Tiger prawn (farmed) 32.4 43.7 23.9
Kuruma prawn 12.2 25.0 62.8
Southern velvet shrimp 13.6 28.8 57.0
148 CHAPTER 16

PIGMENTATION

I
I I 1
PIGt.'ENTS FEED ANIMAL ~NVIRONMENT DISEASES

Amount Ingredients Species Culture Nutritional

System
Type lS!ruclUre Composition Genetics Soil Bacterial
Quality Infections
Form Manufacture QeveIopmental Water Vibriosis
S1age Quality
Stability Quality Metabolism Illumination fn~1S
t- Bioavailability Feed Sex Seasonal Viral
Intake/FCR Variations Infections
Administration Taroe!
Period TIssue Porasitation
LPoisonings
Figure 16-01. Factors that influence pigmentation in crustaceans(da,ajrom.- 25).

Contrary to observations in salmonids, in shrimps (Palaemon serratus) the variation

of the water temperature affects the efficacy of carotenoids(54).
Similar to fish, females of crustaceans like the sand crab (Emerita analoga) contain
higher levels of carotenoids than males(J4). The reproductive performance of tiger prawn
broodstock fed carotenoids alone (astaxanthin) or in combination with natural carotenoid
in the form of the green mussel (Perna viridis) will improve. Not only significantly more
eggs are produced but also hatched and the metamorphosis into the postlarval stage
is greaterl30• 42 ).
In kuruma prawns, it was demonstrated that survival rate is not only improved when
carotenoids are in the diet but the survival rate is also positively correlated with pigment
concentration in the diet. Levels with more than 100 mg carotenoid may have a negative
effect on growth rates (Table 16-06)(8). In tiger prawns, growth rates improved at the
higher levels of carotenoids and feed conversion gets better as the carotenoid content
of the diet increases (Table 16-07)(29).

Table 16-06: Survival and weight gain of kuruma prawns (Penaeus japonicus) fed diets containing various
pigment sources at different levels (mglkg)(B)

Astaxanthin 50 100 200

fl-carotene 50 100 200
Algal meal 100
Control 0.9

Survival % 87 77 63 57 40 53 40 50
Weight gain g 3.6 4.0 3.7 3.7 5.7 5.0 8.2 0.9
 FEED CAROTENOIDS 149

Table 16-07: Pigmentation efficacy of astaxanthin in tiger prawns (Penaues monodon)

(Feeding period: 2 months)(34)

Carotenoid level in ... Visual Feed

scoring I conversion
Diet Whole prawn
mglkg mg/kg 1:

Control o 3.17 4.0 4.83

Astaxanthin 25 8.02 3.0 3.72
50 8.75 2.5 3.25
75 10.80 2.0 2.89
100 15.18 1.0 2.33

IVisual scoring of boiled prawns (1=greyish brown: 2=dark violet; 3=light violet; 4=blue)

16.3.2 Yeast Astaxanthin

Description
The yeast Phaffia rhodozyma is of commercial interest as a natural supplier of astaxanthin.
Phaffia rhodozyma was isolated from trees in Japan, Alaska and the former Soviet Union
and astaxanthin was identified as the major carotenoid pigment in the yeast(20).

Properties
Cultured wild strains of Phaffia rhodozyma were found to contain 30 to 800 mcg unes-
terified astaxanthin per g yeast-dry matter. The wide range of the astaxanthin content
depends on the method of culture. The chemical composition of Phaffia rhodozyma is
listed in Table 16-08. Yeast has a well balanced essential amino acid profile!20). Its protein
quality improves when supplemented with methionine. The high fat content may promote
absorption of carotenoid pigments.
Mutant strains of Phaffia rhodozyma that produce up to ten-times as much astaxanthin
as wild strains have been isolated(1). In industrial fermentations, yields of 2,000 to 3,000 mg
astaxanthin per kg yeast are produced in four to seven days!2o. 33). The commercial yeast
astaxanthin can be used at a rather low level. Often an antioxidant is added to prevent
oxidation of astaxanthin during processing and storage(33).

Table 16-08: Chemical composition (%) of Phaffia rhodozyma compared to that

of brewer's yeast!2l)

Phaffia rhodozyma Brewer's yeast

Crude protein 30.1 54.4

Carbohydrates 40.3 33.4
Lipids 17.0 4.0
Ash 5.6 6.5
Astaxanthin 0.06 o
150 CHAPTER 16

Feeding Value
Pigmentation trials were carried out in rainbow trout with Phaffia rhodozyma prepared
by various treatments showed that the entire enzymatic removal of yeast cell wall is
superior to all other forms of treatment. The pigmentation was stable for several months.
There were no differences between yeast astaxanthin and synthetic astaxanthin but the
consistency of the pigmentation of fish fed yeast astaxanthin was more uniform than that
achieved with the synthethic astaxanthin(21).
Yeast astaxanthin is particularly deposited in the carapaces of the lobster (Homarus
americanus) when fed a preparation of Phaffia rhodozyma!22).

16.3.3 Algal Astaxanthin

Description
Most algae are sources of carotenoids. The green algae, Haematococcus, can be found
in inland waters(l8). The microalgae accumulates significant quantities of astaxanthin,
particularly in the spore stage of its life cycle and is primarily present as esters of
various fatty acids(45). As an effective pigment source in poultry diets, meals from the
sewage-grown algae Chlorella and Micaractinum are used(27).

Properties
The biomass of Haematococcus pluvialis is a spray-dried free-flowing powder. Spores
have to be disrupted to increase the bioavailability of astaxanthin. At least 60% of
the cells should be completely disrupted to obtain good pigmentation results(45).

Feeding Value
Feeding of astaxanthin from micro-algae (Haematococcus pluvialis) to rainbow trout for
100 days resulted in significant deposition of total carotenoids and astaxanthin as well as
the visual enhancement of flesh colouration in rainbow trouts (Table 16-09).

Table 16-09: Deposition of pigmenters in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) flesh fed
for 100 days with algal astaxanthin(45)

Algal astaxanthin:
- intact spores % 2.7
- distrupted spores % 2.7
Synthetic astaxanthin % 5.0
Astaxanthin in the feed mglkg 0 40 40 40

Pigmentation of flesh:
- Astaxanthin mcglg 0.01 3.65 2.13 0.82
- Carotenoids mcglg 0.17 3.46 2.05 0.84
- Colour score I 1.0 4.9 3.6 2.2
Pigment levels in the skin2 mcglg 0.81 11.24 9.53 4.56

I 1 =no visual pigment; 8 =maximum red; 2total carotenoid (spectro-photometric)

 FEED CAROTENOIDS 151

There were no significant differences in the growth of the fish. Best flesh colouration was
obtained with the synthetic astaxanthin (positive control) followed by disrupted spores
and intact spores. Since intact spores are poorly digested, only algal astaxanthin from
disrupted spores is a suitable pigmenterf45).
Algal astaxanthin from Dunaliella salina is not as pigmentation-effective as synthetic
astaxanthin and /3-carotene carotenoids (Table 16-06)18).

16.3.4 Astaxanthin from Crustacean Wastes

Description
Discards from crustacean processing contain useful polymers, carotenoid pigments
such as astaxanthin which is the most common and other components that are biologi-
callyactive(6).
Shrimp heads, shrimp meals, red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes), crawfish (Procambarus
clarkii) and lobster wastes are sources of astaxanthin which are used as pigmenter in
aquaculture feeds(l3, 47, 51).
Various oils such as soybean and fish oils are used in the astaxanthin extraction from
freshly ground crustacean waste resulting in a significant concentration in the oil.
Astaxanthin levels in the oil phase vary in different crustacean meals (Figure 16-02) and
is highest in crawfish waste .

-,9
01
.210

180
01
..§ 150
fj
;:
f 120
1_ 90
D
D
c:
:E 60
1:
~ 30
<2 L - I_ _ _ _ ~
o 2 3
Stages of el\traction

Figure J 6-02. Astaxanthin levels in the oil phase from various crustacean meals (re-<kawn from, 32).
152 CHAPTER 16

Properties
Carotenoids from crustacean wastes are unstable. Valuable active components may be
derived from crustacean wastes only if they were carefully handled and stored prior to
processing. Degradation occurs during the first 15 minutes of extraction (Figure 16-O1)146).
The addition of an antioxidant reduces carotenoid losses during processing substantially.
Carotenoid extracts properly stored are stable for at least six months(46}.

Feeding Value
Feeding coho salmon oil extract of red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes) showed that the
amount of carotenoid deposited in the flesh of the fish was related to the carotenoid
of the diet and to the weight of the fish. Salmon fed with 9.0 mg carotenoid/l00 g diet
from red crab astaxanthin contained significantly more carotenoids than those fed 3.0 mg
carotenoid/l00 g diet (Figure 16-03)146).

%
50

-
~
::s
0 45
0
tJ
40 ~Omg

--
+J
s::G)
35 6.0mg
G)
tJ 30 .
~
G)

0 25
+J
'0 20
0
0
CI
15
-'=
+l
.~ 10
:I
.c 5
fIl
.~

rs.
0
200 400 EOO 800 I)()() 1200 1400
Cumulative carotenoid units

Figure 16·03. Percentage of fish with good to excellent colour after 120 days of feeding 3.0, 6.0 and 9.0 mg
carotenoids per 100 grams feed(dara from, 46).
 FEED CAROTENOIDS 153

16.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

A certain quantity of carotenoids is required in the feed to produce the desired flesh
and/or exoskeleton colour of aquatic animals. This quantity is comprised of the inherent
carotenoid content of the ingredients of the completed feed (Table 16-01) and the added
carotenoids such as synthetic astaxanthin and cantaxanthin. The higher the level of
inherent carotenoids, less supplemental carotenoids is needed.
The deposition of carotenoids in the organism is cumulative. Fortifying feeds with
carotenoids for the entire production period requires lower inclusion rates, but higher
inclusion levels are needed when they are supplemented only to the finisher feed.
A guideline for supplementation of carotenoids in aquaculture feeds is in Table 16-10.

Table 16-10: Guideline for the application of carotenoids to aquaculture feeds

Wanted astaxanthin Inclusion rate

Content in the feed
mglkg

Synthetic astaxanthin 50 to 100 mglkg

Synthetic cantaxanthin 50 to 100 mglkg
Yeast astaxanthin I 30 1.0%
50 1.7%
70 2.3%
100 3.3%
Algal astaxanthin from 40 2.7%
disrupted spores 60 4.1%
80 5.4%
100 6.8%
Astaxanthin from red crab 60 1,020 mglkg
crustacean waste 90 1,550 mglkg

lassumes that the yeast contains 53,000 mg astaxanthinlkg

16.5 Legal Aspects and Precautions

Legal Aspects
The use of pigmenting substances in animal nutrition is controlled in the European Union
by EU-Directive 70/524 (Table 16-11). In the USAcanthaxanthin is considered as a nature-
identical synthetic carotenoid and is exempted from certification. While not carcinogenic, it
may cause changes in the liver and retina thus, the "Acceptable Daily Intake" (ADI) was
not extended by JECFA (Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives) in 1990.
The permission to use carotenoid products in feeds for aquatic animals may differ
from country to country and local regulations have to be observed.
154 CHAPTER 16

Table 16-11: Pigmenters approved by EU-Authorities for the use in feeds for aquatic animals(56)

EWGNo. Name of substance Approved for... ppml Remarks

E 161 g Canthaxanthin Salmons 80 Not to be used before the age of six

C4<)HS P2 Trouts 80 months. Mixing of canthaxanthin
and astaxanthin is permitted as long
as 100 ppm in the completed feed are
not exceeded
Ornamental fish 80

E 161 j Astaxanthin Salmons 100 Not to be used before the age of six
C4<)HS P4 Trouts 100 months. Mixing of canthaxanthin
and astaxanthin is permitted as long
as 100 ppm in completed feed are
not exceeded
Ornamental fish 100

Imax. inclusion rate in diets

Precautions
Excess of carotenoids in the diet may cause an undesirable colour in the fish, e.g_ a
concentration of 0.6 g carotenoid/g flesh can cause yellow colour of the flesh of channel
catfish which is undesirable(26!.

16.6 References

1. An, G.K.; Schuman, D.B.; Johnson, E.A. (1989): Isolation of Phaffia rodozyma mutants with increased
astaxanthin content. Appl. Environ. Microbio., 55., 116.
2. Anonymous (1992): Technical Q and A. Infofish International., 6., 55.
3. Bjerkeng, B.; Storebakken, T.; liaaen-Jensen, S. (1992): Pigmentation of rainbow trout from start feeding
to sexual maturation. Aquaculture, 108., 333-346.
4. Brinchmann, H.J. (1967): Quoted from: Meyers, S.P.; Chen, H.M. (1982).
5. Burton, G. W (1989): Antioxidant action of carotenoids., J. Nutr., 119., 116.
6. Chen, H.M.; Meyers, S.P. (1982): Extraction of astaxanthin pigment from crawfish waste using a soya oil
process. J. Food Sci., 47., 892-896 & 900.
7. Chen, H.M.; Meyers, S.P.; Hardy, R. W; Biede, S.L. (1984): Color stability of astaxanthin pigmented
rainbow trout under various packaging conditions. J. Food Sci., 49., 1337.
8. Chien Y.-H.; Jeng, S.c. (1992): Pigmentation of kuruma prawn, Penaeus japonicus Bate, by various
pigment sources and levels and feeding regimes. Aquaculture, 102., 333-346.
9. Choubert, G.; Noue, J. de /a; Blanc, J.M. (1991): Apparent digestibility of cantaxanthin in rainbow trout
effect of dietary fat level, antibiotics and number of Pyloric caeca. Aquaculture, 99., 323.
10. Choubert, G; Blanc, J.M.; Courvalin, C. (1992): Muscle carotenoid content and colour of farmed
 FEED CAROTENOIDS 155

rainboow trout fed astaxanthin or canthaxanthin as affected by cooking and smoke-curing procedures.
Int. J. Food Sci. and Tech., 27., 277-284.
II. Czeczuga, B. (1979): Carotenoids in fish. XIX. Carotenoids in the eggs of Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum).
Hydrologia, 63., 45-47.
12. Deufel, J. (1965): Quoted from: Hencken, H. (1992)
13. D'Abramo, L.R.; Baum, N.A.; Bordner, CE.; Conklin, D.E. (1983): Carotenoids as a source of pigmen-
tation in juvenile lobsters fed a purified diet. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 40., 699.
14. Gilchrist, B.M.; Lee, WL. (1972): Carotenoid pigments and their possible role in reproduction in the sand
crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpsosn, 1857). Compo Biochem. Physio!., 425., 263-294.
IS. Hanck, A.B.; Kuenzle, CC; Rehm, WF. (1991): Vitamin A. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin/Germany.
16. Hencken, H. (1992): Biological properties of feed carotenoids. Feed Magazine, (2), 25-28.
17. Heralde, F.; Lean, M.; Reyes, A.; Coloso, R. (1994): A preliminary study in the effect of hypoxia on
carotenoid metabolism in tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Proc. National Seminar-Workshop
Fish Nutrition and Feeds, I to 2 June, SEAFDEC/AQD, Tigbauan, IloilolThe Philippines.
18. Hertrampf, J. W (1994): Schweden und seine Eierversorgung. Deutsche Gefliigelwirtschaft und
Schweineproduktion, 46., (50),11-12.
19. Howell, B.K.; Matthews, A.D. (1991): Quoted from: Meyers, S.P. (1994).
20. Johnson, E.A. (1989): A pigment source in salmonid feed. Feed Management, 40., 18-21.
21. Johnson, E.A.; Villa, T.G.; Lewis, M.J. (1980): Phaffia rhodozyma as an astaxanthin source for salmonid
diets. Aquaculture, 20., 123.
22. Johnson, E.A.; Conklin, D.E.; Lewis, M.J. (1977): The yeast Phaffia rhodozyma as a dietary pigment
source for salmonids and crustaceans. 1. Fish. Res. Board Canada, 34., 2417.
23. Katsuyama, M.; Matsuno, T. (1988): Quoted from Meyers, S.P. (1984).
24. Kurunajeewa, H.; Hughes, R.J.; McDonals, W.M.; Shenstone, F.S. (1984): A review of factors influencing
pigmentation. WPSA Journal, 40., 52-65 ..
25. Latscha, T. (1991): Carotenoids in aquatic animal nutrition. Proc. Aquacult. Feed Processing and Nutr.
Workshop. Thailand and Indonesia, Singapore, 68-79.
26. Lee, P.H. (1987): Carotenoids in the culture of channel catfish. Ph.D. Diss., Auburn Univ., Auburn,
AlabamalU.S.A.
27. Lipstein, B.; Talpaz, H. (1984): Sewage-grown algae as a source of pigments for broilers. British Poultry
Sci., 25., 159-165.
28. Longinova, T.A. (1967): Quoted from: Hencken, H. (1992).
29. Menasveta, P.; Choosuwan. J.; Buhler, f.f.; Schier!, D. W; Latscha. T. (1992): Effect of dietary astaxanthin
and cantaxanthin on the pigmentation of giant tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) Fabricius. Proc. 3rd
Asian Fish. Forum., 26 to 30 Oct., Singapore, 717-720.
30. Menasveta, P.; Choosuwan. J.; Piyattiratitivorakul. S.; Fast. A. W; Latscha. T. (1992): Effect of dietary
astaxanthin on gonadal maturation and spawning of giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon). Proc. 3rd
Asian Fish. Forum. 26 to 30 Oct., Singapore. 713-716.
31. Meyers. S.P. (1994): Developments in world aquaculture, feed formulations, and role of carotenoids.
Pure and App!. Chern., 66., 1069-1076.
32. Meyers. S.P.; Chen, H.M. (1982): Astaxanthin and its role in fish culture. Proc. Warmwater Fish Culture
Workshop. Special Pub!. No.3, Charleston, South Carolina. 154-164.
33. Meyers, S.P.; Sandersonn. G. W (1992): Natural pigments for salmon feeds. Feed Management, 43 .• 12-20.
34. Miki, W (1991): Quoted from: Meyers, S.P. (1994).
35. NRC (1993): Nutrient requirement of fishes. National Research Council, Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington
156 CHAPTER 16

D.C.ruSA.
36. No, H.K.; Storebakken, T. (1990): Pigmentation of rainbow trout with astaxanthin at different water
temperatures. Aquaculture, 97., 203-216.
37. No, H.K.; Storebakken, T. (1990): Color stability of rainbow trout fillets during frozen storage. J. Food Sci.,
56., 969-972, 984.
38. No, H.K.; Storebakken, T. (1992): Pigmentation of rainbow trout with astaxanthin and cantaxanthin in
freshwater and saltwater. Aquaculture. 101., 123-134.
39. Olson, J.A. (1989): Pro-vitamin A function of carotenoids: The conversion of ~-carotene into Vitamin A.
J. Nutr., 119., 105-111.
40. Olson, I.A. (1984): Vitamin A. In: Machlin, L.1. (ed.): Handbook of vitamins. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York and Basle.
41. Pozao, R.; Lavety, I.; Love, R.M. (1988): The role of dietary ~-tocopherol (Vitamin E) in stabilising
the canthaxanthin and lipids of rainbow trout muscle. Aquaculture, 73., 165.
42. Quinitio, E.T.; Parado-Estepa, F.D.; Millamena, O.M.; Biona. H. (1994): Reproductive performance
of captive Penaeus monodon fed various sources of carotenoids. Pres. at the National Seminar-Workshop
on Fish Nutrition and Feeds, 1 to 2 June. SEAFDEC/AQD, Tigbauan, IloilolThe Philippines.
43. Schiedt, F.I.; Leuenberges, Vecchi, M.; Glinz. E. (1985): Absorption, retention and metabolic transfor-
mations of carotenoids in rainbow trout, salmon and chicken. Pure App!. Chern., 57., 685-692.
44. Skrede, G.; Storebakken, T.; Naes. T. (1990): Color evaluation in raw, baked and smoked flesh of rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed astaxanthin or canthaxanthin. J. Food Sci., 55., 1574-1578.
45. Sommer, T.R.; Potts, w.T.; Morrissy, N.M. (1991): Utilisation of microalgal astaxanthin by rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture, 94., 79-88.
46. Spinelli, I.; Mahnken, C. (1978): Carotenoid deposition in pen-reared salmonids fed diets containing oil
extracts of red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes). Aquaculture, 13., 213-223.
47. Spinelli, I. (1982): Quoted from: Chen,H.M.; Meyers, S.P (1983).
48. Storebakken, T.; No, H.K. (1992): Pigmentation of rainbow trout. Aquaculture, 100., 209-229.
49. Storebakken, T.; Choubert, G. (1991): Flesh pigmentation of rainbow trout fed astaxanthin and cantha-
xanthin at different feeding rates in freshwater and saltwater. Aquaculture, 95., 289-295.
50. Storebakken, T.; Foss, P; Huse, 1.; Wandsvik, A.; Lea, T.B. (1986): Carotenoids in diets for salmonids.
III. Utilisation of canthaxanthin from dry and wet diets by Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout and sea trout.
Aquaculture, 51., 245-255.
51. Thibodeaux, PD. (1981): Crawfish processing waste as a source of astaxanthin in aquatic diet formulations.
M.S. Thesis, Dept. of Food Science, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, L.A.
52. Torrissen, 0.1. (1989): Biological activities of carotenoids in fishes. Proc. Third Intern. Symp. Feeding
and Nutrition in Fish., TobalJapan. 387-399.
53. Torrissen, 0.1.; Hardy, R. w.; Shearer, K.O. (1989): Pigmentation of salmonids-carotenoids deposition
and metabolism critical review. Aquat. Sci., 1., 209-225.
54. Vincent, M. (1989): Influence of water temperature on carotenoids and carotenoids metabolism in Palaemon
serratus (Pennant) (Crustacea: Decapoda). Biochem syst. Ecology, 17., 319-322.
55. Waagboe, R.; Sandness, K.; Torrissen. 0.1.; Sandrin, A.; Lie, O. (1993): Quoted from: Meyers, S.P (1994).
56. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, I. (1974): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
57. Yamada, S.; Tanaka, Y.; Sameshima, M.; Ito, Y. (1990): Pigmentation of prawn (Penaeusjaponicus) with
carotenoids. I. Effect of prawn dietary astaxanthin, ~-carotene and canthaxanthin on pigmentation.
Aquaculture, 87., 323-330.
 17. FEED YEAST

17.1 Rationale

The term "yeast" is derived from the old English word "gist" and the German word
"gischt" which refers to fermentation. The ancient Egyptians used yeast for making
bread, beer and wine(47).
Yeast is the name for any of the various single celled Ascomycetes fungi in which
little or no mycelium develops and ordinarily reproduces by budding. Yeast live on sugar
solutions, and ferment sugar to form alcohol and carbon-dioxide. It is used in various
fermenting industries as well as food and medicine for man.
There are a total of 39 genera of yeast, representing 363 different species, of which
178 species are classified as "true yeast" and 185 species as "false yeast"(6). One of
the most prominent yeast genera is the genus Saccharomyces of which the species
Saccharomyces cerevisiae has the widest applicability. More than 50 strains of this
species have been developed and are used as brewer's yeast, baker's yeast, wine yeast
and others (Figure 17-01).

Figure 17-01. Microscopic photos of spray-dried brewer's yeast (left) and molasses yeast (right).
158 CHAPTER 17

The "Association of American Feed Control Officials, Inc." (AAFCO) classifies yeast
for feeding purposes as:
• Inactive or dead yeast
• Primary yeast
• Brewer's yeast
• Lactic yeast
• Grain distillers' yeast
• Molasses yeast
• Torula yeast
• Alkane (petroleum) yeast
• Active or live yeast
• Baker's yeast
• Yeast culture.

17.2 Inactive Yeast

17.2.1 Definition and Manufacture

Any type of fresh yeast cannot be stored. The wet material has to be spray-dried or
drum-dried. In the dried form inactive yeast is a noble feedstuff for aquaculture feed.

Brewer's Yeast
Brewer's yeast is one of the by-products of beer brewing. About 1.5 kg dried brewer's
yeast is obtained from 100 kg barley brewed into beer.
Yeast of the type Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Saccharomyces calsbergensis is added
to the wort to activate fermentation. After the fermentation is completed, the yeast dies
off and settles to the bottom of the brewing vat. The yeast is separated from the crude
beer by centrifugation, washed free of beer, pasteurised, plasmolysed by heat and dried
at a relatively high temperature(56). Drum-dried yeast has to be ground. The cell content
is made available by plasmolysis. One gram of yeast contains billions of cells.
A certain degree of bitterness of brewer's yeast is caused by hops and may affect
its palatability (Table 17-01)(20). The bitter tasting hop resins and tannins absorbed on
the surface of the yeast cells can be removed by washing with an alkaline solution(55)).
The resulting product is named "debittered brewer's yeast".

Table 17-01: Properties of inactive yeasts

Property Brewer's yeast Molasses yeast Lactic yeast Torula yeast

Colour pale brown gray to dark brown creamy to light brown light yellow

Taste typical yeast (bitter) soft like cheese soft, after taste
not bitter
Odour typical for cheese pleasant like cheese typical for cheese
 FEED YEAST 159

Molasses Yeast
Molasses yeast is a strain of the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and is a by-product
of industrial alcohol manufacture from sugar-beet or sugar-cane molasses fermentation.
Molasses yeast can also be a condensate of baker's yeast cells propagated on molasses(56).
The yeast is separated from its culture medium by centrifugation, filtered and spray- or
drum-dried. Drum-dried yeast has to be ground(27).

Lactic yeast
Lactic yeast, Kluyveromyces lactis and Kluyveromyces fracilis, species of the genus
Saccharomyces, is grown on whey and liquid wastes of milk processing. After fermenta-
tion is completed the yeast is separated from the fermentation medium by centrifugation.
The crude yeast is washed to remove all fermentation impurities. To burst the cell walls,
the yeast is plasmolysed, pasteurised and spray-dried(l8).

Torula Yeast
Torula yeast, also called fodder yeast, belongs to the genus Candida which is grown
specifically for animal feed. Torulopsis uti/is is a yeast-like fungi that reproduces by
budding and grows rapidly. Torula yeast is cultivated predominantly on wood saccharides,
a waste liquor from the production of pulp for paper manufacture. It can be grown also
on citrus pulp, molasses and other organic wastes. Torula yeast cultured on cellulose
waste waters may contain up to 10% ligninsulphonates(56. 67)
Candida ingens, a yeast high in protein and ashes has been developed in Australia for
the treatment of animal wastes(20).

Alkane Yeast
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons of the methane series. They are components of most
mineral crude oils. Strains of yeast, like Candida lipolytica have been selected because
they can be cultivated on mineral crude oil. Colloquially, alkane yeasts are named
"single cell protein". This is incorrect because alkane yeast contains not only protein but
also other nutrients. Petro-protein and petroleum yeast are other names for this type
of yeastf22).

17.2.2 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
Yeast is both a protein and an energy source. Nucleic acid nitrogen, mostly in the form of
ribonucleic acid, constitutes about 20% of the protein in the yeastf62). Glutathione, a peptide
of yeast cells is also found in yeast. Crude fibre content is low but ash content appears
to be high (Table 17-02).
The methionine content is low (Table 17-03). When compared to chicken egg protein,
which is considered an excellent protein source for animals, the methionine and cystine
content of torula yeast has an index (based on chicken egg protein) of only 48 (max. 100)
which is seriously limiting(50). Torula yeast has also 0.5% linoleic acid (l8:2n-6)(20).
160 CHAPTER 17

Table 17-02: Mean chemical composition of different types of inactive, dry yeasts (as fed)

Brewer's Torula Molasses Lactic Alkane

yeast yeast yeast yeast yeastS
(/6.10.11. (10.53. «) «) (8.71.74.+)

24.50.53. +) +)

Dry matter % 92.2 92.3 94.8 91.8 94.0

Crude protein % 46.3 45.9 42.5 48.1 66.0
Crude fat % 1.7 4.2 2.8 4.4 0.9
Ash % 6.8 8.1 8.8 8.3 7.3
Crude fibre % 2.4 2.2 0.5 1.0 0.1
N -free extract % 35.0 31.9 40.2 30.0 19.7

(+) inclusive of manufacturers data

Table 17-03: Essential amino acid profile of different types of inactive dry yeasts (g/16 g N)

Brewer's Torula Molasses Lactic Alkane

yeast' yeast' yeast' yeast' yeast'

Arginine 2.22 3.59 2.27 2.40 5.18

Histidine 1.38 1.57 1.11 0.95 1.64
Isoleucine 2.50 3.11 2.70 2.28 3.17
Leucine 3.61 4.98 3.89 3.40 3.30
Lysine 3.61 4.99 3.76 3.60 6.15
Methionine 0.70 0.91 0.84 0.80 0.77
Phenylalanine 2.07 3.17 2.46 1.75 2.02
Threonine 2.56 3.38 2.82 2.33 3.09
Tryptophan 0.70 0.82 0.59 0.55 0.96
Valine 2.83 3.75 2.97 2.35 3.45

I for references see Table 17-02

The minerals are embedded in the yeast cell and are available in an assimilable form
(Table 17-04). The sodium content is low but does no need to be supplemented in diets
for sea and brackish water cultured animals(l2).
Yeast is a major natural source particularly of B-vitamins(20. 50) which are stable and
readily available(53). Brewer's yeast is very rich in Vitamin Bl (Table 17-05). The vitamins
are in conjugated form as they occur in nature, hence are less likely to leach into the watet53).
 FEED YEAST 161

Table 17-04: Macro and trace mineral contents of different types of inactive dry yeasts

Brewer's Torula Molasses Lactic Alkane

yeast l yeast l yeast l yeast l yeast l

Calcium % 0.25 0.45 0.45 0.35 0.46

Phosphorus % 1.26 1.42 0.65 1.45
Sodium % 0.15 0.02 1.58 0.75
Potassium % 1.66 1.60 2.75 2.05
Magnesium % 0.20 0.16 0.20 0.15
Chlorine % 0.07 0.02 0.10
Sulphur % 0.42 0.55 0.25
Manganese mglkg 18.18 10.4 7.0 0.5
Iron mglkg 143.40 134.10 92.50 60.0
Zinc mglkg 48.20 96.10 370.10 45.00
Copper mglkg 22.40 13.20 37.00 25.00
Selenium mglkg 0.46 1.00

1 for references see Table 17-02

Table 17-05: Vitamin contents of different types of inactive, dry yeasts (1,000 g, as fed)

Brewer's Torula Molasses Lactic

yeast l yeast l yeast l yeast l

VitaminE mg 3.80 58.90 45.00

VitaminB l mg 122.30 5.13 5.25 15.50
VitaminB 2 mg 33.50 39.20 40.00 47.59
Vitamin B6 mg 33.30 17.27 24.90 9.75
VitaminB l2 mcg 71.40 3.90 10.00
Vitamin C mg 700.00
Biotin mcg 743.20 660.00 680.00
Folic acid mg 9.81 9.82 25.75
Nicotinic acid mg 377.40 515.47 675.00 115.0
Panthotenic acid mg 81.70 54.30 49.00 95.00
Choline g 3.14 2.96 8.30
Inositol g 2.08 3.00

1 for references see Table 17-02

162 CHAPTER 17

The viability of the cells of active fresh and dry baker's yeast is high at after 10 hours
but much lower after 42 hours, particularly for dry yeast (Table 17-06).

Table 17-06: Properties of baker's yeast(43)

Fresh yeast Dry yeast

Dry matter % 29.0 90.0

Cell diameter 11 m 5.0 to 7.0 5.0 to 7.0
Cells per g nos. 1.10 x 10 10 3.08 X 1010
Vitality % 99.0 85.0
Cell viability:
- after 10 hours % 92.6 90.1
- after 42 hours % 62.9 37.4

Physiological Properties
The mean metabolisable and digestible energy differs insignificantly between Saccharo-
myces yeasts and torula yeast as found in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) (Table 17-07).

Table 17-07: Energy values of different inactive, dry yeasts in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)

Type of yeast Mean Range Reference

1. Metabolisable e!lerfl;):
(15,53,62,
Saccharomyces sp. kcal/kg 3,110 2,465 - 3,950
70.7/)
yeasts MJlkg 13.0 10.3 16.5
(53,71)
Torula yeast kcal/kg 3,326 3,090 - 3,362
MJlkg 13.5 12.9 14.1
2. Difl;!:~til!l!: !:ne!l:):
(16,62,70)
Saccharomyces sp. kcal/kg 3,436 2,723 - 4,116
(71)
yeasts MJlkg 14.4 11.4 17.2
(71)
Torula yeast kcal/kg 3,367
MJlkl 4.1

The apparent protein digestibility of yeast is generally high (Table 17-08). However,
the kind of treatment of yeast affects the digestibility. Disruption or homogenisation of
the yeast cell wall markedly increased the apparent digestibility of the yeast protein in
rainbow trout but energy digestibility was only slightly increase, indicating that salmonid
fishes have limited amounts of enzymes capable of digesting cell walls (Table 17-09),62).
 FEED YEAST 163

Table 17-08: Apparent digestibility (%) of inactive, dry yeasts by various fish species

Species Dry matter Crude protein Energy Reference

Mean Range Mean Range

I. Brewer's ~east

Salmonids 76.0 78.8 60.4 - 91.0 72.9 60.6 -84.2 (/5.16.34.66.70.71)

2. Torula ~~!!St
(701
Salmonids 82.3
3. Alkj!ne ~!<l!SI
(34)
Salmonids 91.6
(34)
Common carp 90.9

Table 17-09: Effect of Saccharomyces sp. treatment on the apparent

digestibility by rainbow trouts (Salmo gairtineri)(62)

Yeast treatment Apparent digestibility (%)

Crude protein Energy

Intact cells 63.2 62.6

Disrupted cells 84.7 68.6
Disrupted yeast without cell walls 80.5 77.0
Yeast nucleo-protein complex 83.4 69.5
Yeast protein isolate 87.3 70.5

The phosphorus of alkane yeast has an availability of 99% for the common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and 91 % for the rainbow trout(74!.
Brewer's dried yeast promotes the rate of phagacytosis in fish. Oral application of
brewer's dried yeast to rhesus monkeys significantly improved the resistance to seasonal
respiratory and enteritis infections, and in mice to chronic infections(4!.
Contrary to many mammals and avians, salmonids can use the nucleic acid (RNA)
nitrogen of yeast almost as efficiently as they use protein/amino acid nitrogen(62! because
of the presence of the hepatic enzyme "uricase"(40).
Brewer's yeast is particularly rich in glutathione. It is a common component of all cells.
The sulphurous tripetide glutathione, which is found in yeast, is an exogenous transporter
and contributes to most of the body's enzymatic reactions(58).

Other Properties
Brewer's dried yeast is also considered to be a source of UGP56) (see chapter 44).
164 CHAPTER 17

17.2.3 Feeding Value

17.2.3.1 Fishes

Saccharomyces Yeasts
Rainbow trout responded negatively to feed containing 5.0 to 15.0 brewer's yeast as
compared to the control fed solely with fresh herring (Clupea harengus)!59) or when
brewer's yeast was the primary source of protein (more than 25%). Meager growth was
associated with poor feed conversion!35. 49, 73). Yeast should be used in feeds for spawners
and as a source of B-vitamins for fingerlings!41, 53). Red sea bream (Chrysophrys major)
larvae were fed successfully with rotifers packed with yeast(44),
On the other hand, baker's yeast protein can replace up to 50% of the total protein in
the diet for the lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) without performance depressing effects,
if the yeast cell wall is disrupted to release the intracellular protein (Table 17-10)164).

Table 17-10: Differently treated dry baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) in the diet for the lake
trout (Savelinus namaycush)(6J)

Intact yeast % 32.4

Intact yeast l % 32.4
Intact yeast2 % 32.4
Disrupted yeast % 32.4
Disrupted yeast 1 % 32.4
Disrupted yeast2 % 32.4

Final weight g 12.9 12.0 11.2 11.1 12.6 12.1 12.8

Weight gain g 10.7 9.7 9.0 8.9 10.4 9.9 10.6
Feed conversion 1: 0.94 1.01 1.07 1.08 0.97 1.00 0.96

1 yeast washed with saline (0.9% NaCI in distilled H 20); 2 unwashed yeast

Alkane Yeast
Alkane grown yeast as a sole protein source in rainbow trout diets depressed growth.
But adding cystine and arginine enhanced fish growth while addition of methionine had
no effectllJ, 12, 51, 52, 77). A discolouration of the livers in the yeast-fed fish was also
observed(ll, 12, 77).
However, positive effects have been observed when 30 g rainbow trouts were fed with
alkane yeast as a sole protein source. Results were comparable to a fish meal diet as
the control (Table 17-11)!9). The combination of alkane yeast with other protein sources
in diets for rainbow trouts had no adverse effect on growth rate!3, 12. 20, 68, 69).
Increasing the levels of alkane yeast (25, 50, 75, 100%) as replacment for fish meal
in the diet for coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) (liveweight 30 g) caused a decline
in relative feed conversion from 95 to 90, 85 and 76%, respectively. Nevertheless, yeast
may replace 25% of fish meal without negatively affecting growth and feed conversion.
 FEED YEAST 165

Adding I-methionine to the yeast diets did not significantly improve performances
(Figure 17-02)(721.
Alkane yeast, Candida lipolytica, as a first sole nutrient for the coldwater vendace
(Coregonus albula) fry is a suitable first food. Survival rate was 22% better than that of
the control on natural food(81.

Table 17-11: Perfonnances of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) (initialliveweight: 30 g)

on diets with alkane yeast and fish meal as the sole protein source(9)

Fish meal Alkane yeast

Specific growth rate 1.36 1.30

PER (protein efficiency ratio) 1.91 2.01
NPU (net protein utilisation) 0.38 0.42
BV (biological value) 0.41 0.46

fiJ Wi,h added

Me'hionine

r
t-
~
0
0:
C)

W
> 45
t-
<1
.J
w 30
ex:

o 25 50 75 100
SuBSTITUTEO fOR FISHMEAlI%1

Figure 17-02. Replacement of fish meal by alkane yeast with and without I-methionine in diets for coho
salmon (Oncorhyncus kisutch)(72).

Other Yeasts
Feeding lactic yeast (Kluyveromyces fragilis) at a level of 1.0% notably improved
the growth of the yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) (Figure 17-03). Also eel fry
(Anguilla japonica) responded favourably on lactic yeast(301.
Inconsistent results were obtained when the yeasts Candida ulius and Endomycopsis
fibuliger grown on starch as replacement for animal protein, were fed at levels of 50%
and 67% to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)0 31.
166 CHAPTER 17

with lactic yeast

300

200 -

100

'f,
o 11 21 54 58
Trial period (days)

Figure 17-03. Development of the body weight of yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) after feeding lactic
yeast (data from(JO).

17.2.3.2 Crustaceans

Saccharomyces Yeasts
Larvae of the kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) and tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)
were fed the marine yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to obtain high survival rates,
particularly at the zoea stage(1o. 23). But the combination of yeast and several algae species
in varying proportions gave better survival rate than feeding yeast or algae alone(IOJ.
Replacing algae with active dry baker's yeast as feed for blue shrimp (Penaeus
stylirostris) larvae gave quite successful resuIts(48J.

Lactic yeast
Replacing fish meal by lactic yeast (Kluyveromyces fragilis) at a level of 13% in diets
for tiger prawns improved performances (Table 17-12)130J• Under field conditions in
Japan squid meal was replaced successfully by 10 to 15% lactic yeast in diets for
kuruma prawns(18J.
 FEED YEAST 167

Table 17-12: The effect of lactic yeast (Kluyveromyces fragilis) on

performances of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)(JO)

Lactic yeast % 13.0

Fish meal % 62.0 54.0
Daily weight gain g 0.5 1.2
Feed conversion 1: 4.80 1.96
Feed efficiency 0.21 0.51

17.2.3.3 Molluscs

Growth was severely retarded when more than 50% torula yeast was used in the diet for
bivalve molluscs in combination with the cultured algae Thalassiosira pseudonana or
lsochrysis galbana (Table 17-13)(.2· 19. 78). Brewer's yeast at levels of 2.0 to 5.0% in diets
for juvenile abalone of the genus Haliotis performed well but not as good as natural
food(4.2. 54. 65).

Table 17-13: Response of bivalves on algae and torula yeast and combinations thereof (parameter: final dry
weight of soft tissues [mgl; test period: 28 days)09)

Algae % 100 75 50 25 0
Torula yeast % 0 25 50 75 100
Argopecten bay scallop (Argapectan irradiants) mg 228.9 193.9 259.5 162.2 69.1
American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) mg 49.4 43.9 35.8 27.9 21.2
Hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) mg 23.2 21.8 21.4 17.5 11.0
Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) mg 168.1 146.1 144.9 87.3 55.3

The decline in growth with increasing levels of yeast is most probably due to the fact
that bivalves are less able to digest the yeast, particularly its cell waW2. 19). This finding
also corroborates the "assimilation efficiency" used as a parameter for determining
the diet's effectiveness (Table 17-14)12.29). Minor processing is needed to disrupt the yeast
cell wall to make the nutrients better available for utilisation by molluscs(21).

17.2.3.4 Zooplankton

In rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis) mass culture baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)

is used as a mono-diet to replace algae, the organism's natural food. Unexpected decrease
of production or suppressed growth of rotifers may be caused by nutrient deficiency of
the yeast and pollution of the water by the yeast itself1'36.37). The reproductive rate also
declines, if rotifers are fed on yeast only(44) .
168 CHAPTER 17

The response of rotifers to fresh baker's yeast is slightly better than to dry baker's
yeast. The former has higher vitality of the yeast cells and reduced sedimentation.
In general, the combination of baker's yeast with other components does not show
additional effects (Table 17-15)143).
The essential fatty acid composition of rotifers grown on fresh baker's yeast and algae
does not seem to meet the requirements of marine fish larvae, may be because the yeast
is an inadequate essential fatty acid source(l7. 25. 84). However, when baker's yeast is
grown on a medium supplemented with fish oil or cuttle fish liver oil, both of which are
rich in PUFA of the n-3-series, the PUFA content of rotifers is altered(8J).
One million rotifers are produced with a mean in-put of 1.l3 g dry baker's yeast
(variation: 0.73 to 2.55 g)(43).

Table 17-14: Assimilation efficiencyl (%) of the algae Isochrysis galbana and
torula yeast for the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) and
the hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria)f21

American oyster Hardc\am

Algae Yeast Algae Yeast

Organic matter 76.4 67.6 78.3 80.1

Carbohydrates 74.4 63.7 85.6 75.8
Crude protein 78.5 70.5 90.3 78.4

1 "Assimilation Efficiency" is a parameter to determine the effectiveness of a diet.

It is the difference between the ingested and egested quantity of the diet and is
similar to digestibility.

Table 17-15: Different preparations of baker's yeast on performances of the rotifer

Brachionus plicatilisl431

Type of preparation GRl PR2

Dry baker's yeast (control) 0.321 41.6

Fresh baker's yeast 0.331 43.6
Dry baker's yeast (activated)5 0.315 39.5
Dry baker's yeast + Vitamin Bl2 0.325 42.4
Dry baker's yeast + extract3 0.330 43.6

1 GR = popUlation growth rate of rotifer; 2 PR = production of rotifers per ml;

3 macro-algal extract with unspecified composition; 4 microencapsulated commercial
product; 5 with sugar
 FEED YEAST 169

17.3 Active Yeast

17.3.1 Definition and Production

Definition
The "Association of American Feed Control Officials, Inc." (AAFCO) have defined live
(active) yeast as follows:
"Yeast culture is the product composed of yeast and the media on which it was grown,
dried in such a manner as to preserve the fermenting activity of the yeast. The media
must be stated on the label."(32).
The major difference of yeast culture to inactive yeast and baker's yeast (an active
yeast, too) is its bio-regulating properties on the intestinal flora and possibly an
antagonistic effect towards pathogenic germs(38.39).
Yeast culture has a wide range of names as shown below:(32. 60).
Yeast feed,
• Live yeast feed,
Cereal yeast,
• Live cell yeast culture,
Special yeast culture,
• Active yeast culture,
Dried feed microbials.

Production
In the manufacture of yeast culture selected strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae alone
or in combination with Kluyveromyces Jragilis are used(5). Yeast cells used for yeast
culture have to be modified by "substrate induction" which changes the yeast cells from
sugar fermenters into cereal grains digesters(6). AAFCO recognises 43 different micro-
organisms for producing yeast culture(!' 60).
The manufacturing process of yeast culture, the ingredients used and their effectiveness
vary greatly. Cereals are the major substrate but other materials are also used. Three differ-
ent production methods are known(32):
Dry mixes of cereal grains and active dry yeast without culturing;
Culture of yeast and cereals which has varying degrees of fermentation and are
frequently dried at high temperatures killing the fermenting activities;
Yeast and cereals carefully cultured together and dried in a manner to retain
the activity and the metabolites of the fermentation.

17.3.2 Chemical and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of yeast culture is not as impressive as inactive yeast.
Yeast culture is much lower in protein than inactive yeast. The mean nutrient content
of yeast culture (as fed) is as follows(56) and the essential amino acids, minerals and
vitamin contents are in Tables 17-16 and 17-17.
170 CHAPTER 17

Dry matter: 88.5%

Crude protein: 14.0%
Crude fat: 2.5%
Crude fibre: 8.0%
Ash: 4.0%
N-free extract: 60.0%

Table 17-16: Essential amino acid profile of yeast culture (g/16 g Njf56)

Mean Variation

Arginine 6.35 4.00 - 9.00

Histidine 3.33 2.00 - 4.80
Isoleucine 4.70 3.00 - 5.00
Leucine 11.25 7.00 - 15.00
Lysine 7.15 5.00 -11.00
Methionine 2.28 1.00 - 3.00
Phenylalanine 5.00 4.00 - 6.00
Threonine 4.93 4.00 - 6.00
Tryptophan 1.25 0.70 - 1.80
Valine 5.03 4.00 - 6.00

Table 17-17: Mineral and vitamin contents of yeast culture (56, 'J

Minerals Vitamins (per 1,000 g)

Calcium % 0.26 Vitamin A IU 6,600

Phosphorus % 0.65 Vitamin E mg 39.70
Potassium % 1.50 Vitamin B1 mg 4.50
Magnesium % 0.39 Vitamin B2 mg 4.38
Sulphur % 0.15 Vitamin B6 mg 6.60
Manganese mg/kg 34.95 Vitamin B12 mg 0.01
Iron mg/kg 75.00 Biotin mg 0.40
Zinc mg/kg 48.50 Folic acid mg 0.60
Copper mg/kg 6.47 Nicotinic acid mg 49.33
Selenium mg/kg 0.04 Pantothenic acid mg 49.30
Cobalt mg/kg 0.11 Choline g 1.40

I inclusive of manufacturers data

 FEED YEAST 171

Other Properties
Digestibility values for yeast culture have been determined in terrestrial animals only
and are as follows:
Metabolisable energy: 3,252 kcal/kg (13.6 MJ/kg) (pigs)
• Metabolisable energy: 3,098 kcal/kg (13.0 MJ/kg) (poultry)
Digestible energy: 3,175 kcal/kg (13.3 MJ/kg) (horses).
The count of live cells ranges from 1.5xlOS to 6.5x109 cells per gram dry yeast
culture(60· 80) and is used for the identification and analysis of yeast culture. However,
measuring the viability of live cells is not yet precise(60).
The thermostability of yeast culture is insufficient. The temperature of pelletising,
extrusion and expansion of feed together with moisture and pressure affects the viability
of the live cells and losses can amount to 95%(60). But there are claims that although
the live cells may die by heating, the metabolic activity of the yeast culture remains.
Only temperatures greater than 70°C and exposure to such temperature for longer
than five minutes can reduce the metabolic activity of yeast culture(33).

Mode of Action
It is still impossible to precisely define the metabolic consequences of using yeast culture
in animal feeding(28. 60. 83). However, three models may explain the mode of action of
yeast culture(26):
Live yeast cells may actively eliminate Escherichia coli by preventing its
fixation onto the cells of the intestinal epithelium;
• Live yeast cells eliminate the coli enterotoxin when fixed onto the cell wall;
• Live yeast cells produce a lethal toxin which kills Escherichia coli.
It is also presumed that yeast cells contain numerous enzymes which are released into
the intestine and supplement the endogenous enzymes of the animals, thus supporting
dry matter digestion(38). For instance yeast culture in poultry upgraded the utilisation of
phytate phosphorus(75. 76) and in post-weaning piglets the feed conversion of high fibre
diets was improved(7). It is also possible that yeast culture contains UGF that could cause
its effectiveness as a feedstuffl6. 45).

17.3.3 Feeding Value

The feeding value of yeast culture has been studied extensively in terrestrial animals.
Ruminants responded positively to the yeast culture(28. 31. 83), the effects achieved in pigs
were variable(14) and results from trials in pOUltry were not very promising(46. 80).
Studies on yeast culture in aquatic animals are rare. Yeast culture at levels of 0.125,
0.25 and 0.50% in diets of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) fingerlings fed for
12 weeks did not significantly (P >0.05) improve growth, feed conversion and survival(6J).
Unless the thermostability of yeast culture is improved it cannot be successfully used
in pelletised feed for aquatic animals(60).
172 CHAPTER 17

17.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Inactive Yeast
High protein content and high digestibility are the characteristics of yeasts as a feedstuff.
However, trials have proven that yeast cannot replace animal protein completely.
Supplementation with amino acids may be needed. Recommended inclusion rates of
yeast for aquaculture feed are:
• Fishes: 5.0 to 10.0%
• Shrimps: 2.0 to 5.0%
• Lobsters: 8.0 to 12.0% .

Active Yeast
Manufacturers recommend 0.1 to 1.0% yeast culture for aquaculture feeds(38).

17.5 Legal Aspects

Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast is considered as Generally Recognised As Safe (GRAS)

by the U.S.A authorities(38). Lacto yeast, distiller's yeast and alkane (petroleum) yeast
are not approved by the U.S.A authorities. The only petroleum derived yeast approved
is Pichia pastoris yeast. Also yeast culture is not an approved feedstuffl 57).
In Germany, the following yeast products are approved as a single feedstuff:
• Brewer's yeast
• Yeast, extracted
• Yeast, liquid
• Yeast, dried.
They have to be produced from the yeast families Saccharomycetaceae,
Endomycetaceae and Cryptococaceae. All yeast cells of the product have to be dead
(inactive). Yeast produced from species of the genus Candida and cultured on n-alkane
are not approved as a feedstuff!'82).

17.6 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (Publisher),
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
2. Alatalo, P. (1980): Yeast utilization in oysters and clams. M.S. Thesis, University of Delaware,
Newark/U.S.A.
3. Andruetti, S.; Vigliani, E.; Ghittino, P. (1973): Possibel uso nei per trota die proteine da lieviti coltivati
su idrocarburi (proteine BP). Riv. Ital. PisciclGtiopatol, 8., (4), 97-100.
4. Anonymous (1989): Increasing immunity by the oral administration of brewer's yeast. Israeli Inst. of
Biological Res., University Medical School, Tel AvivlIsrael (Mimeograph).
5. Anonymous (1990): Yeast culture products. Agritek & Gateway Monthly Newsletter, 4., (12).
6. Anonymous (1992): What is yeast culture "live"? (Mimeograph).
7. Anonymous (1993): Yeast offsets fibre. Pig International, 23., (8), 26.
 FEED YEAST 173

8. Appelbaum, S. (1970): The suitability of alkane-yeast (hydro-carbon grown yeast) as a first nutrient for
Coregonus albula (L.) fry. Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany,
Vol. I, 20-23 June, 1978.
9. Atack. T.; Matty, A.J. (1979): The evaluation of some single-cell proteins in the diet of rainbow trout. II.
The determination of net protein utilisation, biological values and true digestibility. Proc. World Symp.
on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. I, 20-23 June, 1978.
10. Aujero, E., J.; Tech, E., Javellana, S. (1985): Nutritional value of marine yeast fed to larvae of Penaeus
monodon in combination with algae. Proc. 1" Intern. Conf. on Culture of Penaeid Prawns and Shrimps,
Iloilo Citynlte Philippines, 4-7 December (Abstr.).
11. Beck, H.; Gropp, J.; Koops, H.; Tiews, K. (1979): Single cell proteins in trout diets. Proc. World Symp.
on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II, 20-23 June, 1978.
12. Beck, H.; Koops, H.; Tiews, K.; Gropp, J. (1977): Weitere Mliglichkeiten des Fischmehl-Ersatzes im
Futter fUr Regenbogenforellen: Ersatz von Fischmehl durch Alkanhefe und Krillmehl. Arch. Fischerei
Wiss., 28., (I), 1-17.
13. Borgstrom, E. (1979): Experiments on the use of single cell proteins in Atlantic salmon diets. Proc. World
Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II, 20-23 June, 1978.
14. Castaldo, D. (1993): More sophisticated pig feeds. Feed International,14., (5), 18-26.
15. Cha, c.Y.; Slinger, S.J. (1979): Apparent digestibility measurement in feedstuffs for rainbow trout. Proc.
World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II, 20-23 June, 1978.
16. Cho, C.Y,· Cowey, c.B.; Watanabe, T. (1985): Finfish nutrition in Asia: Methological approaches to
research and development. IDRC, Ottawa/Canada, 233e.
17. Dendrinos, P.; Thorpe, J.P. (1987): Experiments on the artificial regulation of the amino acid and fatty
acid contents of food organisms to meet the assessed nutritional requirements of larval, post-larval and
juvenile Dover sole (Solea solea, L.). Aquaculture, 61., 121-154.
18. Derome, O. (1992): Private communication.
19. Epifanio, C.E. (1979): Comparison of yeast and algal diets for bivalve molluscs. Aquaculture, 16.,187-192.
20. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Ind., Brisbane!Australia, Info, Series Q 18500 1.
21. Fallu, R. (1991): Abalone Farming. Fishing News Books, OxfordlEngland.
22. Friesecke, H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung von Rind, Schaf, Pferd, Schwein, GeftUgel
und SUBwasserfischen. BLV Verlagsges. MUnchenlGermany.
23. Furukawa, 1.; Hidaka, K.; Hirano, K. (1973): Production of larvae of Penaeus japonicus Bate with
marine yeast. Bull. Fac. Agric. Miyazaki University, 20., (1), 93-110.
24. Gaede, E.A. (1979): Bierhefe ersetzt Sojaschrot. Der TierzUchter, (7), 283-285.
25. Gatesoupe, F.J.; Millinaire, C. Ie (1984): Dietary value adaptation of live food organisms for covering the
nutritional requirements of marine fish larvae. Proc. Norwegian-French Shop on Aquaculture, Brest/France.
26. Gedek B.R. (1980): Interaktionen zwischen lebenden Hefezellen und darmpathogenen Escherichia coli
Keimen im likosystem Darm. In: Muller, J.; Ottenjan, R.; Seifert, J. Morpholopgie, Mikrobiologie,
Immunologie. Springer Verlag, BerlinlGermany.
27. Go, A. (1994). Private communication.
28. Gray, W,R.; Ryan, J.P. (1988): A study of the effect of yeast culture on ruminant fermentation in sheep. In:
Lyons, T.P. (ed.) Biotechnology in the feed industry. Alltech Techn. Publications, NicholasvillelUSA, 129-150.
29. Gropp, J.; Koops, H.; Tiews, K.; Beck, H. (1976): The replacement of dietary fish meal in trout feeding.
Proc. FAO Techn. Conf. on Aquaculture, Kyoto/Japan.
30. Guillaume, P. (1991): Private communication.
174 CHAPTER 17

31. Gunther, K.-D. (1980): Yeast culture's success under German dairy conditions. In: Lyons, T.P. (ed.)
Biotechnology in the feed industry. Alltech Techn. Publications, NicholasvillelUSA, 39-46.
32. Hartung, KL (1990): Marketing yeast culture. Feed Management, 41., (10), 17.
33. Headon, D.R. (1992): Selecting stable yeast cultures. Feed Management, 43., (7), 36-44.
34. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, CambridgelEngland.
35. Higuera, M. de la; Sanchez-Munz, FJ.; Mataix, FJ.; Varela, G. (1981): Nitrogen utilization by rainbow
trout fed on the yeast Hansenula anamola. Compo Biochem. Physiology, 69A., 583-586.
36. Hirata, H. (1980): Culture methods of the marine rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. Min. Re. Data File Fish.
Research, 1., 27-46.
37. Hirayama, K. (1987): A consideration of why mass culture of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis with
baker's yeast is unstable. Hydrobiologica, 147., 269-270.
38. Jonvel, S. (1993): Use of yeast in monogastrics. Feed Mix, 1. (4).
39. Jonvel, S. (1993); Interest of living yeast as a feed additive for animal feed. Proc. Feed Production
Tomorrow, BangkoklThailand, 25-27 October.
40. Kinsella, J.E.; German, B.; Shetty, J. (1985); Uricase from fish liver: Isolation and some properties.
Compo Biochem. Physiology, 82B., (4), 621.
41. Koch, w.; Bank, 0.; Jens, G. (1976); Fischzucht (4th ed.). Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin/Germany.
42. Koike, y.; Flasch, J.P.; Mazurier, J. (1979): Biological and ecological studies on the propagation of
the ormer, Haliotis tuberculata Linnaeus. II. Influence of food and density on the growth of juveniles.
La Mer, 17., 43-52.
43. Komis, A. (1991/92); Improved production and utilization of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis MUller,
in European sea bream (Sparus aurata Linnaeus) and sea bass (Dicentrachus labrax L.) larviculture.
Dr. thesis, University GentJBelgium.
44. Landau, M. (1992); Introduction to aquaculture. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New YorklUSA.
45. Lyons, T.P.(l990); Yeast cultures. Feed Management, 41., (10), 16-35.
46. McDaniel, G. (1991); Effect of Yea-Sacc tD26 on reproductive performance of broiler breeder males
and females. In: Lyons, T.P. (ed.): Biotechnology in the feed industry. Alltech techno Publications,
NicholasvilleIUSA,413-415.
47. Miller, Jones, J. (1992): Food safety. Eagan Press, St. PaUl, MinnesotalUSA.
48. Mock, CR.; Revera, D.B.; Fontaine, CT. (1980): The larval culture of Penaeus stylirostris using
modifications of the Galveston laboratory technique. Proc. World Mariculture Soc., n., 102-117.
40. Murray, A.P'; Marchant, A. (1986); Nitrogen utilisation in rainbow trout fingerlings (Salmo gairdneri)
fed mixed microbial biomass. Aquaculture, 54., 263-275.
50. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCP/REP/87126, Romelltaly.
51. Nose, T. 1974): Effects of amino acids supplemented to petroleum yeast on growth of rainbow trout
fingerlings. I. A preliminary experiment. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Laboratory, Tokyo, 24., (I), 57-63.
52. Nose, T. 1974); Effects of amino acids supplemented to petroleum yeast on growth of rainbow trout
fingerlings. II. Methionine and cystine. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Laboratory, Tokyo, 24., (2), 101-110.
53. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington, D.C.
54. Ogino, C; Kato, N. (1964); Studies on the nutrition of abalone. II. Protein requirements for the growth
of abalone Haliotis discus. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 30., 523-526.
55. Peppler, H.J. (1979): Production of yeasts and yeast products. In; Peppler, H.J.; Periman, D. (eds.);
Microbial technology, Vol. 1. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, FloridalUSA.
 FEED YEAST 175

56. Peppler, H.J.; Stone, C W. (1976): Feed yeast products. Feed management, 27. (reprint).
57. Price, W.D. (1995): Private communication.
58. Raipf, F.; Kautzmann, R.; LUers H.; Lindemann, M. (eds.) (1960): Die Hefen in der Wissenschaft. Verlag
Hans Carl Ntirenberg.
59. Rasmussen, CJ. (1967): Handbog i 0rredopdrret. Rhodos forlag, Copenhagen/Denmark.
60. Risley, C (1993): Yeast and pelleting. Feed Management, 44., (4),46-47.
61. Robinette, H.R.; Young,. (1988): Catfish fingerling feeding study. Mississippi State University,
MississippilUSA (Mimeograph).
62. Rumsey, G.L (1988): Fish farming as a form of animal agriculture. Recent advances in fish nutrition.
In: Lyons, T.P. (ed.): Biotechnology in the feed industry. Alltech Techn. Publications, NicholasvilielUSA,
235-248.
63. Rumsey, G.L; Smith, R.R. (1990): Lecithin with diatomaceous earth works well in fish feed. Feedstuffs,
62.,30.7., 11-13.
64. Rumsey, G.L; Hughes, S.G.; Kinsella, J.L (1990): Use of dietary yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae nitrogen
by the lake trout. J. World Aquaculture Soc., 21., 3, 205-209.
65. Sagara, J.; Sakai, K. (1974): Feeding experiments of juvenile abalone with four artificial diets. BUll.
Tokai Reg. Fish. Res. Laboratory, 71., 1-5.
66. Shanks (164): Quoted from: NRC (1981):
67. Shiio, l. (1992): Microbial production of nucleotides. Central Res. Laboratory, Ajinomoto Co.,
Kawasaki/Japan (unpublished manuscript).
68. Shimma, Y.; Nakada, M. (1974): Utilisation of petroleum yeast for fish feed. I. Effect of supplemental oil.
Bull Freshwater Fish. Res. Laboratory, Tokyo, 24., (1),47-63.
69. Shimma, Y.; Shimma, H. (1976): Utilisation of petroleum yeast for fish feed. IV. Plasma cholesterol
content of fatty acid composition of erythrocytes of rainbow trout. Bull Freshwater Fish. Res. Laboratory,
Tokyo, 26., (2), 71-78.
70. Smith, R.R. (1976): Metabolisable feedstuffs for trouts. Feedstuffs, 48., (23)., 16-17.
71. Smith, R.R.; Peterson, M.C; Allred, A.C (1980): The effect of leaching on apparent digestion coeffcients
in determining digestibility and metabolizable energy of feedstuffs for salmonids. Prog. Fish Culturist,
42.,699-718.
72. Spinelli, J.; Mahken, C.; Steinberg, M. (1979): Alternate sources of proteins for fish meal in salmonid
diets. Proc. World Symp. on Finfsh Nutrition and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg, 20-23 June, Vol. II.
73. Tacon A.G.J.; Cooke, D.J. (1980): Nutritional value of dietary nucleic acids in trout. Nutrition Rep. Int.,
22.,631-640.
74. Takeda, M.; Ogino, C (1975): Quoted from Nose, T. (1979).
75. Thayer, R.H.; Jackson, CD. (1975): Improving phytate phosphorus utilization by poultry with live yeast
culture. Anim. Sci. Research M.P. 94, April (Oklahoma State University and USDA).
76. Thayer, R.H.; Burkitt, R.F.; Morrison, R.D.; Murray, E.E. (1978): Efficiency of utilization of dietary
phosphorus by caged turkey breeder hens when fed rations supplemented with live yeast culture. Bull.
M.P.-I03, Oklahoma State University, StiliwaterlUSA.
77. TIews, K.; Koops, H.; Beck, H.; Schwalb-Bilttling, M.; Gropp, J. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfuttern
ftir die Regenbogenforelle. Veroffi. Inst. Kiisten- und Binnenfischerei, Hamburg, No. 7511981.
78. Urban, E.R. (1982): Yeast and vitamins as supplements in the diet of Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin).
Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochemical and Physiological Approaches to Shellfish
Nutrition, LewesIRehoboth Beach-DelawarelUSA, October.
79. Valentin, CC (1978): Nitrogen balance of the American oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). M.S.
176 CHAPTER 17

Thesis, University of DelawarelUSA.

80. Vogt, H.; Matthes, S. (1991): Der EinfluB lebender Hefekulturen Yea-Sacc<R) auf die Mastergebnisse
von Broilern. Landbauforschung Volkenrode, 41., (2), 90-93.
81. Watanabe, T. (1981): Dietary value ofrotifers for fish larvae. Proc. XII. In!. Congr. of Nutrition, San Diego,
16-21 August (Abstr. 174).
82. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (I 994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
83. Williams, P.E. V. (1988): Undertaking of biochemical mode of action of yeast culture. In: Lyons, T.P. (ed.):
Biotechnology in the feed industry. Alltech Techn. Publications, NicholasvillelUSA, 79-99.
84. Witt, U.; Quantz, G.; Kuhlmann, D.; Kattner. G. (1984): Survival and growth of turbot larvae Scophthalmus
maximus L. reared on different food organisms with special regard to long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Aquaculture Engineering, 3., 177-190.
 18. FISH MEAL

IS.I. Rationale

Historical Background
Fish by-products have been used for feeding animals for many centuries ago. As early
as 800 AD, herring was utilised as a raw material in Norway. The oil was pressed with
wooden boards and stones for human consumption and the remains were used as feed.
In the travels of Marco Polo as written in the 14th century, a primitive form of fish meal
was already described and fed to animals(60}. In the past, in Great Britain and Japan, fish
meal and fish solubles were used as fertiliser and first of all as animal feed because of
its high nutritional value(35}. Fish meal of high grade quality is used also for human con-
sumption in countries where there is a lack of protein in malnourished children's diets.
Fish meal manufacture is now the largest operation in the world. Around 12% of the world
production of fish meal is used in aquaculture feeds(44}. In addition, production of fish
meal and fish silage (Chapter 20) is a good way of managing waste from fish processing,
thus, protecting the environment.

Sources
Most commercial fish meals are produced from a mixture of various fish species such as
fish meal from small oily fishes of the herring family, anchovy which is fished off Peru
and Chile, menhaden, which is obtained in large amounts off the East coast of the U.S.A.
and the Gulf of Mexico and sardines caught in waters off Nordic countries, Japan and
Russia. Generally a meal produced from a defined fish species can be declared as pure
if more than 50% of the raw material is from only one species(59}. Occasionally meal
from the following species may also be available:
Anchovy (false) (Stolephorus commersonii)
Anchovy (true) (Engraulidae spp.)
• BreamlRedfish (Sebastes spp.)
Cod (Gadus morhua)
Conger (Conger conger)
Capelin (Mallotus villosus)
Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
• Chilean hake (Merluccius geyi)
Croaker (Sciaenidae spp.)
Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus)
Halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus)
• Herring (Clupea harengus)
Horse mackerel (Trachurus spp.)
Mackerel (Scomber scombrus)
178 CHAPTER 18

Menhaden (Brevoortia spp.)

Pilchard (Sardina pilchardus)
Pollack (Pollachius pollachius)
Sand eel (Ammodytidae spp.)
Shark (order Squaliformes)
Tuna (Thunnus spp.)
Commercially produced fish meal are labelled according to:
Country of origin (Alaskan, Canadian, Danish, Peruvian, Thailand fish meal)
Procedure of manufacture (steam dried, sun-dried, low temperature dried, flame
dried, freeze dried)
Fish species (e.g. Herring, Menhaden, Pollack, Anchovy)
Colour (white or brown fish meal)
The raw material used in Danish fish meals normally consists of small fish not for
human consumption such as sand eels (Amnodytes), Norway Pout (Trisopterus esmarki)
and sprat (Spratus spratus)l30). Peruvian fish meal comes mostly from anchovy.
Type of fish meals produced by some exporting countries are listed in Table 18-01.

Table 18-01: Types of fish meals produced by some fish meal exporting countries(25)

Country Types of meal Drying process

Canada Herring Steam

Chile Anchovy and horse mackerel Flame/steam
Iceland Herring and Capelin All low temperature
Japan Sardine
Norway Herring and Capelin All low temperature
Peru Anchovy
South Africa Pilchard
U.S.A. Menhaden (mostly in the South) Flame/steam

In Great Britain, "white fish meal" is defined as containing not more than 6.0% oil
and 4.0% salt. In Norway distinction is made between herring meal and fish meal.
The former is only from herring while the latter is from cod and fish offal and is of lower
quality(5). Fish meal containing 65 to 70% crude protein is generally called "herring
meal" in Denmark while "fish meal" has a lower protein content.

18.2 Manufacture and Processing

The principle in fish meal processing is the separation of the solids from water and oils.
The quality of fish meal depends on several factors which are:
Temperature at the time the fish are caught;
Temperature at which the fish is stored prior to processing;
Length of storage prior to processing;
 FISH MEAL 179

• Type or composition of fish catch;

• Method of catching the fish.
Fish meal has to be processed as soon as the fish is caught in the ship offshore or
at shore. A by-product of fish meal manufacture is fish oil(32) (Chapter 29).
There are two principal ways of producing fish meal: Direct drying which is an old pro-
cess and cooking before dryingl6). With the latter, a higher quality fish meal is obtained(32).

Wet Reduction Process

Fish is cooked in a long steam jacketed cylinder or steam is injected into the cooking
material. Undercooking and overcooking has to be avoided (Figure 18-01). The pressing
stage removes the major portion of the oil and water followed by drying.
Whole fish

~
Waler ~ Unload_ Water

~
Raw storage
I
Cooker

I
Press ~Press IiqUO'r

I
Dryer Stage 1 _ Steam

I
Solubles ~ Dryer Stage 2 _ Steam

Antioxidanl_ Fish meal

I
~
Warehouse

I
Grinding_Bagging

L ~
Shipping_ Storage

Figure 18-01. Flow diagram in the processing offish meal(50).

In the direct drying process, very hot air of up to 500°C is passed over the material
as it is tumbled rapidly in a drum. Direct drying is a quick method but the nutrients of
the finished product can be easily heat damaged.
There is less damage to the nutrients if the fish meal is processed by indirect steam
drying which is also termed "indirect fired" "steam dried" or "low temperature" fish
meal process. Hereby a steam jacket or steam heated discs are used(35). Compared to
steam-drying, air-drying reduces the protein content by 10.5% and the fat level by 0.6%(39).
Returning the fish solubles (see Chapter 21) to the press cake prior to drying gives fish
meal known as "whole meal".
180 CHAPTER 18

Heat Transfer Process

The heat transfer method (HTM) was developed in the USA. Oil is added to a slurry of
the raw material which acts as a heat transfer medium. In another process, the oil is removed
by solvent extraction rather than by pressing and centrifuging the liquid material(32).

Artisanal Process
In developing countries fish meal is produced by artisanal methods such as cooking,
draining, sun-drying and mechanically grinding the fish. The quality of "cooked" fish
meal is higher than that of "raw-salted" fish meal(34). Small-scale processing under local
conditions does not produce a quality compared to industrial fish meals(ll).

18.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Fish meal is a high quality protein feedstuff. The chemical composition, particularly
the protein content varies widely and depends on fish species used for fish meal manu-
facture (Tables 18-02), season, and the latitude where the fish are caught. Fish meal is
also an excellent source of essential amino acids (Table 18-03).

Table 18-02: Chemical composition of fish meal (% in dry matter)

Meal from ... I Dry Crude Crude Ash Crude N-free

Matter protein fat fibre extract

1. Fish meal from defined s!)ecies(51. 59)

Anchovy (true) 92.0 70.7 5.3 16.9 7.1
Anchovy (false) 93.0 78.0 9.0 12.5 0.5
Bream 93.0 63.2 10.3 25.2 1.3
Capelin 91.1 72.6 9.3 10.6 4.7 2.8
Chilean hake 81.6 83.3 2.4 14.3
Cod 89.7 68.6 3.8 26.0 1.6
Crokaer 94.0 63.1 10.9 20.2 0.9 4.9
Haddock 93.4 65.9 4.7 26.5 2.9
Halibut 53.2 13.1 32.8 0.9
Herring 90.0 74.4 9.0 15.0 1.6
Horse Mackerel 95.4 70.9 13.7
Mackerel 92.0 66.4 10.3 21.1 2.2
Menhaden 92.6 66.6 11.1 20.9 1.4
Pilchard 91.8 66.5 7.6 20.4 5.5
Pollack 94.8 65.5 17.7 14.1 2.7
Sandeel 91.0 72.6 8.3 10.6 8.5
Sardine 93.0 65.2 5.0 19.8 1.0 9.0
Shark 92.0 72.3 17.9
Tuna 64.0 10.1 23.6 2.3

2. Fish meal from unspecified fish(9. /6.20.23.35.37.40.4/.5/.56)

White fish meal 91.5 65.8 8.5 19.5 1,4 4.8
Brown fish meal 91.3 69.0 6.0 14.8 10.2
Fish waste meal 90.0 49.2 9.0 34.4 7.4

lFor scientific names of fish species see Chapter 18.1

Table 18-03: Essential amino acid profile of fish meal (gfl6 g N)(59)

Argi- Histi- Iso- Lencine Lysine Methi- Phenyl- Threo- Tryp- Valine
Leucine nine dine lencine onine alanine nine topyan

1. Defined fish s!!ecies(59)

Anchovy (true) 5.9 2.5 4.7 7.7 8.0 2.9 4.2 4.4 1.2 5.4
Anchovy (false) 5.1 3.4 5.2 8.0 9.5 3.7 4.5 4.7 1.2 5.8
Bream 6.4 2.3 3.7 5.7 6.6 3.0 4.0 4.1 1.0 4.5
Capelin 5.4 2.0 4.2 7.2 6.9 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.6
Cod 6.6 2.0 4.8 8.1 7.2 3.0 3.8 5.2 1.0 5.3 '"rl
V;
Haddock 5.3 1.7 5.1 7.4 .2 2.6 3.2 4.2 0.9 :r:
Herring 6.6 2.4 4.7 7.5 7.7 2.8 3.9 4.2 l.l 5.8 3::
tTl
Horse Mackerel 6.6 2.7 4.3 7.1 8.0 2.4 3.4 4.0 0.7 4.9 >
t""'
Menhaden 6.1 2.5 4.3 7.0 7.7 2.8 3.9 4.0 l.l 5.1
Pilchard 5.7 2.9 4.1 7.4 7.4 2.7 3.8 4.3 1.2 5.6
Pollack 9.0 3.0 5.1 8.4 11.9 2.4 4.1 4.9 0.9 5.8
Shark 6.6 2.2 5.6 8.5 7.1 2.5 4.3 4.7 1.4 5.5
Tuna 6.5 3.3 4.5 7.2 7.2 2.7 4.1 4.3 1.0 5.3

2. Uns!!ecified fish,lo. 16. 20.29. ]7. ]8.42)

White fish meal 5.3 1.8 3.5 6.4 6.3 2.4 2.1 2.2 0.8 2.6
Brown fish meal 4.6 2.0 3.0 5.5 6.2 1.6 3.2 3.1 2.3 3.2

......
00
182 CHAPTER 18

The fat content of fish meal is species specific (Table 18-02). Normally, fish meal is
de-oiled. Nevertheless, fish meal from oily fish species may contain up to 9.0% oi}05).
The residual oil in fish meal is rich in PUFA, predominantly of the n-3 family (Table 18-04).
Fish meal has a high ash content and is particularly high when made mainly from
fish frames (Tables 18-02). Generally, the higher the ash content, the higher the calcium,
phosphorus and magnesium content which are predominantly from the fish bones
(Table 18-05). Fish meal is a source of selenium which is of good availability(l5).
Fish meal is rich in water soluble vitamins but the content of fat soluble vitamins is
insignificant (Table 18-06).

Table 18-04: Important fatty acids in lipids of fish meal (%)(15)

Fatty acid White fish South American Herring-type

meal fish meal fish meal

Tetradecanoic 14:0 3.2 6.3 4.9

Hexadecanoic 16:0 11.0 19.9 14.8
Octadecanoic 18:0 1.7 4.8 2.1
Hexadecenoic 16:1 6.8 7.3 5.8
Octadecenoic 18:1 16.9 11.4 1404
Eicodecenoic 20:1 9.7 3.0 10.9
Docosacenoic 22:1 9.1 1.8 11.9
Eicosapentaenoic 20:5n-3 12.0 14.6 10.1
Docosahexaenoic 22:6n-3 19.2 1704 1504

Total n-6-PUFA 304 4.1 3.5

Total n-3-PUFA 35.5 34.3 27.1

Table 18-05: Macro and micro mineral contents of some typical fish meals (/5)

Mineral White fish South American Herring type

meal fish meal fish meal

Calcium % 8.00 4.00 2.0

Phosporus (total) % 4.80 2.60 1.90
Phosphorus (available) % 4.80 2.60 1.90
Potassium % 0.90 0.70 1.20
Chlorine % 2.00 1.82 1.03
Magnesium % 0.15 0.25 0.11
Sodium % 1.30 0.87 0.70
Iron mg/kg 300 246 150
Copper mg/kg 7.0 11.0 5.0
Manganese mg/kg 10.0 2.0 10.0
Zinc mg/kg 100 III 120
Selenium mg/kg 1.50 lAO 2.20
 FISH MEAL 183

Table 18-06: Vitamin content of some typical fish meals (per 1,000 g)l15)

Vitamin White fish South American Herring-type

meal fish meal fish meal

Vitamin A IU 3.9 8.9

VitaminE mg 9.8 3.4 4.0
Vitamin K3 mg 2.4
Vitamin B, mg 1.8 1.9 0.7
Vitamin B2 mg 6.5 6.60 7.3
VitaminB 6 mg 3.3 3.5 3.7
Vitamin B'2 meg 70 180 250
Biotin mcg 80 260 420
Folic acid meg 500 160 500
Nicotinic acid mg 50 95 126
Pantothenic acid mg 15.0 9.3 30.6
Choline mg 4,400 4,400 4,400

Physiological Properties
The energy content of fish meal depends on the protein and oil content. The data on
the digestible energy found in aquatic and terrestrial animals do not differ much from
each other when quality of the fish meal is considered (Table 18-07).

Table 18-07: Metabolisable and digestible energy content of fish meals in aquatic and terrestrial animals

Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal/kg MJ/kg kcaVlcg MJ/kg

Chinook salmon
(24)
Herring meal 4,876 20.4
(24)
- HerringlCapelin meal' 4,661 19.5
(24)
Anchovy meal 4,827 20.2
(24)
Menhaden meal 4,063 17.0
Channel catfish
- Fish meal2 3,906 16.3 (36)

~
- Herring-type meal 4,804 20.1 (/5)

Poullly
- Fish meal2 3,460 14.5 3,650 15.3 (16)

'organic matter; 2from unspecified matter

184 CHAPTER 18

The protein digestibility of fish meal is highest for grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus)
and chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) and lowest for milkfish (Chanos
chanos) and yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) (Table 18-08). Other digestibility data
are rare.

Table 18-08: Apparent digestibility (%) of fish meals in various aquatic species(7.13. 19.21.24.26.31.38.49)

Protein Fat Fibre Dry matter Energy

Salmonids (general) 81.8 89.2 88.2 91.7

Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar) 88.5
Chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tschawyscha) 89.9 86.7 89.2
Rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) 86.0
(Common carp)
(Cyprinus carpio) 86.4
Grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella) 90.8 90.0 100.0 68.1 83.4
Channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus) 85.5 84.5
Tilapia
(Oreochromis spp.) 87.5
Milkfish
(Chanos chanos) 61.5
Sea bass
(Dicentrachus labrax) 88.3
Yellowtail
(Seriola quinqueradiata) 62.0
Tiger prawn
(Penaeus monodon) 66.4

The bioavailability of minerals in fish meal varies among species. Phosphorus bioavail-
ability appears to be correlated with the presence of gastric juice in the stomach and is
low in stomachless fish like the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and high in fish with
stomach such as rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)(56).
Zinc and manganese availability is related to the fish meal's content of ca1cium-
phosphate as found in rainbow trout(4.46).
The bioavailability of magnesium in white fish meal is very low. Utilisation of
magnesium might be distorted by an undefined substance in white fish meal.
Supplementation of the diet, therefore, has to be considered(46). Selenium in fish meal
has low availability (47.5%)14).
 FISH MEAL 185

Other Favourable Properties

High quality fish meals are a good source of phospholipids. Unspecified fish meals may
contain 2.47% phospholipids(28). Tuna meal has a phospholipid content of only 0.5(59).
Fish meal has chemo-attractant properties most probably due to its high content of
glutamic acid. Glutamic acid, although a non-essential amino acid is abundant in fish
meal ranging from 11.8 to 14.9 gl16 g N and may be one of the reasons why fish meal
can serve as a chemo-attractant.
The pelletising ability of fish meal according to CPM is rated "medium" for both
pelletising ability and abrasiveness(27).

Unfavourable Properties
Fish meal produced from improperly handled raw fish may contain histamine (B-imi-
dazolylethylamine) (CsH9N3) which is a N-containing heterocyclic biogen amine,
produced by microbial decarboxylation of the amino acid histidine. The toxin can be
produced in just three to four hours when fish is kept at a room temperature of 18° to
22°C. The normal histamine level of fish is less than 1.0 mg% but histamine levels as
high as 430 mg% were found in yellowtail(33). The toxin can cause allergic reactions,
lowers the blood pressure by dilating the blood vessels and stimulates gastric secretion
(enteritis). Histamine is heat stable but the enzyme histaminase, found in the digestive
system, is capable of inactivating histamine(33. 53. 58).

18.4 Feeding Value

In feeding cultured aquatic animals two types of fish meal are used: White fish meal and
brown fish meal. White fish meal is of higher nutritional value than brown fish meal.
About 2/3 of protein in aquatic diets come from fish meal(32) and its fish feeding value has
caused its extensive use in aquaculture diets. Of the total fish meal used in aquaculture
feeds, 93.2% was consumed by carnivorous species(51). Fish meal is also used as the sole
source of protein in the determination of protein requirements of various aquatic species.

Fishes
Fish meal is the major protein source of fish diets. Its replacement by less expensive
components were the target of many experiments. The differences in the feeding value
of meal of defined fish species were also tested (see Chapter 18.1).
For salmonids such as chinook salmon and rainbow trout insignificant differences
were found when various meals of defined fish species were tested (Table 18_09)(3.12,22).
Insignificant differences in performances also were found when different meals of
defined fish species were fed to turbot (Scopthalmus maximus)(l4), red sea bream (Pagrus
major) and the Japanese eel (Aguillajaponica)(41).
Intensive culture of channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) requires diets with a high
level of fish meal (Menhaden). Replacement of all fish meal by soybean meal on
isonitrogenous basis resulted in poor fish development for juvenile blue catfish
(lctalurus furcatus). A minimum of 13.0% fish meal in a diet containing 34.0% crude
protein has been established{2}.
186 CHAPTER 18

Table 18-09: Response of rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) fingerlings on feeding diets
with tilapia or herring meal (feeding period: 12 weeks(22)

Herring meal % 26.7

TIlapiameal % 30.6
Crude protein % 42.1 40.1
Crude fat % 7.4 9.6
Gross energy kcal/kg 4,680 4,560
MJ/kg 19.6 19.1
Initial weight g 23.0 23.0
Mean weight gain g 36.0 39.0
Daily weight gain g 0.429 0.464
Carcass composition (in dry matter):
- Dry matter % 22.6 21.5
- Protein % 67.1 69.0
- Lipid % 19.5 17,9
- Ash % 10.7 11.5
- Energy kcal/kg 5,460 5,440
MJ/kg 22.8 22.8

The rather frugal tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) responded better to a diet containing fish
meal than blood meal(55). Replacing all fish meal by soybean meal in a diet (24% crude
protein) for male tilapia significantly reduced performances. Adding of methionine to
the soybean diet was ineffective(48).
Mudfish (Clarias anguillaris) fingerlings performed best when fish meal was the only
protein source instead of a mixture of fish meal, blood meal and ground nut cake(l7).
White fish meal is a better protein source than herring meal in diets for the European eel
(Anguilla anguilla)l29J• The growth of milkfish fry is improved substantially, when 30%
of dietary protein from maize gluten meal is replaced with white fish meal(Table 18-10)(47).

Table 18-10: Growth response of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fry fed white fish meal and/or maize
gluten meal(47)

Maize gluten meal % 52.3 45.4 38.1

White fish meal % 8.3 17.0

Weight gain % 312 862 1,275

Survival % 14.2 56.0 63.0
Feed conversion 1: 4.9 1.8 1.5

Crustaceans
Shrimp need fish meal in their diets. In post-larvae (2.0 to 3.0 g) tiger prawn (Penaeus
monodon) the highest survival rate was attained with fish meal as the sole protein source,
but tlIe best growth rate was obtained witlI the combination of fish meal and shrimp head
 FISH MEAL 187

meal (1:1)143). Brown fish meal based diets can sustain good growth and high survival of
the larval kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) and is comparable to live food(54).

Molluscs
The phagostimulatory properties of dietary white fish meal has been tested in gastropod
molluscs. White fish meal can be the major protein source in artificial diets for abalone
(Haliotis spp.)l8).
It seems that it is the most desirable protein source for abalone(l8). The amino acid
profile and the lipids of fish meal are easily digestible at abalone's body temperature.
The high concentration of PUFAs are also of value to abalone!18).

18.5 Recommended Inclusion Rate

The cost of fish meal limits its application level in diets for cultured aquatic animals.
The mean and optimal inclusion rates of fish meal are as follows(51. 52):
Carnivores 50.0%
Omnivoreslherbivores 25.0%
Penaeid shrimps 25.0%
Other crustaceans 20.0%

18.6 Legal Aspects

According to EU-Regulation 92/87 of 26 October 1992, fish meal has the No. 10.01 and
is defined as "a product processed from fishes or parts of them of which the oil has been
partly extracted and the fish solubles may be added to the product". Products with more
than 75% crude protein may be declared as "high protein fish meal". Quality requirements
of fish meals according to German feedstuff legislation are in Table 18-11.
In the U.S.A. fish meal (AAFCO No. 51.14) is defined as "the clean, dried ground
tissue of undecomposed whole fish or fish cuttings, either or both with or without
extraction of part of the oil". It must contain not more than 10.0% moisture. If it contains
more than 3.0% salt (NaCl), the amount of salt must be labelled. In no case must the salt
content exceed 7.0%(1). The requirement for fish residue meal (AAFCO No. 51.24),
which is the residue from the manufacture of glue from non-oily fish, is the same as for
fish meaJll).
Undesirable substances may reduce the value of a fish meal. The German feedstuff
law permits undesired substances in fish meal only at the following levels(57):
Aflatoxin B, max. 0.05 mg/kg
Arsenic max. 10.00 mg/kg
Cadmium max. 2.00 mg/kg
Fluorine max. 500.00 mg/kg
Mercury max. 0.50 mg/kg
188 CHAPTER 18

Table 18-11: Quality requirements (%) of fish meals according to German feedstuff legislation(57)

Fish meal standard type

55 60 64

Moisture max. 12.0 12.0 12.0

Crude protein min. 55.0 60.0 64.0
Digestible protein' min. 88.0 88.0 88.0
Crude fat max. 12.0 12.0 12.0
Ash max. 2.2 2.2 2.2
Sodium-chloride max. 5.0 4.0 4.0
Calcium-chloride max. 2.7 2.5 2.0

1. Coml1ulsoo: declaration on labels

Crude protein + + +
Crude fat + + +
Sodium-chloride + + +
2. Voluntllo: declaration on ll!!lels
Moisture + + +
Calcium-carbonate + + +
Phosphorus + + +

'Pepsin-hydrochloric test

18.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher), Sacramento,
USA. p.548.
2. Andrews, J. w.; Page, J. W. (1974): Growth factors in the fish meal component of catfish diets. J. Nutr.,
104., 1091-1096.
3. Anonymous (1980): Fish meal: wide range ofraw fish and a high quality are the keynotes. World Fishing,
29., 13-15.
4. Bell and Cowey. (1989): Digestibility and bioavailability of dietary selenium from fish meal, selenite,
selenomethionine and selenocystine in atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture, 81., 61-68.
5. Baelum, J. (1962): EI pescado y los productors pesgueros en la alimentacion de las aves. In: Heen,E. and
Kruezer, B. (eds.): Fish in Nutrition. FAO. Rome.
6. Bredon, R.M.; Marshall, B. (1954): Small-scale fish meal production under tropical conditions. The East
African Agric. J., Oct.. 98-101.
7. Brown, P.B.; Strange, R.J.; Robbins, K.R. (1985): Protein digestibility coefficients for yearling channel
catfish fed high protein feedstuffs. Prog. Fish. Cult., 47., 94-97.
8. Care/oot, T.H. (1982): Gastropod nutrition. Proc. 2nd International Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition:
 FISH MEAL 189

Biochemical and Physiological Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition. 27-29 Oct. 1981. Louisiana State
Univ., Baton Rouge Louisiana. 321-337.
9. Cho, e.Y.; Cowey, e.; Watanabe, T. (1985): Finfish nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IDRC, 233e. Ottawa/Canada.
10. Chou, R. (1985): Performance of various fish meal diets in young sea bass (Lates calcarifer Bloch).
In: Cho, e.Y.; Cowey, e.B.; Watanabe, T. (eds.): Finfish Nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IDRC 233, Ottawa, Canada.
11. Coulibaly, M.; Diambra, 0.; Bangare, K. (1989): Chemical and nutritional characteristics of fish meal
related to processing techniques. Proc. FAD Expert Consultation on Fish Technology in Agrica Abidjan,
Cote D' Ivoire, 25 to 28 April 1988. FAD Comm. From Inland Fisheries of Latin America, Rome, Italy,
1989. No. 400 pp. 199-202.
12. Crawford, D.L.; Law, D.K.; McKee, T.B.; Westgate, l. W (1994): Nutritional characteristics of Oregon
pellet rations containing meals of different fish species. Prog. Fish. Cult., 36., 3-7.
13. Cruz. E.M. (1975): Determination of nutrient digestibility in various feedstuffs for channel catfish. Ph.D.
dissertation. Auburn Univ., Alabama/U.S.A.
14. Danielssen, D.S.; Gulbrandsen, K.E.; Hjertnes, T. (1989): Fish meal quality in dry feed for turbot
(Scophthalmus maximus L.). Paper pres. at Intern. Aquaculture Conf. BordeauxIFrance, 2-4 Oct.
15. De Boer, F.; Bickel, H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. Elsevier Sciences
Publishers, AmsterdamfThe Netherlands.
16. Evans, M. (1985); Nutrient composition of feedstuff for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Industries, Information Series Q185001, Brisbane/Australia.
17. Eyo, A.A. (1991): The utilization of isonitrogenous feed mixtures containing blood meal, fish meal,
groundnut and soyabean meal by fingerling mudfish Clarias anguillarus. Annu. Rep. Nat'1. Freshwater
Fish. Res., Nigeria. 1990,96-103.
18. Fallu, R. (1991): Abalone farming. Fishing News Books, Oxford! England.
19. Feed Development Section (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish, Nile tilapia, Asian sea bass and tiger
shrimp. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Dept., Tigbuaun, Iloilo, Phil.
20. Feltwel/' R.; Fox, S. (1978): Practical poultry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
21. Ferraris, R.P.; Catacutan, M.R.; Mabellin, R.L.; lazul, A.P. (1986): Digestibility in milkfish, Chanos
chanos (Forsskal): Effects of protein source, fish size and salinity. Aquaculture, 59., 93-105.
22. Foltz, l. W (1982): Evaluation of tilapia meal for fish diets. Prog. Fish. Cult., 44., 8-11.
23. Friesecke, H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung. BLV VerlagsgeseUschaft MunchenlGermany.
24. Hajen, WE; Higgs, D.A.; Beames, R.M.; Dosarojh, B.S. (1993): Digestibility of various feedstuffs by
post-juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) in seawater. 2. measurement of digestibility.
Aquaculture, 112.,333-348.
25. Hardy, R. W; Masumoto, T. (1991): Specifications for marine by-products for aquaculture. Proc. Aquaculture
Feed Proc. and Nutrition Workshop, Thailand and Indonesia, 19-25 Sept. 1991. American Soybean Asso.,
Singapore, 99-108.
26. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
27. Hertrampf, J. W. (1992): On the water durability of aquaculture feed pellets - A review. Advances in Feed
Technology, (7), 18-38.
28. Hertrampf, l.W (1996): Inherent phospholipids of raw material (an update). Lecithin-Trends 40/96,
October, (Lucas Meyer GmbH & Co., Hamburg/Germany).
29. Higuera, M. de la; Garcia-Gallego, M.; Sanz, A.; Hidalgo, M.e.; Suarez, M.D. (1989): Utilization of
dietary protein by the eel (Anguilla anguilla): Optimum dietary protein levels. Aquaculture, 79., 53-61.
190 CHAPTER 18

30. Jensen, N.e. (1990): Quality fish meal: Specifications and use in aquaculture and for farming. Making
profits out of seafood wastes. Proc. International Conf. Dn Fish By-Products. Anchorage, Alaska. 25 to
17 April. 127-130.
31. Lee, D.L (1971): Study on digestion and absorption of protein in artificial feeds by four species of
shrimps. Collected Reprints. Tungkang Marine Lab., Taiwan (1): 77-84.
32. McCay, B.D. II (1990): Fish meal - the critical ingredient in aquaculture feeds. Aquaculture Magazine,
Mar/April. 43-50.
33. Miller-Jones, J. (1992): Food safety. Eagen Press. St. Paul/uSA.
34. Motta, H. (1988): Fish meal production by artisanal methods. Proc. FAD Expert-Consultation on Fish
Technology in Africa. Abidjan. Cote D'Ivoire, 25 to 28 April, 213-217.
35. Murayama, S.; Yanase, M., Masaki, Y (1962): Nutritive constituents of fish meal and fish solubles. In:
Heen, E.; Kruezer, B. (eds.). Fish in Nutrition. FAD, Rome, 320-323.
36. NRC (1977): Nutrient requirement of warmwater fishes. Nat. Academy Press, Washington D.C./uSA.
37. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirement of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. Nat. Academy Press, Washington
D.C./USA.
38. NRC (1993): Nutrient requirement of fish. Nat. Academy Press, Washington D.C./USA.
39. Nehring, K. (1955): Lehrbuch der Tiererniihrung und Futtermittelkunde (Edition 5). Neumann Verlag,
Radebeul and Berlin/Germany.
40. New, M.B. (1987): Feeds and feeding of fish and shrimp - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture, ADCPlRep/87/26 UNDP, FAD, Rome.
41. Park, e. w. (1989): Effect of sardine meal on growth and mineral contents of red sea bream, Pagrus major
and Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica. Dcean Res. Korea, lJ., 9-13.
42. Penajlorida, V.D. (1989): An evaluation of indigenous protein sources as potential component in the diet
formulation for tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon, using essential amino acid index (EAAI). Aquaculture,
83.,319-330.
43. Piedad-Pascual, F; Destajo, W. (1978): Growth and survival of Penaeus monodon post-larvae fed shrimp
head meal and fish meal as primary sources of protein. Fish. Res. J. Phil., 4., 23.
44. Pike, [.H. (1990): Fish meal and oil in farm diets. Fish Farming International, 17., 64.
45. Rumsey, G. (1993): Fish meal and alternate sources of protein in fish feeds update 1993. Fisheries, 18., 14-19.
46. Satoh, S.; Takeuchi, T.; Watanabe, T. (1991): Availability of manganese and magnesium contained in white
fish meal to rainbow trout Oncorchynchus mykiss. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.,
57.,99-104.
47. Seneriches, M.M.; Chiu, Y.N. (1988): Effect of fish meal on the growth, survival and feed efficiency of
milkfish (Chanos chanos) fry. Aquaculture, 7[., 61-69.
48. Shiau, S.Y.; Kwok, e.e.; Kwang, J.-Y.; Chen, e.M.; Lee, S.L (1989): Replacement of fish meal with
soybean meal in male tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus) fingerling diets at sub-optimal protein
level. J. World Aquacult. Soc., 20., 230-235.
49. Smith, R.R.; Peterson, M.S.; Alfred, A.e. (1980): Effect of leaching on apparent digestion coefficient
offeedstuffs for salmonids. Prog. Fish Cult., 42 .. 195-199.
50. Stansby, ME; Schlenk. H.; Gruger, E.G. (1990): Fatty acid composition of fish. In: Stansby, ME (ed.):
Fish oils in nutrition. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York/USA.
51. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for warm water fish, fish meal and other processed feedstuffs.
FAD Fisheries Circular No. 856. FAD, Rome. 64.
52. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for crustaceans natural foods and processed feestuffs. FAD
Fisheries Circular No. 866, FAD, Rome.
 FISH MEAL 191

53. Tiiufel, A.; Ternes, W; Tunger, L; Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexicon. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg!
Germany.
54. Teshima, S.; Kanazawa, A.; Yamashita, M.; Koshio, S. (1991): Rearing of larval prawn Penaeusjaponicus
with brown fish meal based diets. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 57., 175.
55. Ufodike, E.B.C.; Ugwuzor, G.N. (1985): Effects offish meal, cow blood meal and sorghum diets on good
utilization and growth of cage-cultured Oreochromis niloticus. BioI. Afr., 2., 69-74.
56. Watanabe, T.; Satoh. S.; Takeuchi, T. (1988): Availability of minerals in fish meal to fish. Asian Fish. Sci.,
1.,175-195.
57. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg!Germany.
58. West, G.P. (1992): Blacks veterinary dictionary. A & C Black, London, 17th edition.
59. Wah/bier, W; Jiiger, F. (1977): Futtermittel aus Meerestieren. In: Kling, M.; Wohlbier, W: Handels-
futtermittel. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
60. Windsor, ML (w/o year): Fish meal. Torry Research Station, Torry Advisory Note No. 49.
 19. FISH PROTEIN CONCENTRATE (HYDROLYSED)

19.1. Rationale

Hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HFPC) is produced from by-products of the fishery
industry. It is a feed ingredient of the new generation of feedstuffs, characterised by its
extraordinarily high protein content and the conversion of insoluble fish protein into
polypeptides and amino acids by enzymatic hydrolysis. The soluble fish protein forms
chelates with minerals.
The manufacture of HFPC utilises the experiences from the food processing industry,
which since the 1960's utilises the advantages of the enzymatic hydrolysis to get a better
protein solubility(2).

19.2. Manufacture and Processing

Raw materials for HFPC are fish and fish frames from filleting plants. The location of
the processing plant determines the fish species used as raw materials. In Europe prevailing
fish species for the manufacture of HFPC are:
• Cod (Gadus morhua)
Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus)
Mackerel (Scomber spp.)
• Pout (Trisopterus luscus)
Whiting (Merlangus merlangus)
The fresh raw material is minced in order to obtain a large surface area for a better
and faster enzymatic hydrolysis. In the hydrolysation process, temperature, time and pH
have to be strictly controlled for producing the wanted short-chain polypeptides.
After completion of hydrolysation the insoluble matter such as bones, scales and other
undigestible solids is removed. The liquid product is de-fatted, concentrated, pasteurised
and spray-dried (Figure 19-01). To control any oxidation during transport and storage
an antioxidant may be added(7).

19.3. Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
Hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HFPC) is characterised by its high crude protein
content (Table 19-01). The dry matter content is 95 to 97%. Fat and crude fibre content
is negligible. However, the small amount of fat has a high level of unsaturated fatty acids
as shown below:
 FISH PROTEIN CONCENTRATE (HYDROLYSED) 193

Saturated fatty acids: 22.29% (of total fat)

• Mono-unsaturated fatty acids: 42.95%
Poly-unsaturated fatty acids: 21.83%

Figure 19-01. Diagram of the production of Hydrolysed Fish Protein Concentrate (HFPC).

Table 19-01: Chemical composition (%) of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HFPC)
in comparison to soybean meal (from de-hulled beans) and herring meal(6)

HFPC Soybean-meal Herring meal

Crude protein 80.0 48.0 70.0

Crude fat 0.3 0.5 10.0
Crude fibre 1.0 3.0 1.0
Calcium 3.5 0.2 2.0
Methionine + Cystine 4.7 1.5 2.9

HFPC is rich in sulphur-containing amino acids (Table 19-02). The taurine content
is remarkably high. It is ten times higher than fish meal made from anchovies (7,900 ppm
and 790 ppm, respectively)(lO). Information on calcium content vary widely (Tables 19-01,
19-03) and depends on whether the raw material processed is whole fish or fish frames.
194 CHAPTER 19

Table 19-02: Essential amino acid profile of hydrolysed fish protein

concentrate (HFPC) (g/16 g N)(71

Arginine 6.4 7.1

Histidine 1.8 2.1
Isoleucine 3.7 4.3
Leucine 6.0 7.1
Lysine 6.9 7.5
Methionine 2.6 2.9
Phenylalanine 2.7 3.7
Threonine 3.5 3.9
Tryptophan 0.8 1.0
Valine 4.2 4.9

Table 19-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HFPCY')

Minerals Vitamins (in 1,000 g)

Calcium % 0.33 Vitamin A LV. 1,400

Phosphorus % 0.60 Vitamin E mg 700
Potassium % 1.30 Vitamin B( mg 13.0
Magnesium % om Vitamin B, mg 10.0
Sodium % 1.00 Vitamin B(, mcg 140
Manganese mg/kg 5.0 Biotin mg 0.2
Iron mg/kg 85.0 Folic acid mg 0.2
Copper mg/kg 4.0 Pantothenic acid mg 30.0
Zinc mg/kg 15.0 Choline mg 3,000
Selenium mg/kg 1.0

Physiological Properties
The energy content of HFPC has been determined for sa1monids (Table 19-04). Enzymatic
hydrolyses is a kind of "pre-digestion". The apparent digestibility, therefore, is high.
In rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) the digestestibility of crude protein, dry matter
and energy of HFPC is 95.1 %, 77.9% and 79.0%, respectively(5.6).

Table 19-04: Energy content of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate

(HFPC) determined in salmonids(5. 6)

kcal/kg MJ/kg

Gross energy 6,090 25.5

Metabolisable energy 4.490 18.8
Digestible energy 4,110 17.2
 FISH PROTEIN CONCENTRATE (HYDROLYSED) 195

Other Properties
Hydrolysed fish protein concentrate has also chemo-attractant properties as found in
crustacean feeding(4.9).

19.4 Feeding Value

Fishes
HFPC is a high-class protein source for aquaculture feed. First feeding Atlantic salmon
fry (Salrno salar) performed better on a LT-fish meal diet than on a HFPC diet, while
mortality rate was almost the same. However, HFPC-fed fishes performed better than
fish fed other fish meal sources (Table 19-05)18).
Table 19-05: The effect of starter feed containing various marine protein sources on
the development of first feeding Atlantic salmon (Salrno salar)l8)

HFPC % 90.8
LTF-meal % 90.8
Menhaden fish meal % 90.8
Herring meal % 51.2
Shrimp meal % 5.0
Crude protein % 65.9 64.8 57.9 56.6
Crude fat % 13.9 15.7 14.7 14.6

Final weight g 0.97 1.06 0.81 0.77

Weight gain g 0.78 0.87 0.62 0.58
Losses % 1.6 1.3 8.5 28.9

Juvenile Atlantic salmon as well as juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus

tschawytscha) responded significantly better on HFPC diets than on LT-fish meal
containing feed. More than 5.0% HFPC in the diet, however, did not improve the
performance of the fish (Table 19-06)15).
Rainbow trouts (Salrno gairdneri) of an initial weight of 8.0 g grew about 15.0%
better on HFPC diet than on a LT-fish meal diet as the control(5).
Table 19-06: Effect of hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HFPC) in juvenile chinook
salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) (trial period: 9 weeks)l5)

HFPC % 5.0 8.0 11.0

Fish meal % 45.0 40.0 37.0 34.0
Crude protein % 49.8 49.9 50.0 49.8
Crude fat % 19.8 19.9 19.9 19.9
Digestible energy kcal/kg 4.828 4.852 4.852 4.852
MJlkg 20.2 20.3 20.3 20.3
-----------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain! g 305 377 332 373
100 g fish reI. 100.0 123.6 108.9 122.3
Feed conversion 1: 0.85 0.75 0.82 0.75
reI. 100.0 88.2 96.5 88.2
196 CHAPTER 19

Crustaceans
Increasing levels of HFPC as partial replacement for fish meal in diets for tiger prawn
(Penaeus monodon) juveniles showed no significant differences between the different
inclusion rates. More than 3.0% HFPC did not further improve performances
(Table 19-07, Figure 19-02)13.41.

Table 19-07: Feeding tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) juveniles with hydrolysed
fish proteion concentrate (HFPC) for 60 days(3· 4)

HFPC % 3.0 5.0 8.0

Fish meal % 31.8 27.8 25.5 22.0
Crude protein % 43.4 45.6 44.9 44.6
Crude fat % 9.6 8.6 9.4 9.4
------------------------------------------------------
Mean initial weight g 0.92 0.94 0.94 0.84
Mean final weight g 3.01 4.37 4.20 3.87
Relative growth % 227.5 365.4 348.1 360.7
Feed conversion rate 1: 4.30 3.05 3.05 2.90
Survival rate % 75.0 76.7 81.7 75.0

,
400 ,
r---
-
365.4
- 360.7

..=
348.~

..~
~
.Il 300 -
~
I)

=
>
~
-
...'I" 227.5
a:= 200 c-

o 3.0 5.0 8.0

, BPPC in the diet

Figure 19·02. Relative growth rate of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) juveniles fed with increasing
levels of HFPOdaJa/rom, 5)
 FISH PROTEIN CONCENTRATE (HYDROLYSED) 197

19.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

HFPC is a valuable high protein source for aquaculture feed. It has to be used at restricted
levels because beyond a certain inclusion rate there is no further improvement in
performance. Recommended inclusion rates for HFPC are 2.0 to 5.0% for fishes and
2.0 to 4.0% for crustaceans.

19.6 Legal Aspects

HFPC is a natural as well as safe product. The ED-Directive 92/87IEEC does not list
the feedstuff. According to AAFCOI) the product is named "dried fish protein digest"
and in Germany the term is "fish meal, partly hydrolysed". The legal requirements for
hydrolysed fish protein concentrate are in Table 19-08.

Table 19-08: Legal requirements (%) for hydrolysed fish protein concentrate (HPPC)

Germany(//) U.S.NII

Listed as No. 15.12

Moisture max. 7.5 10.0
Crude protein min. 85.0 80.0
Water solubility of crude protein min. 75.0
Crude fat min. 2.5

19.7 References

1. AAFCG (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher),
Sacramento, CNUSA.
2. Adler-Nissen, J. (1976): Enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins for increased solubility. J. Agric. Food Chern.,
24., (6),1090-1093.
3. Anggawati, A.M. (1992): Fish protein in juvenile tiger shrimp diets. Feed Magazine, (2), 22-24.
4. Anggawati, A.M.; Jovita. T.M.; Endang Sri. H. (1990): The use of hydrolyzed protein concentrate in
practical diets for Penaeus monodon juveniles. Research Report, Nov.
5. Anonymous (1991): Results of experimental trials. Sapropeche. F - 62204 Boulogne-sur-mer, France
(Mimeograph).
6. Cho. c.Y.; Gwey, C.; Watanabe. T. (1985): Finfish nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IDRC. Ottawa/Canada. 233e.
7. HertrampJ, J. W. (1992): Hydrolysiertes Fischprotein - ein hochwertiger EiweiBtriiger. AUg. Miihlenmarkt,
93.• (1689/1690). 127-130.
8. Hughes. S.G.; Rumsey. GL (1991): Starter salmon diets. Feed Management, 42., (4),58-62.
9. Pascual. F.p.; Saclauso. C.A. (1991): Hydrolyzed fish protein concentrate in practical diets for Penaeus
monodon. Trial Report (Manuscript).
10. Picone. T.A. (1987): Taurin update: Metabolism and function. Nutrition today. July/Aug .• 16-20.
11. Weinreich. G.; Koch. Y.; Knippel. J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. BucheditionAgrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
 20. FISH AND OTHER MARINE SILAGES

20.1 Rationale

Fish and other silages are liquid feeds, manufactured from trash fish and by-products and
wastes of fish, crustacean and amphibia (frogs) processing. This is a suitable method to
preserve marine materials for months of storage(30. 39).
Silage making is suitable for utilising marine products when quantities of by-products
and wastes are too small for a viable operation of a fish meal planr33).1t is a useful animal
feed in areas close to the point of manufacture(31 and convenient for tropical conditions
because the added acids completely arrests putrefaction even at high environmental
temperature. The technology of silage making is relatively simple and does not require
substantial investments (Figure 20-01)133).

Raw material

Silage rank
witn cnopper

Acid

Figure 20-01. Diagram of batch production of acid fish silage.

 FISH AND OTHER MARINE SILAGES 199

20.2 Manufacture and Processing

The fresher the raw materials used for silage making, the better the quality of the end-
product(ll). Fish and fish material with low fat content is more suitable for silage preparation
than material with a high fat content<44). The material has to be minced and the preservative
agent is added. The whole has to be mixed thoroughly(3o.33). Preservative agents for ensiling
are acids, alkali and fermentable sugars.

20.2.1 Acid Silage

Fish Silage
Formic and propionic acids are most commonly used organic acids. Inorganic acids
such as sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid are also utilised because they are less
expensive(30.33). To quickly reach a pH of 3.8 to 4.0 about 2.5 % (by weight) of acid is
required. Single acids or combinations of two or more acids can be used(ll).
Fish material gradually liquefies as the tissue structures are broken down by enzymes
present in the raw material. Fish guts and whole pelagic fish will liquefy very fast, while
processing waste without the guts will hardly autolyse(6. 1533.34). The rate and degree of
autolysis depends on the activity of the digestive enzymes, the pH and the temperature(33).
When autolysis is completed, the oil of the raw material floats to the top of the silage
and bones and the undissolved portion settles at the bottom as a sludge(33). The liquid
silage can be concentrated to bring the moisture content from about 80% to 50%(31).
Acid fish silage can be stored for months. A mould inhibitor should be added to prevent
mould development and an antioxidant could be useful to avoid oxidation of the fat/oil(lo. 33).

Crustacean Silage
Usable wastes (head and carapace [exoskeleton]) from shrimp processing amounts to
70% of the whole shrimp(28). The rapid decomposition of the fresh material and its valuable
nutrients can be preserved by acid treatment.
The method used is similar to that of making fish silage. However, due to the high ash
content (CaC0 3) of shrimp shells more acid is needed for stabilising the silage. The acid
treatment rapidly solubilises the calcium salt structure of the shells(9). The use of an
antioxidant is helpful(41.42).
The liquefaction process is completed after two to three days. The liquid is separated
from the solid sediment by centrifugation. About 60 to 70% of the wet weight are liquid
which contains half the protein. Over 85% of the chitin remains in the sediment.
By removing the insoluble chitin the silage can be processed to a pure end-product(l7).
The acid silage should be neutralised prior to feeding.

20.2.2 Alkaline Silage

Alkali hydroxides have been used as preservatives in fish silage. The advantages of this
silage treatment are good gelling, water binding property and low degree of autolysis.
But there are also risks such as the formation of lysino-alanine, racemisation of amino
acids and lower storage stability. Actually, alkaline silage making is not practised(33).
200 CHAPTER 20

22.2.3 Fermented Silage

Fish Silage
Fermented silage is also called "biological fish silage". It is prepared by adding a fer-
mentable sugar, such as molasses (10 to 12%), and a starter culture of e.g. 200 million
lactic acid bacteria per m3 silage, which rapidly converts the sugars to lactic acid.
The initial temperature is 21 ° to 25°C and the pH 6.0 to 6.2 which should decline to
4.5 within 48 hours. Fermented silage autolyses and liquefies in the same way as acid
silagel30. 33. 44).

Crustacean Silage
Lactic acid fermentation of shrimp material is the basis for many fermented pastes and
sauces found in South-East Asia such as "belachan" (Malaysia), "trassi-udang" (Indonesia)
and "pla-ra" (Thailand).
The principles are the same as for fermented fish silage. Instead of molasses starchy
products such as fermented rice, cooked rice and tapioca (cassava) can be also used.
However, the starch must be broken down into single sugars for its use by lactic acid
bacteria(17) •

20.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

20.3.1 Chemical Properties

Fish Silage
Silage of marine materials is a protein source but the crude protein content in the dry
matter varies widely. The nitrogen fraction comprises short peptides, amino acids,
ammoniac, non-protein nitrogen (NPN) as well as urea (about 20 to 30% of the total
N content) (Table 20_01)15.21.22). The latter is neither beneficial nor detrimental to the
metabolism of salmonid fishes. But urea nitrogen must be subtracted when comparing
protein values of silage and fresh marine wastes (5 ). Total volatile nitrogen (TVN) of about
1.0% is the sum of trimethylamine (TMA), ammoniac and biogenic amines (histamine,
putrescine, cadaverine, tyramine) and their levels are an indicator for the freshness of
the raw material at the time of ensiling(lo. 33).
Table 20-01: Chemical composition of fish silage (in dry matter)
(/0, 26, 30. 44, 45, 46)

Mean Variation

Dry matter % 24.9 20.0 47.6

Crude protein % S8.3 28.2 74.4
Crude fat % 16.0 2.1 SO.6
Ash % 14.7 9.6 19.5
Crude fibre % 3.6 1.0 6.1
N-free e)(tract % 28.9 7.7 SO.O
NPN g/100 g N 72.9 64.0 80.S
 FISH AND OTHER MARINE SILAGES 201

The amino acid profile of fish silage is not significantly different from that of dried
fish (Table 20-02). Due to the degradation of protein, the level of free amino acids in fish
silage is high. In general, they are stable but tryptophan, methionine and histidine are
most sensitive for decomposition by storage(26).

Table 20-02: Essential amino acid profile of fish silage (g/16 g NYI/· 26. 28, 44. 45)

Fish silage

Mean Variation Fish meal

Arginine 4.9 1.7 - 6.2 5.3

Histidine 1.8 1.2 3.0 2.7
Isoleucine 3.2 2.4 - 3.9 3.9
Leucine 5.7 4.2 - 7.5 6.6
Lysine 6.6 4.8 - 9.2 7.7
Methionine 2.5 1.4 - 4.4 2.9
Phenylalanine 2.9 1.6 - 4.0 3.1
Threonine 3.1 2.0 - 4.8 3.8
Tryptophan 1.1 0.1 2.0 NID'
Valine 4.3 3.3 4.8 4.1

I Not determined

The fat content of fish silage depends on the fat content of the raw material used.
Fish silage from lean fish had a fat content of 14.9 % while fat fish silage had 50.6%.
The catching season also affects the fat content of the fish and consequently that of the
silage(44). The fat of whiting (Merlangus merlangus) is rich in unsaturated fatty acids(l6):
Saturated fatty acids: 38.05% (of total fat)
Mono-unsaturated fatty acids: 39.77%
Poly-unsaturated fatty acids: 20.33%
The content of water soluble vitamins of fish silage per 1,000 g dry matter is docu-
mented as follows(44):
• Vitamin B 1: 4.0 mg
• Vitamin B2 : 1.0 mg
Vitamin B 12 : 15.0 mcg
• Nicotinic acid: 20.0 mg
Pantothenic acid: 2.0 mg
Fish silage made from fish waste has a higher ash content than those prepared from
whole fish. It contains{26.30):
Calcium: 3.1% (0.7 to 4.8%)
Phosphorus: 1.9% (1.55 to 2.6%).
Storage does not affect the nutrient content of fish silage. The dry matter content and
TVN may increase with storage timer /0. 1/, 37).
202 CHAPTER 20

Other Marine Silages

The crude protein content of shrimp head silage and squid viscera silage is lower than in
the fresh material. On the contrary the dry matter content of the silages is higher than
in the raw material (Table 20-03)1sl. The chemical composition of shrimp wastes and
squid viscera vary significantly, reflecting the nature of the shrimp or viscera wastesl2SI •
In general, the content of most essential amino acids is higher in shrimp head silage
than in shrimp head meal (Table 20-04). Acid silage from shrimp waste is also a source
of carotenoidsl2SI •

Table 20-03: Chemical composition of shrimp head and squid viscera silage compared to
the fresh material (in dry matter)!')

Squid viscera Shrimp head

Silage Fresh Silage Fresh

Dry matter % 19.9 17.8 21.0 19.4

Crude protein % 60.8 75.3 45.6 54.8
Crude fat % 7.3 7.4 4.8 2.7
Ash % 9.5 6.8 24.3 27.4
Calcium % 0.4 0.1 6.0 8.1
Phosphorus % 1.0 1.1 1.6 2.0
Free fatty acids % 4.3 1.9 1.2 50.3

Table 20-04: Essental amino acid profiles of shrimp head

silage and shrimp head meal (gl16 g N)!2')

Shrimp head silage Shrimp head meal

Arginine 6.2 5.4

Histidine 3.4 1.4
Isoleucine 3.9 3.0
Leucine 5.8 5.0
Lysine 6.0 5.2
Methionine 1.9 1.9
Phenylalanine 3.2 3.5
Threonine 2.9 3.0
Tryptophan 3.4 2.6
Valine 4.4 3.8
 FISH AND OTHER MARINE SILAGES 203

20.3.2 Physiological Properties

The energy values of fish silage for fishes are 5,432 kcal/kg (22.7 MJ/kg) for gross
energy, 2,871 kcal/kg (12.0 MJ/kg) for digestible energy and 3,394 kcal/kg (14.2 MJ/kg)
for metabolisable energy(5, 30, 46).
The apparent digestibility of fish silage ranges from 31.9% to 84.4%. The utilisation
of fish silage by the eel is low and declines when the percentage in the diet increases
(Table 20-05). The protein efficiency ratio (PER) varies from 0.34 for the European eel
(Anguilla anguilla) to 1.30 for the Atlantic salmon (Salrno salar). Silage made from
waste of frog processing showed a protein digestibility of 72.0%(39).

Table 20-05: Apparent digestibility (%) of fish silage

Species Silage in diet Apparent digestibility Reference

All Dry Crude Crude

% matter protein fat

Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) 55.0 84.4' (5)

Atlantic salmon (Salmon salary 45.02 78.6 (10)

45.03 79.4

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) N/S' 81.1 84.6 74.4 (12)

(16)
European eel (Anguilla anguilla) 10.0 38.8
15.0 41.9
20.0 31.9

Rats 100.02 82.0' (1/)

100.03 82.3'

Pigs N/S' 83.0 95.0 89.0 (44)

'Nitrogen digestibility; 2 Silage stored for five months; 3 Silage stored for two months; • Not stated

The mean apparent digestibility of amino acids of fish silage from dogfish (Squalus
acanthias) tested in rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) is 89.1 %. Storage of fish silage for
more than 30 days slightly reduces but insignificantly the amino acid digestibility as
found in rats (Table 20-06).
204 CHAPTER 20

Table 20-06: Apparent digestibility (80%) of essential amino acids of fish silage

Rainbow trout(S) Rats(/I)

Silage stored for ...

30 days 180 days

Arginine 93.6 91.3 91.4

Histidine 86.3 93.4 90.9
Isoleucine 87.4 85.7 83.7
Leucine 88.8 87.6 86.1
Lysine 93.0 90.8 87.4
Methionine 89.2 89.4 87.8
Phenylalanine 87.5 86.5 84.1
Threonine 88.9 82.4 79.6
Valine 87.4 86.7 83.7

20.3.3 Other Properties

Positive Properties
Silage from marine material has chemo-attractant properties due to free amino acids(44).
In particular shrimp silage has shown to exhibit feeding stimulatory properties to
a variety of fish species(27). Fish silage may also contain unidentified growth factors(44)
(see chapter 44).
The carotenoid, astaxanthin, in shrimp head silage is quite stable at pH 4.0. Rainbow
trouts (Salmo gairdneri) well absorbed astaxanthin of silage made from the processing
waste of the deepwater prawn Pandalus borealis and accumulated it in the fish muscle(42).

Negative Properties
Fish silage may contain high levels of mercury (Batterham et al. [1983]) which is accu-
mulated in the body tissues and could produce fish carcasses that are not fit for human
consumption(7). Fish silage containing more than 0.5 mg/kg mercury is unfit as feed(26,43).
The relatively high content of fluoride found in silage made from dogfish (Squalus
acanthias) does not seem to limit its use in diets for salmonids(5, 36).
Oxidised oils of fish silage may also cause the destruction of fat soluble vitamins
which in extreme cases could result in a vitamin deficiency(26). Thiamine (Vitamin B t ) may
be destroyed by the enzyme thiaminase which is present in fish silage at high levels(l).
 FISH AND OTHER MARINE SILAGES 205

20.4 Feeding Value

Fishes
Commonly moist silage feeds are made by mixing the liquid silage with a dry binder
meal in about equal proportions by weight(33).
Fresh fish silage of various fish species and fish processing waste prepared with
formic acid (2.2% to 2.5%) has successfully replaced fresh and frozen fish, respectively,
in diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). No nega-
tive effects were observed in weight gain, health and the quality of the fish meat (Table
20-07)12.3· 4.5. 19,20,23,24,35). Silage in the diet at a level of 47% is equal to 30% of the diet's
total nitrogen(4). But it has been found that growth rates of the Atlantic salmon are
significantly reduced, if more than 15% of the total protein came from fish silage. At a
level of 20% of the total protein from the silage a slightly off-flavour was observed(33).

Table 20-07: Dogfish (Squalus acanthias) offal silage as feed for Atlantic salmon
(Salrna salar) (feeding period: 92 days)!5)

Industrial frozen fish % 50,0

Dogfish silage % 47.0
Dry matter % 58.9 59.1
Crude protein % 46.3 47.9
Non-urea protein % 46.3 44.9

Initial weight g 702 702

Weight gain g 490 483
Daily growth rate % 0.58 0.58
Dressing percentage 88.1 87.6
Pigmentation of flesh Points 1.8 1.8
Taste Points 3.9 4.0

When fresh saithe (Pollachius virens) and silage made from offal of the same fish
species were fed to Atlantic salmon no differences in performances were observed when
the silage was stored for two months. But a storage time of five months has negatively
affected fish performances (Table 20-08) although the silage was fortified not only with
formic acid (2.2%), potassium sorbate (0.2%) and an antioxidant (200 ppm)lJO). Rainbow
trout grew slower, compared to a fish meal diet, when the fish silage was stored for only
one month(l8, 38). It is concluded that the quality of acid fish silage significantly declines
when stored for more than 90 days(lO, Il).
Mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio) fingerlings responded negatively on acid fish silage,
stored for six months, compared to LT-fish meal. Both silage and fish meal were prepared
from whole whiting (Merlangus merlangus). Poor diet palatability and loss of nitrogen by
leaching most probably are the limiting factors to the growth of carp fed fish silage diets(45).
Feeding lactic acid fish silage to juvenile Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and cat
fish (Clarias gariepinus) at increasing levels of silage as replacement for herring meal
206 CHAPTER 20

showed no significant differences to the control for all parameters and at all levels (Table
20-09). There were also no differences in the carcass composition and no morphological
defects were observed(/2).
In diets for the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) acid fish silage gradually replaced
meat and fish meal. There was a statistically significant improvement in weight gain and
feed conversion as compared to the control at all silage levels (Table 20-10)(/6).

Table 20-08: The influence of storage time of saithe (Pollachius virens) offal silage
on performance of Atlantic salmon (Sa/mo sa/ar)IO!

Raw minced fish % 45.0

Silage/2 months stored % 45.0
Silage/5 months stored % 45.0
Dry matter % 55.6 58.6 62.6
Crude protein' % 44.8 44.8 46.2

Final live weight g 478 484 444

Weight gain g 153 154 122
% 100.0 100.7 79.3
Feed conversion I: 1.7 1.7 2.4
% 100.0 100.0 141.2
Protein efficiency % 1.36 1.30 0.94

, In dry matter

Table 20-09: Increasing levels of lactic acid tilapia silage in diets for juvenile Nile
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in replacement for herring meal
(feeding period: 70 days)(/])

Fish silage' % 13.4 26.8 40.1

Herring meal % 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0
Crude protein % 31.0 31.3 31.2 31.3
Crude fat % 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.6

Initial weight g 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2

Final weight g 52.7 52.3 52.2 52.2
Daily weight gain g 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63
PER 2.02 2.00 2.01 2.01
Feed conversion I: 1.59 1.60 1.60 1.59

, A mixture of fish silage and soybean meal (50:50)

 FISH AND OTHER MARINE SILAGES 207

Table 20-10: Increasing levels of fish silage from a blend of sardine (Sardina pilchardus)
and whiting (Merlangius merlangius) on the development of European eel
(Anguilla anguilla) fingerlings (feeding period: 4 monthsYJ6)

Fish silage % 9.0 12.8 17.0

Meat meal % 21.0 12.6 11.7 10.5
Fish meal % 39.5 37.8 34.5 31.5
Crude protein % 49.8 49.7 49.9 49.4
Lipids % 9.1 9.5 9.4 9.8
---------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain g 2.15 2.42 2.56 2.57
SGRIday % 0.17 0.28 0.29 0.29
Feed conversion 8.87 6.00 6.26 6.10
PER % 0.24 0.34 0.34 0.34

Crustaceans
Information on silage of marine material as a protein source in feed for crustaceans are
scarce. In studies with the common prawn (Palaemon serratus) up to 40% of a silage
made from Macroramphosus scolopax has been used(25). Freshwater fish silage was
successfully fed to the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii(4l). Lack of
comprehensive research does not mean that fish silage is not used as an ingredient
for shrimp feed(30).

20.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

High levels of acid fish silage in diets may have an adverse effect. The use of acid fish
silage, therefore, should be restricted to not more than 20% of the protein content of the
diet. The use of low levels of fish silage seems to be necessary to avoid a disagreeable
taste and odour of cultured fish. However, if the autolytic process is arrested at an early
stage by heating before ensiling or just thereafter, there seems to be no nutritionallimits(33).
It is advisable to add vitamins at a level which is higher than normal because of
the negative effect of rancid oil in the silage and the enzyme thiaminase on vitamins.
There are no quality requirements for fish silage. Based on the requirements for raw
materials for fish meal, it is suggested that the content of total volatile nitrogen (TVN)
should be below 40 mg N/lOO g of the raw material for making silage(33).

20.6 Legal Aspects and Precautions

Legal Aspects
Regulations restricting the use of fish silage for feeding aquatic animals are unknown.
Existing legislation and regulations with regard to the application of acids to feed have
to be duly considered.
208 CHAPTER 20

In U.S.A. all common organic and inorganic acids have the GRAS-status when used
in accordance with food manufacture or feeding practices(l4}. In the EU all common acids
used for preservation of feeds and feedstuffs may by used without any restriction at
permitted levels(43}. Thailand has limited the use of acids in finished aquaculture feeds to
not more than 0.1%(32}.

Precautions
Fish silage may contain mercury and fluorine which can accumulate in the fish body.
In single feedstuffs (min. 88% dry matter) from the processing of aquatic animals, in
Germany mercury and fluorine is restricted to not more than 0.5 mg and 500 mg/kg,
respectivelyl43}. The 0.5 mg/kg mercury limit applies also to fish or fish produce for
human consumption!40}. The "provisional tolerate weekly intake" (PTWI), set by WHO/
FAO is limited to 0.3 mg mercury per person or 0.005 mg per kg body weight and
the safe and adequate fluorine level for man amounts to 2.0 to 10.0 mg(29).

20.7 References

I. Anglesa, J.O.; Jackson. A.J. (1985): Thiaminase activity in fish silage and moist fish feed. Anim. Feed
Sci. Technology. 13.• 39-46.
2. Anonymous (1995): Dogfish processing waste in salmon diets. Infofish International. (3). 60.
3. Asgard. T. (1981: Syrekonservering - kan avfall bli inntektskjelde? Norsk Fiskeoppdrett. 6.• (5/6). 30.
4. Asgard, T. (1984): Pigghiiavfall in fOr tillaksefisk. Norsk Fiskeoppdrett. 9.• (2). 42-43.
5. Asgard, T.; Austreng. E. (1985): Dogfish offal. ensiled or frozen. as feed for salmonids. Aquaculture.
49.• 289-305.
6. Backhoff, H.P. (1976): Some chemical changes in fish silage. J. Food Technology. 11 .• 353-363.
7. Batterham, E.S.; Gorman, T.E.; Chojka, R. (1983): Nutritive value and mercury content offish silage for
growing pigs. Anim Feed Sci. Technology. 21 .• 43-56.
8. Carver, L.A.; Akiyama, D.M.; Dominy, WG. (1989): Processing of wet shrimp heads and squid viscera
with soy meal by a dry extruder process. Proc. World Congr. on Vegetable Protein Utilization in Human
Foods and AnimaI Feedstuffs. Singapore. October. 167-170.
9. Chen. H.M.; Meyers. S.P. (1983): Ensilage treatment of crawfish waste for improvement of astaxanthin
pigment extraction. J. Food Sci.. 48.• 1516-1520 and 1555.
10. Espe, M.; Haaland, H.; Njaa. L.R. (1992): Autolysed fish silage as a feed ingredient for Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar). Compo Biochem. Physiol.. 103A.. (2). 369-372.
II. Espe. M.; Raa. J.; Njaa. L.R. (1989): Nutritional value of stored fish silage as a protein source for young
rats. 1. Sci. Food Agric .• 49.• 259-270.
12. Fagbenro. 0.; Jauncy. K. (1995): Water stability, nutrient leaching and nutritional properties of moist
fermented fish silage diets. Aquaculture Engineering, 14., 143-153.
13. Fagbenro. 0.; Jauncy. K.; Haylor, G. (1994): Nutritive value of diets containing dried lactic acid fermented
fish silage and soybean meal for juvenile Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias gariepinus. Aquatic. Living
Res .• 7., 79-85.
14. FDA (1994): Food additives permitted in feed and drinking water of animals. Food and Drug Admin.,
21 CPR Ch.l (4-1-94 ed.). 514, 582.
15. Gildberg, A. (1982): Autolysis of fish tissue - General aspects. Dr. scient. thesis, University Troms¢!Norway.
 FISH AND OTHER MARINE SILAGES 209

16. Gonfalves, f.F.; Santos, S.; Pereira, V.S.; Baptista, I.; Coimbra, f. (1989): The use of fish silage as an
ingredient for eel fingerling nutrition. Aquaculture, 80., 135-146.
17. Hall, G.M.; Silva, S. de (1994): Shrimp waste ensilation. Infofish International, (2), 27-30.
18. Hardy, R. w.; Shearer, K.D.; Stone, F.D.; Wieg, D.H. (1983): Fish silage in aquaculture diets. J. World
Mariculture Soc., 14., 695-703.
19. Heras, K.; McLeod, c.A.; Ackmann, R.G. (1994): Atlantic dogfish silage vs. herring silage in diets for
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): growth and sensory evaluation of fillets. Aquaculture, 125.• 93-106.
20. fackson, A.f... Kerr, A.K.; Bullock, A.M. (1984): Fish silage as a dietary ingredient for salmon. II.
Preliminary growth findings and nutritional pathology. Aquaculture, 40. 283-291.
21. Kjos, N.P. (1994): Fiskensilasje som fOr til slaktekylling og verpehllns. Faginf. fra SFFL, No.6,
Husdyrforsfksmlltet, 366-370.
22. Kjos, N.P. (1994): Fiskeensilasje som fOr til drllvtyggare. Faginf. fra SFFL, No.6, Husdyrforsfksmlltet,
218-220.
23. Lall, S.P. (1991): Nutritional value of fish silage in salmonid diets. Bull. Aquaculture Assoc. Canada, 91.
(1),63-74.
24. Lie, 0.; Waagbjil, R.; Sandnes, K. (1988): Growth and chemical composition of adult Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar) fed dry and silage based diets. Aquaculture. 69.• 343-353.
25. Luis, 0.1.; Batista,1. (1990): The influence of protein quality and lipid composition from two Portuguese
fish meals on growth of early juveniles of Palaemon serratus (Crustacea, Decapodes). BioI. Inst. National
Fish. Investigation of Portugal, 15. 5-14.
26. Lunen, T.A. van (1990): Fish silage. In: Thacker, P.A.; Kirkwood, P.N.: Nontraditional feed sources for
use in swine production. Butterworths Publisher. Stoneham, MAIUSA.
27. Mackie, A.M. (1982): Identification of the gustatory feeding stimulants. In: Hara T.f. (ed.):
Chemoreception in fishes. Elsevier Publ. Co., Amsterdamffhe Netherlands.
28. Meyers, S.P.; Benjamin, G. (1987): Feeding value of crustacean wastes can be improved through proper
ensilage treatment. Feedstuffs, 30 March, 12-13.
29. Miller fones, f. (1992): Food safety. Eagan Press. St. Paul. MinnesotalUSA.
30. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAOIADCPIREP/87126, Rome/Italy.
31. OECD (1984): Multilingual dictionary on fish and fish products. Fishery News Books Ltd., Farnham!
England.
32. Prasert, S. (1993): Feed ingredients and quality control. In: New., M.B.; Tacon, A.G.f.; Csava, 1. (eds.):
Farm made aquafeeds. RAP Publication 1993/18. AADCPIPROc/5, BangkoklThaiiand, 75-86.
33. Raaf. (1994): Fish silage: Successes and limitations as feed ingredient in aquaculture. Proc. Fish Nutrition
Workshop. Singapore, 25-27 October.
34. Raa, f.; Gildberg, A. (1976): Autolysis and proteolitic activity of cod viscera. J. Food Technology.
11., 619-628.
35. Rungruansak, K.; Utne, F. (1981): Effect of different acidified wet feeds on protease activities in the
digestive tract and on growth rate of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Aquaculture, 22., 67-79.
36. Sjilvik, T.; Brakkan, O.R. (1981) The fluoride content in some Norwegian fish products and other marine
products. Fiskeri Dir. Skrifter. Ser, Emiiring, 2., 1-6.
37. Stone, F.E.; Hardy, R. W. (1986): Nutritional value of acid stabilised silage and liquefied fish protein.
1. Sci. Food Agric., 37., (8), 797-802.
38. Stone, RE.; Hardy, R. w.; Shearer; K.D.; Scott, T.M. (1989): Utilization of fish silage by rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri). AquaCUlture, 76., 109-118.
210 CHAPTER 20

39. Suparno; Poernonto, A. (1992): Fish waste utilisation in Indonesia. ASEAN Food J., 7., (2), 67-72.
40. Tiiufel, A.; Ternes, w.; Tunger, L.; Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag, Hamburgl
Germany.
41. 1ideman, E.; Raa, J.; Storrno, B.; Torrissen, O. (1984): Processing and utilization of shrimp waste. In:
McKenna (ed.): Engineering and Food, Vol. 2. Elsevier Publ. Co., AmsterdamlThe Netherlands, 583-591.
42. Torrissen, 0.; 1idernan, E.; Hansen, F.; Raa, J. (198111982): Ensiling in acid - A method to stabilize
astaxanthin in shrimp processing by-products and improve uptake of this pigment by rainbow trout
(Salrno gairdneri). Aquaculture, 26., 77-83.
43. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, 11.; Knippel, J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
44. Wohlbier, w.; Jager, F. (1977): Futtermittel aus Meerestieren. In: Kling, M.; Woh/bier, w.: Handels-
futtermittel. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
45. Wood, J.F.; Capper; B.S.; Nicolaides, L (1985): Preparation and evaluation of diets containing fish silage,
cooked fish preserved with formic acid and low-temperature-dried fish meal as protein source for mirror
carp (Cyprinus carpio). Aquaculture, 44., 27-40.
46. Zaher, M.; Mazid, M.A. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Bangladesh. In: New., M.B.; Tacon,
A.G.J.; Csava, I. (eds.): Farm made aquafeeds. RAPA Publication 1993/18, AADCPIPROCI5, Bangkok!
Thailand, 75-86.
 21. FISH SOLUBLES (DE-HYDRATED)

21.1 Rationale

Fish solubles is a by-product of fish meal manufacture. Industrial fish processed into fish
meal comprises 22.0% solids, 6.0% fish oil and 72.0% water. The water phase is rich in
soluble protein, soluble minerals and vitamins of the B-group. But fresh material decays
easily and cannot be stored and handling is difficult due to the content of gluey substances.
Most of the solubles, therefore, are condensed and added back to the fish cake prior to
drying, resulting in "full fish meal"(5). By de-hydration fish solubles can be converted
into a first class feedstuff.

21.2 Manufacture and Processing

Cooked fish produces two products "press-cake" (fish meal) and "press liquor". The press-
liquor or press-water passes a vibrating screen for the removal of remaining solids,
followed by centrifuge to separate the fish oil from the press-liquor (Figure 21-01)(4).
Vacuum evaporation concentrates the press-water to a content of 50% solids.
This material is de-hydrated, today mostly by spray-drying. The latest spray-drying
technology does not alter the chemical composition of the final product<2). The fine
yellow-brownish powder is hygroscopic and has to be handled with care.

21.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
De-hydrated fish solubles have a high crude protein content (Table 21-01). The variation
of the protein content is caused by the fishing season and the fish species processed.
Fish solubles are also a useful source of essential amino acids (Table 21-02).
The fat level of fish solubles is affected by the intensity of the separation of the fat
from the press-liquor. The total fat content is composed of around 77.0% unsaturated
fatty acids of which 21.4% are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)l2).
A high ash content is an indicator that the press-liquor comes from processing of
fish waste having a high content of bones. The solubility of macro and micro minerals
of fish solubles is high (Table 21-03). Fish solubles is probably the richest source of
natural seleniumm. It is also a good source of water soluble vitamins (Table 21-03).
212 CHAPTER 21

COOXED PISH

I
All.

,
... _ _ _ - ____ .______ I

Figure 21-01. Flow diagram of the processing of de-hydrated fish solubles.

Table 21-01: Chemical composition (%) of de-hydrated fish solubles and

condensed fish solubles (as fed)!2. J. & 9. 12. /3)

Fish solubles. de-hydrated Condensed

fish solubles
Mean Variation

Dry matter 94.0 89.0 - 96.0 50.0

Crude protein 71.0 62.0 - 80.0 32.7
Crude fat 4.0 3.0 - 8.2 5.6
Ash 13.5 12.0 - 16.0
Crude fibre 0.9 0.3 - 1.4 0.5
Salt 5.0 3.5 - 6.0
 FISH SOLUBLES (DE-HYDRATED) 213

Table 21-02: Essential amino acid profile of de-hydrated fish solubles

(g/16 g N)f" 3. '. 131

Mean Variation

Arginine 2.74 2.44 - 3.05

Histidine 1.21 0.75 2.10
Isoleucine 1.74 1.52 - 2.05
Leucine 3.27 2.97 - 3.50
Lysine 3.27 2.24 - 3.87
Methionine 1.04 0.75 1.18
Phenylalanine 1.47 1.41 - 1.53
Threonine 1.25 0.09 - 1.81
Tryptophan 0.38 0.16 - 0.59
Valine 2.16 2.10 - 2.20

Table 21-03: Macro and trace minerals and vitamin contents of de-hydrated fish solubles

Minerals!9. 13. 151 Vitamins (per 1,000 g)f9. 13. 151

Calcium % 0.36 VitaminE mg 4.8

Phosphorus % 1.22 VitaminB, mg 4.7
Sodium % 1.27 VitaminB, mg 13.4
Potassium % 1.78 VitaminB. mg 17.1
Magnesium % 0.21 Vitamin BI2 mcg 530
Manganese mglkg 19.1 Biotin mg 0.48
Iron mg/kg 337.3 Folic acid mg 0.93
Zinc mg/kg 46.7 Nicotinic acid mg 266
Copper mg/kg 24.2 Pantothenic acid mg 39.5
Selenium mglkg 3.5 Choline g 4.70
Inositol mg 352

Physiological Properties
De-hydrated fish solubles have a high crude protein content but much of it is non-
protein nitrogen(Jl). The protein digestibility in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) is only
60%(14). A similar low digestibility rate is reported for pigs (70.8%). The organic matter
digestibility for poultry is 81.0%(8).
The metabolisable and the digestible energy of fish solubles has been determined for
rainbow trouts and is 3,345 kcallkg (14.0 MJlkg) and 3,684 kcallkg (15.4 MJlkg),
respectively(14).

Other Properties
De-hydrated fish solubles is an efficient chemo-attractant due to its high solubility of
about 90%(3. 11) which also means faster leaching of chemo-attractant components
and loss of nutrients. It was found that after one hour of seawater immersion 21 % of
the protein was losti6).
214 CHAPTER 21

Fish solub1es is also a source of unidentified growth factors (UGF)(7. 11. 15) (see chapter 44).
The binding capacity of de-hydrated fish solub1es is medium according to pelletising
tests by CPM(JO).

21.4 Feeding Value

De-hydrated fish solubles is a protein source. an attractant. a supplier of UGF and can
serve as a pellet binder. However. it appears that the significant improvement of the diet's
palatability is the most important contribution of fish solubles to aquaculture feeds{3}.
Reports on comparative trials are missing. In finisher diets for the tiger prawn
(Penaeus monodon) 4.0% and 5.0% fish solubles were used(J6). However. the diets were
not isonitrogenous and the composition is not comparable (Table 21-04).

Table 21-04: Fish solubles in diets for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)(l6)

Fish solubles % 5.0 4.0

Squid meal % 35.0
Shrimp head meal % 15.0
Small shrimp meal % 40.0 10.0
Fish meal % 15.0 20.0
Crude protein % 37.2 35.1 30.2
---------------------------------------------------------
Initial weight mg 1.52 1.52 1.52
Final weight mg 34.21 32.14 31.14
% 100.0 93.9 91.0
Survival rate % 57.0 55.3 54.3

21.S Recommended Inclusion Rates

The value of de-hydrated fish solubles is established as an ideal combination of essential

amino acids that are nutritionally known as feeding stimulants for aquatic organisms.
For all species and types of feed. de-hydrated fish solubles as an attractant should be
used at levels of 2.0% to 5.0%(3.17).

21.6 Legal Aspects

De-hydrated fish solubles should be free of any kind of pathogens. AAFCO(I) rules that
fish solubles. de-hydrated. (No. 51.7) should contain not less than 60% crude protein and
condensed fish solubles (No. 51.6) not less than 30%. In the EU-Directive 92/87IEEC
only condensed fish solubles (No. 10.02) is listed. The German feedstuff legislation is
more specific (Table 21-05).
 FISH SOLUBLES (DE-HYDRATED) 215

Table 21-05: Legal requirements for fish solubles in the Federal

Republic of Gerrnany(l8)

Fish solubles. Fish solubles.

de-hydrated condensed
% %

Moisture max. 8.0

Crude protein min. 60.0 32.0
Pepsin solubility min. 90.0
Salt (NaCI) max. 10.0 5.0

21.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher).
Sacramento. CAIUSA.
2. Anonymous (1990): Description of spray-dried fish solubles. Dan-Spray APS. Hvide SandelDenmark.
3. Anonymous (w/o year): Spray-dried fresh whole-fish solubles protein attractants and binder for aqua feed.
HVISA fiskemelsfabrikken. Hvide SandelDenmark (FPr/4).
4. Bimbo, A.p. (1990): Production of fish oil. In: Stansby. M.E.: Fish oils in nutrition. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
New York.
5. Christensen, S. (1978): Control of decanters and separators. IAFMM News Summary. 44., 104-119.
6. Cuzon, G.; Hew, M.; Cognie, D.; Soletchnik, P. (1982): Time lag effect of feeding on growth of juvenile
shrimp Penaeus japonicus Bate. Aquaculture. 29.• 33-44.
7. Feltwell. R.; Fox, S. (1978): Practical poUltry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
8. Friesecke, H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung von Rind. Schaf. Pferd. Schwein. Geftiigel
und Sii~wasserfischen. BLV Veriagsgesellschaft. MiinchenlGerrnany.
9. Hansen, P. (1993): Private communication.
10. Hertramp/. J. W. (1992): On the water durability of aquaculture feed pellets - A review. Advances in Feed
Technology. (7), 18-38.
11. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding offish and shrimp. A manual on the preparation and presentation of
compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCA/REP/87/26. Rome/Italy.
12. NRC (1981): Nutrient requirements of coldwater fishes (No. 16). National Academy Press. Washington. D.C.
13. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shell fishes. National Academy Press.
Washington. D.C.
14. Smith, R.R.; Peterson, M.e.; Allred, A.e. (1980): The effect of leaching on apparent digestion coefficients
in determining digestibility and metabolizable energy of feedstuffs for salmonids. Prog. Fish Culturist.
42.• 699-718.
15. Soares. J.; Miller, D.; Cuppett, S.; Bauersfeld, P. (1971): A review of the chemical and nutritive properties
of condensed fish solubles. Fishery Bull .• 71 .• 255-265.
16. Sumeru, S.U. (1988): Status of shrimp feed development at BADC Jepara, Indonesia. Paper pres.
216 CHAPTER 21

Workshop on Shrimp and Finfish Feeds Dev.• 25-29 Oct. 10hore BahrulMalaysia.
17. Tacon. A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for crustaceans natural foods and processed feedstuffs. FAO
Fisheries Circular No. 866. Romelltaly (FIRUC866).
18. Weinreich. 0.; Koch. V; Knippel. J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
 22. IMMUNOSTIMULATORY SUBSTANCES

22.1 Rationale

Immunity is the power of the organism to resist infections or actions of certain poisons.
The immunity can be either inherited, acquired naturally or acquired artificiallylJ7).
Strengthening the immunity of cultured aquatic animals is an important task since bacterial
and viral diseases are a major threat to aquaculture. While fish have both "non-specific"
and "specific" immunitylJ2), shrimps lack a specific immune system and are apparently
entirely dependent on non-specific immune mechanism to resist infectionsll5).
Contrary to vaccination immunostimulants or "immuno-modulatory substances"{ll)
influence the immune system of cultured aquatic animals through feeding via feed l81 .
This is particularly of interest in shrimp farming since vaccination of shrimps is unrealistic
and impractical. On the contrary big fish can be vaccinated or orally intubated, such as
salmons (Salmo salar, Oncorhynchus spp.) and turbots (Psetta maxima).

22.2 Substances with Immunostimulatory Effect

There are compounds which have the ability to activate cells in the immune system.
Presently, the chemical nature or biological origin of immunostimulatory preparations may
not be defined clearly. Nevertheless, immunostimulants have been classified as follows{l21:
Bacterial products,
Products from mycelial fungi,
• Yeast glucans,
• Yeast nucleotides,
• Soluble and particle bond B-l,3-glucans,
Immunostimulatory gl ycans,
Peptides from animal extracts,
Synthetic compounds,
Cytokines.
Influencing the immune systems of cultured aquatic animals is a relatively new way
to combat diseases. The cited product groups have immunostimulatory properties but
reports on the immunostimulatory effect in aquatic animals are rare.

22.3 Glucans

Glucans appear to be the most promising substances for enhancing the physiological
defence mechanism of cultured aquatic animals.
218 CHAPTER 22

Occurrence
Beta (~)-glucans are polysaccharides and are extracted from grains and yeast, particularly
baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). They are present in the inner cell wall and are
important for the structural strength of the cells!2. 3.4). The ~-glucan content of grains
varies with the variety, location and climate (Table 22-01)W

Table 22-01: f3-g1ucan content of grains (% in dry matter)!61

Species Whole grain Endosperm only

Barley 4.2 4.1

Oats 3.9 1.8
Rye 2.5 1.7
Wheat 0.6 0.3

Production
The composition of a yeast glucan preparation varies with the extraction procedure and
the treatment of the crude extract. The extraction and preparation technique will also affect
the chain length of the branches and the relative proportion of ~-1,3- and ~-1,6-linked
side chains (Figure 22-01)(12).

B-1. 6-linked side chain

8-1. 3-linked side chains

B-1. 3-linked backbone

Figure 22-01. Structural formula of f3-1,3-1,6-glucan (simplified).

Mode of Action
~-glucans activate phagocytic leukocytes of aquatic animals by binding them to specific
receptors. The ability to activate phagocytic cells depends on the molecular structure of
the ~-glucan!8. 12).
 IMMUNOSTIMULATORY SUBSTANCES 219

22.4 Application Response

Immersion Treatment
Glucan preparation from barley administered by immersion to juvenile rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) increased non-specific disease resistance mechanism{7}.
Immersed yeast ~-1,3-1,6-glucan improved growth and reduced mortality of tiger
prawns (Penaeus monodon)(l6).

Oral Administration
Yeast ~-glucans dispensed in the feed at stress situations or outbreak of diseases
reduced markedly mortality of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolt and yellowtail
(Seriola quinqueradiata)llO, 13, 14). Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and chinnok
salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) became disease resistant after being fed with
yeast ~-glucans(9). A more efficient antibody production was observed in channel catfish
(/ctalurus punctatus) when a diet containing yeast glucans was fed(l).

22.5 Doses of Administration and Legal Aspects

Due to a number of uncertainties related to the dosage, time and duration of administration
and formulation in the feed(l2), a general recommendation cannot be given.
The approval of immunostimulants in the feed for cultured aquatic animals is to be
considered by the competent authorities of respective countries.

22.6 References

1. Ainsworth, A.J,; Mao, CP.; Boyle, CR, (1994): Immune response enhancement in channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus, using ~-glucan from Schizophyllum commune. In: Stolen, J.S.; Fletcher. T.C (eds.):
Modulators of fish immune responses, models for environmental toxicologylbiomarkers, immunostimu-
lators, Vol. 1,67-81. SoS Publications, Fair Haven. NJfUSA
2. Ballou, CE. (1982): Yeast cell wall and cell surface, In: Strathem. J,N.; Jones. E. w.; Broach. J.R.:
Molecular biology of the yeast Saccharomyces: Metabolism and gene expression, 335-360. Cold Spring
Habor Lab., New YorkfUSA,
3. Bhatty. R.S. (1986): Physochemical and functional breadmaking properties of hull-less barley fractions.
Cereal Chemistry, ],,31.
4. Gan{3man, W. (1994): Private communication.
5. Handreck, 8.; Potschke. L; Senge, C (1997): Gewinnung ~-glucanreicher Mahlfraktionen aus Gerste.
Die Miihle + Mischfuttertechnik, 134., (13), 396-399.
6. Henry, R.J. (1987): Pentosan and 1.3; 1,4 ~-glucan concentrations in endosperm and wholegrain of wheat,
barley, oats and rye. J, Cereal Sci., 6., 253.
7. Jeney, G,; Andersen, D.P. (1993): G1ucan injection or bath exposure given alone or in combination with
bacteria enhance the non-specific defence mechanism in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture,
116.,315-329.
8. Newman, K. (1995): The immun system: Nature's defence mechanism - manipulating it through nutrition.
220 CHAPTER 22

Proc. Alltech's Annu. Seminar, May.

9. Nild, L; Albright, LJ.; Evelyn, T.P.T. (1992): Immunostimulants hold promise in furunculosis prevention.
Bull. Aquacult. Ass. Canada, 92., 49-52.
10. Onarheim, A.M. (1992): Now a yeast extract to fortify fish. Fish Farmer, 15., (4), 45.
11. Qureshi, A.A. (1992: Immuno-modulation: Poultry International, 31., (4), 56-62.
12. Raa, l. (1996): The use of immunostimulatory substances in fish and shellfish farming. Rev. Fish. Sci.,
4. (3), 1-60.
13. Raa, l.; R¢rstad, G.; Engstad. R.; Robertsen, B. (1992): The use of immunostimulants to increase resis-
tance of aquatic organisms to microbial infections. In: Shariff, I.M.; Subasinghe, R.P.; Arthus, l.R. (eds.):
Diseases in Asian aquaculture. Asian Fish. Soc., 39-50.
14. Seto, A. (1994): Immunostimulatory effect of yeast ~-I,3-glucan (MacroGard) for marine and fresh water
fish in Japan. Proc. 3'" Int. Marine Biotechn. Conf., TromsfINorway
15. Soderhall, K.; Cerenius, L (1992): Crustacean immunity. Annu. Rev. Fish Diseases, 2., 2-23.
16. Sung, H.H.; Yang, Y.L; Song, Y.L (1996): Enhancement of microbicidal activity in the tiger shrimp
Penaeus monodon via immunstimulation. J. Crustacean Biology, 16.• 278-284.
17. West, G.P' (1992): Black's veterinary dictionary. A & C Black, London, 17'" Edition.
 23. KRILL MEAL

23.1 Rationale

Krill meal is a protein rich feedstuff from aquatic organisms. The word krill is derived
from the Norwegian "krill" which stands for young fish fry and zooplankton. In the
colloquial languages it means a small, shrimp-like, phosphorescent crustacea, especially
of the genus Euphausia (order: Euphausiacea). Major species are(l6,17, 281:
• Euphausia superba,
Euphausia pacifica.
The so called "Antarctic Krill" is composed of 85 species of which about 30 belong
to the family Euphausiidae. Most prominent among the latter is Euphausia superba
(Figure 23-01) which is a stenotherme coldwater species and can be found in vast quanti-
ties in the Antarctic, particularly south of the 50th degree of latitude between the southern
tip of South America and Africa(13, 281.

Figure 23·01. Atlantic krill (Euphausia superba),

The length of Euphausia superba varies from 1.5 to 6.0 cm, and mature animals have
a liveweight of around 1.0 to 1.5 g. Their living space is in a water depth of approxi-
mately 50 m. Krill is the food of particular mammals like baleen whales and seals.
Baleen whales ingest daily between 800 and 1,500 kg of krill(231. It is estimated that
world-wide roughly the same quantity of krill meal could be produced as fish meal without
endangering krill species (61.

23.2 Mannfactnre and Processing

Krill autolysis very rapidly. The fresh krill, therefore, has to be processed on board.
Fresh catch can be stored on deck for a maximum of four hours at a temperature of 2°C
to 4°C. Krill meal is generally steam-dried on board(21. Prior to deep-freezing, fresh krill
is short-term heated at 100°023). But krill is also hydrolysed and spray-dried into a red,
hygroscopic powderiJOI.
222 CHAPTER 23

23.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of krill meal (fable 23-01) is affected by the season, availabil-
ity of food, the area where krill is caught, the age and sex of the animals. The nitrogen
content of the chitin cannot be utilised by aquatic animals, thus has to be deducted from
the total nitrogen content as crude protein(20). The amino acid profile of the krill protein
(Table 23-02) is similar to that of fish meal. The essential amino acids of the krill
Meganyctiphanes norvegica is well balanced and e.g. meets well the requirements of
the coalfish (Pollachius virgens)!8).

Table 23-01: Chemical composition of krill meal (as fed)f2·4. 23.26)

Mean Variation

Dry matter % 92.0 90.8 - 94.0

Crude protein I % 58.8 52.2 - 67.3
Crude fat % 9.2 4.2 - 15.9
Crude ash % 13.6 9.7 - 15.9
N-free extract % 3.7 0.5 - 9.8
Chitin (crude fibre) % 6.4 5.3 - 8.4
Carotenoids 2 mglkg 225 130 330
Fluoride (F") mglkg 2,247 2,000 - 2,700

I N-content of chitin deducted

2 Mainly astaxanthin

Table 23-02: Essential amino acid profile of krill meal

(gl16 g NYU)

Mean Variation

Arginine 5.9 4.9 7.0

Histidine 2.1 1.3 2.6
Isoleucine 4.8 4.5 5.4
Leucine 7.5 6.5 8.5
Lysine 7.1 5.9 8.4
Methionine 3.0 2.2 3.4
Phenylalanine 4.3 3.8 - 5.0
Threonine 4.3 3.6 - 4.7
Tryptophan 0.9 0.5 - 1.2
Valine 4.8 4.5 - 5.6
 KRILL MEAL 223

The krill fat content varies widely (Table 23-01). The fat has a high level of unsaturated
fatty acids, particularly the omega-3 fatty acids:
• Saturated fatty acids: 35.2 to 49.5%
• Mono-unsaturated fatty acids: 20.2 to 41.9%
• Poly-unsaturated fatty acids: 18.4 to 38.6%.
The phospholipid content of krill fat amounts to 16.1 to 29.2% and the triglyceride
content varies between 26.0 and 51.6%(19.21.28).
Fat and water soluble vitamins occur at relatively high levels(7). Carotenoids are present
in the form of cryptoxanthin and astaxanthin(u, 28. 3/).

Physiological Properties
Due to the high fat content, krill meal is also an energy source. The digestible energy is
highly affected by the fat content and is estimated to be 3,647 kcallkg (15.2 MJlkg) but
may vary widely.
Krill meal is a good pigmenting agent. The strength of pigmentation is influenced by
the feeding period and the level of krill meal in the diet, and the age of the fed animals.
The higher the feeding level or the feeding period of krill meal the more carotenoids,
mainly in the form of astaxanthin, are accumulated and deposited in the muscle(3. II. 25).
The astaxanthin and phospholipid fractions of krill meal improve the egg quality as
demonstrated in the red seabream (Pagrus major)!3/).

Other Properties
Krill meal may contain high levels of fluoride (compound of fluorine and one or more
elements or radicals) because of its deposition in the exoskeleton, a chitinous shell.
After krill is caught the fluoride moves from the shell into the meat(5. 23. 26). Feeding krill
meal to fish insignificantly increases the fluoride content of fish muscle because fluoride
is deposited in the skin and the skeleton while the fillet is actually free of the compound
(Table 23-03)126.29). Since most of the fluoride content is deposited in the skeleton of fish,
there is no harm to the consumer, who eats fish fed with krill meal(4. 5. 22. 29).
Pesticide residues and some heavy metals have also been found in krill meaJ02), they are:
Chromium Cr 0.44 ppm
Cadmium Cd 0.82 ppm
Mercury Hg <0.005 ppm
Lead Pb 0.32 ppm
Arsenic As 0.70 ppm
Table 23-03: Fluoride content of feed containing krill meal and fluoride content of rainbow trout (Salrna
gaircineri) fed with that feed (mg FAg)'2.)

Without krill meal With krill meal Difference %

Feed 1,590
Fingerlings' 6.4 62.5 +923.3
Market size fish 6.7 8.5 +26.9
Fillet of market size fish 2.2 2.4 +9.1

, Without head and offal; 2 Control =100%

224 CHAPTER 23

23.4 Feeding Value

Fishes
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) grew faster by improved feed conversion when 50% of
the animal protein of the diet was replaced by krill meal (Table 23_04)1251. No adverse
effect was observed when all fish meal (35%) was replaced by the same amount of krill
meal in diets for rainbow trout(3). Even the total replacement of animal protein by krill
meal had no negative effect in the development of the fish (Table 23-05 and 23_06)126,301.
Significantly improved feed intake and less feed waste were observed when the chemo-
attractant capacity of krill hydrolysate and acid-preserved krill were tested in rainbow
trout(l81.

Table 23-04: Replacing 50% of animal protein by krill meal in the diet for
rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) (trial period: 101 days)l25)

Krill meal % 26,0

Crude protein % 48,3 38.3
Crude fat % 5.3 5.3
Digestible energy kcallkg 2,703 2,697
MJlkg 1l.31 11.28

Initial fish weight g 2.0 2.0

Weight gain g 18.1 20.8
% 100.0 114.5
Feed conversion I: 1.16 1.01
% 100.0 87.1
Losses % 0.38 0.38

Table 23-05: Total replacement of animal protein by krill meal in diets

for rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) (140 feeding days;
initial liveweight 39 g)l23)

Krill meal % 79.7

Fish meal % 34.5
Feather meal % 13.5
Poultry offal meal % 17.9
Crude protein % 43.7 44.3
Crude fat % 11.8 12.6
-----------------------------------------------
Weight gain g 104.5 103.4
% 100.0 98.9
Feed conversion I: 1.195 1.185
% 100.0 99.2
 KRILL MEAL 225

Table 23-06: Replacement of 50% and 100% of animal protein by krill

meal in the diet for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)l261

Krill meal % 29.5 59.0

Crude protein % 49.0 48.0 46.9
Crude fat % 6.6 6.1 5.5
-----------------------------------------------
ElIl!!:rim!:nl I'
Trial period days 173 173 173
Initial fish weight g 1.8 1.8 1.8
Weight gain g 39.0 39.8 39.7
Feed conversion 1: 1.48 1.45 1.41
EXll!:ri!!l!:nt 2;
Trial period days 112 112 112
Initial fish weight g ~2.0 ~2.0 ~2.0

Weight gain g 23.2 25.2 25.0

Feed conversion 1: 1.31 1.18 1.19

Juvenile chinook salmons ((Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) accepted 25% air-dried krill

meal well. They grew fast and the survival rate was high(l).
In diets for juvenile (initial weight: 0.65 g) and older (180 g) carp (Cyprinus carpio)
fish meal could be easily replaced by krill meal (Table 23-07Y12,27), but substitution of all
animal protein also can be less successful(l2).

Table 23-07: Replacement of all animal protein by krill meal in the diet
for carp (Cyprinus carpio) (trial period: 28 days)l271

Krill meal % 59.0

Crude protein % 46.7 46.9
Crude fat % 5.0 5.5

Initial fish weight g 185 181

Weight gain g 13.3 15.5
Feed conversion 1: 1.34 1.15

Results of blood test (n = 5)

Hematocrit % 37.7 37.6
Hemaglobin gllOO m 19.4 11.0
Erythrocyte mill.lmm3 1.66 1.34

Depressed performances were observed in juvenile channel catfish (letalurus punctatus)

when fish meal was totally replaced by krill meal (Table 23-08)(9). Weight gain, PER and
226 CHAPTER 23

productive protein value also decreased with increasing dietary krill (Meganyctiphanes
norvegica) level in the coalfish (Pollachius virens) (8).
The chemical composition of carcasses of salmonids and carp fed diet with and without
krill meal were not significantly different(3. 25. 26. 27). However, there is a tendency for
developing fatty liver syndrome, if krill meal diets contain high fat levels(7. 25).

Table 23-08: Krill meal as the only protein source in replacement for
fish meal in diets for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus)
(trial period 4 monthsY")

Fish meal Krill meal

Crude protein % 42.8 41.8

Crude fat % 11.8 13.0
Ash % 16.2 11.3
Metabolisable Energy kcal/kg 3,390 3,480
MJ/kg 14.2 14.6

Mean weight gain g 87.3 61.4

% 100.0 70.3
Feed conversion 1: 1.87 2.33
% 100.0 124.6
PER 1.26 1.03

Crustaceans
Not much is known on krill meal feeding to crustaceans. In practical diets for the juvenile
tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 1/3 of the diet's shrimp meal has been replaced by
krill meal. The results are not significant but they indicate that krill meal may partially
substitute shrimp meal (Table 23-09)(15).

Table 23-09: The effect of partial replacement of shrimp meal by krill

meal in diets for juvenile tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)
(trial period: 8 weeks)(IS)

Krill meal % 10.0

Shrimp meal % 15.0 10.0
Crude protein % 36.4 35.6
Crude fat % 12.5 12.9
Ash % 11.5 11.6

Initial weight g 0.62 0.63

Weight gain % 127 131
Feed conversion 12.0 7.8
Survival % 50.0 50.0
 KRILL MEAL 227

23.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Experiments have demonstrated that krill meal may replace all animal protein in diets
for fish. For practical diets it is advisable to use krill meal at the following rates:
• Fishes 40 to 60% of diet's animal protein,
Crustaceans: 10 to 20% of diet's animal protein.

23.6 Legal Aspects

In the legal sense krill meal has to be considered as shrimp meal (see chapter 38).
However, there might be limitations concerning the fluoride content of krill meal.
According to German feedstuff legislation the fluorine content may not exceed the
following levels(3Z).
Single feedstuff of animal origin: 500 ppm
Compound feed: 150 ppm
The toxic levels of fluorine for man are as follows(/4!:
Toxic level: 10.0 to 20.0 mg/day
• Fatal level: >20.0 mg/day.

23.7 References

1. Anderson, J.S.; Richardson, N.L.; Higgs, D.A.; Dosanjh, B.S. (1997): The evaluation of air-dried whole
krill meal as a dietary protein supplement for juvenile chinnok salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha).
Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci., (2148), 1-12.
2. Anonymous (1993i): Animal feed is our concern (Product specification). Tesgo Services B.V., The Netherlands.
3. Beck, H.; Koops, H.; news, K; Gropp, J. (1977): Weitere Miiglichkeiten des Fischmehl-Ersatzes im Futter
fUr Regenbogenforellen: Ersatz von Fischmehl durch Alkanhefe und Krillmehl. Archiv Fisch. Wissenschaft,
28. (1), 1-17.
4. Christians, 0.; Leinemann, M. (1980): Untersuchungen tiber Fluor im Krill (Euphausia superba Dana).
Inform. Fischwirtschaft, 28., 254-260.
5. Christians, 0.; Leinemann, M.; Manthey, M. (1981): Neue Erkenntnisse tiber den Fluoridgehalt im Krill
(Euphausia superba). Inform. Fischwirtschaft, 28., 70-72.
6. Frisecke, H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, MUnchen.
7. Goryczko; Gliszczynski (1979): Quoted from: Steffens, W. (1980).
8. Gulbrandsen, K.E. (1979): Experiments with red feed (Calanusfinmarchicus) and krill (Meganyctiphanes
norwegica) as protein sources in feeds to coalfish (Pollachius virens). Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutrition
and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg, 20-23 June, 1978, Vol. II, 157-166.
9. Hilge, V (1979): Preliminary results with krill meal and fish meal in diets for channel catfish (lctalurus
punctatus). Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutrition and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg, 20-23 June, 1978,
Vol. II, 167-171.
10. House, C. (1997): Krill entering the mainstream aquaCUlture market. Feedstuffs, 7, 24 March.
11. Kotik etal. (1979): Quoted from: Steffens, W. (1980).
12. Lukowicz, M. von (1979): Experiences with krill (Euphausia superba Dana) in the diet for young carp
228 CHAPTER 23

(Cyprinus carpio). Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutrition and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg, 20-23 June,
1978, Vol. II, 293-302.
13. Marr (1962): Quoted from: Steffens, W. (1980).
14. Miller Jones, J. (1992): Food safety. Eagon Press, St. Paul, Minnesota.
15. Murai, T.; Sumalangcay, A.; Piedad-Pascual, F. (1983): Supplement of various attractants to practical
diets for juvenile Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Fish. Res. 1. Philipp., 8., (2), 61-67.
16. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp. Aquaculture Dev. and Coord. Programme
Publication ADCPIREP/87/26.
17. OECD (1984): Multilingual dictionary of fish and fish products. Fishing New Books, Farnham, Surrey,
England.
18. Oikawa, C.K.; March, B.E. (1996): A method for assessment of the effectiveness of feeding stimulants
for salmonid fish. Bull. Aquacult. Assoc. Canada, (3), 29-31.
19. Rogoshin et al. (1979): Quoted from: Steffens, W. (1980).
20. Roschke; Schreiber (1977): Quoted from: Steffens, W. (1980).
21. Rshavskaja et al. (1979): Quoted from: Steffens, W. (1980).
22. S/pvik, T.; Brakkan, O.R. (1970): Fluoride in antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). Fish. Res. Board Canada,
36., (11),1414-1416.
23. Steffens, W. (1980): Krillmehl als Eiweil3quelle im Fischfutter. 1. Mitt. Biologie and Niihrstoffzusammen-
setzung des Krills. Z. Binnenfischerei DDR, 27., (6), 182-186.
24. Steffens, W. (1982): Neue Wege der FUtterung von Karpfen (Cyprinus carpio) und Regenbogenforellen
(Salmo gairdneri). Fortschritte Fischereiwissenschaft, 1.,43-47.
25. Steffens, w.; Albrecht, M.-L. (1980): Krillmehl als Eiweil3quelle im Fischfutter. 2. Mitt. Einsatz von
Krillmehl im Forellenfutter. Z. Binnenfischerei DDR, 27., 305-308.
26. Steffens, w.; Albrecht, M.-L (1981): Krillmehl als Eiweil3quelle im Fischfutter. 3. Mitt. Vollstiindiger
Ersatz von tierischem Protein durch Krillmehl im Forellenfutter. Z. Binnenfischerei DDR, 28.,178-184.
27. Steffens, w.; Albrecht, M.-L (1982): Krillmehl als Eiweil3quelle im Fischfutter. 4. Mitt. Krillmehl als
alleinige tierische Eiweil3quelle bei der Karpfenaufzucht. Z. Binnenlischerei, 29., 79-83.
28. Storebakken, T. (1988): Krill as a potential feed source for salmonids. Aquaculture, 70., 193-205.
29. news, K.; Manthey, M.; Koops, H. (1981): Uber die Fluoridaufnahme von Forellen bei FUtterung von
Krillmehlpellets. Inform. Fischwirtschaft, 28., 135-136.
30. news, K.; Koops, H.; Beck, H.; Schwalb-Biihling, A.; Gropp, J. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfuttem fUr
die Regenbogenforelle. Verllffentlichungen des Inst. fUr Kiisten- und Binnenfischerei, Bundesforschungsan-
stalt fur Fischerei, Hamburg, No. 75/1981.
31. Watanabe, T.; Fujima, T.; Lee, M.-J.; Fukusho, K.; Satoh, S.; Takeushi, T. (1991): Effects of polar and
non-po;ar lipids from krill on quality of egg of red sea bream Pagrus major. Nippon Suishu Gakkaishi,
57., 695-698.
32. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, 11.; Knippel, J. (19940: Futterrnittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
 24. LEATHER MEAL (HYDROLYSED)

24.1 Rationale

Leather meal is a by-product of tanning animal hides into leather. Tanning yields two
different by-products(4):
Leather scrap (fleshings),
• Leather waste (trimmings).
Leather scrap results from the preparation of the hides prior to tanning. It is comprised
of connective tissues of the hypodermis as well as of meat and fat scraped off from
the hides. Leather waste are the trimmings of the tanned hides. In the tanning of leather
various chemicals such as tannic acid, alum, sodium chloride and chromium salts are used.

24.2 Manufacture and Processing

Leather scraps and leather wastes are commonly hydrolysed with steam for not less
than 33 minutes and at a pressure of not less than 9.0 kg per cm 2(3). During hydrolysis
the protein molecules absorb one or more water molecules and this assists in breaking
down the complex protein molecules to their degradation products such as polypeptides
and in some cases amino acids(5}. After completion, the hydrolysate is dried, ground
and screened(3).
Leather waste meal from chromium tanning contains high levels of chromium (Cr).
Its removal is technically possible but not economical14, 10). Due to the tanning the leather
collagen changes its properties and cannot be utilised by animals. Hydrolysation of
leather waste improves the digestibility.

24.3 Properties

Leather meal is a rather heterogeneous product (Table 24-01). The protein is fibrous
collagen and can be hardly utilised by animals. The amino acid profile is in Table 24-02.
The fat content ranges between 0.7 and 55.8%14,10), due to the fat reservoir of the hypo-
dermis(6).
The chromium content of leather meal from chromium tanned material may be as
high as 4.0%. At this level leather meal is toxic. Chromium containing feed may also
negatively affect flavour and taste of animal produce although there is general acceptance
that chromium is an essential trace element for man and animalsl7!. However, the added
level to the feed is just 200 ppbl l) and in most feedstuffs chromium is present at levels of
less than 1.0 ppm(2).
230 CHAPTER 24

Table 24-01: Chemical composition (% in dry matter) of leather scrap

meal and leather waste meal

Leather scrap meal'8. /0) Leather waste meal"O)

Moisture 7.1 15.5

Crude protein 36.9 82.0 72.0 - 86.0
Crude fat 0.7 56.7 1.3 4.0
Ash 2.2 25.4 13.5 16.5
N-free extract 1.5 8.0

Table 24-02: Essential amino acid profile of leather meal (g/16 g NY)O)

Collagen Leather scrap meal

Arginine 8.9 7.6 8.2

Histidine 0.8 1.2 1.0
Isoleucine 1.8 }5.1 1.5
Leucine 3.7 } 3.1
Lysine 4.2 4.1 3.7
Methionine 0.9 1.0 0.6
Pheny lalanine 2.4 2.3 1.7
Threonine 2.3 2.0 1.6
Tryptophan 0.2
Valine 2.7 2.5 1.9

EAA-Index 30.0 38.0 29.8

24.4 Feeding Value

Digestibility of leather scrap meal in land animals can be high but also poor. This is due
to the heterogeneous material used for making leather meal. Similar results were
obtained with hydrolysed leather waste meal. A maximum of 10% leather scrap meal
and leather waste meal, respectively, of the total protein content of the ration might be
suitable for terrestrial farm animals! 10)
Leather meal has to be considered as a hardly suitable feedstuff in diets for aquatic
animals. There are no reports of feeding trials. Its high protein content and its use in
small quantities make it a potential addition in aquatic feed for less demanding species.
 LEATHER MEAL (HYDROLYSED) 231

24.5 Legal Aspects

FDA(3) allows the use of hydrolysed leather meal as a source of protein but only in finished
pig feed at a maximum level of 1.0% and if the following quality criteria are met:
Moisture: max. 10.0%
Crude protein: min. 60.0%
• Crude fat: min. 5.0%
• Crude fibre: max. 6.0%
Chromium: max. 2.75%.
According to German feedstuff legislation hides, leather and leather by-products are
prohibited feedstuffs(9).

24.6 References

1. Blum. R.A. (1995): Chromium(III)nicotinate. Lonza Product Information, Basle/Switzerland (Mimeograph).

2. Dressler; D. (1971): Mineralische Elemente in der Tierernahrung. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart!
Germany.
3. FDA (1994): Food additives permitted in feed and drinking water of animals. Food and Drug Admin.,
21 CFR Ch.l (4-1-94 ed.), 514.
4. Gunther; C. (1988): Abfalle der Lederindustrie flir die Tierernahrung. (Mimeograph).
5. Gutcho. M.H. (1973): Feeds for livestock, pOUltry and pets. Noyes Data Corp., LondonlEngland.
6. Kolb. E. (1989): Lehrbuch der Physiologie der Haustiere (I). VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
7. Mertz. w.; Schwarz. K. (1955): Quoted from: Blum, R.A. (1995).
8. Stiihlin. A. (1957): Methodenbuch. Beurteilung der Futtermittel. Vol. XII. Die Beurteilung der Futtermittel.
Neumann Verlag, Radebeul and Berlin/Germany.
9. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, 11.; Knippel. J. (1994): Futtermitteirechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
lO. Wahlbier; w. (1977): Futtermittel aus Landtieren. In: Kling. M.; Wahlbier; w.: Handelsfuttermittel. Verlag
Eugen Ulmer. Stuttgart/Germany.
 25. LEUCAENA LEAF MEAL

25.1 Rationale

The genus Leucaena is a fast growing tropical legume and a member of the family
Leguminosae and of the sub-family Mimosoideae. Leucaena is native to Central America.
Spaniards took them from Mexico to the Philippines. From there it spread to entire
Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and later to Hawaii, Australia, India and even
to Africa(/Ol.
The genus Leucaena is comprised of 51 species and more than 100 varieties. It has
a wide range of application: soil preservation, hardwood timber, charcoal production and
the leaves for feedstuftT /5, 17). Leucaena leucocephala is most commonly used and is named
for short "Leucaena". In the Philippines it is called "Ipil-Ipil", in Indonesia "Lamtoro".
in Malaysia "Accacia" and in Hawaii "Koa-haole"(I7),
Leucaena leucocephala is broadly classified into three varieties(/):
Hawaiian, a local bushy variety up to five meters high;
Salvador or Hawaiian Giant, a branchless trunk up to 20 m;
Peruvian, 15 m tall with extensive branching

25.2 Manufacture and Processing

Processing of leucaena as feedstuff has two objectives: To remove the moisture from
the fresh leaves and to eliminate the toxic glycoside "mimosine". This can be done at
backyard level or as a commercial operation.
The mimosine content of leaves can be reduced and removed, respectively by soaking
in water<14, 25, 361, sun-drying//OI and heat treatment (70°C)(22) (Table 25-01).

Table 25-01: Mimosine content of leucaena leaf meals processed by various methods(25, 35, 36)

Mean mimosine content Range

% %

Unsoaked 4.47 0.63 - 3.33

Soaked. 24 hrs 3.34 2.49 - 4.35
Sun-dried. 2 days 3.00
Commercial leaf meal 1.80
 LEUCAENA LEAF MEAL 233

Supplemenating leucaena with metal ions such as ferrous sulphate (FeS04.7HP) and
aluminum sulphate (AI/SO4)2)' which chelate with mimosine and prevent its absorption
in the gastrointestinal tract is another means to eliminate toxicity(37).
Detoxifying bacteria from the rumen, cultured in vitro and infused into animals,
degrades mimosine into its less toxic metabolite dihydroxypyridone (DHPY3.19).

25.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of leucaena leaf meal vary widely, depending on the variety,
the area/country where it grows, the age at the time of harvesting the leaves and the amount
of branches and twigs.
Good leucaena leaf meal may have a crude protein content of about 29% while
the mean crude protein content is 24.5% (Table 25-02). The essential amino acid profile
is in Table 25-03. The amino acid index when compared to that of tiger prawn (Penaeus
monodon) is quite low (0.54)124).

Table 25-02: Chemical composition of Leucaena leaf meal (% in dry matter)(2. 5. 6. 9./2. 16.20.2/.22.24.29.31.32)

Mean Range

Dry matter 90.5 92.7 88.5

Crude protein 24.5 12.6 - 31.1
Crude fat 5.4 1.6 - 10.1
Ash 8.4 2.2 - 13.5
Crude fibre 10.6 7.5 - 19.6
N-free extract 51.1 39.5 78.2

Table 25-03: Essential amino acid profile of Leucaena leaves (g/16 g NY8.24)

Mean Range

Arginine 2.20 1.02 5.25

Histidine 0.72 0.40 1.44
Isoleucine 2.44 1.24 - 6.65
Leucine 3.02 1.60 - 6.65
Lysine 2.37 1.28 - 6.07
Methionine 0.58 0.23 1.19
Phenylalanine 1.89 1.07 - 3.91
Threonine 1.94 0.87 5.07
Tryptophan 0.31 0.24 - 0.38
Valine 2.31 1.01 - 6.29
234 CHAPTER 25

The calcium and phosphorus ratio is 1:5 and is rather wide. Iron is quite high and
the sodium content is remarkably low (Table 25-04).
Leucaena leaf meal also contains ~-carotene, a precursor of Vitamin A and other carotenoids.

Table 25-04: Macro and micro mineral content of Leucaena leaves(5, 6, 7, 16,22,29,31)

Mean Range

Calcium % 1.76 0.37 2.52

Phospohorus % 0.35 0.07 1.47
Sodium % 0.02 0.00 0.04
Potassium % 1.80 0.80 1.99
Magnesium % 0.49 0.42 0.56
Manganese mg/kg 9.3 7.0 10.6
Iron mglkg 255.0 181.0 407.0
Zinc mglkg 22.6 21.0 29.9
Copper mg/kg 49.3 42.1 60.0

Physiological Properties
Digestibility of leucaena leaf meal is not very high. The protein digestibility for un soaked
leaf meal is lower (62.7%)(14.35) than for soaked ones (64.3% Y14. 19.35). Rabbits, e.g. digest
protein at 75.9%(6). The fat digestibility of soaked leaf meal is 69.2%(19).
With increasing levels of leucaena leaf meal in the diet, both soaked and unsoaked,
digestibility of protein and fat declines in Indian major carps (Catla catla Labeo rohita)
and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)(J4,20.36).

Other Properties
Leucaena leaf meal is a source of pigments. As much as 762.4 mg total xanthophyUs
and 227 mg ~-carotenoid were found in 1.0 kg fresh and dried leaves, respectively(7. IJ).
Field samples of leucaena showed a wide variation in the xanthophyll and ~-carotene
content (Table 25-05)(17).

Table 25-05: Pigment content of leucaena meal from various countries (in dry matter)(l7)

Country Crude Xanthophylls ~-carotene Lutein Zeaxanthin

of sample's Protein
origin % ppm ppm ppm ppm

Indonesia 20.7 252 87 214 27

P.R. China 19.8 183 36
Philippines 26.2 313 96
Thailand 12.3 141 33
 LEUCAENA LEAF MEAL 235

There are two reasons for the vanatlOn of xanthophylls in leucaena leaf meal,
xanthophylls are unstable and deteriorate rather fast when stored under tropical and
subtropical conditions and adulteration of the leaf meal with a high percentage of stems
and twigs. After three months of storage, the mean xanthophyll and j3-carotenoid content
can decline by 11.1 and 13.6%, respectively(I7).
Indications of an adulterated leucaena leaf meal is a low crude protein and high crude
fibre content(l7).
Undesirable substances of leucaena leaf meal is the toxic glycoside "mimosine" which
is a heterocyclic amino acid (a-amino-j3(N-(3-hydroxy-4-pyridon)( -propionic acidY33).
Mature leaves contain less mimosine than immature leaves(24. 25) and the mimosine content
may vary according to species.
Mimosine poisoning in land animals are hair loss, low weight gain, loss of appetite
and reproductive failure(4,6, 10). In the rumen and by plant enzymes, mimosine is converted
to a less toxic metabolite, dihydroxypyridone (DHPP 19).
Cataracts were observed in Nile tilapia after four weeks of feeding with 50% sun-dried
leucaena in the dietl36). Likewise, R-cells of the hepatopancreas of tiger prawns were
reported to be damaged after 20 days of feeding a diet containing 20% unsoaked
leucaena leaves(35). An intake of 0.20g mimosinelkg fish per day was harmful for carp(34),
Other undesirable substances in leucaena leaf meal which reduce the animal's
performances, if not removed, are(10); Tannins, saponins, procyanidins, protease inhibitors,
glactomannan gums.

25.4 Feeding Value

Fishes
Feeding increasing levels of leucaena leaf meal (soaked and unsoaked) to Nile til apia in
replacement, e.g. for fish meal depressed performances of the fish as the leaf meal level
in the diet increased. Fish responded significantly better on soaked than on unsoaked or
sun-dried leucaena leaf meal (Table 25-06)f 18.36). The use of leucaena leaf meal as the sole
source of protein is completely inadequate(27).
However, leucaena leaf meal was performance enhancing when it replaced rice bran
in tilapia diets because with the exchange of rice bran the protein content increased(23).
Nile tilapia broodstock performed best (fry production, weight gain) when the diet
contained not more than 20% leucaena leaf meal. With increasing levels of leaf meal
the performance decreased significantly and at an inclusion rate of 80% the female fish
even lost weight<28).
Also in diets for fry and fingerlings of the Indian rohu carp at levels of 20 to 60%
leucaena leaf meal protein (of the total) fish responded negatively compared to the iso-
nitrogenous control (Figure 25-01)(13, 14). Soaking the leaves did not significantly
improve the performances of the fry(l3) while fingerlings yielded better on soaked leaf
meal(14). Histopathological lesions such as congestion of blood vessels and fatty changes
in the hepatocytes were found after feeding of unsoaked leaf meal. Lesions were milder
or not evident at all when soaked leaf meal was fed(14).
236 CHAPTER 25

Table 25-06: Growth responses and feed utilisation efficiencies of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) finger-
lings fed various levels of Leucaena leaf meal for 70 days(J61

Soaked Unsoaked'

Leucaena protein
of total protein % o 25 50 100 25 50 100
Mimosine content o % o o o 0.71 1.34 1.61
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain % 737 563 367 62 305 115 46
SGR %/day 3.0 2.7 2.2 0.7 2.0 1.1 0.5
FCR 1: 1.3 1.5 1.9 6.3 2.1 4.1 8.1
PER 2.5 2.3 1.8 0.7 1.6 0.8 0.6
ANPU % 40.7 36.6 26.6 11.3 22.9 8.6 5.9
Total
Digestibility % 50.6 51.1 46.4 44.3 50.5 45.8 43.0

'Mimosine content is 0.71 to 1.61 % in commercial leaf meal

1.6
Specific growth rate (SGR)
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

5.0

4.{)
Feed conversion
S.D

2.0

1.0

o 25 50 60
Leucaena protein (%)

Figures 25·01. The effect on growth and feed conversion of increasing levels of leucaena protein in feeds
for the Indian rohu. carp (Labeo rohita)l141.
 LEUCAENA LEAF MEAL 237

Leucaena leaf meal fed at reasonable levels to milkfish (Chanos chanos) is equivalent
to fish meal/soybean meal diets (Table 25-07). Of the total protein content of 40%, 15%
was replaced by soaked leucaena leaf meal(2).

Table 25-07: Responses of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fed Leucaena leaves(2)

Leucaena leaf % 20.0

Fish meal % 53.1 43.8
Soybean meal % 14.6 14.6
Crude protein % 41.2 41.1
Fat % 10.2 10.5

Weight gain % 751.5 764.4

SGR %/day 3.06 3.07
Survival rate % 67 77
Feed conversion 1: 1.6 1.6
PER % 1.58 1.60

Crustaceans
Juvenile tiger prawns responded negatively when fish meal was replaced by leucaena
leaf meal at a 10% level(26). However, the protein content of the two diets were not isoni-
trogenous (Table 25-08). The rating of the leaf meal effect, therefore, is uncertain.
Significant differences were observed in mass weight and survival between Peruvian and
Hawaiian varieties of leucaena leaves, soaked or unsoaked, when used as one third of
the protein source, aside from fish and shrimp head meals, in tiger prawn diets fed for
eight weeks under laboratory conditions(25).

Table 25-08: Leucaena leaf meal as a protein source in diets' for tiger prawns
(Penaeus monodon)f'6)

Fish meal % 30.0 20.0

Soybean meal % 15.0 15.0
Leucaena leaf meal 10.0
Crude protein % 48.2 43.0
Fat % 13.0 13.4

Initial weight g 0.37 0.38

Final weight g 1.28 1.07
SGR %/day 2.2 1.9
Feed conversion 1: 2.6 3.2
Survival % 71 58

'Mimosine content of the diet =0.6%

238 CHAPTER 25

Soaked leucaena leaves in diets fed to tiger prawns post-larvae are better than
unsoaked leaves(351. Histological changes were observed in the hepatopancreas even at
a mimosine level of 0.25% in the feed.

25.5 Recommended Inclusion Rate

Leucaena leaf meal is a protein feedstuff. Due to the relatively high crude fibre content,
it is merely for herbivorous and omnivorous aquatic animals. In fish and shrimp diets
5.0 to 10.0% leucaena leaf meal are advisable(22).

25.6 Legal Aspects

No specific regulations exists for leucaena leaf meal. In general users of leucaena leaf
meal, particularly commercial feedmills, should consider the principle of the Thai feedstuff
law of 1982, which states that "Feed ingredients liable to have high levels of certain
anti-nutrients need to be tested prior to use"(30I. Leucaena leaf meal falls under this
quality control requirement.

25.7 References

1. Annonymous (1977): Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR) and the United
States National Academy of Sciences (NAS): Leucaena, promising forage and tree crop for the tropics.
Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington D.C.IUSA. 115.
2. Boriongan, I.G.; Coloso, R.M. (1994): Leaf meal as protein sources in diets for milkfish, Chanos chanos
(Forsskal). Proc. Fifth Asian Fish Nutrition Workshop. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 9. ManilaIPhilippines.
63-68.
3. Cadieux·Ledoux, H. (1980): Leucaena update. IDRC (mimeograph).
4. Castillo, L.S.; Gerpacio, A.L; Javier, T.R.; Gloria, L.A; Gerpacio, c.P. (1963): Quantitative changes in
nutrient composition of ipil-ipilleaf during storage. Philipp. Agric., 46., 681-700.
S. Castillo, LS.; Gerpacio, AL (1976): Nutrient composition of some Philippine feeds. Tech. Bull. No. 21.
College of Agric., Univ. Phil., 114.
6. Cheeke, P.R. (1987): Rabbit feeding and nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, FloridalUSA.
7. D'Mello, J.P.F.; Thomas, D. (1978): The nutritive value of dried leucaena leaf meal from Malawi: Studies
with young chicks. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad), 55., 4S-S0.
8. D'Mello, J.P.F.; Fraser. K. W. (1981): The composition of leafmeal from Leucaena leucocephala. Trop.
Science, 23., 7S-58.
9. Devendra, C. (1983): The utilization of tree leaves by goats in the humid tropics. Proc. V. World Anim.
Prod. Conf., 14 to 19 August, (2), 543-544.
10. Ekpenyong, T..c. (1990): Leucaena leaf meal. In: Thacker, P.A; Kirkwood, R.N. (eds.): Nontraditional
feed sources for use in swine nutrition. Butterworths Publishers, Stoneham, MAIUSA.
11. Ellis (1982): Quoted from: J.H. (1983).
 LEUCAENA LEAF MEAL 239

12. Feed Development Section (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish, Nile tilapia, Asian sea bass, and tiger
shrimp. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines.
13. Hasan, M.R.; Moniruzzaman. M.; Omar Farooque, A.M. (1990): Evaluation of leucaena and water hyacinth
leaf meal as dietary protein sources of the Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) (Hamilton). In: Hirano, R.;
Hanyu. I. (eds.): The Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fish. Soc. ManilalPhilippines. 275-278.
14. Hasan. M.R.; Roy. P.K.; Akand. A.M. (1994): Evaluation of leucaena leaf meal as a dietary protein source
for Indian major carp. Labeo rohita fingerlings. Proc. Fifth Asian Fish Nutrition Workshop. Asian Fish.
Soc. Spec. Publ. 9. ManilalPhilippines. 69-76.
15. Hertrampf, J.H. (1994): Fiittermittel von tropischen und sUbtropischen Standorten. Paper presented at
Colloqium Inst. fiir angswandte Botanik, Univ. of Hamburg/Germany. 29 Aug.
16. lja. P.A.; Okonkwo. A.e. (1991): Potential protein sources for layers? Feed International, 12.,29-32.
17. J.H. (1983): Leucaena leafmeal - a source of carotenoids. Animal Nutrition News. 12183 (July). BASF
AG. LudwigshafenlGermany.
18. Jackson. A.J.; Caffer, B.S.; Matty. A.J. (1982): Evaluation of some plant proteins in complete diets for
the tilapia Sarotherodon mossambicus. Aquaculture, 27., 97-109.
19. Lowry. J.B.; Tangendjaja. M.; Tangendjaja. B. (1983): Optimising autolysis of mimosine to 3-hydroxy-
4(IH)-pyridone in green tissues of Leucaena leucocephala. J. Sci. Food Agric .• 34 .• 529-533.
20. Nandeesha. M.e.; Srukanth. G.K.; Keshavanath. P.; Das, S.K. (1991): Protein and digestibility of five
feed ingredients by an Indian major carp Catla catla (Ham.). Proc. Fourth Asian Fish Nutrition
Workshop. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 5. ManilalPhilippines. 75-81.
21. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington, D.C./USA.
22. New. M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp. ADCP/REP/87/26 UNDPIFAO. Rome/Italy.
23. Pantastico. J.B.; Baldia, 1.P. (1980): Ipil-ipilleaf meal as supplemental feeds for TI/apia nilotica in cages.
Fish. Res. J. Phil., 5 .• 63-68.
24. Peiiaflorida. Y.D. (1989): An evaluation of indigenous protein sources as potential component in the diet
formulation for tiger prawn. Penaeus monodon, using essential amino acid index (EAAI). Aquaculture,
83 .• 319-330.
25. Peiiaflorida. Y.D.; Pascual, F.P.; Tabbu. N.S. (1992): A practical method of extracting mimosine from
ipil-ipil, Leucaena leucocephala, leaves and its effect on survival and growth of Penaeus monodon juveniles.
Bamidgeh 44., (1), 24-31.
26. Piedad-Pascual. F.; Catacutan. M. (1990): Defatted soybean meal and leucaena leaf meal as protein
sources in diets for Penaeus monodon juveniles. In: Hirano. R.; Hanyu, I. (eds.): The Second Asian
Fisheries Forum, Asian Fisheries Society. Manila Philippines. 345-348.
27. Santiago, C.B.; Reyes. O.S.; Aldaba. M.B.; Laron. M.A. (1986): An evaluation of formulated diets for
Nile tilapia fingerlings. Fish. Res. J. Philipp., 11 .• 5-12.
28. Santiago. C.B.; Aldaba. M.B.; Laron. M.A.; Reyes. O.S. (1988): Reproductive performance and growth
of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) broodstock fed diets containing Leucaena leucocephala leaf meal.
Aquaculture. 70.• 53-61.
29. Sison. I.A. (1985): Handbook on crisis management on feedmilling and technology for the Philippines.
Feedindex (Phils.), Quezon CitylThe Philippines.
30. Sitasit. P. (1993): Feed ingredients and quality control. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional expert consultation
on farm-made aquafeeds, 14 to 18 December 1972, BangkoklThailand, 343 (FAO-RAPAlAADCP,
Bangkok, Thailand). 75-86.
31. Somsueb. P. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Thailand. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional expert
240 CHAPTER 25

consultation on farm-made aquafeeds. 14 to 18 December 1992, Bangkok, Thailand FAO-RAPAlAADCP.

Bangkokffhailand. 365-385.
32. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for warmwater: Fish meal and other processed feedstuffs. FAO
Fisheries Circular No. 856, FAO, Rome Italy.
33. Tiiufel. A.; Ternes. W; Tunger; L; Zobel,. M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexicon. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg/Germany.
34. Ter Meulen, U.; EI Harith. E.A. (1983): Effects of oral administration of a-N(3-hydroxy-4 pyridone)-a
amino propionic acid mimosine in carps (Cyprinus carpio L.). In: Z. Tropenlandwirt. 84., 29-37.
35. Vogt. G.; Quinitio. E.T.; Pascual. F.P. (1986): Leucaena leucocephala leaves in formulated feed for Penaeus
monodon: A concrete example of the application of histology in nutrition research. Aquaculture, 59.• 209-234.
36. Wee. K.L.; Wang. S.S. (1987): Nutritive value of leucaena leaf meal in pe\leted feed for Nile tilapia.
Aquaculture, 62., 97-108.
37. Yoshida. R.K. (1945): Chemical and physiological study of nature and proportion of Leucaena glauca
(Koa haole). Proc. Hawaii Acad. Sci., 19., 5.
 26. LIVE FOODS

26.1 Rationale

Live food is the essential link between endogenous nutrition and exogenous feeding
of aquatic animals commercially cultured. It is necessary for rearing of larval fish
and crustaceans as well as molluscs or until the animals can ingest formulated feed.
Filter feeding organisms such as bivalve molluscs may be fed in the post-larval stage
also with live food.
Live food has to be of microscopical size. For instance, abalone (Haliotis sp.) spat
require food particles that are smaller than 0.01 mm and probably as small as 0.001 mm(6).
Live food is preferred by the larviculture industry although progress has been achieved
in formulated larval food. However, the physiology and the culture of feed organisms
producing live food have received less attention than they deserve(l7). Live food has an
advantage over artificial feed in that when not completely consumed by the fish, the tank
water is not polluted(22). Furthermore, live food meets the habits of larvae for catching its
prey. The physical movement of this habit is subdivided in several phases (Figure 26-01 )(1).

26.2 Feed Organisms

Feed organisms used for larval rearing are of low floral and faunal order and are classi-
fied into:
• Phytoplanktons
Zooplanktons
• ~icro-crustaceans
Other feed organisms

26.2.1 Phytoplanktons

~icro-algae are the most important phytoplankton used as live larval food. They are
single-celled or form small colonies of similar cells(J7). The smallest micro-algae have
a size of less than 0.002 mm, not much bigger than some bacteria and the largest can be
a thousand times as large (2.0 mm)l6).
~icro-algae have been selected on the basis of mass-culture potential, cell size,
digestibility and overall food value. Algae like Chlorella sp. are easily cultured as feed
for Brachionus.
242 CHAPTER 26

1. Catch sight of the prey

2. Approach

3. Prey observation

4. Preparation of the attack

5. Attack

6. Ingestion

Figure 26-01. Physical movements of a larva for catching the prey Brachionus piicatiiisi"d";g",dfro",, /).

Blue-green Algae
The blue green micro-algae belongs to the phylum Cyanobacteria which means that they
may be more closely related to bacteria than other algae. Spirulina also is a part of this
phylum which is cultured not only as feed but also as food for man(6. 17).

Red Algae
Rhodophyta are unicellular micro-algae. Related forms also grow into macro-algae
(seaweeds). In the wild they are the preferred food for abalone (Haiiotis sp.) spat(6).
 LIVE FOODS 243

Dinoflagellates
Dinoflagellates of the phylum Dinophyta are quite large micro-algae and are usually
single but may form chains(6). They have two flagella and one eyespot(17). In coastal areas
certain species of this micro-algae cause "red tides". These species contain a toxin which
kill most other life in the respective area(6, 17).

Haptophyta
The phylum Haptophyta is a small group of micro-algae. They are predominantly used
as food for gastropods. The important genera for aquaculture are Isochrysis, Monochrysis
and Pavlova!5, 14, 17).

Chlorophyta
The green micro-algae of the phylum Chlorophyta is an important food for gastropods
and food for the mass-culture of rotifer. It is also supplied to tanks to naturalise the water.
The phylum varies greatly with regard to reproduction, structure and ecology. Three of
the commonly reared genera are: Chlorella, Dunaliella and Tetraselmis{l4).

Diatoms
The phylum Bacillariophyta are commonly named diatoms. Diatoms range in size from
0.002 to 0.2 mm. Their most outstanding feature is the external shell. They are divided into:
Centric diatoms and Pennate diatoms.
Pennate diatoms are mainly used as live food and are the important diet for abalone
(Haliotis Sp.)(6) and for bivalve molluscs(5, 19).

26.2.2 Zooplanktons

There are thousands of zooplankton species which could serve as larval food in aquacul-
ture but only few have high reproductive capacity(23). The most important zooplankton for
live food production are rotifers of the phylum Ratatoria. It is a microscopic invertebrate
animal, primarily found in freshwater. Due to its rotating movement it is also named
"wheel animal"(l7).

Brachionus plicatilis
This is probably the most commonly grown rotifer. The strains of this rotifer vary widely(23).
They are subdivided in accordance to their size (larger than 150 microns and smaller
than 150 microns). The larger strain should not contain more than 1.0 to 2.0% rotifers of
the smaller strain and vice versa: the smaller strain should have at least 80% animals
smaller than 150 microns. Rotifers as feed organism are not only produced by mass-culture
but also collected from the sea{l4, 17, 23).

26.2.3 Micro-crustaceans

Micro-crustaceans are also considered to be zooplanktons because of their microscopical

size(23). But the feed organisms used as larval food have an organised anatomical structure
(Figure 26-02) in contrast to the very simple zooplanktons hence are considered separately.
244 CHAPTER 26

i,,,,,,,,...,
Figure 26-02. The micro-crustacea Daphnia pulex"... 27).

Daphnia
Daphnia also named as "water flea" live in freshwater. It belongs to the group of crus-
taceans which is known as Cladocerans. Daphnia is a rather large feed organism with
a size of up to 2.5 mm. Moina is similar to Daphnia and belongs also to Cladocerans(l7).

Copepods
Copepods are a diverse group of micro-crustaceans. These marine species are benthic
as well as pelagicll7). Common genera mass-cultured are:
Acartia
• Centropages
Calanus
Labidocera
• Rhinicalanus (can be also a predator).

Brine Shrimp
The brine shrimp (Artemia) is a crustacean, closely related to shrimp and belonging to
the phylum Arthropoda. Artemia is the most common feed organism for feeding larval
fish and crustaceans(26). More than 85% of the marine animals cultured are raised with
Artemid14). Artificial feeds have been formulated but none have equalled that of Artemia.
The unique nature and role of Artemia has revolutionized the aquaculture industry
particularly the shrimp industry(3). There are several strains of Artemia-bisexual,
parthenogenetic, diploid, or polyploid - and they differ not only in nutritional requirement
but also in their value as food for various predators, fish and shrimp larvae!ll). Mostly used
Artemia strains come from Canada, San Francisco Bay and South America. The brine
shrimp can live in high salinity water. Only the cysts, also called winter eggs, are of
interest as live food(17).
 LlVEFOODS 245

26.2.4 Other Feed Organisms

Other feed organims are Protozoa, Oligochaete worms (genus Tubifex), round worms
(Nematodes), amphipods, frog tadpoles (Rana sp.) and larvae and fish eggs. Certain species
such as Protozoa and Nematodes are also parasitesl6. 19).

26.3 Mass-Culture of Food Organisms

Feed Organisms should be easy to culture, have a high reproduction rate and economical
to mass produce. The species cultured should be of pure strains. High production output,
can only be obtained, if the culture facilities are free of predators.

Micro-algae
They are very diverse and can live in almost any kind of habitat. Since they are plants,
they need light for photosynthesis to convert inorganic matter into organic substances.
Nutrients for micro-algae are nitrogen, phosphates and trace minerals. Some need also
vitamins. For best performances the culture temperature is important and should be fOl.(6):
• Tropical species: 25° to 31°C
• Subtropical species: 15° to 27°C
Temperate species: 10° to l2°C
• Polar species: 0° to l2°C
Micro-algae such as the Chlorophyta, and Dunaliella salina produce significant amounts
of ~-carotene(l7).

Rotifers
They are cultured by batch, continuous or semi-continuous method. The batch culture
procedure is the method of choice(20). Rotifers can be harvested after about five days when
the density has reached around 600 animals/mI. The nutritional quality of rotifers can be
improved by feeding them with essential fatty acids, Vitamin C and other nutrients(4).

Artemia
The brine shrimp is either mass-cultured in salt ponds or under controlled conditions.
Dormant cysts (embryos) are immersed in seawater to activate the larvae (nauplii) of
about 0.4 mm length within 24 hours. After hatching and prior to feeding the crustacean
or fish larvae, Artemia nauplii should be separated from the cyst shells and other matters(4).

Daphnia
Vitamins, trace minerals as well as polyunsaturated fatty acids in the culture medium are
needed for normal growth of Daphnia. Micronised, de-oiled rice bran was found to
support the reproductive population of Daphnia. It increased population in six weeks
from 100 animalsll to 12,000 animalsll. Feed conversion was 1:1(17).
246 CHAPTER 26

Nematodes
The Nematodes Panagrellus revivus and Caenorhabditis elegans are cultured on a medium
of breakfast cereals, soy peptone, yeast extract and li ver extract mixed with sterile waterJ4)

26.4 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of live food differs from species to species, culture to culture,
type of food given and the source of the cysts as in the brine shrimp (Artemia salina)
(Table 26-01)127). Some live foods like Artemia salina and the round worm, nematodes,
can bio-encapsulate nutrients hence, their chemical composition can be manipulated(4).

Table 26-01: Chemical composition of live food (% in dry matter)!27)

Moisture Crude protein Crude lipid Crude ash

Brachionus plicatilis
Baker's Yeast' 90.7 67.0 19.4 7.5
Baker's Yeast + Chlorella' 88.7 67.2 21.5 4.9
Chlorella' 86.9 60.3 29.8 5.3

Moina ~V.
Yeast' 87.2 68.8 22.6
Yeast & poultry Manure' 89.0 78.2 11.8
Poultry manure' 87.9 67.8 27.3

Anemia salina
Eggs: San Francisco' 54.4 6.4 6.3
South America2 51.5 10.5 13.0
Canada' 47.5 4.8 15.3
Larva : San Francisco' 59.2 19.4 11.7
South America2 71.4 17.6 11.0
Canada' 57.6 17.8 12.7

'Culture media; 'Country of origin

Except for the brine shrimp the amino acid profile of some commonly used live foods
are not very variable (Table 26-02).
The content of essential fatty acids in live foods is the principal factor in their dietary
value(28). The fatty acid content of the brine shrimp differs among strains and sources
and culture media affects the fatty acid composition of rotifer Brachionus plicatilisf27).
Generally, rotifers have fatty acid profiles like their algal food (Table 26-03)'30).
 LIVE FOODS 247

Table 26-02: Essential amino acid profile of selected live food (gl16 g N)

Artemia Copepods Zooplanktons

Salina
larva(9. Acartia 1igriopus Brachionus
22.28) clauslY28) japonicui28) Moina spJ28) plicatilii28)

Arginine 7.7 4.3 5.2 5.1 4.6

Histidine 2.7 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.5
Isoleucine 4.5 3.5 2.5 2.5 3.5
Leucine 7.7 5.5 5.0 6.0 5.9
Lysine 8.5 5.4 5.7 6.8 5.9
Methionine 1.9 1.5 l.l 1.0 0.8
Phenylalanine 4.3 3.7 3.5 3.6 3.9
Threonine 3.8 4.2 3.8 3.8 3.4
Tryptophan 1.0 1.1 l.l 1.2 1.2
Valine 4.6 4.5 3.3 3.2 3.9

Table 26-03: Fatty acid profile of live food (% of total fatty acids)

Fatty acids Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) Rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis)

from ... (21) cultured with ... (29)

Australia Brazil California Yeast Yeast + Chlorella

chlorella

Saturated 18.2 20.5 15.7 11.6 14.4 18.8

Mono-saturated 45.0 48.7 46.6 61.7 50.3 36.1
Poly-saturated 36.5 30.7 37.1 11.3 24.5 37.2

The mineral contents of live food can differ greatly (Tables 26-04). Little is known of
the vitamin content of the brine shrimp. When vitamin content is compared to the minimum
daily requirement of salmonid fry the brine shrimp contains more than the requirement
(Table 26-05).

Physiological Properties
The gross energy of live food ranges from 4,100 to 6,100 kcal/kg (17.2 to 25.5 MJ/kg)
(Table 26-06). Newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii have a high energy content, but
48 hours after hatching a large portion of their lipids have been used and their energy
content has declinedl I7).
248 CHAPTER 26

Table 26-04: Macro and trace mineral contents of live food

Acartia Daphnia sp Moinasp. Rotifer Brine shrimp(lS.27)

(27) (17) (27) Egg Larvae

Calcium % 0.5 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.25 0.03

Phosphorus % 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.13 0.74 0.13
Magnesium % 0.09 om 0.01 0.02 0.36 0.04
Sodium % 0.64 0.07 0.10 1.0 0.22 10.7
Potassium % 0.27 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.61 0.35
Iron mg/kg 36.6 72.2 86.7 25.5 1,01l.0 0.11
Zinc mg/kg 89.2 12.8 12.2 7.9 92.8 64.9
Manganese mg/kg 0.7 13.2 1.6 0.9 54.7 2.8
Copper mg/kg 7.9 1.1 4.1 0.9 13.9 5.4
Lead mg/kg 7.9 4.3
Cadmium mg/kg 0.2 0.1
Chromium mg/kg 3.0 0.9
Cobalt mg/kg 0.9 0.3
Selenium mg/kg 1.5 1.3

Table 26-05: Vitamin content (per 1,000 g) of the brine shrimp (Artemia) as
compared to minimum dietary requirement (MDR) of salmonids

Vitamin Artemia(9.23) Salmonid MDR( 12.23)

Vitamin A I.U. 14,000 2,500

Vitamin B, mg 27.0 1.0
Vitamin B2 mg 17.0 5.0
Vitamin B6 mg 8.0 5.0
Vitamin B'2 mg 3.0
Vitamin C mg 9.0 50.0
Biotin mg 1.0 0.05
Folic acid mg 1.0 1.0
Nicotinic acid mg 1.3 1.0
Pantothenic acid mg 9.0 10.0
Choline g 6.1 0.05
Inositol g 1.2 0.25
 LIVE FOODS 249

Table 26-06: Gross energy content of live food (dry sarnple)(27)

Kcal/kg MJ/kg

Brachionus plicatilis
Fed on: - Yeast 5,200 21.7
- Yeast + chlorella 5,400 22.6
- Chlorella 6,100 25.5
Anemia salina 5,200 21.8
Arcatia clausi 4,100 17.2
Trigriopus japonicus 5,300 22.2

The protein digestibility of live foods is high in carp (Cyprinus carpio) and rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdnen). The protein efficiency ratio (PER) as well as the net protein utilisation
(NPU) do not differ significantly between both fish species (Table 26-07).

Table 26-07: Apparent protein digestibility (APD), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and net protein utilization
(NPU) (%) of live foods(27)

Rainbow trout Carp

(Salmo gainineri) (Cyprinus carpio)
APD PER NPU' APD PER NPU'

Rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis)

fed on: Yeast 93.8 2.9 68' 90.3 2.8 78'
- Yeast + Chlorella 94.1 3.2 72 92.1 3.8 76
- Chlorella 89.1 3.1 76 89.1 - 2.6 73
Trigriopus japonicus 3.6
Daphnia sp. 3.9
Moina sp. 2.6
Artemia salina 89.3 82.9- 2.5 66
'relative to casein = 100%

Other properties
Micro-algae might have unique antibacterial and/or immunostimulatory properties.
Extracts of the micro-algae Tetraselmis suecica inhibit bacterial activity within 15 minutes,
soon after addition to fish tanks and up to four hours. Supplementation of spray-dried
Tetraselmis to the diet of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) prevents the outbreak of infections
due to bacteria Vibrio anguilla rum, Vibrio salmonicida and Serratia liquejaciensi4 ).
Micro-algae may also stimulate enzymatic synthesis and onset of feeding in young larvae.
Furthermore, they act as a water conditioner by stripping off nitrogenous substances or
by changing the properties of the incoming light by creating more shaded conditions(4).
250 CHAPTER 26

Artemia improves the quality and purity of the salt (NaCl) by feeding on impurities
in the saltwater like calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate and micro-algae(3).

26.5 Feeding Value

Live food has to be carefully selected. The wrong choice may result in poor productivity
of aquatic animals cultured and may cause high losses. The culture conditions of the food
organism will determine its feeding value to the primary crop organism(J7). The dietary
value of live foods for larval cultured aquatic animals in terms of protein quality,
vitamins, minerals, lipid profiles and their bio-availability is fully dependent on their
nutritional statuS(27).
Live food is used only in primary phase rearing of commercially produced larvae(J6).
Rotifers are given as the first exogenous diet followed by marine copepods (Trigriopus,
Acartia, Oithona and Paracalanus) or of freshwater origin (Moina and Daphnia) together
with rotifer. When there are no copepods available, Artemia salina is the live food of choice
in Japanese hatcheries(27).

Fishes
There are some species of live food that may not be suitable for certain fish larvae but
have been found to produce good growth responses in other fish species. For example,
freshwater catfish (Clarias macrocephalus) fry grew better on brine shrimp than on
Moina macrocopd8 ). But Moina macrocopafed to bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis)
larvae, promoted highest growth(7).
Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) grew poorly on Spyrogira while bigmouth
buffalo (lctiobus cyprinellus) and blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus) responded well to
Spirulina platensif24 ).
Milkfish (Chanos chanos) fry fed live water flea (Moina macrocopa) grew and
survived significantly better than when fed Brachionus or the frozen Moind25).
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry fed with uni-algal culture of zooplankton,
Naviculla or Chroococcus, resulted in high weight gains and survival rates whereas
the phytoplankton, Chlorella gave poor survival and growth(20).
Growth responses of fish to brine shrimp will not only depend on the species but also
on the geographical strains of Artemia (Table 26-08).

Crustaceans
Like fish, crustaceans do not respond similarly to various Artemia strains as shown in
Table 26-08.
Larvae of the giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and (Palaemon
elegans) fed exclusively live Artemia salina developed into first postlarval state within
12 days and 24 days, respectively(l5). Survival and growth of both species on live Artemia
alone was significantly better than when no feed was given or when compared to an
artificial diet.
 LIVE FOODS 251

Table 26-08: Biological response of some cultured aquatic animals to different geographical strains of Artemia(23)

Brazil Australia Utah l SPBI Italy

l. Fishes
Atlantic silverside (Menidia menidia) ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Winter flounder
(Pseudopleoronectis americanus) ++ ++ ++
2. Crustaceans
Rock crab (Cancer irroratus) ++ ++
Mudcrab (Rhithropanoperus harrisee) ++ ++ ++
Mysid (Mysidopsis bahia) ++ ++ ++ ++ ++

++ = good survival; - = poor survival; ++ = good survival, but poor growth

ICalifornia, USA; 'San Pablo Bay

Molluscs
Although phytoplankton are the principal food source for bivalve larvae such as American
oyster (Crassostrea virginica), blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and window pane oyster
(Placuna placenta) not all are suitable dietary components because of their cell size,
thick walls or presence of toxic metabolites(30).
Synergistic effects in growth resulted when two algal species were mixed in diets for
the American oyster. Platymonas suecica alone gave negative growth but when fed in
combination with Isochrysis galbana or Thalassiosera pseudonana a much better
response was observed. Mixing Isochrysis galbana and Thalassiosera pseudonana gave
the best growth in soft tissue and shell organic material compared to feeding these singly
or in combination with Platymonas suecica (Table 26-09)16).

Table 26-09: Growth response of juvenile blue print oysters (Crassostrea virginica) to various algal species(5)

Shell Growth
Soft organic Growth efficiency
Algae species tissue I matter'
mg mg g (%)

Platymonas suecica (1) 55.0 56.1 negative negative

Isochrysis galbana (2) 97.8 70.0 l.09 39.1
Thalassiosera pseudonana (3) 100.8 66.6 l.08 38.7
Combination of:
(1) + (2) 85.1 68.4 0.75 4l.9
(1) + (3) 93.9 68.1 0.92 36.5
(2) + (3) 123.7 79.5 l.74 54.7

lOry weight
252 CHAPTER 26

Sexually immature window-pane oyster (70 mm shell height) were fed lsochrysis
galbana, Tetraselmis tetrahele or a I: l-combination at 100,000 cells per rnl divided into two
rations per day. Oysters fed the combination of lsochrysis and Tetraselmis attained sexual
maturity in the third month of rearing, a month ahead of those fed single algal species(lO}.

26.6 Feeding Recommendations and Precautions

Feeding Recommendations
The amount of live food fed to the cultured larvae will vary according to species of fish
or crustacean, density, stocking rate as well as developmental stage of larvae hence, there
is no standard formula. For instance the daily consumption of rotifers by red sea bream
(Pagrus major) larvae increased in 25 days by 86 times in pieces and 93 times by weight
of rotifers (Table 26-1O)l14). However, a close monitoring of the larvae in the tank is
important fOl..(2. 16}:
• Feeding behaviour
Pattern of food selection
Swimming and searching action
• Growth rate
Schooling.
A rule of thumb is that the live food supplied daily should be equal to 80 to 100% of
the larval fish weightl17).

Table 26-10: Estimated daily consumption of rotifers (Brachionus plicatilis) by red sea bream (Pagrus major)
larvae during the first month of culture(/4)

Days from Hatching Consumption per larvae/day Length Body weight

Number Weight
mg rom mg

4 22 0.07 3.0
9 58 0.17 3.9 0.32
13 156 0.47 5.1 1.0
18 285 0.86 6.0 2.1
21 427 1.30 6.9 3.6
24 747 2.20 7.8 5.5
27 1,213 3.60 8.9 8.9
28 1,665 5.00 9.7 12.1
29 2,151 6.50 10.4 13.7

Precautions
Some harmful organisms may be found in the water when live food is obtained from
the wild. They may contaminate the rearing medium.
 LIVE FOODS 253

26.7 References

1. Barnabe,G. (1980): Rotifers; biology and rearing technology. In: Barnabe,G. (ed.): Aquaculture, Vol. I,
Ellis Horwood Publication, LondonlEngland.
2. Bautista, M.N.; Parado-Estepa, F.; Mil/amena, O.M.; Borlongan, E.L (1991): Large-scale hatchery
production ofPenaeus monodon using natural food and artificial diets. Bamidgeh, 43., 137-144.
3. Bhat, B. V. (1995): Artemia. In: Live feed Handbook on Aquafarming. The Marine Products Export
Development Authority (Ministry of Commerce, Government of India), KochilIndia.
4. Dhert, P.; Sorge/oos, P. (1995): Live feeds in aquaculture. Infofish International, (2), 31-39.
5. Epifanio, C.E. (1982): Phytoplankton and yeast as foods for juvenile bivalves. A review of research at
the University of Delaware. Proc. 2nd Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochem. and Physiol. Approaches
to Shellfish Nutrition, Rohoboth Beach, DelawarelU.S.A., October, 180-201.
6. Fallu, R. (1991): Abalone Farming. Fishing News Books, OxfordlEngland.
7. Fermin, A.C.; Recometa, R.D. (1989): Larval rearing of bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis Richardson,
using different types of feed and their combinations. Aquaculture and Fish. Mgt., 19.,283-290.
8. Fermin, A.C.; Bolivar, E.C. (1991): Larval rearing of the Philippine freshwater catfish, Clanas macro-
cephalus (Gunther), fed live zooplankton and artificial diet: a preliminary study. Bamidgeh, 43.,87-94.
9. Gallagher, M.; Brown, W.D. (1975): Composition of San Francisco Bay brine shrimp (Artemia salina).
Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 23., 630-632.
10. Gallardo, w.G.; De Castro, M.T.R.; Buensuceso, R.T.; Espegadera, c.c.; Baylon, c.c. (1992): Gonad
development of Placuna placenta Linnaeus fed lsochrysis galbana Par, Tetraselmis tetrahele (G.S. West)
Butch, or their combination. Aquaculture, /02., 367-371.
11. Hemandorena, A. (1982): Artemia Nutrition. Proc. 2nd Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochem. and
Physiol. Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition, Rohoboth Beach, DelawarelU.S.A., October, 166-177.
12. Ketola, H.G. (1976): Quantitative nutritional requirements of fishes for vitamins and minerals. Feedstuffs,
48., (7).
13. Kinne, O. (1977): Marine ecology. Vol. 3, Cultivation, Part 2. John Wiley and Sons, New YorklU.S.A.
14. Komis, A. (1991192): Improved production and utilization of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis MUller,
in European sea bream (Sparus aurata Linnaeus) and sea bass (Dicentrachus labrax L.) larviculture.
Dr. thesis, University GhentlBelgium.
15. Kumlu, M.; fones, D.A. (1995): Feeding and digestion in the Carribean shrimp larva of Palaemon elegans
(Rathke) and Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man) (Crustacea:Palaemonidae) on live and artificial diets.
Aquaculture Nutrition, 1.,3-12.
16. Kuronuma, K.; Fukusho, Y. (1984): Rearing of marine fish larvae in Japan. IDRC-TS 47.25-30.
17. Landau, M. (1992): Introduction to aquaculture. John Wiley & sons, Inc., New YorklU.S.A.
18. Olney, C.E.; Schauer, P.S.; McLean, S.; You-Lu; Simpson, K.L.; (1980): International study on Artemia.
VIII. Comparison of the chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals in five different strains of newly
hatched Artemia and a laboratory-reared marine fish. In: The Brine Shrimp Artemia. Vol. 3, Universal
Press, WetterenlBelgium. 343-352.
19. Quayle, D.B.; Newkirk, G.F. (1989): Farming bivalve molluscs. Methods for study and development.
The World Aquaculture Soc., Baton Rouge. LA/U.S.A.
20. Santiago. c.B.; Reyes, O.S. (1989): Effect of feeding regimes on growth and survival of bighead carp
(Aristichthys nobilis Richardson) fry. Proc. Third Asian Fish Nutrition Network Meeting. 6 to 10 June
1988. BangkokfThailand. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 4: Manila! Philippines. 130-136.
21. Schauer, P.S.; fohns. D.M.; Olney. C.E.; Simpson, K.L. (1980): International study on Artemia. IX. Lipid
254 CHAPTER 26

level, energy content and fatty acid composition of the cysts and newly-hatched nauplii from five
geographical strains of Artemia. In: The Brine Shrimp Artemia. Vol. 3. Universal Press, WetterenlBelgium.
365-372.
22. Seidel, C.R.; Kryznowek, J.; Simpson, R.L. (1980): International study on Artemia. XI. Amino acid compo-
sition and electrophoretic protein patterns of Artemia from five geographical locations. In: The Brine shrimp
Artemia. Vol. 3, Universal Press, Wetteren, Belgium. 375
23. Simpson, K.L.; Klein-McPhee, G.; Beck, A.D. (1982): Zooplankton as a food source. Proc. 2nd Conf. on
Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochem. and Physiol. Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition, Rohoboth Beach,
DelawarefU.S.A., October, 180-201.
24. Stanley, J.G.; Jones, J.B. (1976): Feeding algae to fish. Aquaculture, 7., 219-223.
25. Villegas, c.T.; Lumasag, G.L. (1991): Biological evaluation of frozen zooplankton as food for milkfish
(Chanos chanos) fry. J. Appl. Ichthyol., 7.,65-71.
26. Ward and Whipple (1918): Quoted from: Landau, M. (1992).
27. Watanabe, T. (1988): Fish nutrition and mariculture. In: Watanabe, T. (ed.): Live feeds. JICA Textbook,
The General Aquaculture Course. Kanagawa International Fisheries Training Centre, Japan Int'1. Cooperation
Agency.
28. Watanabe, T.; Arakawa, T.; Kitajima, c.; Fujita, S. (1978): Nutritional evaluation of proteins of living feeds
used in seed production of fish. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 44., 985-988.
29. Watanabe, T.; Kitajima, c.; Fukusho, K.; Fujita, S. (1978): Nutritional quality of rotifer, Brachionus plicatili,
as a living feed from the viewpoint of essential fatty acids for fish. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 44., 1109-1114.
30. Webb, K.L.; Chu, F.L.E. (1982): Phytoplankton and yeast as foods for juvenile bivalve larvae. Proc.
Second Intern. Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochemical and Physiological Approaches to Shellfish
Nutrition. Spl. Pub. No.2, Louisiana State Univ. Div. Continuing Education. 272-291.
 27. LIVER FROM WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS

27.1 Rationale

The liver is the "Central Laboratory" of warm-blooded animals. It is the most essential
glandular organ of the body (Figure 27-01). The animal will die shortly after the removal
of the livetJ4). In the liver nutrients are versatile and intensively synthesised, reduced,
and converted(lO). The amount of nutrients stored in the liver, particularly vitamins, is
related directly to the dietary level of the nutrients(9).
Liver as a feedstuff is a by-product of the slaughtering of animals. Since liver is food for
man, mainly discarded livers not fit for human consumption are used as a feedstuff. However,
livers are not always available, because they are usually incorporated in meat meal(8).

CATTLE LIVER

Portal vein

Gall bladder

Liver lobes

PlO LIVER

Portal vein

Gall bladder

Liver lobes

Figure 27-01. The liver of the pig and cattle.

256 CHAPTER 27

27.2 Processing

Fresh Liver
Fresh or frozen liver is used as the first exogenous food for fish larvae. Only healthy
livers should be used for larval feeding. The fresh livers are minced in a meat-chopper
by using the smallest die. Mincing the material several times may be an advantage.
Minced raw liver should be stored in a refrigerator but only for a short period.
Discarded livers are cooked before using them as feed for older fish. The cooked
livers are minced together with other feed ingredients.

Liver Meal
Whole livers are dried at low temperature and then ground into a meal(8). Whale livers
and residues from the manufacture of liver extract are also processed into liver meal.
Liver meal has a limited storage time. It is prone to rancidity because of its relatively
high fat content. Its moisture content should not exceed 10.0%. Storage should be in
a dry and cool place(9, 26). Liver meal may also contain other abattoir by-products such as
lungs and hearts. The nutritional value of these meals is lower than of true liver meal(9).
A liver-drying process suitable for small-scale and laboratory use is described as
follows(7): Fresh liver is sliced, deep-frozen in liquid nitrogen (b.p.-196°C) and ground
in a kitchen-mixer with enough liquid nitrogen to avoid thawing. The ground slurry with
liquid nitrogen, is poured into aluminum foil capsules and stored in a freezer at -20°e.

27.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Liver meal is a protein feedstuff having a mean protein content of about 67%. The protein
content of fresh liver does not differ significantly among species (Table 27-01). It is a
good source of essential amino acids (Table 27-02).

Table 27-01: Chemical composition of liver meal and livers of various animals (% as fed)!)'8, 17, 19,20,
12,24,26)

Liver meal Fresh liver

Beef Pork Chicken Turkey

Dry matter 93.6 27.4 27.9 27.5 29.6

Crude protein 67.1 21.8 19.7 18.9 19.3
Crude fat 16.5 3.5 3.8 3.8 4.0
Ash 5.9 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.3
Crude fibre 0.8 0.1 0.1 2.9 2.9
N-free extract 3.3 0.6 2.8 0.5 2.1
 LIVER FROM WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS 257

Table 27-02: Essential amino acid profile of mammal liver

(g/16 g N)I8. 20. 22. 26)

Mean Variation

Arginine 4.90 4.04 6.10

Histidine 1.67 1.48 2.20
Isoleucine 3.62 3.10 4.60
Leucine 5.86 5.31 7.30
Lysine 5.81 4.81 6.80
Methionine 1.28 1.22 - 1.30
Phenylalanine 3.31 2.91 - 4.30
Threonine 2.75 2.49 - 3.30
Tryptophan 0.65 0.60 - 0.70
Valine 4.52 4.15 - 5.50

The fat content of liver meal varies widely, and is affected by the fat content of the
animal feed. However, the fat content of fresh liver from different species are similar
(Table 27-01). The linoleic acid of liver meal amounts to 1.7%(17).
Fresh liver is rich in Vitamnin A (20,000 to 50,000 I.U./kg) but not in liver meal.
The drying process destroys vitamins. However, liver meal is a good source of B-vita-
mins, particularly Vitamin B12 (Table 27-03) but liver meal made of residues from liver
extraction is more or less free of Vitamin B12(26).
The mineral content of liver meal is low and its contribution in aquaculture feeds is
insignificant (Table 27-03).
Table 27-03: Mineral and vitamin contents ofliver meal (as fed)

Minerals 13. B. 17.20.22.24. 26) Vitamins (per 1,()()() g)13.8. 20. 24)

Calcium % 0.28 Vitamin B, mg 0.2

Phosphorus % 0.81 Vitamin B2 mg 47.3
Sodium % 0.32 Vitamin B'2 mg 502.6
Potassium % 0.62 Vitamin C mg
Magnesium % 0.07 Biotin mg 0.4
Manganese mg/kg 9.87 Folic acid mg 5.6
Iron mg/kg 664.3 Nicotinic acid mg 204.5
Zinc mg/kg 128.3 Pantothenic acid mg 37.2
Copper mg/kg 95.6 Choline g 11.4

Physiological Properties
Information on the energy content and the digestibility of liver meal is only available for
land animals. A digestible energy of 5,019 kcaI/kg liver meal (21.0 MJ/kg) and a protein
258 CHAPTER 27

digestibility of 59.0% has been reported for dogs l l7). The digestibility of liver meal in
chicken is for(26):
Crude protein: 65.0%
Crude fat: 91.0%
N-free extract: 45.0%

Other Properties
Liver meal may also contain the unidentified growth factor (UGF) which is known as
the "whey factor"19.26) (see Chapter 44).

27.4 Feeding Value

Fishes
Fresh or frozen beef liver is used to grow trout larvae to stocking size(l2). As early as
1927, trout were grown on purified rations but only those rations containing liver
supported growth(15 ). However, due to the cost, instead of using 100% liver, mixtures of
fish meal, vegetable oil meals, salmon eggs, were substituted for part of the liver2. 23 ).
A ration containing 47.5% fresh liver, 47.5% canned carp and 5% dried brewer's yeast
fed at the rate of 6% fish body weight gave results equal to the use of an all fresh liver
dietlI6). The cost of feeding fresh beef liver was also reduced by using dry mixtures
containing dried skim milk, white fish meal, cottonseed meal and wheat middlings and
adding fresh or thawed frozen spleen and/or liver to the dry mixture(l2). Since the use of
dry feed mixtures is more feasible, the use of liver and other meat by-products in the fresh
state is minimized.
Liver meal has been found to be good for larvae of cyprinids. Common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) larvae were fed two diets based on freeze-dried liver and yeast
(Table 27-04)15). The larvae fed the diet with freeze-dried beef liver grew better than
those fed the pork liver. Larval growth or weight of common carp also was superior with
beef liver diet (800 mg mean final weight) compared to fish fed the casein containing
diet (235 mg)!2!). This shows that common carp larvae can be reared solely on dry diets
as early as first feeding stages.

Table 27-04: Survival and growth of common carp (Cyprinus

carpio) larvae fed freeze-dried pork or beef liveri 5)

Beef liver % 40
Pork liver % 40
Yeast powder (Pichia pastoris) % 45 45

Survival after 4 weeks % 93 91

Weight mg 266 242
Length mm 26.4 23.9
 LIVER FROM WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS 259

After two weeks of feeding powdered pork liver to a hybrid larvae bighead carp
(Aristichthys nobilis females) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix males)
the fish performed significantly better than those fed with fresh zooplankton and a
commercial feed (Table 27-05)(7).

Table 27-05: Growth of a hybrid bighead carp (Aristichtys nobilis) x silver carp
(Hypophthalmichtus molitrix) larvae fed for two weeks pork liver,
zooplankton and crumbled feed (initial weight: 1.5 to 2.5 mg, initial
length: 7.0 to 9.0 mm)!7)

Pork liver Commercial

(powdered) Zooplankton crumbled feed'

Body length mm 14.4 14.2 9.7

Liveweight mg 21.2 13.7 3.8
Body dry matter % 15.4 12.1 11.5
Survival rate % >90 >90 15

'composition not specified

Crustaceans
Beef liver may benefit prawns because it is a good source of B-vitamins and cholesterol.
Water-soluble vitamins also may leach out more rapidly from the formulated feed than
from the frozen liverlll).
Good growth and survival can be economically obtained by feeding post-larvae
freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) with 15 to 20% fresh frozen beef liver
as supplement to high quality trout or shrimp feeds (Table 27-06) (11.18). Tiger prawn
(Penaeus monodon) grew better on formulated diets than on the fresh beef liver dietl J3 ).

Table 27-06: Growth responses of juvenile freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) to various
supplemental levels of frozen beef Iiver(lZ)

Beef liver' %' 5 10 15 20 25

Final weight g 0.71 0,84 0.92 0.96 1.01

Yield2 g/m3 675 799 897 903 972
Food conversion3 1: 0.51 0.51 0.48 0.53 0.53
Survival % 95.2 95.2 96.8 94.2 96.3

, % dry weight of total daily ration: 2Yield =total weight in g/m3

dry weight of food given;
3FCR= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
weight gain
260 CHAPTER 27

Juvenile American lobsters (Homarus americanus) and hybrids of Homarus ameri-

canus and Homarus gammarus fed liver either as a daily supplement or every 4th day
with a purified diet containing casein, wheat gluten and spray-dried egg white as protein
sources produced heavier animals (567 mg) and higher survival rate (100%) than when
given only the purified diet (448 mg and 17%))(16).
Juvenile freshwater crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) fed pork liver for 50 days had
higher survival (32%) and carapace length 6.0 mm compared to those fed phytoplankton
alone (10.7% and 5.1 mm)!4).

27.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

There is no limit in the use of fresh liver and liver meal except for economic reasons.
However, high inclusion rates of liver meal may affect pellet stability due to the
structure of the product and the high fat content. Recommended inclusion rates of liver
meal are:
• Carnivorous fish: 10.0 - 15.0
• Omnivorous fish: 5.0 - 10.0
Herbivorous fish: 5.0 - 10.0
• Crustaceans: 5.0 - 10.0

27.6 Legal Aspects

Animal liver is a feedstuff listed as No. 9.7 in the AAFCO-list of feedstuff definitions.
It has to be from slaughtered mammals and the product has to correspond with
the description. Another listed product is "fish liver and glandular meal" (No. 51.34).
It contains the entire viscera, but 50% of the dry weight has to be from fish liver and
it must contain at least 40 mg Vitamin B/kg(1).
The EU-Directive does not have an assignment for liver meal. It is included under
"meat meal tankage" (No. 9.02) which requires a minimum protein content of 50% in
the dry matter.
The German feedstuff legislation describes "animal liver meal" as a product obtained
from fresh livers of warm-blooded, terrestrial animals. It must contain at least 65% crude
protein and the moisture content should not exceed 11 %(25).

27.7 References

1. MFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher).
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
2. Agersborg (1934): Quoted from: Hastings, W,H.; Dickie, L.M. (1972).
3. Anonymous (1968): Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Nat. Sci. Dev. Bd., ManilalPhilippines.
4. Celada, J.D.; Carmi, J.M.; Gaudioso, V.R.; Temiiio, c.; Fernandez. R. (1989): Response of juvenile
freshwater crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus Dana) to several fresh and artificially compounded diets.
 LIVER FROM WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS 261

Aquaculture, 76.,67-78.
5. Charlon, N.; Bergot, P. (1984): Rearing system for feeding fish larvae on dry diets trial with carp
(Cyprinus carpio L.) larvae. Aquaculture, 41., 1-9.
6. Conklin, D.E.; D'Abramo, LR.; Bordner, C.E.; Baum, N.A. (1980): A successful purified diet for the cul-
ture of juvenile lobsters: The effect of lecithin. Aquaculture, 21., 243-249.
7. Csengeri, I.; Petitjean, M. (1987): Fresh liver powder: A new starter diet for the larvae of a cyprinid fish.
Aquaculture, 65., 189-192.
8. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poUltry. Queensland Dept. Primary
Ind., Brisbane. Australia (Series Q 185001).
9. Feltwell, R.; Fox, S. (1978): Practical pOUltry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
10. Friesecke, H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung von Rind, Schaf. Pferd, Schwein, Gefliigel and
SUsswasserfischen. BLV Verlagsges. MunchenlGermany.
11. Garces, C.L; Heinen, J.M. (1993) Evaluation of beef liver, fruits and vegetables as dietary supplements for
indoor nursery culture of freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), J. World Aqua. Soc., 24., 58-65.
12. Hastings, WH.; Dickie, LM. (1972): Feed formulation and evaluation. In: Halver. J.E. (ed.). Fish Nutrition.
Academic Press. 327-370.
13. Kibria, G. (1993): Studies on molting, molting frequency and growth of shrimp (Penaeus monodon) fed
on natural and compounded diets. Asian Fish. Science, 6., 203-211.
14. Kolb, E. (1989): Lehrbuch der Physiologie der Haustiere (I and TI) VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
15. McCay, e.M.; Dilley, WE. (1927): Quoted from: Hastings, WH.; Dickie, L.M. (1972).
16. McLaren, B.A.; Herman, E.S.; Elvehjem, e.A. (1946): Quoted from: Hastings, WH.; Dickie, LM. (1972).
17. Meyer, H.; HeckiJtter. E. (1986): Futterwerttabelle fUr Hunde und Katzen. SchlUtersche Verlagsanstalt.
Hannover/Germany.
18. Molina·Vozzo, R.E.; Heinen, J.M.; D'Abramo, LR. (1995): Supplementation of commercial feeds with
beef liver for indoor nursery culture of freshwater prawns Macrobrachium rosenbergii, J. World Aqua.
Soc., 26., 103-106.
19. Nandeesha, M.e. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in India. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional Expert
Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 December 1992. BangkokfThailand. 434 (FAO-RAPA-
AADCP, BangkokfThailand). 213-254.
20. NRC (1977): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes. Nutrient requirement of domestic animals.
Nat. Acad. Press., Wash. D.C./uSA.
21. Szlaminska, M.; Escaffre, A.M.; Alami-Durante, H.; Char/on, N.; Bergot, P. (1990): Casein in the place of
beefliver in artificial diets for common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) larvae. Aquat. Living Resour., 3., 229-234.
22. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for warmwater fish: Fish meal and other processed feedstuffs.
FAO Fisheries Circular No. 856, FAO, ROMElItaly. 64p.
23. Titcomb et al. (1928): Quoted from: Hastings, WH.; Dickie, LM. (1972).
24. Watt, B.K.; Merrill, A.L (1963): Composition of Foods. Agri. Handbook No.8. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Washington D.C./uSA.
25. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (1994): FUttermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
26. Wohlbier. W; Tran Thu, D. (1977): Blutmehl. In: Kling, M.; Wohlbier, W. (eds.): Handelsfuttermittel
Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
 28. MAIZE PRODUCTS

28.1 Rationale

Maize (Zea mays) is a cereal, belonging to the family Poaceae and has its origin in Central
America. Now maize is grown world-wide whenever the climate permits cultivation.
Maize is a staple food for the natives in the Americas and Africa and maize porridge
(Polenta) is a common dish in the southern and south-eastern part of Europe.
World production of maize is more than 500 million MT a year. U.S.A. is the largest
maize producer (44.0%), followed by P.R. China (14.0%), Brazil (4.5%) and Argentina
(2.6%). Of the total world production about 30% are consumed by man and the remaining
70% are used as feedstuffs. In many civilisations the most important cereal among
the grains is called "com". Since maize is the most important cereal in U.S.A. it is named
"corn"(75). In Sweden and Norway barley is named "com", in eastern parts of Germany,
in Poland and Russia rye is named "com".
According to the kernel characteristics, maize is grouped into eight classes the grouping
of which is important for international trading of maize.
Dent maize, Zea mays var. dentiformis or var. indendata and flint maize, var. vulgaris
or var. indurata are the most important types for feedstuffs. Both are comprised mainly
of hard starch and their kernels are very hard(J6).
Today cultivation of hybrids is prevalent. In 1963 an old strain of maize known as
"opaque-2" was found to have twice as high lysine and tryptophan as ordinary maize(46)
but the yield of high lysine hybrids is less than that of ordinary dent hybrids(16).

28.2 Manufacture and Processing

Maize is processed either by dry milling or wet milling. Bran and germ meal are obtained
from dry milling such as grits and "hominy," a product of dry milling. The products from
dry and wet milling are compiled in Table 28-01(16, 75). The starch can be further processed
and split into maize syrup (maize sugar) and dextrin, also called starch gum.
Most maize for human consumption and technical application is processed into maize
starch by wet milling (Figure 28-01).
The starch or the entire kernel can be gelatinised by thermal or hydro-thermal
processing to improve utilisation by animals.
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 263

Table 28-01: Products from dry milling and wet milling of

maize (%) (16)

Dry milling Wet milling

Flour 60.0
Starch 69.0
Bran 21.0
Gluten feed 20.3
Grits 9.0
Gluten meal 4.5
Germ meal 8.5 3.2
Maize oil 1.5 3.0

Total 100.0 100.0

!
I
I
I
I
I
I
:
I
I
I
I
I
:I
I
I
I
I
I
---------t I

I
I
I
I
:
I
I
I
I
I
I
r - - - - ' - - ____ J

z
a:l-
x
'"c

Figure 28-01. Production diagram of wet milling of maize.

264 CHAPTER 28

28.3 Maize Meal

28.3.1 Description

Ground maize or maize meal is an excellent energy source but low in protein. It is a
major feed ingredient for terrestrial farm animals and is considered the most palatable of
the cereals used in animal feeding. Its utilisation by animals can be improved by thermal
or hydro-thermal treatment.

28.3.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Maize meal, aside from its low crude protein is also low in crude fibre (Table 28-02).
It is a poor source of the amino acids lysine, methionine and tryptophan (Table 28-03)
except for the high-lysine type of maize (Opaque-2 maize). The macro and trace mineral
contents is insignificant (Table 28-04).
Table 28-02: Chemical composition of maize products (% in dry matter)

Maize Maize starch Maize gluten Hominy Maize

meal feed bran
(10,11, 14,22,25,27 (11,25,47)
Raw Cooked Meal Feed (22.5/,71,75)

47,49.5/,52.53,71) (47,5/,52.75) (52) (13, /4, 22, 24, 25. 28, (l3,28.36,47,53,71}

36,51,53,61.7/)

Dry matter 87.8 90.2 88.0 91.3 90.1 90.1 87.5

Crude protein 10.2 0.4 0.2 59.9 24.7 8.9 15.0
Crude fat 4.8 0.4 3.6 3.5 5.4 5.7
Ash 1.6 0.1 0.1 2.5 7.0 2.4 5.7
Crude fibre 2.8 0.1 0.1 2.4 9.4 4.5 9.9
N-free extract 80.6 99.0 99.6 31.6 55.4 78.8 63.7

Table 28-03: Essential amino acid profile of maize products (g/16 g N)

Maize Maize gluten Hominy Maize

meal feed bran
(5, 10, 22, 25,
Meal Feed (50,52) (51
50,52,53) (5,13,50,52,61) (5,25,36,50)

Arginine 0.5 1.6 1.4 0.5

Histidine 0.3 1.1 0.2
Isoleucine 0.4 2.4 0.4
Leucine 1.4 8.0 0.9
Lysine 0.4 1.0 0.6 0.4 1.4
Methionine 0.2 1.4 1.4 0.2
Phenylalanine 0.5 3.1 0.4 3.2
Threonine 0.7 2.2 0.4 3.1
Tryptophan 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.7
Valine 0.4 2.4 1.5 0.6
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 265

Table 28-04: Macro and trace mineral contents of maize products (in dry matter)

Maize meal Maize gluten Hominy feed

(22.25.50.51) (22,51,52.71)

Meal Feed
(I J, 22, 25. 36. so, (13. J6, 47. 53)

5/,52.6I,7/J

Calcium % 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1

Phosphorous % 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.6
Sodium % 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1
Potassium % 0.3 0.1 1.6 0.6
Magnesium % 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.3
Chlorine % 0.1 0.0 0.1
Sulfur % 0.1 0.6
Manganese mglkg 6.7 6.7 31.1 16.0
Iron mglkg 32.5 34.7 0.1 73.6
Zinc mglkg 21.1 86.3 72.2 3.0
Copper mglkg 6.5 29.2 21.1 15.4
Selenium mglkg 0.3 0.6 0.1

Meal from yellow maize is considerably high in Vitamin A because it contains the
pigments "cryptoxanthin" and carotene which are precursors for Vitamin A (Table 28-05).
Part of the yellow colour of maize is due to "xanthophyll" which does not have any
Vitamin A value(l6).

Table 28-05: The vitamins of maize products (as fed) (1,000 g)

Maize Maize gluten Hominy

meal feed
(5,22.25, (22.5/,52)
Meal Feed
5~ 51. 52. 70) (22.25.50 (5)

51.52)

Vitamin A I.U. 6,155.3 207 400

Vitamin E mg 16.6 25.0 15.0
Vitamin K mg 13.3 11.7
Vitamin B, mg 0.3 0.2 2.0 5.7
Vitamin B, mg 3.6 1.6 2.5 2.1
Vitamin B6 mg 5.4 6.4 15.0 11.0
Biotin meg 62.0 187.5 150.0 130.0
Folic acid mg 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
Nicotinic acid mg 21.7 56.6 70.0 46.0
Pantothenic acid mg 5.5 8.2 17.0 7.7
Choline mg 509.1 342 1,500 1,030

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of maize meal for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is low.
Gelatinised maize meal has an almost 40% better digestible energy content than native
266 CHAPTER 28

(raw) maize meal for channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). The metabolisable energy of
maize meal is high for carp (Cyprinus carpio) (Table 28-06).

Table 28-06: Energy values of maize products per kg

Gross Metabolisable Digestible Reference

Energy energy energy

Species kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

Maize meal
(43,47)
4,110 17.1
Rainbow trout 1,195 5.0 (43)

(78)
Carp 3,460 14.5
Channel catfish 2,200 9.21 (52)

3.840 16.1' (43.51)

Fish' 3,240 13.6 (50)

Maize starch
(47.75)
3,700 15.5
Rainbow trout 2,150 9.0 2,533 10.6' (68)

717 3,0 1,147 4.8 1 (68)

Channel catfish 2,700 11.3 (52)

Maize !:Il!ten meal

5,067 21.2 (47)

Rainbow trout 3,859 16.1 4,240 17.7 (13,51)

Maize gluten feed

4,087 17.1 (47)

Rainbow trout 1,290 5.4 (In

Maize bran
4,015 16.8 (47)

Dogs 2,677 11.2 (47)

Hominx feed
Chicken 2,880 12.1 3,595 15.0 (22)

Dextrin
Rainbow trout 3,035 12.7 3,824 16.0 (68)

Channel catfish 2,420 10.2' (51)

1Native; 'Gelatinised; 'Species not specified

The apparent digestibility of nutrients of maize meal varies widely among species.
Gelatinizing maize meal, however, improves the digestibility remarkably (Table 28-07)
(4. 18, 34. 39)

Since the nicotinic acid of maize is not very available, deficiencies may cause "black
tongue" in dogs(5, 70.81).
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 267

Table 28-07: Apparent digestibility (%) of maize meal (raw and gelatinised)(4. 34. 39)

Dry Crude Crude Carbo- Crude Energy

Matter protein fat hydrates fibre

Atlantic salmon 89.7' 95.6' 64.0'

(Salrno salar)
Common carp 88.0 79.0 84.3 38.0
(Cyprinus carpio) 97.0'
Grass carp 64.8 50.6 19.5 87.9 21.5
(Ctenopharyngodon idellus)
Channel catfish 66.1 76.1 26.0
(letalurus punctatus) 78.0' 96.0' 58.2'
European eel 94.0'
(Anguilla anguilla)
Tiger prawn
(Penaeus rnonodon)

'Gelatinised (pre-cooked)

Minerals of the maize meal are generally well utilised by aquatic animals particularly
magnesium and phosphorus. They are effectively utilised by grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon
idellus) while iron and calcium could be scarcely absorbed (37). There is a tendency for
the Chinese shrimp (Penaeus chinensis) to utilise manganese and zinc of maize meal
very well so that the requirement of both trace elements may be met<4I.42).

Other Properties
Maize meal has a high pelletising ability but the resistance for abrasiveness is lowI32.35).
Ground maize is not only used as feed ingredient in aquaculture diets but also signifi-
cantly reduces pH levels in aquaculture ponds I60).

28.3.3 Feeding Value

Feeding rainbow trout fingerlings with increasing levels of maize meal improved nutrient
digestibility and growth. The higher the maize meal level, the better the performances
(Table 28-08)f77J.
Extruded (gelatinised) maize meal is the better energy source for optimum protein
utilisation(26). Extrusion of the maize meal in diets for rainbow trouts (Salmo gairdneri)
improved the feed conversion compared to the native unextruded maize by 17%.
The reduced protein level of the control did not affect the feed conversion.
Under simple production conditions the common guppy (Lebistes reticulatus) responded
better to diets made from maize meal (opaque-2) and leaf meal of the plant, Bohemeria
nivea and soybeans (50:50) than on a mixture with another plant (Pereskia aculeata) meal.
The mixture not only improved the weight gain of the adults but also their progeny born
during the trial period grew betterl62 ).
268 CHAPTER 28

Table 28-08: Effect of maize meal on protein and carbohydrate digestibility by rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) (trial period: 10 weeksym

Maize meal % 0 10 20 30
Crude protein % 43.0 43.9 43.6 44.4
Digestible carbohydrates % 1.6 8.9 17.4 26.6

Initial fish weight g 46.1 47.2 46.3 44.9

Weight gain % 20.3 51.1 65.1 93.1
Protein digestibility % 86.9 87.6 90.1 90.2
Carbohydrate digestibility % 6.0 42.5 43.4 54.0

28.4 Maize Starch

28.4.1 Description:

Maize starch or amylum is a polysacharide and almost free of any crude fibre, protein and
other substances. The major components of starch are amylopectin, amylose and moisture.
Starch can be modified whereby the properties of starch are completely changed by
chemical, enzymatical and physical processes. There are a number of modified starches(75).
Maize starch has a wide range of applications in the food and technical industry.

28.4.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The crude protein, fat, crude fibre and ash are insignificant and are merely considered
impurities because maize starch is a pure carbohydrate (Table 28-02).

Physiological Properties
Aside from fats and oils, starch is the purest form of energy in animal nutrition. The past
master of animal nutrition, Oskar Kellner ( 1851-1911) used starch to express the energy
value of feedstuffs. He developed the "Starch Equivalent" (SE), a net energy system of
feed evaluation in 1905. One kg of starch is equivalent to 2,356 kcal (9.86 MJ) net energy
for fattening and this is one SEl28.59). This system was widely used in Germany and
throughout Europe in ruminant feeding.
The energy values of maize starch is in Table 28-06. The higher the starch level,
the lower the digestibility by rainbow trout. Native starch digestibility increased from
38% at the 1.0% feed intake to 55% at the 0.5% intake level. The digestibility of
gelatinized starch was much higher than that of the native starch (7,70).
Raw starch heated for 10 minutes at 112°C, could not be digested, by rainbow trout (12).
Apparently the carp digests starch better than salmonids since 95% of gelatinised maize
starch can be digested by the formerl 63• 64). In the white leg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei)
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 269

apparent digestibility of maize starch is 68.3% for dry matter and 81.1 % for protein(2) and
for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 72.1 % for protein(24)).

Other Properties
Maize starch has good pelletising properties. The combination of 5% maize starch and
10% wheat flour provides a good water durability of the pellets(55).

28.4.3 Feeding Value

Maize starch in aquaculture diets serves as an energy source and spares the protein for
energy in the production of aquatic animals.

Fishes
Rainbow trout fingerlings responded substantially better to gelatinised than to native
maize starch (Table 28-09) particularly at higher gelatinized starch levelsl40. 74. 76). On the
other hand, in rainbow trout 30% glucose improved the protein utilisation of the diet
better than the same amount of raw maize starch. Weight gain, feed conversion and
protein efficiency of glucose fed fish were superior to fish fed native maize starch by
8.5%, 17.9% and 14.2%, respectively(6). However, gelatinised maize starch was better
utilised at the same level as saccharose (28%) by the rainbow troutl44). Higher levels of
gelatinised maize starch have a higher degree of utilisation than saccharose as determined
by the glucose activity in the liver of which was 50% lower after feeding of saccharose.
Increasing the levels of gelatinised maize starch in the diet improved protein utilisation
by the rainbow trout but weight gain decreased(57).
Gelatinized maize starch fed to rainbow trouts tend to deposit higher levels of fat in
the body(58).

Table 28-09: The effect of native (raw) and geiatinised (cooked) maize starch on growth
and feed conversion of rainbow trout (Salrna gairdneri)(76)

Maize starch
Crude Feed
Native Gelatinised protein Weight gain conversion
% % % g 1:

15 42 80 1.74
15 42 92 1.55
13 42 \07 1.73
13 42 121 1.62
13 42 67 2.34
13 42 115 1.64
29 32 66 2.30
29 32 112 1.67
270 CHAPTER 28

Maize starch were better utilised by carp when gelatinised by extrusion. Growth, feed
efficiency and protein efficiency were greater when fish were fed the extruded diets than
diets that were not extruded and contained raw ingredients(74).
Juvenile white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) fed diets containing 27.2% of raw
maize starch for eight weeks were not able to utilise it sufficiently(38).
Maize starch in isonitrogenous diets for European eels (Anguilla anguilla) at levels of
30% and an initial weight of 4.6 g had a daily weight gains of 2.28 g but fish fed wheat
and bread meal diets performed betterl19). The performance of eel elvers was significantly
superior on 20 and 30% glucose diets than on maize starch, regardless of the water
temperature (25° and 27°C). However, at higher water temperature and the higher level
of maize starch or glucose accumulated more lipids in the body than the control groupsl 17).
Similar effects were found of up to 25% maize starch or 15% fat as energy sources in
diets for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus)l54).

Crustaceans
Maize starch at the 40% level in a semi-purified diet for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)
gave a better survival rate (32%) than sago or cassava starch (0%) after six weeks of
feeding(56).
The white shrimp (Penaeus setiferus) had higher growth rates with 30% maize starch,
than glucose fed animalsl3l • Similarly best growth and survival was obtained in pink
shrimp (Penaeus duorarum) with 40% maize starch in the diet(66).

Molluscs
In studies on gastropod nutrition, starch was used as the major carbohydrate source at
levels of 5.0 to 15.0%(9). In diets for commercial feeding of the marine snail abalone
(Heliantis spp.) starch is used as an energy source at levels of 5.0 to 30.0%(23).

28.5 Maize Gluten Meal and Maize Gluten Feed

28.5.1 Description

Maize gluten is the protein portion of the maize kernel and is a by-product of wet milling
in the processing of starch. Dried gluten is practically free of any other components
while maize gluten feed is not. Besides gluten it contains hulls, evaporated steepwater
and germ. The germ may be extracted. About 25% of the whole maize kernel are maize
gluten (5.0%) and maize gluten feed (20%) (Table 28-01). Maize gluten feed is more
common in animal feeding than maize gluten meal.

28.5.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Maize gluten meal has a protein content of around 60%. The crude protein content of
maize gluten feed is about 25% and much lower (Table 28-02). As in maize meal, the
amino acids lysine, methionine and tryptophan are limiting factors (Table 28-03).
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 271

The rather high crude fibre content of maize gluten feed may limit its use in aquacul-
ture feeds.
Maize gluten meal is a source of ~-carotene and xanthophyll(25). In general, the vitamin
and the mineral content is higher than in maize meal (Tables 28-04 and 28-05).

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of maize gluten meal is much higher than for maize gluten feed,
as found in rainbow trout (Table 28-06)(l·l). There are also substantial differences in
the dry matter and energy digestibility between maize gluten meal and maize gluten feed
in rainbow trout but protein and fat digestibility differs only slightly (Table 27-10).
The biological values of maize gluten meal are 36 and 55 while net protein utilization
is 35(34).
The true digestibility of maize gluten meal in channel catfish and carp is 80% and
91 %, respectively(79).
In terrestrial animals, the phosphorus availability for maize gluten meal (29%) is lower
than for maize gluten feed (59%)122,36).

Table 28-10: Digestibility of maize gluten meal and maize gluten

feed in rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri)

Maize gluten Maize gluten

Meal(I2, /3,52) feed(fl,52)

Dry matter 80.0 23.0

Crude protein 89.6 92.0
Carbohydrates 62.0
Fat 92.5 89.7
Energy 80.7 29,0

28.5.3 Feeding Value

Maize gluten meal is a protein source. The feeding value of maize gluten feed is lower
than maize gluten meal but its carbohydrate content is higher.
Rainbow trout fed with protein-equivalent diets grew faster on wheat gluten than on
maize gluten. Also feed conversion was better for wheat gluten-fed than maize gluten-fed
fish (Table 28_11)176).
Growth rate and feed conversion was better when fish meal protein was partially
replaced by maize gluten protein in diets fed to rainbow trout for 91 days(33).
Performance response of mi1kfish (Chanos chanos) fry fed various levels of maize
gluten meal decreased as levels were increased in the diet (Table 28-12)165).
Maize gluten is used as a component in experimental and practical diets for various
species, at levels between 2.0 and 10.0%(40. 79,83):
272 CHAPTER 28

Table 28-11: Maize gluten versus wheat gluten as protein source in diets for rainbow trout
(Salrno gairdneri) (Feeding period: 149 dayS)!76)

Maize gluten % 12.50 12.50

Wheat gluten % 9.05 9.05
Whey powder. acid % 10.70 10.70
Whey powder. neutral % 10.70 10.70
Crude protein % 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00
Fat % 9.63 7.86 9.63 7.86
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Growth g 149.30 163.00 159.50 167.30
% 100.00 109.20 100.00 104.50
Feed conversion I: 1.54 1.38 1.50 1.39
% 100.00 89.60 100.00 92.70

Table 28-12: Performance response of milkfish (Chanos chanos)

fry fed maize gluten meal at various levels(65)

Maize gluten meal % 38.1 45.4 52.8

Weight gain % 1.275.0 862.0 312.0
Survival % 63.0 56.0 14.2
Feed conversion I: 1.5 1.8 4.9

28.6 Maize Bran

28.6.1 Description

Maize bran is the by-product of dry milling of maize kernels into maize flour and
maize grits. It contains the hulls and other parts of the kernel which have not been
separated from the starch. About 21 % of the maize kernel is maize bran (Table 28-01).
Hominy is a by-product which belongs to this category of maize products. It is comprised
of bran, germ and part of the starch.

28.6.2 Properties

Maize bran has a higher crude protein content than hominy but the latter is much lower
in crude fibre than maize bran. The high content of N-free extract implies that hominy
contains more carbohydrates (starch) than maize bran (Table 28-02).
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 273

The amino acid profile of hominy feed is similar to maize meal (Table 28-03). Mineral
and vitamin contents of hominy feed in general do not differ much from maize gluten
feed (Tables 28-04, 28-05).
The gross energy of maize bran is 4,015 kcallkg (16.8 MJlkg) and digestible energy
in dogs is 2,677 kcallkg (11.2 MJlkg) (Table 28-06)147). The digestibility is 66.7%.
The digestible energy of hominy in chicken is 3,595 kcallkg (15.0 MJlkg)l22).

28.6.3 Feeding Value

Mudfish (Clarias anguillaris) fingerlings (two to four months old) were fed for ten weeks
with a practical diet containing 60% maize bran and other local available feedstuffs.
On the diets with maize bran, fish meal, blood meal, and groundnut cake fish responded
with best growth and feed utilization(45). But feeding maize bran (11.1% crude protein)
alone gave poor results.

28.7 Maize Germ Meal

Maize germs contain around 50% oil. The valuable oil is used for human consumption
and is obtained by solvent extraction and screw-pressing, respectively. The by-product
is maize germ meal or maize germ cake. Fresh maize germs are prone to rancidity due
to its high content of unsaturated fatty acids(25).
Maize germ meal may also be available as a by-product from the brewery and
distillation industry. This type of product usually contains only 10% crude protein(25)
Maize germ meal has a high protein content (Table 28-13). Data on amino acids are
in Table 28-03. Crude fibre content increases with extraction of the oil, thus, reducing
the digestibility of the organic matter. Maize germ meal is a good source of Vitamin E(25).

Table 28-13: Chemical composition of maize germs and maize germ meal
(% in dry matter)!28)

Maize Maize germ meal Maize germ cake

germs (solvent extracted) (screw pressed)

Crude protein 13.9 24.6 22.5

Crude fat 49.2 2.2 7.4
Crude fibre 5.7 9.4 10.5
Ash 4.8 5.0 3.5
N-free extract 26.4 58.8 56.1
Digestibility of organic
matter (pigs) 86.0 65.0 64.0
274 CHAPTER 28

28.8. Dextrin

28.8.1 Description

Dextrin is used in dietetics, in the food industry as fat-replacer, and in the technical indus-
try as adhesives and sizes(75). In animal nutrition dextrin serves as a pure carbohydrate in
purified diets and is used for standardising nutrient levels in experimental diets(69).

28.8.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Dextrin is a white or yellowish powder, soluble in water, gummy, and a dextrorotatory
polysaccharide. Dextrin gives a turbid, viscose liquid when dissolved in water. It is obtained
from the breakdown of starch. The breakdown can be achieved by enzymes (amylase),
acids and high temperature (l500C).

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy is higher for rainbow trout than for channel catfish (Table 28-06).
The dextrin digestibility for rainbow trout is between 77 and 85%(34.68). However, dextrin
digestibility declines as its level in the diet increases (Table 28_14)(15.67).

Table 28-14: Relationship between the dextrin level of the diet

and the dextrin digestibility

Dextrin in Digestibility (%)

the Diet
Rainbow trour"') Plaice/I»
% (Salmo gairdneri) (Pleuronectis platessa)

10 84.0
20 77.2 80.0
30 74.8 79.0
40 60.0 60.0
50 50.1 38.0
60 45.5 35.0

Absorption within two hours of dextrin is slower (65%) than glucose (95%) as found
in red sea bream (Chrysophyrs major)f29). But a retarded absorption-time is better for
the utilisation of carbohydrates because the digestive enzymes can act more effectively.
Addition of carboxymethylcellulose to dextrin containing diets may retard absorption
further<48).
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 275

28.8.3 Feeding Value

Juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) of about 1.0 g liveweight were

fed with 20% dextrin and 20% glucose, respectively. Growth rate of the dextrin fed
group was inferior to the glucose fed fish (Figure 28-02)181.

g.
2.0

1.5
,.

~
..
.; 1.0
..
~

>
:J
,/
""
0.5 ,,- "
./ "."

o 20 40 60 80 100 Days

Figure 28·02. Weight development of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha)

fed diets containing 20% glucose or dextrin(Dala/",.., 8)

Growth retardation and low feed effciency were observed in common carp fed diets
with over 40% dextrin, red sea bream fed diets with more than 30% dextrin and yellowtail
(Senoia quinqueradiata) when fed diets containing over 20% dextrin. Thus, carp utilises
dextrin better than the latter two fish species(30).
Nutrients were best utilised in channel catfish when the diets contained 14 to 25%
dextrin in the dry matter2/). But compared to isonitrogenous, isocaloric and semipurified
diets free of dextrin growth rates of channel catfish fingerlings were reduced when diets
contained added dextrin(3l). The species is apparently unable to efficiently utilize dietary
mona and disaccharides as energy sources. Best response was achieved when dextrin is
mixed with maize starch glucose, maltose, fructose and sucrose, respectively(821.
Kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) utilise dextrin better than glucose(20).
Alligators (Alligator mississipiensis) reared on purified diets efficiently digested maize
dextrin and isolated soybean protein. High-solubility maize dextrin was slightly but
significantly more digestible than low-solubility maize dextrinf691.
276 CHAPTER 28

28.9 Recommended Inclusion Rates

As high as 50% maize has been incorporated in diets for herbivores and omnivores.
But maximum of 35% has been suggested for these fishes(72). Recommended practical
inclusion rates are listed in Table 28-15.
Table 28-15: Recommended inclusion rates (%) for maize products in aquaculture feeds172· 73)

Maize product' Fishes Crustaceans

Carnivores Omnivores! Marine Freshwater

Herbivores shrimp prawn
max. max. max. max.

Maize grain meal 20 35 25 35'

Maize starch 15 35 15 15
Maize gluten meal 15 20 15 15
Maize gluten feed 10 20 15
Maize bran 5 20 15
Dextrin 15

'Should be free from mycotoxin contamination

28.10 Legal Aspects

Maize products are used everywhere as a feedstuff. Nevertheless, there may exist quality
regulations which can differ from country to country. The EU-Directive 92/871EEC of
26 October 1992, contains definition for eight maize products used in animal feeding.
A list of not less than 28 maize products as feed is under Chapter 48 of the Feed Ingredients
Definitions of AAFCO (USA)(l). The German feedstuff legislation not only defines
the individual maize products but also has quality requirements (Table 28-16).
Table 28-16: Quality requirements (%) for maize products by the German feedstuff law(80)

Product Crude Crude

Moisture Starch Fat protein fibre Ash
max. min. max. min. max. max.

Maize feed meal 14.0 32.0 7.0

Maize bran 14.0
Maize germ cake 13.0 35.0 4.0
Maize germ meal 13.0 19.0
Maize gluten feed 13.0 20.0 10.0 6.0
Maize gluten meal 13.0 60.0 4.5 3.0
Maize starch 14.0 84.0 0.5
Maize starch, extruded 12.0 88.0 0.5
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 277

28.11 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. Of Amrican Feed Control Officials (Publisher).
Sacramento, Ca/USA.
2. Akiyama, D.M.; Coelho, S.T.; Lawrence, A.L. (1988): Apparent digestibility of feedstuffs by the marine
shrimp Penaeus vannamei Boone. Bull. Japan Soc. Sci. Fish. 55., 91.
3. Andrews, J. w.; Sick, L. V; Baptist, G.J. (1972): The influence of dietary protein and energy levels on
growth and survival of penaeid shrimp. Aquaculture, 1., 341-347.
4. Anonymous (w/o year): Digestibility trials on suprex and precooked com. Humberside Intern. Fish.
Insistute, University of HulllEngland (Mimeograph).
5. Behm, G.; Dressler, D.; Kohler, w.; Kiither, K.; Lindner, H.; Schwarz, G. (1992): Vitamins in animal
nutrition. Arbeitsgemeinschaft fUr Wirkstoffe in der Tierernahrung, Bonn/Germany (Publisher).
6. Bergot, F. (1979): Carbohydrate in rainbow trout diets: Effects of the level and source of carbohydrate
and the number of meals on growth and body composition. AquaCUlture, 18., 157-167.
7. Bergot, F.; Breque, J. (1983): Digestibility of starch by rainbow trout: effects of the physical state of
starch and of the intake level. Aquaculture, 34., 203-212.
8. Buhler, D.R.; Halver, J.E. (1967): Nutrition of salmonid fishes. IX. Carbohydrate requirements of chinook
salmon. J. Nutrition, 74., 307-318.
9. Care/oot, T.H. (1982): Gastropod nutrition. Proc. 2nd Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochem. and
Physiol. Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition, Rohoboth beach, DelawarelU.S.A., October. 321-337.
10. Cheeke. P.R. (1987): Rabbit feeding and nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, Florida/U.S.A.
11. Chen, K.2.; Co, w.G. (1988): Prawn culture. Cuison Printing Press, PangasinanfThe Philippines.
12. Cho. C. Y.; Slinger, S.J. (1979): Apparent digestibility measurement in feedstuffs for rainbow trout. Proc.
World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II, 20-23 June 1978.
13. Cho. c.Y.; Cowey, c.; Watanabe. T. (1985): Finfish nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IDRC, 233e. Ottawa/Canada.
14. Chou. R. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Singapore. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional Expert
Consultation on Farm-made aquafeeds. 14 to 18 December 1992, Bangkokffhailand. FAO-RAPAI
AADCP, Bangkok, Thailand. 354-364.
15. Cowey, c.; Sargent. J.R. (1972): Fish nutrition. Advanced Marine BioI., 10.. 382-492.
16. De Boer, F.; Bickel. H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. Elsevier Sciences
Publishers, AmsterdamlThe Netherlands.
17. Degani. G.; Levanon. D. (1987): Effects of dietary carbohydrates and temperatures on slow growing
juvenile eels Anguilla anguilla. Environ. BioI. Fish., 18., 149-154.
18. Degani. G.; Revach. A. (1991): Digestive capabilities of three commensal fish species: carp, Cyprinus
carpio L.; tilapia, Oreochromis aureus x O. nilolicus; and African catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell,
1822). Aquacult. Fish. Manage., 22 .. 397-403.
19. Degani. G.; Viola, S.; Levanon. D. (1986): Effects of dietary carbohydrates source on growth and body
composition of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla L.). Aquaculture, 52., (2), 97-104.
20. Deshimaru. 0.; Yone. Y. (1978): Optimum level of dietary protein for prawn. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries,
44., 1395-1397.
21. Dupree, H.K.; Sneed. K.E. (1966): Response of channel catfish fingerlings to different levels of major
nutrients in purified diets. Techn. Papers, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fish and Wildlife, 9 .• 1-21.
22. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and pOUltry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Industries Information Series Q185001. Brisbane.
278 CHAPTER 28

23. Fallu, R. (1991): Abalone Farming. Fishing News Books, OxfordlEngland.

24. Feed Dev. Section (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish, nile tilapia, Asian sea bass, and tiger shrimp.
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Tigbauan, 1l0ilolPhilippines.
25. Feltwell, R.; Fox, S. (1978): Practical poultry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
26. Forneris, G.; Boccignons, M.; Damasio, L. (1986): Mais estruso rell' alimentazione della trota iridea
(Salrno gairdneri). Rio. Ital. Piscic. Ittiopatol, 21., (2), 59-62.
27. Friedrich, w.; Jansen, H.D.; Abel, H.; Becker, K. (1982): Die Warmbehandlung von Getreide, eine rich-
tungsweisende Technologie fUr die HersteUung von protein-reduziertem Fischfutter. Kraftfutter, 65., 52-58.
28. Friescke, H. (1984): Handbuch der prauktischen FUtterung von Rind, Scnaf, Pferd, Schwein, GeflUgel
und SUBwasserfischen. BLV Verlagsges., MUnchen/Germany.
29. Furuichi, M.; Yone, Y. (1980): Effect of dietary dextrin levels on the growth and feed efficiency, the
chemical composition of liver and dorsal muscle and the absorption of dietary protein and dextrin in fish-
es. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 46., 225-229.
30. Furuichi, M.; Yone, Y. (1981): Change of blood sugar and plasma insulin levels of fishes in glucoose tol-
erance test. Bull. Jap. Sc. Sci. Fisheries, 47., 761-764.
31. Garling, D.L.; Wilson, R.P. (1977): Effects of dietary carbohydrate-to-Iipid ratios on growth and body
composition of fingerling channel catfish. Progr. Fish-Culturist, 39., 3-47.
32. Gill, E. (1993): Chemistry for high quality pellets. Feed International, 14., (3), 10-11.
33. Gropp, J.; Koops, H.; Tiews, K.; Beck, H. (1976): Ersatz von Fishmehl in Forellenfutter. Arb. Deutscher
Fischerei-Verb., (19), 85-102.
34. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/U.K.
35. Hertrarnp/. J. W. (1992): On the water durability of aquaculture feed pellets - A review. Advances in Feed
Techn., (7), 18-38.
36. Holden, P.J. (1990): Com gluten feed. In: Thacker, P'A.; Kirkwood, R.N.: Non-traditional feed sources for
use in swine production. Butterworth Publishers, BostonJU.S.A.
37. Huang, Y.; Liu, Y. (1990): Availabilities of Ca and P in nutritive salts and Ca, P, Mg in feeds for grass
carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus). Acta Hydrobiol. Sing. Shiushen Shengwy Xuebo. 14., 145-152.
38. Hung, S.S.O; Fynn-Aikins, K. (1991): Carbohydrates utilization and its impact on some metabolic and
histological parameters in white sturgeon. In: Kaushik, S.J.; Luquet. P. (eds.) (1993): Fish Nutrition in
France. France Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 61., 127-136.
39. Jose/sen, K.; Olivera, M.A.; Rosenlund, G. (1988): Low temperature extrusion of fish feed. SINfEF-
Rapport STF21 F88099, Trondheiml Norway.
40. Kaushik, S.J.; Medale, F.; Fauconnneau, B.; Blanco, D. (1989): Effect of digestible carbohydrates on
protein/energy utilization and on glucose metabolism in rainbow trout (Salrno agairdneri R.) Aquaculture,
79.,63-74.
41. li, H.; Hao, B.; Liu, F.; Wang, H.; Sun, F.; Liang, D. (1993): Effects of dietary manganese supplementation
on the prawn, Penaeus chinensis. Mar. Sci. Haiyang Kexue, 4., 48-52.
42. liang, D.; Liu, F.; Sun, F.; Lan, X. (1989): Effects of dietary zinc on the prawn, Penaeus orientalis. Mar. Sci.,
Haiyan Kexue, 5., 49-52.
43. Lavell, R.T. (1979): Formulating diets for aquaculture species. Feedstuffs, 51., (28), 28-32.
44. Luque/, P.; Leger, c.; Bergol, F. (1975): Effects de la suppression des glucides dans I'alimentation de la
truite arcenciella temperature de 10°C. 1. Croissance en fonction du niveau d'ingestion proteique. Ann.
Hydrobiol., 6., 61-70.
45. Madu, c.T.; Ajibola, R.F. (1989): Dietary protein requirements of mudfish (Clarias anguillaris) finger-
lings. Annu. Rept. Natl. Inst. Freshwat. Fish. Res., Nigeria, 1988. 110-116.
 MAIZE PRODUCTS 279

46. Mertz, E.T. (1992): Discovery of high lysine, high tryptophan cereals. In: Mertz, E.T. (ed.): Quality
protein maize. The American Ass. of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Min./U.S.A.
47. Meyer, H.; Heckotter, E. (1986): Futterwertabelle ftir Hunde und Katzen. Schliitersche Veriagsanstalt,
Hannover/Germany.
48. Morita, K.; Fukuichi, M.; Yone, Y. (1982): Effect of carboxymethylcellulose supplemented to dextrin-
containing diets on the growth and feed efficacy of red sea bream. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 48., 1-28.
49. Nandessha, M.e. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in India. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional Expert
Consultation on Farm-made Aquafeeds. 14 to 18 Dec. 1992, Bangkok, Thailand. FAO-RAPAlAADCP,
BangkoklThailand. 213-254.
50. NRC (1977): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes. National Academy Press, Washington
D.C./USA.
51. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press, Washington
D.C./uSA.
52. NRC (1993): Nutrient requirements of fish. National Academy Press, Washington D.C./uSA.
53. New, M.B. (1987): Feeds and feeding of fish and shrimp - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. ADCP/Rep/87!26 UNDP. FAO, Rome.
54. Page, J. w.; Andrews, J. W. (1973): Interactions of dietary levels of protein and energy on channel catfish
(lctalurus punctatus). 1. Nutr., 103., 1339.
55. Piedad-Pascual, F.; Bandonil, L.; Destajo, W.M. (1978): The effect of different binders on the water
stability of feeds for prawn. Quarterly Res. Reports. 1st. Qrt., 11., (1), 31-35.
56. Piedad-Pascual, F.; Coloso, R.M.; Tamse, e.T. (1983): Survival and some histological changes in
Penaeus monodon Fabricius juveniles fed various carbohydrates. Aquaculture, 31., 169-180.
57. Pieper, A. (1977): Untersuchungen tiber die Verwertung einiger Kohlehydrate durch Regenbogenforellen
(Salmo gairdneri Richardson). Diss. University of GottingenlGermany.
58. Pieper, A.; Pfeffer, E. (1980): Studies on the comparative efficacy of utilisation of gross energy from some
carbohydrates, proteins and fats by rainbow trouts. Aquaculture, 20., 323-332.
59. Platt, w.P. (1988): Feed evaluation systems: Historical background. In: Oerskov, E.R. (ed.): Feed science.
Elsevier Science Publishers, AmsterdamlThe Netherlands.
60. Pote, e.w.; Cathcart, T.P.; Deliman, P.N. (1990): Control of high pH in aquaculture ponds. Aquacult.
Eng., 9.,175-186.
61. Rossel, W. (1993): Private Communication.
62. Rodriguez de Sousa, J.; Andrade, R.D. de (1982): Nutricao de barrigudinho (Lebistes reticulatus Peters
1959). Poecillidae, Pisces, 1982 Seiva, 42., (90), 9-13.
63. Schwarz, F.J.; Kirchgessner, M. (1982): Zur Bestimmung der Nahrstoffverdaulichkeit b.eim Karpfen
(Cyprinus carpio). l. Mitt. Aquarienaufbau und Versuchsmethodik. Bayer. Landw. lahrbuch. 59., 79-84.
64. Schwarz, F.J.; Kirchgessner, M. (1993): Influence of different carbohydrates on digestibility, growth and
carcass composition of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). Proc. Fish Nutrition in France. France Institut National
de la Recherche Agronomique, 61., 127-136.
65. Senereches, M.L.; Chiu, N.Y. (1988): Effect of fish meal on the growth survival and feed effiency of milkfish
(Chanos chanos) fry. Aquaculture, 71., 61-69.
66. Sick, L. v.; Andrews, J. W. (1973): The effect of selected dietary lipids, carbohydrates and protein on the
growth, survival and body composition of Penaeus duorarum. Proc. 4th Ann. World Mariculture Soc.,
263-276. (Louisiana State Univ.).
67. Singh, R.P.; Nose, T. (1967): Digestibility of carbohydrate in young rainbow trout. Bull. Freshw. Fisheries.
Res. Lab., 17., 21-25.
280 CHAPTER 28

68. Smith, R.R. (1971): A method for measuring digestibility and metabolizable energy of fish feeds. Progr.
Fish-Culturist, 33., 132-134.
69. Staton, M.A.; Edwards, H.M. Jr..; Brisbin, I.L Jr.; Joanen T.; McNease, L. (1992): The influence of
environmental temperature and dietary factors on utilisation of dietary energy and protein in purified
diets by alligators, Alligator mississippienensis (Daudin). Aquaculture, 107., 369-381.
70. Steffens, W. (1985): Grundlagen der Fischernahrung. VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
71. Tacon, A.G.J. (1987): The nutrition and feeding of farmed-fish and shrimp. A training manual I.
The essential nutrients. Field Document 21E, GCP/RLAl075/STA, FAO, Brazil.
72. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for warmwater fish, fishmeal and other processed feedstuffs.
FAO Fisheries Circular No. 856, FIRIIC866, FAO, Rome, April.
73. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for crustaceans natural foods and processed feedstuffs. FAO
Fisheries Circular No. 866, FIRIIC866, FAO, Rome.
74. Takeuchi, T.; Jeong, K.S.; Watanabe, T. (1990): Availability of extruded carbohydrate ingredients to
rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and carp Cyprinus carpio. Bull. Jap. Soc. Science. Fish. 56.,1839-1845.
75. Tiiufel, A.; Teynes, w.; Tunger, L; Zobel, M. (1993): Lehensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag, HambUrg/Germany.
76. TIews, J.; Groop, J.; Koops. H.; TIews, K. (1972): Uher die Gestaltung von Mischfutterrationen fUr Forellen
in der Netzktifighaltung. Z. Tierphysiol., Tierernahrung, Futtermittelkd., 29., 267-275.
77. Ufodike, E.B.C.; Matty, A.J. (1989): Effect of potato and maize meal on protein and carbohydrate
digestibility by rainbow trout. Prog. Fish. Cult., 51.,113-114.
78. Viola, S. (1977): Energy values of feedstuffs for carp. Bamidgeh, 29., 29-30.
79. Watanabe, T. (1988): Fish nutrition and mariculture. HCA Textbook, the General Aquaculture Course.
Kanagawa International Fisheries training Centre (KIFTC). Japan International Cooperating Agency
(HCA).
80. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
81. West, G.P. (1992): Blacks veterinary dictionary. A & C Black, London. 17th Edition.
82. Wilson, R.P.; Poe, w.E. (1987): Apparent inability of channel catfish to utilize dietary mono-and disac-
chari des as energy sources. J. Nutr., Jl7., 280-285.
83. Wilifree, R.A.; Stickney, R.R. (1984): Formulation and processing of hatchery diets for channel catfish.
AquaCUlture, 41., 311-323.
 29. MARINE OILS

29.1 Rationale

Marine oils are obtained from processing of marine animals and are classified as:
Fish oils;
Fish liver oils;
Marine mammal oils.
The World production of fish oils amounts to more than 1.5 million MT. Almost 70%
of the total production is produced by only five countries with Japan as the front-runner
(26.6% of the total production), followed by Chile (13.7%), U.S.A (9.9%), Peru (9.2%)
and Iceland (8.0%)(5). Fish oils are used in the food industry, in feed for terrestrial and
aquatic animals and in many industrial products, e.g. for fatty acid fractionation.
Fish liver oils were already used in the treatment of rickets in the Middle Ages. Its
World production has declined from 76,000 MT in 1938 to less than 20,000 M'f<5).
The production of marine mammal oils, predominantly obtained from whales, has once
accounted for as much as 75% of the total marine oil production. Now it accounts for
less than 2.0% of marine oil production, due to the wild-life preservation programme(5).

29.2 Manufacture and Processing

Crude fish oil is obtained from the manufacture of fish meal (see chapter 18.2.). Fish oil
is processed in several steps to remove impurities such as moisture, phospholipids, trace
minerals and the like that generate irreversible changes in colour and taste or may cause
harmful metabolic effects(6. 3/) (Figure 29-01).
The demand for n-3 fatty acids has led to advanced processes for treating fish oils.
However, they are too costly for feed grade fish oils. Feed grade fish oils should at least
be refined because crude fish oil oxidises rapidly due to the high degree of unsaturation
and the impurities. It is advisable to treat feed grade fish oils with an antioxidant.

29.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The major characteristic of fish oils is the high level of unsaturated fatty acids. Its compo-
sition of a single fish species varies widely (Table 29.01) which can be caused by factors
such as the catching season, fishing ground, geographical location and processing.
In cultured fish the fatty acid composition of the feed may be reflected in the fish oil(9).
282 CHAPTER 29

Refined and soapstock

degummed oil

Figure 29-01. Flow diagram of the degumming and refining process of fish oil.

Table 29-01: Variation of the fatty acid composition of selected fish species (% of total oil content)(16)

Fatty acid's Menhaden American Mullet

systematic name oil herring oil oil

Tetradecanoic 14:0 7.2 - 12.1 4.6 - 8.4 4.6 - 11.5

Hexadecanoic 16:0 15.3 - 25.6 10.1 - 18.6 20.2 - 33.7
Hexadecenoic 16: 1 9.3 - 15.8 6.2 - 12.0 13.4 29.3
Octadecenoic 18:1 8.3 - 13.8 9.7 - 25.2 7.1 - 13.6
Octadecadienoic 18:2 0.7 - 2.8 0.1 - 0.6 0.7 - 2.7
Octadecatrienoic 18:3 0.8 - 2.3 0 1.1 0.3 1.3
Eicosenoic 20:1 7.3 19.9
Eicosapentaenoic 20:5 11.1 - 16.3 3.9 - 15.2 4.6 - 8.1
Docosenoic 22:1 0.1 - 1.4 6.9 - 30.6
Docosahexaenoic 22:6 4.6 - 13.8 2.0 - 7.8 0.7 - 3.9
 MARINE OILS 283

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in fish oils are of particular interest. According to
their chemical structure they are classified as:
n-3 fatty acids;
n-6 fatty acids;
n-9 fatty acids.
These are the so called "omega fatty acids". The number expresses the position of
the C-atom with the first double-bond, counting from the methyl-end, e.g. n-3 indicates
that the third C-atom has the first double-bond.
Fish species rich in oil are especially abundant in n-3 fatty acids. The n-3 fatty acid
content of fish oils usually exceeds the n-6 fatty acids. The ~nolenic acid (octadecatrienoic
acid - CI8:3) content of fish oil is relatively low but the content of eicosapentaenoic acid
(C22:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) is high (Table 29-02)(13).

Table 29-02: n-3 fatty acid content of selected fishes (% of total fatty acids)(lJ)

Fish species LNA' EPA' DHA'

English name Scientific name

Atlantic salmon 4 Safmo safar 0.1 0.6 1.2

Chinnok salmon Oncorhynchus tscha wytscha- 0.1 0.8 0.6
Coho salmon 4 Oncorhynchus kisutch 0.1 0.4 0.8
Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta 0.1 0.4 0.6
Chub mackerel Scomber japonicus 0.3 0.9 1.0
Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus 0.1 0.9 1.6
Atlantic herring Clupea harengus harengus 0.1 0.7 0.9
Atlantic sturgeon Acipenser oxyrhynchus traces 1.0 0.5
Capelin Mallotus villosus 0.1 0.6 0.5

, Alpha-linolenic acid; 2 Eicosapentaenoic acid; , Docosahexaenoic acid; 4 Farmed salmons

The vitamin content of fish liver oil is affected by the catching season, the fishing
ground and other biological factors (Table 29-03)124). The carotenoid astaxanthin is present,
if the oil is red in colourl4}. Magnesium (5.0 mg/kg) and sodium (1.0 mg/kg) were found
in cod liver oil(12}.
Fish oil processors differentiate between "Standard fish oil", "Feed grade fish oil" and
"Crude fish oil". Guidelines for estimating the quality of commercial crude fish oil are
compiled in Table 29-04.
284 CHAPTER 29

Table 29-03: Mean Vitamin A and D content of selected fish liver oils(24)

Oil from ... Vitamin A Vitamin D

mglkg mglkg

Cod Gadus morhua 300 2.5

Pollack Pollachius virens 600 3.7
Halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus 15,000 37.5
Dogfish Squalidae 450 0.9
Tuna Thunnidae 3,000 750.0
Salmon Salmo salar/Oncorhynchus spp. 3,000 25.0
Mackerel Scomber spp. .3,000 20.0
Herring Clupea harengus 3,000

Table 29-04: Guideline specifications of crude fish oil(32)

Free fatty acids % 2.0 - 5.0

Moisture and impurities % 0.5 - 1.0
Peroxide value Meq/kg 3.0 - 20.0
Anisidine no. 4.0 - 60.0
Iodine value of oil from:
- Capelin 95.0 - 160.0
- Herring 115.0 160.0
- Menhaden 150.0 - 200.0
- Sardine 160.0 - 200.0
- Anchovy 180.0 - 200.0
Colour (Gardner scale) 12.0 - 14.0
Iron ppm 0.5 - 7.0
Copper ppm max. 0.3
Phosphorus ppm 5.0 - 100.0
Sulphur ppm max. 30.0

Physiological Properties
Fish oil is an energy feedstuff. The gross energy content of cod liver oil is 9,395 kcallkg
(39.3 MJlkg). The metabolisable energy of cod liver oil for dogs is 9,105 kcallkg
(38.1 MJlkg)l12) and the digestible energy of menhaden oil for the Florida pompano
(Trachinotus carolinus) is 6,1()() kcal/kg (25.5 MJlkg)l281.
By increasing water temperature the digestibility of fish oil increases (Table 29-05).
The influence of the water temperature is more pronounced in young fish than in older
ones(7). Likewise, digestibility is affected by the melting point of the fish oil. The higher
the melting point of the oil, the lower the digestibility (Figure 29-02)1221.
 MARINE OILS 285

Table 29-05: Apparent digestibility of fish oil by rainbow trout

(Salmo gairdneri) in relation to water temperaturel 7)

Water temperature Digestibility

°C %

9 89.8
12 88.2
15 89.4
18 92.6
Mean 90.0

,
90
89.7

80

75.4
70

60

50 53.2

35.0

Fish liver Hydrogenated fish oi 1

oil

20

10

l8'C 5l·e
Mel tiDg point

Figure 29-02. The relation between melting point of hydrogenated fish oil and its digestibility by the carp
(Cyprinus carpio)fda'.f~'" 22).

The apparent digestibility of fatty acids of fish oil depends on their chain-length.
With increasing chain-length the digestibility of saturated fatty acids declines.
Unsaturated fatty acids are better digested than saturated fatty acids. The melting point
also affects the digestibility of the fatty acids(3}.
286 CHAPTER 29

Other Properties
The high content of omega-3 fatty acids, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3)
and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) is of benefit to human nutrition. Consumption of
fish or fish lipids reduces the incidences of cardiovascular and other diseases in man(9.l3I.
Furthermore, omega-fatty acids also have a positive effect on the immunocompetence
of man and animals(lO}.

29.4 Feeding Value

Effect on Growth
Fish diets, particularly for salmonids have to be supplemented with essential fatty
acids(29}. Rainbow trouts (Salmo gairdneri) showed inferior growth on diets deficient
in n-3 fatty acids. High levels of n-6 fatty acids could not compensate for the deficient
n-3 fatty acids. Rapid fish growth was supported only by diets high in n-3 fatty acids(33}.
In carp (Cyprinus carpio) fish oil failed to improve the growth rate of a diet with
a poor protein quality. Compared to other fat sources fish oil showed no advantages over
soybean oil (Table 29-06). Fish oil contributed energy to the same extent as other oils
but did not reveal any additional benefit(26}.

Table 29-06: Response of different oils on growth and carcass composition of carp (Cyprinus carpio )(26)

Fish oil % 5.0

Poultry fat % 5.0
Cottonseed oil % 5.0
Soybean oil % 5.0
Fatty acids:
- Total saturated % 19.0 27.0 26.0 28.0
- n-3 and 0-6 % 11.0 2.0 1.0 4.0

Initial weight g 310 310 310 310 310

Weight gain g 5.7 89.3 78.0 59.2 86.7
% 100 148 131 99 144
Daily gain g 1.3 2.0 1.8 1.3 2.0

Carcass composition by fatty acids:

- Total saturated % 25.0 23.0 26.0 25.0 27.0
- n-3 and n-6 % 1.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 2.0

1 Negative control

In channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) menhaden oil is superior to maize oil, although
at levels of more than 15% fish oil showed a growth depressing effect'8}. Blue tilapia
 MARINE OILS 287

(Tilapia aurea) had the best growth and feed conversion when menhaden oil was fed at
a level of 10%(18).
In red sea bream (Chrysophrys major) best performances were obtained with a diet
containing 10% cod liver oiI130). Pollack residual oil when compared to maize oil sup-
plemented with PUFA in diets for red sea bream gave the highest growth rate and feed
efficiency although it contained only traces of linolenic acid (18:3n-3). This indicates
that linolenic acid perhaps is not as important for red sea bream as it is for rainbow
troutIZ9). However, for proper fatty acid metabolism n-3 fatty acids are essential as
demonstrated in red sea bream and yellowtail (Senoia quinqueradiata). Fish fed beef
tallow fortified with a n-3 HUFA preparation performed better than those fed pollack
liver oil (Table 29-07)1zo, Zl).

Table 29-07: The effect of pollack liver oil and beef tallow and n-3 HUFA on
the development of red sea bream (Pagrus major)f211

Pollack liver oil % 10.0 9.0 10.0

Beef tallow % 2.6
n-3 HUFA preparation % 2.4
Crude protein % 38.3 46.9 53.0 53.4
Crude lipids % 16.1 15.3 15.9 10.7
n-3 HUFA % 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2

Final body weight g 5.08 5.59 6.78 5.80

Growth rate % 218 249 324 463
Feed conversion' % 54.9 58.8 77.5 66.0
PER 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.2

g weight gain

g feed

An adverse effect on recorded parameters were observed when the diet for the Florida
pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) contained more than 8.0% menhaden oiIIZ8). The hybrid
striped bass (Morone chrysops x Morone saxatilis) fed a diet containing up to 12% men-
haden oil did not show any negative response in growth, liver histology and survivaI(9).
The Japanese eel (Anguillajaponica) developed best on a diet containing 12% of a
mixture of cod liver oil and maize oil at a ratio of 1:2(2) and the European eel (Anguilla
anguilla) grew most rapidly when 5.0% redfish (Sebastes marinus) oil was added to
the diet compared to additions of vegetable oil(15).

Effect on Carcass Quality

The n-3 fatty acid concentration in chicken muscle and chicken egg yolk can be signif-
icantly increased when hens are fed diets enriched with selected fish oils such as
menhaden oil(ll. 14, 25).
288 CHAPTER 29

The positive effect of dietary n-3 fatty acids on the fatty acid composition has been
demonstrated in rainbow trout(l9) and carp. Fish carcasses had a higher content of n-3 and
n-6 fatty acids when fed with fish oil than the fish carcasses fed with other lipid sources
(Table 29-07)126).
The significant increase in the deposition of n-3 fatty acids in fish muscle is related to
the dietary menhaden oil concentration in the hybrid striped bass(9).

29.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Fish oils and particularly n-3 fatty acids are effective in supporting performances of
aquatic animals. Inclusion rates vary widely and there are indications of inferior perfor-
mances of fish when fed diets containing fish oil. An excess supply of omega fatty acids,
a too narrow ratio of n-3:n-6 fatty acids and the fish species are reasons for negative
responses to the feeding of fish oil.
High levels of dietary fish oil are disadvantageous for the production of feed pellets
of good quality. However, modem processing methods such as extrusion and expansion
allow fat levels as high as 20%.
Considering all aspects, the recommended inclusion rate for fish oil in aquaculture
feed is in the range of 3.0 to 6.0%.

29.6 Legal Aspects

Legal limits for the use of marine oils in diets for aquatic animals do not exist. AAFCO(I)
has defined fish oil (No. 51.8) as the oil from rendering whole fish or canning waste.
The EU-Directive accordingly only says that fish oil (No. 10.03) is oil obtained from
fish. The German feedstuff decree restrict the use of marine oils for fish feed. It is the oil
obtained from fish or seals and the moisture content should not exceed 0.1 %(27).

29.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher).
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
2. Arai, S.; Nose, T.; Hashimoto, Y. (1971): A purified test diet for the eel Anguillajaponica. Bull. Freshwa.
Fish. Res. Lab., 21 .• 161-178.
3. Austreng, E.; Skrede, A.; Eldegard, A. (1980): Digestibility of fat and fatty acids in rainbow trout and mink.
Aquaculture, 19.,93-95.
4. Bimbo, A.P. (1990): Processing of fish oils. In: Stansby, M.E. (ed.): Fish oils in nutrition. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
5. Bimbo, A.P. (1990): Production of fish oils. In: Stansby, M.E. (ed.): Fish oils in nutrition. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
6. Chang S.S. (1967): Processing of fish oils. In: Stansby, M.E. (ed.): Fish oils, AVI Publishing Co.,
Westport, Conn./uSA.
 MARINE OILS 289

7. Cho, CY.; Slinger, S.J. (1979): Apparent digestibility measurement in feedstuffs for rainbow trout. Proc.
World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II, 20-23 June, 1978.
8. Dupree, H.K.; Gaulitz, E.1.; Hall., A.S.; Houle, CR. (1979): Effects of dietary lipids on the growth and
acceptability (flavor) of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and
Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II, 20-23 June, 1978.
9. Fair, P.H.; Williams, w.P.; Smith, T.I.J. (1993): Effect of dietary menhaden oil on growth and muscle fatty
acid composition of hybrid striped bass, Morone chrysops x M. saxatilis. Aquaculture, 106., 171-189.
10. Klasing, K.C (1992): Nutrition and immunity. Large Animal Veterinarian, July/August, 16-17.
11. Leeson, S. (1993): Potential of modifying poultry products. J. Appl. Poultry Res., 2., 380-384.
12. Meyer, H.; Heckotter, Elke (1986): Futterwerttabelle fUr Hunde und Katzen. Schliitersche Verlagsanstalt,
Hannover/Germany.
13. Nettleton, J.A. (1995): Omega-3 fatty acids and health. Chapman and Hall, New YorklUSA.
14. Ratnayake, w.N.; Ackman, R.G.; Hulan, H. W. (1989): Effect on redfish meal enriched diets on the taste
and n-3 PUFA of 42-days old broiler chickens. J. Sci. Food Agr., 49., 59-74.
15. Schilling, H.U.; Greuel, E.; Hartfiel, W. (1982): Einsatz von pflanzlichen olen in der Produktion von
Speisefischen. Kraftfutter, 65., 106-110,
16. Stansby, M.E.; Schlenk, H.; Gruber, E.H. (1990): Fatty acid composition of fish. In: Stansby, M.E. (ed.):
Fish oils in Nutrition. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
17. Steffens, W. (1985): Grundlagen der Fischernahrung. VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
18. Stickney, R.P.: Wurts, W.A. (1986): Growth response of blue tilapia to selected levels of dietary menhaden
and catfish oils. Progr. Fish Culturist, 48., (2), 107-109.
19. Takeuchi, T.; Watanabe, T. (1982): Effects of various polyunsaturated fatty acids on growth of rainbow
trout. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 48.,1517-1519.
20. Takeuchi, T.: Shiina, Y.; Watanabe, T. (1992): Suitable levels of n-3 unsaturated fatty acids in diet for fin-
gerlings of red sea bream. Nippon, Suisan Gakkashi, 57., (2), 293-299.
21. Takeuchi, T.: Shiina, Y.: Watanabe, T. (1991): Suitable protein and lipid levels in diet for fingerlings of
red sea bream (Pagrus major). Nippon, Sui san Gakkashi, 58., (3), 509-514.
22. Takeuchi, T.: Watanabe, T.; Ogino, C (1979): Digestibility of hydrogenated fish oils in carp and rainbow
trout. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 45., 1521-1525.
23. Takeushi, T.; Shiina, Y.: Watanabe, T.; Sekiya, S.: lmaizumi, K.: (1992): Suitable protein and lipid levels
in diet for fingerling of yellowtail. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 58., (7)., 1341-1346.
24. Taufel, A.; Ternes, w.; Tunger, L., Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg/Germany.
25. Van Elswyk, M.E.; Hargis, B.M.; Willaims, J.D.; Hargis, P.S. (1994): Dietary menhaden oil contributes
to hepatic lipidosis in laying hens. Poultry Sci., 73.,653-662.
26. Viola, S.; Rappaport, U. (1979): Acidulated soapstocks in intensive carp diets - their effect on growth and
body composition. Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II,
20-23 June, 1978.
27. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, V; Knippel, J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
28. Williams, S.: Lovell, R.T.; Hawke, J.P. (1985): Value of menhaden oil in diets of Florida pompano. Prog.
Fisf Culturist, 47., (3), 159-165.
29. Yone, Y.; Fujii, M. (1975): Studies on nutrition of red sea bream. XI. Effect of omega-3 Fatty acid sup-
plement in a corn oil diet on growth and feed efficiency. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 41., (I), 73-77.
30. Yone, Y.; Furuichi, M.; Sakamoto, S. (1971). Studies on nutrition of red sea bream. III Nutritive value and
optimum content of lipids in diet. Rep. Fisheries Res. Lab. Kyushu Univ., 1.,49-60.
290 CHAPTER 29

31. Young, F.V,K. (1978): Processing of oils and fats. Chern. Industry, 16.9.,692-703.
32. Young, F.v,K. (1985): The refining and hydrogenating of fish oils. Fish Oil Bull. 17 (Intern. Ass Fish Meal
Manufacturers).
33. Yu, T.e.; Sinnhuber, R.O. (1976): Growth response of rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) to dietary n-3 and
n-6 fatty acids. Aquaculture, 8., 309-317.
 30. MEAT BY-PRODUCT MEALS

30.1 Rationale

Meat by-products are offal of abattoirs, such as material confiscated and not fit for
human consumption, scrap from the meat processing and canning industry, and livestock
casualties processed by the rendering industry. For the control of diseases and epidemics
collection of these materials is a must. In addition, they can be converted into valuable
feedstuffs and by doing so will contribute to a better environment.
The utilisation of meat by-products is of economic significance. In 1993 in Germany
alone 2.28 million MT of raw materials were collected, of which 0.31 million MT came
from dead animals. From these by-products more than 900,000 MT animal feedstuffs
were obtainedIJ9).
In principle meat by-products are classified into:
Meat meal
Meat and bone meal.
However, the international definition is not uniform. Tankage meal is a product which
is processed from dead farm animals, but meat and bone meal is also described as a prod-
uct derived from whole carcasses of livestock casualties less hoofs and skinl l2). The EU-
Directive 92/87IEEC uses the terms meat meal and meat and bone meal and emphasizes
that the major differences between both products is that meat and bone meal does not
contain carcasses of dead animals and that the phosphorus content is substantially higher
than that of meat meaIIJ9).

30.2 Manufacture and Processing

A wide range of different processes are used by rendering plants for the manufacture of
meat by-product meals. Both batch rendering and continuous rendering are practised11O).
However, all of them are based more or less on the same principle as depicted in Figure
30-01(/9, 29).

If there is risk for spreading of epidemic diseases the health authorities (in Germany)
may ban processing and usage of the dead animal (29)
In general, processing of meat by-products requires a very highly hygienic standard
in order to produce products which are minimally or not contaminated with bacteria
(high bacteriological quality). The requirements for the hygienic standards are given in
EU-Directive 90/667IEEC which includes(22):
292 CHAPTER 30

RAW HATER:IAL

I
Preparation of
raw material

I
I
I
I
Cutting' -of Skin, borns,
hoofs etc.
mea t and bones

Cooking and
sterilisation

l Sieving
of pulp

!
I
De-oiling
I
i I
Solid
impurities
I
I
Drying

I
!
I
Gr~ndin9
into meal
I
Figure 30-0J. Processing diagram of meat by-product meals.

• Cleaning and disinfection: Regular cleaning and disinfection of the whole

processing plant as well as the transportation fleet, and including hygienic mea-
sures for the entire staff (washing hands, disinfecting hands, wearing overalls);
Re-contamination: Control of re-contamination by suitable treatment;
• Condensation moisture: Avoiding formation of condensation moisture which
can spoil the product;
Vermins: Control vermins (birds, mice, rats, insects) which are the cause of
re-contamination.
 MEAT BY-PRODUCT MEALS 293

30.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
Meat meal and meat and bone meal are animal protein feedstuffs. There chemical
composition has an extreme variation (Table 30-01) which depends on the quality of
the available raw materials (Table 30-02). The chemical composition of meat and bone
meal within a rendering plant is rather consistent while the differences between rendering
plants are more significant as indicated by the standard deviation (SD) of a respective
study (Table 30-03)(16). High portions of bones and/or fat in the raw material result in
a high ash and/or fat content which reduces the protein level of the product (Table 30-04).

Table 30-01: Lowest and highest nutrient content (%) of meat by-product
meals(J6)

Meat meal Meat and bone meal

No. of analysis 181 93

Crude protein 42.2 - 76.3 41.5 - 71.4
Crude fat 1.0 - 21.2 3.3 - 16.1
Crude ash 4.8 - 37.6 8.9 - 52.9

Table 30-02: Chemical composition (%) of meat by-product meals (as fed)(4.•. 12. 16. 17. 18. 20. 21. 24. 25.29)

Meat meal Meat and bone meal

Mean Variation Mean Variation

Dry matter 94.1 92.9 - 95.0 93.3 90.2 - 95.0

Crude protein 56.9 49.5 - 64.5 50.4 45.5 - 62.4
Crude fat 5.6 1.5 - 8.1 9.8 8.3 - 12.8
Ash 21.6 15.3 - 32.0 31.3 21.8 - 37.2
Crude fibre 2.4 2.3 - 2.5 2.6 2.1 - 3.4
N-free extract 17.7 2.5 0.1 - 5.0

Table 30-03: Quality consistency of meat and bone meal within and
between rendering plants in Denmark (Parameter: Standard
Deviation [SD])(l6)

Within plants Between plants

SD SD

Dry matter 10.8 73.1

Protein 24.4 75.4
Ash 23.0 126.3
294 CHAPTER 30

Table 30-04: Crude protein and crude fat content (%) of meat meal of
different rendering plants (as fed)122)

Rendering plant Crude protein Crude fat

A 60.6 12.0
B 57.5 13.1
C 55.8 11.0
D 50.8 15.0
E 49.9 15.2
F 46.7 17.3

Due to the inconsistency of the chemical composition of meat meal and meat and
bone meal the mean values are not very accurate, therefore, it is advisable to analyse
each consignment/I2).
The essential amino acids of meat by-product meals have limitations. Isoleucine and
methionine+cystine are particularly limiting amino acids when compared to the amino
acid profile of whole egg protein(l8). In addition the amino acid profile of meat and bone
meal varies from that of meat meal because the protein properties of bones and meat
differ from each other as reflected in the amino acid profile (Table 30-05)129).

Table 30-05: Essential amino acid profile of meat by-product meals (gl16 g NYI2· 16. 17.20.2/.29)

Meat meal Meat and bone meal

Mean Variation Mean Variation

Arginine 4.40 3.58 - 3.70 3.38 3.00 - 3.65

Histidine 1.50 0.96 - 1.80 1.03 0.96 - 1.10
Isoleucine 2.06 1.54 - 2.90 1.42 1.20 - 1.64
Leucine 4.24 3.19 - 6.10 2.86 2.65 - 3.06
Lysine 3.58 2.57 - 5.70 3.75 2.20 - 5.20
Methionine 0.88 0.66 - 1.40 1.01 0.50 - 1.40
Phenylalanine 2.37 1.81 - 3.20 1.63 1.55 - 1.70
Threonine 2.17 1.60 - 3.30 2.50 1.30 - 3.40
Tryptophan 0.52 0.34 - 0.80 0.24 0.20 - 0.30
Valine 3.08 2.52 - 4.20 2.18 1.90 - 2.45

The mineral content of meat by-product meals vary widely and is particularly
pronounced in meat and bone meal (Table 30-06). With increasing ash content the macro
mineral content also increases, while the trace mineral content diminishes since they are
predominantly deposed in the meat (Table 30-07). The vitamin content of meat meal and
meat and bone meal is rather low (Table 30-08).
 MEAT BY-PRODUCT MEALS 295

Physiological Properties
Information on the physiological properties of meat by-product meals in aquatic animals
are limited. Although the gross energy of meat meal is much higher than of meat and
bone meal, the metabolisable and digestible values are not much different (Table 30-09).

Table 30-06: Macro and trace mineral contents of meat meal and meat and bone meal (4. 12. I~ 17.20.21)

Meat meal Meat and bone meal

Mean Variation Mean Variation

Calcium % 6.49 3.80 - 8.85 11.03 15.20 - 8.10

Phosphorus % 3.55 2.20 - 4.44 5.48 3.40 - 7.30
Sodium % 0.91 0.52 - 1.29 1.18 0.72 - 1.40
Potassium % 0.61 0.57 - 0.65 0.56 0.28 - 1.33
Magnesium % 0.24 0.20 - 0.27 0.36 0.19 - 1.02
Chlorine % 1.19 0.74
Sulphur % 0.47 0.25
Manganese mg/kg 12.7 9.0 - 19.0 17.8 9.0 - 23.0
Iron mg/kg 505 440 - 580 687 433 - 873
Zinc mg/kg 79 78 80 108 89 - 118
Copper mg/kg 10.5 10.0 - 11.0 12.9 8.3 - 20.0
Selenium mg/kg 0.44 0.29 0.20 - 0.40
Iodine mcg/kg 850 50

Table 30-07: With increasing ash content of meat and bone meal the
content of macro minerals increases and level of micro
minerals declines(l6)

Ash % 23.3 27.7 32.2 37.2 42.9

Protein % 62.3 57.3 53.8 49.4 47.3
------------------------------------------------
Calcium % 6.3 8.1 10.2 12.3 14.8
Phosphorus % 3.4 4.2 5.0 6.0 7.3
Magnesium % 0.19 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.30
------------------------------------------------
Iron mg/kg 842 873 781 597 433
Copper mg/kg 15.1 12.1 10.0 8.7 8.3
Manganese mg/kg 21 23 19 16 11
296 CHAPTER 30

Table 30-08: The vitamins of meat meal and meat and bone meal
(1,000 g)(I2. 17.25. 29)

Mean Variation

Vitamin B, mg 0.2
Vitamin B, mg 4.5 2.2 - 15.5
Vitamin B6 mg 1.2 1.0 - 1.4
Vitamin B" meg 64 20 135
Biotin meg 168 35 300
Nicotinic acid mg 49 28.2 - 82.9
Folic acid mg 43.5
Pantothenic acid mg 12.9 2.0 - 45.0
Choline mg 1.690 1,320 - 2,000

Table 30-09: Energy values of meat by-product meals per kg

Species Gross energy Metabolisible energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

1. M!:llltmelli
(17.25)
4,353 18.2
Rainbow trout 2,837 11.9 3,219 13.5 (18)

Fishes' 3,173 13.3 (/8)

Mean all fishes 2,837 11.9 3,196 13.4

2. M!:lat lind l10ne m!.1l11
(/7)
3,657 15.3
(4,20.23)
Rainbow trout 2,949 12.3 3,607 15.1
(20)
Channel catfish 3,470 14.5
Tilapia 2,940 12.3 (20)

Fishes' 3,000 12.6 (18)

Mean all fishes 2,949 12.3 3,225 13.5

, Species not specified

The apparent protein digestibility of meat and bone meal is lower than of meat meal
(Table 30-10). The pepsin digestibility of meat and bone meal is 89.0% and is at an average
four units higher than the in-vivo digestibility, as found in pigs(29). Tiger prawns (Penaeus
monodon) can possibly digest plant protein better than meat and bone meal because in
digestibility tests meat and bone meal showed a lower digestibility rate than plant protein(3).
 MEAT BY-PRODUCT MEALS 297

Table 30-10: Apparent digestibility (%) of meat by-product meals

Dry matter Crude protein Crude fat Energy Reference

1. Meat meal
Rainbow trout 78.0 85.0 73.0 85.0 (4)

(29)
Pigs 88.0 97.0
(20)
Poultry 61.0 94.0
2. Meat and l!!m!: m!:ill
Salmonids 71.2 83.6 72.2 (15.23)

Channel catfish 75.0 77.0 80.5 (15)

Mean all fishes 72.4 80.3 74.9

Tiger prawn 47.4 73.6 (3)

(29)
Pigs 85.0
Poultry 78.0 100.0 (29)

(29)
Pepsin digestibility 89.0

Other Properties
The pelletising ability of meat meal and meat and bone meal is in the medium range.
Parameters used for testing are pellet quality, press capacity, abrasiveness(13).

30.4 Feeding Value

Fishes
Meat and bone meal is effective as partial component of diets for rainbow trouts (Salmo
gairdnen). Further improvements were observed when meat and bone meal containing diets
for rainbow trouts were supplemented with cystine (10.0 g/kg) and tryptophan (5.0 g/kgY6).
However, growth response of isonitrogenous diets of meat meal and meat and blood meal,
respectively, were not as good as diets with fish meal and/or poultry by-product meal (Table
30-11). The poor results may be due to differences in the biological values of the protein
sourceS(14).
In diets for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry and fingerlings, meat and bone
meal could replace 25% of the fish meal without negative effect on performances(27).
The partial replacement of fish meal by meat and bone meal in practical formulations
for juvenile tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) were equivalent to a full fish meal diet.
But replacing all fish meal by meat and bone meal gave poor results (Table 30-12)18).
In diets for milkfish (Chanos chanos) fry, meat and bone meal protein can success-
fully substitute up to 8.0% of the shrimp head meal protein(2). But in the sea bream
(Sparus au rata), fingerlings performed well when meat and bone meal replaced up to
40% of the fish meal in practical formulations{7}.
298 CHAPTER 30

Table 30-11: Replacement of fish meal by meat meal in diets for rainbow trout (Salma gairtineri)(/4)

Trial 1 Trial 2

Protein from:
- Meat meal % 25.0
- Meatlblood meal % 75.0 25.0
- Fish meal % 25.0 100.0 25.0 25.0
- Poultry by-product meal % 75.0 75.0 50.0

Weight gain g 189 157 133 108 130

% 100.0 83.0 100.0 81.0 91.0
Feed conversion 1: 1.36 1.64 1.33 1.59 1.34
% 100.0 121.0 100.0 120.0 101.0

Table 30-12: Meat and bone meal replaces partially or completely fish meal in diets
for tilapia (Oreachromis mossambicus) (trial period: 48 days)l8)

Fish meal % 47.2 21.8

Meat and bone meal % 10.0 42.0
Soybean protein concentrate % 15.0 15.0
Crude protein % 38.8 35.9 35.2
Ash % 14.2 13.2 17.6
------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain % 314.0 301.8 290.4
Weight gain mg/day 73.9 76.0 58.4
Specific growth rate % 2.90 2.84 2.78
PER 1.11 1.14 1.09
Feed conversion 1: 2.29 2.24 2.49

Molluscs
The use of meat and bone meal in formulated diets for abalone (Haliotis spp.) is recom-
mended because it provides not only protein but also some fats and carbohydrates(/l).

30.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

In feeding experiments the useful range of meat by-product meals is very wide(26).
However, for field conditions the limiting factor for its application is the high ash content.
Recommended inclusion rates for aquaculture feeds, therefore, are:
 MEAT BY-PRODUCT MEALS 299

• Meat meal: 15.0 to 20.0%

Meat and bone meal: lO.O to 15.0%

30.6 Legal Aspects

Meat by-product feedstuffs in the U.S.A. are:

• Meat meal (AAFCO No. 9.40)
• Meat and bone meal (No. 9.41)
• Meat meal tankage (No. 9.56)
• Meat and bone meal tankage (No. 9.51)
Quality requirements have to be met for minimum crude protein, pepsin digestibility
of protein, minimum crude fat, maximum crude fibre, minimum phosphorus and minimum
and maximum calcium. They have to be guaranteed and included in the labeIfI}.
The EU-Directive 92/87IEEC contains only two products: Meat meal (No. 9.01) and
meat and bone meal (No. 9.02). Products which contain more than 13.0% fat in the dry
matter have to be declared as "high in fat". The nutritional requirements, according to
German feedstuff legislation are given in Table 30_13(28}.

Table 30-13: Quality requirements (%) for meat by-product meals by the German feedstuff
legislation(28)

Meat and Meat Feed meat

bone meal meal meal

Moisture max. 10.0 10.0 10.0

Crude protein min. 40.0 55.0 75.0
Pepsin digestibility
of crude protein min. 85.0 85.0
Crude fat max. 14.0 11.0
Chloride' max. 2.0 2.0
Phosphorus max. 9.0 5.0
Ash' max. 2.2

, Computed as NaCl; 2 Insoluble in hydrochloric acid

In addition, EU-Directive 90/667IEEC refers to the bacteriological quality of meat by-

product meals and differentiates between animal feedstuffs processed from dangerous or
non-dangerous raw materials. It is required that a sample of 25 g is absolutely free of
salmonella, that not more than 300 entero-bacteria per g of sample can be found, and that
it is free of Clostridium perfringens (the latter only required for dangerous materialY22).
300 CHAPTER 30

30.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher),
Sacramento, CA / USA.
2. Alava V.R.; Lim, C. (1988): Artificial diets for milkfish, Chanos chanos (Forsskal), fry reared in seawater.
Aquaculture, 71., 339-346.
3. Catucatan, M.R. (1995): Apparent protein digestibility of feedstuffs in Penaeus monodon Fabricius.
Paper presented at 4th Asian Fish. Forum, BeijingIP.R. China, October.
4. Cho, c.Y.; Cowey, c.; Watanabe, T. (1985): Finfish nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IORC, Ottawa/Canada, 233e.
5. Coehl, J.F.S. (1984): Rainbow trout nutrition: Value of meat and bone meal. Rev. Prot. Cienc. Vet., 79.,
(472},269-280.
6. Dabrowska, H.; Wojno, K. (1977): Studies on the utilization by rainbow trout offeed mixtures containing
soya bean meal and an addition of amino acids. Aquaculture, 10.,297-310.
7. Davis, S.J; Nengas, 1.; Alexis, M. (1991): Partial substitution of fish meal products in diets for sea bream
(Sparus aurata). Proc. Fish Nutrition in Practice, BiarritzlFrance, 25-27 June.
8. Davies, S.J.; Williamson, J.; Robinson, M.; Bateson, R.I. (1989): Practical inclusion levels of common
animal by-products in complete diets for tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus, Peters}. Proc. 3n1 Int. Symp.
on Feeding and Nutrition in Fish, Toba/Japan, 28.8-1.9, 325-332.
9. De Boer, F.; Bickel, H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. Elsevier Sciences
Publishers, AlI)sterdam / The Netherlands.
10. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. Primary
Ind., Brisbane/ Australia (Series Q 185001).
11. Fallu, R. (1991): Abalone Farming. Fishing News Books, OxfordlEngland.
12. Feltwell, R.; Fox, S. (1978): Practical pOUltry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
13. Gill, C. (1993): Chemistry for high quality pellets. Feed International, 14., (3), 10-11.
14. Gropp, J.; Koops, H.; Iiews, K.; Beck, H. (1976): Ersatz von Fischmehl im Forellenfutter. Arb. Deutscher
Fischerei-Verb., (19), 85-102.
15. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, CambridgelU.K.
16. Just, A.; Fernandez. J.A.; Jf'rgensen, H. (1982): K0<ibenmels vrerdi til svin. Bert. Statens Husdyrbrugsfor.,
(525), 1-52.
17. Meyer. H.; Heckotter, Elke (1986): Futterwerttabelle fUr Hunde und Katzen. Schliitersche Verlagsanstalt,
Hannover/Germany.
18. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCPIREP/87/26, Romelltaly.
19. Niemann, H. (1985): Die Verwendung von Schlachtnebenprodukten und Tierkorpern in iher Bedeutung flir
die Wirtschaftlichkeit der Tierproduktion und den Umweltschutz. Die Fleischmehl-Industrie, 47., (1), 1-5.
20. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington, D.C.
21. Schulz, E. (1995): Nahrstoff- und Energiegehalt in deutschen Tiermehlen. Die Fleischmehl-Industrie,
47., (1), 6-10.
22. Seybold, U. (1995): Hygienische Aspekte bei der Herstellung und Verarbeitung von Fleischknochen-
mehlen. Die Fleischmehl-Industrie, 47., (1), 17-18.
23. Smith, R.R. (1976): Metabolisable feedstuffs for trouts. Feedstuffs, 48., (23)., 16-17.
24. Stiihlin, A. (1957): Methodenbuch, Beurteilung der Futtermittel, Vol. XII. Die Beurteilung der Futter-
 MEAT BY-PRODUCT MEALS 301

mittel. Neumann Verlag, Radebeul and Berlin/Germany.

25. Steffens, W. (1985): Grundlagen der Fischernahrung. VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
26. Tacon, A.G.l. (1995): The potential for fishmeal substitution in aquafeeds. Infofish International, (3), 29-34.
27. Tacon, A.G.J.; launcy, K.; Falaye, A.; Pantha, M.; MacGowan, c.; Stafford, E.A. (1984): The use of meat
and bone meal, hydrolysed feather meal and soybean meal in practical fry and fingerling diets for
Oreochromis niloticus. Proc. 1" Intern. Symp. on Tilapia in Aquaculture, NazarethlIsrael, 356-365.
28. Weinreich, 0.; Koch. v.; Knippel. l. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
29. Wohlbier. w.; Tran Thu. D. (1977): Tiermehle. In: Kling. M.; Wohlbier, w.: Handelsfuttermittel. Verlag
Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
 31. MINERAL FEED INGREDIENTS

31.1 Rationale

Mineral elements represent an essential group of nutrients for cultured aquatic animals.
The nutritional requirement is covered by inherent minerals of the feed's raw materials
and the supplementation with inorganic and organic mineral compounds.
The availability of inherent elements of plants is limited, e.g. only about 30% of
the plant phosphorus is non-phytate phosphorus thus may be utilised by the animalsI2. 9).
On the other hand the availability of minerals of animal feedstuffs is high, but the mineral
content may vary widely (Table 31-01).
There are a wide range of chemical compounds, both inorganic and organic macro
and trace minerals, that can be used for the fortification of diets for aquatic animals.

Table 31-01: Variability of phosphorus content (%) in meat and bone meal(8)

Meat and bone meal Phosphorus content Coefficient

of variation
Range Mean

Source 4.5 - 7.1 6.87 11.2

Source 2 2.9 - 6.7 4.86 16.3
Source 3 3.9 - 7.7 4.93 28.3
Di-calcium phosphate 19.5 - 22.1 20.60 4.5

31.2 Macro Mineral Ingredients

Calcium Compounds
Calcium compounds are available as pure calcium or in association with phosphorus as
calcium-phosphates or magnesium. Calcium may also serve as a vehicle for compounds
with other elements such as iodine and zinc. The most common calcium source is lime-
stone which can be found around the World. The calcium content may vary depending
on the structure of the chemical compound (Table 31-02). Calcium oxide and calcium
hydroxide are insoluble calcium sources and should not be used in animal diets(5).
The bio-availability of calcium sources ranges from 52 to 103% (Table 31-02)12).
 MINERAL FEED INGREDIENTS 303

Table 31-02: Bio-availability of calcium in calcium supplements in pigs(2)

Calcium source Properties Calcium Bio-

Content availability'
%

Calcitic limestone Hexagonal cristallisation 38.6 103

High Mg-limestone 5.0 - 6.0% magnesium 30.2 82
Dolomitic limestone 12% magnesium. CaMg(C0,l2 20.7 52
Marble dust 38.9 98
Oyster shell meal 37.9 98
Aragonite Orthorhombic CaCO, 38.8 98
Gypsum Calcium sulphate (CaS04 .2H,o) 22.2 99
Alfalfa meal 1.34 21

, % of the bio-availability of the calcium in precipitated calcium carbonate. given a value of 100.

Phosphorus Compounds
Calcium phosphates are the prevailing mineral compound because it provides both
calcium and phosphorus. Feed phosphates are derived from rock phosphates, which
occur naturally in many areas of the World (Table 31-03). In its natural form, rock
phosphates can hardly be utilised by animals, particularly, if the fluorine content exceeds
3.0 to 4.0%(4). For producing technical calcium phosphates rock phosphate has to pass
some elementary chemical reactions (Figure 31-01)119). The diversity of manufacturing
processes yields finished products of different properties(JO) such as:
Calcium:phosphorus ratio,
Physical aspects (granules, powder).
Availability of phosphorus,
Purity (levels of fluorine and other heavy metals).

Table 31-03: Chemical composition (%) ofrock phosphates(5)

Source Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Fluorine

Content Availability'

Curayao 36.0 14.0 14.0

Nauru island 39.2 16.3 16.3 0.18 3.06
Christmas island 32.0 16.0 16.0 0.21 1.99
Defluorinated rock
phosphate 33.3 18.2 16.0 0.17 0.10

, For pigs and poultry

304 CHAPTER 31

Rock Phosphate

Disintegration with Disintegration with

Hydrochloric Acid (Hel) Nitric Acid (HN0 3 )

Monocalclumphosphate

Dlcalciumphosphate

Polyphosphate

Figure 31-01. Schematic production process of calcium phosphates(IO).

There is a wide range of phosphate compounds (Table 31-04). The calcium:phosphorus

ratio is important for quality determination e.g. of a commercial mono-calcium phosphate
which might be only a mono-di-calcium phosphate. A Ca:P-ratio of more than 0.80 indicates
that the product is not a mono-calcium phosphate but rather a mono-di-calcium phos-
phate(J7).
So far there is no uniformity in the determination of the bio-availability of phosphorus
in phosphates. Most common tests for the determination of the biD-availability are(lO):
• Citric-acid-solubility (provides uncertain indication),
• Relative Biological Value (RBV) (Table 31-05),
Transposition test.

Table 31-05: The relative biological value of calcium phosphates. tested in

broilers(3}

Di-calcium phosphate-dihydrate' 100

Mono-calcium phosphate 99
Di-calcium phosphate. anhydrous 84
Defluorinated rock phosphate) 83

, Reference standard
 MINERAL FEED INGREDIENTS 305

Table 31-04: Chemical composition of phosphate compounds(4. 17)

pI Ca Mg Na H 2()2 Ca:Pratio

Mono-calcium phosphate,
free ofH,D
Ca(H,PO.,)2 26.5 17.1 0.65

Mono-calcium phosphatephate-
monohydrate
Ca(H2PO.),H,0 24.6 15.9 7.2 0.65

Di-calcium phosphate free of H,D

CaHPO. 22.8 29.5 1.29

Di-calcium phosphate-
dihydrate CaHPO..2H,o 18.0 23.3 20.9 1.29

Mono-di-calciumphosphate-hydrate3 21.3 19.0 14.1 0.89

Tri-calcium phosphate
C~(PO')2 19.9 38.8 1.95

Di-magnesium phosphate-trihydrate
MgHP04,3H,D 17.8 14.0 31.0

Mono-sodium phosphate-dihydrate
NaH2P04,2H2O 19.9 14.7 23.1

Di-sodium phosphatedodecahydrate
Na,HPO.. 12H,o 8.7 12.8 60.4

Di-sodium phosphatedihydrate
Na,HPO..2H,D 17.4 25.8 20.2

Di-sodium phosphate
Na,HPO. 21.8 32.4

I Conversion factors: P,D, x 0.4367 =P; P x 2.29 =P,D,;

2 Crystal water; 3 50% mono-calciumphosphate-mono-hydrate + 50% di-calcium phosphate-di- hydrate

The scientific value of these test methods is still being discussed. Nevertheless, it can
be said that the physiological value of mono-calcium phosphate is superior to di-calcium
phosphate and di-calcium phosphate is more effective than tri-calcium phosphate(7).
306 CHAPTER3l

Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) utilise effectively mono-
calcium phosphate, mono-sodium phosphate or potassium phosphate, whereas di-calcium
phosphate and tri-calcium phosphate have shown a low phosphorus availability (Table
31-06). But results of another study show that the phosphorus availability for carp in
di-calcium phosphate is higher than that of fish meal and seed grains(20). The level of
available phosphorus in the diet affected significantly performances of fishes, particularly
the mineral composition of the bones and chemical composition of the fish carcass(l5. 16).

Table 31-06: Absorption of dietary phosphates (%) by selected fish species(l4)

Phosphate Channel Common Rainbow Red sea

catfish' Carp2 trout' bream'

Mono-sodium phosphate 90 -94 -98 high

Mono-potassium phosphate -94 -98 high
Mono-calcium phosphate 94 94 94 high
Oi-calcium phosphate 65 46 71 high
Tri-calcium phosphate 13 64 high

, Ictalurus punctatus; 2 Cyprinus carpio; 'Salrno gairdneri; 'Chrysophrys major

Fluorine is both an essential element and a toxine because the biological and toxic
levels are rather close to each otherJO). The degree of absorption of fluorine from the feed
and consequently its toxicity is affected by factors such as(4):
• Solubility and tissue-affinity of fluorine compounds;
pH of the diet;
• Particle size of the fluorine-containing substances;
Presence of attendant elements;
Animal species.
Tolerance levels for aquaculture feeds have not yet been established. However, for
ruminants the dietary fluorine tolerance is very low (40 to 60 mg/kg feed) but relatively
high for laying hens (400 to 700 mg/kg feed)(12. /3).

Magnesium Compounds
Magnesium can be found in nature as!4. 11):
• Serpentine (hydrated magnesium silicate)
• Soap-stone (steatite),
• Meerschaum (hydrous magnesium silicate) H 4Mg 2Si3 °JO'
• Magnesite (magnesium carbonate) MgCa03
• Dolomite (common rock-forming mineral) CaMg(C03)2
Kieserite (hydrous magnesium sulphate) MgS04 HP
• Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate) MgS04·7Hp.
 MINERAL FEED INGREDIENTS 307

Magnesium oxide is the most common fonn of magnesium feed ingredient. It is

derived by burning magnesium carbonate. Commercial magnesium compounds (Table
31-07) may contain other elements such as iron, aluminium, fluorine, sulphur and boron.

Sodium Compounds
The most common sodium compound is sodium chloride (common salt). Sodium chloride
is obtained by mining or by evaporation of sea water. For feeding purposes sodium chloride
is denatured, mostly with ferrous oxide (Fep3) (Table 31-07).
Iodised salt should in U.S.A. contain not less than 70 ppm iodine(1), but in Gennany
the iodine content of iodised salt should range from 38 ppm (minimum) to 76 ppm
(maximum)(3).

Table 31-07: Chemically pure magnesium (Mg) and sodium (Na)

compounds (%)14)

Compound Chemical formula Pure element

Magnesium chloride MgCI 2·6Hp 12.0 Mg

Magnesium fumarate Mg(CH.COO)2 17.6 Mg
Magnesium oxide MgO 60.3 Mg
Magnesium sulphate MgSO..7HP 9.9 Mg
Magnesium sulphate MgSO. (free of water) 20.2 Mg

Sodium chloride NaCl 39.3 Na

Sodium bicarbonate NaHC03 27.4 Na
Sodium propionate Na(COO.C 2H,) 23.9 Na

Other Macro Mineral Ingredients

Macro elements such as chlorine, potassium, and sulphur are provided via other chemical
compounds of which these elements are part of it, e.g. sodium chloride, copper sulphate,
ferrous sulphate and others.

31.3 Trace Mineral Ingredients

In general, trace minerals are sometimes available in the fonn of sulphates and oxides:
Although they are necessary in the diets these compounds can destroy other feed compo-
nents (vitamins. pigments. antibiotics, fats/oils). The most common technical trace mineral
ingredients are listed in Table 31-08.
Most of the technical trace mineral compounds are not pure. They are contaminated
with useful as well as hannful elements.
308 CHAPTER 31

Table 31-08: Common technical trace mineral compounds (%) for aquaculture feeds f'. 18)

Technical compound Purity Content of pure element Colour

I. Imn !;QIJlI2QI.IDds (Fe)

Ferrous sulphate (FeSO..7H,o) 97 19.2 light green
Ferrous(II) carbonate (FeC03) 48.2
Ferrous oxide (FeO) 77.7

2. eo~r coml!oyn!l.s (ey)

Copper sulphate (CuSO..5H,O) 98 - 100 24.9 - 15.4 dark blue
Copper(II) carbonate (CuC03·Cu(OH),) 53.0
Copper(II) oxid (CuO) 78 -79 78.0 -79.0 black
Copper(II) hydroxide (Cu(OH),) 65.0

3. MiiOllilOS:SS: I<WIlI!QYO!l.S (Mo)

Manganese sulphate (MnSo..H,0) 99 31.0 - 32.2 pale pink
Manganese oxide (MnO) 81 60.0 - 63.0 greenish-black

4. Zinl< !;Q!Dl!QYn!l.~ (Zn)

Zinc sulphate (ZnSO..H,o) 36.0
Zinc oxide (ZnO) 88 - 99 71.0 - 79.5 greyish
Zinc carbonate (ZnC03) 55.0 - 56.0

5. CQ\1wl coml!oun!l.s CCQ)

Cobalt sulphate (CoS()'H,O) 98 - 99 20.6 - 20.8 strong pink

6. IQwns: I<QlllIlQynds (I)

Calcium iodate (Ca(I°3),.H,O) 99 62.0 - 65.0 white cristalline
powder
Potassium iodate (KI03) 59.0

7. Sl<i!:niym coml!oyn!l.s (Ss:)

Sodium selenite (Na,Se03) 99 - 100 45.0 - 46.0 pale yellowish
tinted powder

31.4 Contaminants in Mineral Ingredients

Almost all elements can be found in the animal organism. Most of them appear acciden-
tally at very low and harmless levels. They are ingested with the feed. The occurrence of
many of these elements are conditioned by the chemical production process of feed grade
mineral ingredients(4). AAFCQ(1) has classified contaminants in mineral ingredients as:
 MINERAL FEED INGREDIENTS 309

Highly toxic
• Toxic
Moderately toxic
Slightly toxic.
From the total of21 potential toxic elements (Table 31-09) only ten have been found
in commercial products. The most frequent undesirable contaminants are lead and
arsenic (Table 31-10).

Table 31-09: Official guidelines for contaminants in individual mineral ingredients in U.S.A.(I)

Typical analysis between Prohibited level above

ppm ppm

I. Hie:hly toxic 5 - 500 500

Cadmium, Mercury, Selenium
2.~ 100 - 1,000 1,000
Cobalt, Molybdenum, Vanadium, Barium,
Thngsten, Copper, Lead
3. Moderately toxic 500 - 2,000 2,000
Arsenic, Nickel, Iodine, Antimony
4. Slie:htly toxic >2,000 None
Boron, Aluminium, Bromine, Zinc,
Bismuth, Manganese, Chromium

Table 31-10: Contamination levels with highly toxic, toxic, moderately toxic and slightly toxic elements of
commercial/technical mineral ingredients for animal feed (dala/rom(4))

Cadmium Cobalt Copper Lead Arsenic Nickel Alumi- Zink Manga- Chro-
nium nese mium
Cd Co Cu Pb As Ni Al Zn Mn Cr
mglkg mglkg mglkg mglkg mglkg mglkg glkg mglkg mglkg mglkg

Calcium carbonate 2.0

Sodium-calcium-
magnesium phosphate - <30.0 <20.0 3.5 200
Potassium chloride <1.0 <1.0
Magnesium oxid 1.4
Magnesium sulphate 3.0 <1.0
Ferrous sulphate 10.0 4.0 290 440
Copper sulphate 130 60.0 50.0 150 400
Copperoxid 100.0 100.0
Manganese sulphate 14.0 1.0
Manganese oxid <100.0 <10.0 <10.0 <100
310 CHAPTER 31

Table 31-10: Continued

Cadmium Cobalt Copper Lead Arsenic Nickel Alumi- Zink Manga- Chro-
nium nese mium
Cd Co Cu Pb As Ni Al Zn Mn Cr
mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg g/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg

Zinc oxid (1) 10 20.0 150.0 10

Zinc oxid (2) 400 1,670
Zinc oxid (3) 35.0 30.0 <1.0 2.2 <1.0
Cobalt sulphate 10.0 <1.0 400 10
Calcium iodate 10.0 3.0
Copper iodid 20.0 5.0

31.5 Chelated Mineral Ingredients

Chelates are chemical compounds in which the central atom, mostly a metal ion, is attached
to neighbouring atoms by at least two bonds in such a way as to form a ring structure.
Some minerals may have the effect of binding other mineral ions to themselves and thus
encountering some of the harmful effects which the latter might possess. This interaction
is the chelating effect(6). Chelates, therefore, are of importance for inactivating heavy
metals in technical processes(4).
Organic mineral ingredients have certain advantages with regard to the physico-
chemical conditions in the digestive tract. They are precursors of natural trace mineral
complexes such as hemoglobin (containing iron) and Vitamin BI2 (containing cobalt).
These complex salts are organic chelates. However, chelated mineral ingredients are
advantageous only, if the absorption of trace minerals can be improved(4).
A range of chelated mineral ingredients are in the market. They can be proteinates,
gluconates, lactates and others. Practically all minerals can be chelated with organic
molecules. Whether these chelates are useful has to be proven.

31.6 Legal Aspects

The list of permitted mineral feed ingredients in the U.S.A. contains not less than 114
definitions of mineral ingredients for 12 elements and their salts. The minimum content
of the leading element has to be specified on the labelo!' The ED-Directive accordingly
describes under the heading "minerals" 13 permitted compounds. The German feedstuff
legislation contains 46 approved mineral ingredients together with specified requirements
(Table 31-11 )121).
 MINERAL FEED INGREDIENTS 311

Table 31-11: Requirements of pennitted mineral compounds for animal feeds according to German feedstuff
legislation!2/)

Compound Purity Ca P Mg Na CI' S

min. min. min. min. min. max. min.
% % % % % % %

I. Clli!<iYm l<oWI!Qyn!.l5 (CIl)

Calcium acetate 22.0
Calcium aceto-chloride 22.0
Calcium chloride 95.0 17.0
Calcium fonniate 29.0
Calcium fumarate 18.0
Calcium gluconate 8.5
Calcium lactate 12.0
Calcium magnesium-
carbonate 19.0 11.0
Kieserite 28.0 16.0 16.0 21.0
2. rhosllhate cQmllounds (P)
Bone ash 28.0 16.0
Bone meal 10.02 13.0
Calcium magnesium phosphate - 16.0 18.0 2.0
Calcium sodium phosphate 10.0 16.0 8.0
Di-calcium phosphate 21.0 16.0 1.0
Di-magnesium phosphate 16.0 12.0
Di-sodium phosphate 95.0 8.0 11.0
Light calcium phosphate 26.0 21.0 8.0
Mono-ammonia phosphate 25.0
Mono-calcium phosphate 15.0 22.0
Mono-di-calcium phosphate 18.5 19.0 1.0
Mono-magnesium phosphate 21.0 8.0
Rock phosphate 22.0 14.0
Mono-sodium phosphate 95.0 19.0 13.0
Sodium-calcium-magnesium
phosphate 5.0 17.0 3.0 11.0
Sodium-magnesium phosphate - 17.0 8.0 8.0
Tri-calcium phosphate 35.0 18.0 1.0
Tri-magnesium phosphate 22.0 25.0 1.0
3. Ma!:n!:sium comllQun!.l~ (M!:)
Magnesium aspartate-
hydrochloride 9.5
Magnesium chloride 95.0 11.0
Magnesium citrate 9.5
Magnesium carbonate 95.0 26.0
Magnesium fumarate 12.0
312 CHAPTER 31

Table 31-11: Continued

Compound Purity Ca P Mg Na CI' S

min. min. min. min. min. max. min.
% % % % % % %

Magnesium gluconate 5.0

Magnesium lactate 9.0
Magnesium oxide 50.0
Magnesium propionate 14.0
Magnesium sulphate 9.0
Magnesium sulphate,
free of water 18.0
4. Sodium compounds INa)
Sodium bi-carbonate 26.5
Sodium carbonate 41.0
Sodium sulphate 14.0 10.0
Sodium sulphate, free of water 31.0 22.0
Sodium chloride 38.0
5. Other compounds
Potassium chloride

I Calculated as NaCI, 2 Max. moisture content

31.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher), Sacramento,
CAIUSA.
2. Cromwell, G.L. (1989): Requirements and biological availability of phosphorus for swine. Feed Magazine,
(Nov.lDec.), 20-26.
3. De Bruyne. K. (1992): What is the relative biological value of feed phosphates? Misset-World Poultry.
8., (6), 29-31.
4. Dressler, D. (1971): Mineralische Elemente in der Tierernahrung. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
5. Evans. M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and pOUltry. Queensland Dept. Primary
Ind., Brisbane/Australia (Series Q 185001).
6. Feltwell. R.; Fox. S. (1978): Practical poultry feeding. Faber and Faber, London and Boston.
7. Gunther. K.-D.; Tekin. C. (1986): Zur Wirksamkeit von Calciumphosphaten innerhalb der Mineralerganzung
bei der Schweinemast. Kraftfutter, 69., (2), 1-4.
8. Halloran. N. (1981): Quoted from: Houseman. R.A. (1984).
9. Herstad. O. (1993): Reduced phosphorus allowance in rearing and laying feed. Norw. J. Agric. Sci.,
7.• 203-212.
10. Hertrampf, 1. W. (1985): Feeding phosphates and their biological value. Proc. 6th Australian Poultry and
 MINERAL FEED INGREDIENTS 313

Stock Feed Convention. 22-27 Sept.. Melbourne/Australia.

11. Holtmeier, H.-J. (1988): Das Magnesiurnrnangelsyndrom. Hippokrates Verlag GmbH. Stuttgart/Germany.
12. Houseman, R.A. (1984): Phosphorus. some aspects of phosphorus supply to farm livestock. The Feed
Compounder. 4.• (1). 15-18.
13. Kurunajeewa. H. (1977): Quoted from: Hertrampf, J. W. (1985).
14. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington. D.C.
15. Ogino. c.; Takeda. H. (1976): Mineral requirement in fish. III. Calcium and phosphorus requirements in
carp. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries. 42 .• 793-799.
16. Ogino. C.; Takeuchi, L; Takeda. H.; Watanabe. T. (1979): Availability of dietary phosphorus in carp and
rainbow trout. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries. 45.• 1527-1532.
17. Seibold, R.; Kandler, U. (1988): MonocaIciumphosphat - Klassifizierung. Identifizierung und Bestirnrnung.
Kraftfutter. 71. (2). 44-46.
18. Shorrocks. Y.M.; Alloway. B.I. (1988): Kupfer in der Landwirtschaft. Deutsches Kupferinstitut,
Berlin/Germany.
19. Thomsen. J. (1995): From rock to feed. production of phosphates. Feed Mix. Special Issue. 16-17.
20. Viola. S. (1986): Requirements of phosphorus and its availability from different sources for intensive
pond culture species in Israel. II. Carp culture. Bamidgeh. 38.• 44-54.
21. Weinreich. 0.; Koch. v.; Knippel. J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
 32. MOLLUSC PRODUCTS

32.1 Rationale

Mussels, clams, oysters and scallops all belong to the Phylum Mollusca. Listed under this
phylum are six classes one of which is Lamellibranchiata or Bivalvia to which the former
belong23). Although there are over 7,000 species of bivalves. The more important ones are
fished extensively, are cultured or have culture potential for human consumption. These are
found in several families and the more common ones are (Figure 32-01):
• Mytilidae to which the mussels belong,
Ostreidae which include various oysters,
• Pectinidae under which scallops are classified, and
• Other families that include what is commonly called the "clams".

Figure 32-01. Shape of mussels I. Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis]; 2. Scallop (family: PECTINIDAE);
3. Cockle (Cardium spp.)
 MOLLUSC PRODUCTS 315

Mussels are among the most familiar of all bivalves because they are widely distributed
throughout all oceans and is typified by the blue mussel, Mytilus edulii23). The main genus
being cultured in the Tropics is Perna which is also dominantly cultured in western Europe
with annual production of around 420,000 MT.
Clams generally include all those species of bivalves not considered to be an oyster,
mussel or scallop(23). One of the most important clam is the short-necked clam, Venerupis
philippinarum. Japanese scientists used this clam as the basis for formulating practical
diets for larval rearing and culture of Kuruma prawn, (Penaeus japonicus)'z61•

32.2 Manufacture and Processing

Steaming will release the meat from the shells without individual shucking(Z3. 281.
Although meat of molluscs can be boiled, dried and ground into a meal, the procedure
is tedious. In addition, the live or frozen meat is preferred by the shrimps particularly in
larval and broodstock diets. If dried, the meal is added to other ingredients. Drying may
be in an oven at less than lOODC preferrably at 60 DC to minimize nutrient losses.
Fatty acid may oxidize when dried under the sun.

32.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The protein content of mollusc meal varies widely. It is highest for scallop meat and
lowest for oyster meat (Table 32-01). Mollusc meat is a good source of essential amino
acids. The lysine and methionine content ranges from 3.51 to 5.81 g/16 g Nand 1.19 to
l.81 g/16 g N and is highest for scallop meat (Table 32-02). The non-essential glutamic
acid, being one of the chemo-attractants in fish diets is high (8.64 g/16 gIN) in the short-
necked clam(4). The essential amino acid index (EAAI) of the New Zealand green mussel
and the scallop when compared to tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) ovary is greater and
close to 0.9, respectively, indicating the high nutritional value of the protein.

Table 32-01: Chemical composition of mussel meat (% dry matter)

Blue Green Brown Clam' OysterS Scallops6

mussel' mussel' mussel' (1.4) (6,29) (11)

(6) (5,6,29) (10,/920)

Moisture 85.6 83.1 78.3

Crude protein 60.4 52.5 62.7 56.5 48.0 83.5
Crude fat 8.5 15.4 7.9 8.8 10.8 1.9
Crude fiber 3.1 11.6 3.8
Ash 11.6 9.3 5.1 9.6 10.8 14.4
N -free extract 19.5 19.7 12.7 11.2 24.6
Carbohydrates 13.9

'Mytilus edulis; 2Perna spp.; 3Modulus metcalfei; 'Sunnepta scriptaiVenerupis philippinarum;

5Species not stated; 6Amusium balloti
316 CHAPTER 32

Table 32-02: Essential amino acid profile of mussel meat4• /I)

Green Shortnecked claml Scallop I Mean

Arginine 4.85 3.95 8.65 5.82

Histidine 1.95 0.89 1.31 1.38
Isoleucine 2.40 2.15 3.19 2.58
Leucine 3.83 3.37 5.96 4.39
Lysine 3.97 3.51 5.81 4.40
Methionine 1.19 1.38 1.81 1.46
Phenylalanine 2.36 1.85 2.72 2.31
Threonine 2.51 2.30 3.00 2.60
Valine 2.48 2.22 3.01 2.57

, For scientific name see Table 32-01

The lipid content of mollusc meat ranges from 1.9 to 15.4 (Table 32-01) and is rich
in unsaturated fatty acids. The lipids of the short-necked clam contains(4):
Saturated fatty acids 38.5%
Mono-unsaturated fatty acids 21.3%
Poly-unsaturated fatty acids 36.4%
Unknown fatty acids 36.4%
n-3:n-6 ratio: 2.8

In the short-necked clam, cholesterol is with 33.3% the dominant sterol (total sterol
16.2%) of the lipid fraction(4).
The mean calcium:phosphorus ratio of mollusc meat is 1:1 (Table 32-03), although
green mussels and oysters may be higher in phosphorus than in calcium(6.29). Data on
vitamins of mollusc meal is scanty (Table 32-03).

Table 32-03: Mineral and vitamin contents (in dry matter) of mussel meat(>· 29)

Minerals Vitamins (per I,OOOg)

Calcium % 0.48 Vitamin A lU. 18,000

Phosphorus % 0.48 Vitamin B, mg 8.8
Sodium % 0.23 Vitamin B, mg 16.5
Potassium % 1.16 Vitamin C mg 837.0
Magnesium % 0.77 Nicotinic acid mg 77.0
Iron mglkg 549
Copper mglkg 0.12
 MOLLUSC PRODUCTS 317

Physiological Properties
Energy values of molluscs are scarce. Gross energy for the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis)
is as follows(28):
• Gross energy: 4,421 kcallkg (18.4 MJlkg)
Gross energy from protein: 2,622 kcallkg (11.0 MJlkg)

Clam meat meal (Sunnepta scripta) has a true protein digestibility of 81.2%(1).
The enzyme-inhibitor thiaminase which breaks up Vitamin BI (thiamine) and makes
it ineffective, can be found in mussel and clam. Heating can inactivate the thiaminase(8,
14, 16, 17, 28)
Molluscs are able to accumulate heavy metals as well as radionuclides in the body.
They have also been shown to concentrate low levels of cadmium in seawater to as much
as 20,000 to one million times when calculated on dry weight content of tissues(J3).
Gymnodinium breve, Gonyaulax catenella and Gonyaulax tarensis are toxic algae that
are well-liked by some molluscs that store toxins in their tissues(27). Toxicity could result
when toxic algae contaminated molluscs are used in feeds for fish and crustaceans.

Other properties
Molluscs have chemo-attractant properties(5, 15). The concentrations of glycine betaine in
mussel is 964 mg; clam 679 to 727 mg; oysters 600 per 100 g meat(J5).
The mussel, Modiolus modiolus, has been reported to contain 16 carotenoids including
astaxanthin(2) while Mytilus edulis contains 20 different carotenoids(22). The total carotenoid
content of Perna viridis is reported to be 99 mglkg of freeze-dried mussel meat(24).

32.4 Feeding Value

The gut content of wild tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) contained 76% remains of
molluscs and bivalve and formed 31 % of total food(l2).
An important part in hatchery operations is the maintenance of broodstock of fish and
shrimp. Although there are artificial prawn maturation diets available best results are
obtained when they are supplemented with live or fresh frozen food. Among these fresh
frozen food are mussel meat and clams. The oyster larvae (trocophore) are also used for
feeding fish larvae.

Mussel Meat
Fresh or frozen mussel meat is used in feeding tiger prawn broodstock, post-larvae and
as food supplement in grow-out ponds(JO, 19, 20). The green mussel (Perna viridis) is used
in broodstock diets in combination with squid or pelletised feed(6).
Broodstock of ablated tiger prawns maintained under laboratory conditions and allowed
to spawn in tanks were fed 3.0% of body weight frozen mussel meat in the morning and
formulated pellets in the afternoon. The mussel-pellet combination followed by mussel-
mussel and squid-pellet combinations gave the better reproductive performances than
the pellet-pellet feeding regime (Table 32_04)120,21,22).
318 CHAPTER 32

Table 32-04: Mean survival, spawning, fecundity, and hatching rate of ablated tiger prawn (Penaeus
monodon) broodstock fed various diets with various feeding regimes(20)

Feeding regime:
Morning Pellets Frozen brown Frozen brown Frozen chopped
mussel meat mussel meat squid

Afternoon Pellets Frozen brown Pellets Pellets

mussel meat

Survival
Male % 56 40 52 52
Female % 16 20 14 8
Spawnings nos. 7 16 16 12
Eggs/spawning 1.000 nos. 136.8 179.3 180.3 140.3
Total eggs 1.000 nos. 957.4 2,868.4 2,884.5 1,683.8
Total naupJii 1.000 nos. 195.2 266.2 598.7 308.4
Hatching rate % 20.4 9.3 20.8 78.3

The positive effect on ovarian maturation of penaeid shrimps in captivity of fresh

mussel meat in combination with formulated pelletised feed was found in pond-reared
tiger prawns(241, white leg shrimps (Penaeus vannamei) and blue shrimp (Penaeus
stylirostris)17).
Banana shrimps (Penaeus merguiensis) grew significantly better on fresh mussel meat
than on formulated feed(25). Fresh mussel meat is also comparable to shrimp meal as
the sole source of protein when fed to tiger prawns(lo. 19). However, departures from this
kind of rule are possible (Table 32-05).

Table 32-05: Performances of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) post-larvae

fed frozen brown mussel meat and shrimp meal(lO)

Mussel meat Shrimp meal

Weight gain g 13.73 13.82

Feed conversion 1: 2.38 2.46
PER' 0.66 0.91
Survival rate % 16.00 48.00

'Protein efficiency ratio

Clam Meat
The short-necked clam (Venerupis philippinarum) is a very important species in the
development of practical diets for the kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus). Its chemical
 MOLLUSC PRODUCTS 319

composition was the basis of a basal artificial diet for determining nutrient requirements
of kuruma prawn prior to the formulation of practical diets (4, 10). It was also used in
the fresh form, minced and given to kuruma prawn larvae in the early years of prawn
culture in Japan (26).
Fresh frozen clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) were fed to white leg shrimp and blue
shrimp singly or in a composite diet consisting of adult and juvenile squid (Loligo sp.
and Lolloiguncula sp,), blood worms (Glycera dibranchiata) and penaeid shrimps
primarily Penaeus aztecus. With regard to ovarian maturation, spawning, molting rate,
and survival the composite diet was the best while the best single-food diet was squid.
Clams gave the poorest results(3).
Juveniles ofIndian shrimp (Penaeus indicus) (length 26 mm, weight 75 mg) were fed
various animal and plant protein sources. The clam meat (Sunneta scripta) diet gave
higher weight gain than the fish meal diet. The feed:gain ratio, was the same than for fish
meal diet but net protein utilisation (NPU), biological value and survival of shrimps on
the clam meat diet was lower than that of the fish meal diet(l).

32.5 Recommended Application and Precaution

Recommended Application
Fresh and frozen molluscs meat have a higher feeding value in diets for crustaceans than
in fish. This applies particularly to maturation diets of shrimp spawners. Preferably mollusc
meat, fresh or frozen, from two or more species is fed either ad libitum or as a combination
of 50% mollusc meat and 50% formulated diet. Mollusc meal is used in shrimp diets at
levels of 5.0 to 10.0%.

Precautions
Fresh mollusc meat is prone to decay. In order to minimise bacterial growth it has to be
well chilled or even better if deep-frozen. In addition, molluscs for feeding purposes
should not come from areas infested with toxic algae.

32.6 References

1, Ali. A,S. (1992): Evaluation of some animal and plant protein sources in the diet of the shrimp Penaeus
indicus, Asian Fish, Science, 5 .. 277-289,
2. Bjerkeng, 8.; Hertzberg, S,; Liaaen-Jensen. S, (1993): Carotenoids in food chain studies-Iv' Carotenoids
of the bivalves Modiolus modiolus and Pecten maxim us - structural. metabolic and food chain aspects,
Compo Biochem. Physiol., 106B., 243-290.
3. Chamberlain. G. W; Lawrence. A.L. (1981): Maturation, reproduction, and growth of Penaeus vannamei
and Penaeus stylirostris fed natural diets, J. World Maricu!. Soc" 12., 209-224,
4. Deshimaru. O. (1981): Studies on nutrition and diet for prawn. Penaeus japonicus. Mem, Kagoshima
Pref. Fish. Expe, Station (12). 118.
5, Feed Development Section (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish, Nile tilapia, Asian sea bass and tiger
shrimp, (SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines),
320 CHAPTER 32

6. Food and Nutrition and Research Institute (1968): Food Composition Table Handbook I. National
Science Development Board. Manila. Philippines. 134.
7. Galgani. M.L; Aquacop (1989): Influence du Regime Alimentaire sur la reproduction en captivite de
Penaeus vannamei et Penaeus stylirostris. Aquaculture. 80 .• 97-109.
8. Gnaedinger, R.J. (1965): Thiaminase activity in fish: An improved assay method. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Ser.
Fish Ind. Res .• 2 .• 55-59.
9. Kanazawa. A.; Teshima. S.; Tokiwa. S.; Endo. M.; Abdel Razek. F.A. (1979): Effects of short-necked clam
phospholipids on the growth of prawn; Bull. Jap. Soc. Fish .• 45 .• 961-965.
10. Lim. c.; Suraniranat. P.; Platon R.R. (1979): Evaluation of various protein sources for Penaeus monodon
post-larvae. Kalikasan. Philipp. J. BioI.. 8., 29-36.
11. Marsden. G.; McGuren. J.M.; Sarac. H.Z; Neill. A.R.; Brock.I.J.; Palmer. C.L (1992): Nutritional com-
position of some natural marine feeds used in prawn maturation. Proc. Aquaculture Nutrition Workshop.
Salamander Bay. 15-17 April 1991. 82-86. (NSW Fisheries. Brackishwater Fish Culture Research Station.
Salamander Bay/Australia).
12. Mane. C. (1980): The food and feeding habit of Penaeus monodon Fabricius collected from Makato
River. Aklan. Philippines (Decapoda Natantia) Crustaceana. 38., 225-235.
13. McLesse. D. W. (1980): Uptake and excretion of cadmium by marine organisms from seawater with
cadmium at low concentrations: A review. Cadmium Pollution of Belledune Harbour. New Brunswick.
Canada. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci.. 963.• 55-64.
14. Melnick, D.; Hochberg. M.; Oser. B.L (1945): Physiological availability of the vitamins: II. The effect of
dietary thiaminase in fish products. 1. Nutr.• 30 .• 81.
15. Meyers. S.P. (1982): Attractants. aquatic diet development examined. Feedstuffs. 58.• 11-12.
16. Miller Jones. J. (1992): Food Safety. Eagan Press. St. Paul. MinnesotalUSA.
17. New, M. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp - A manual on the preparation and presentation of
compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCP/REP/87/26 Rome/Italy.
18 Panali. 11.; Tangen. K.; Liaaen-Jensen. S. (1989): Carotenoids in food chain studies: III. Resorption and
metabolic transformation of carotenoids in Mytilus edulis (edible mussel). Compo Biochem. Physiol..
92B .• 239-246.
19. Piedad-Pascual. F.P.; Destajo. W.H. (1979): Growth and survival of Penaeus monodon post-larvae fed
shrimp head meal and fish meal as primary animal sources of protein. Fish. Res. F. Philipp., 4., 1-23.
20. Primavera, J.H.; Lim. c.; Borlongan. E. (1979): Feeding regimes in relation to reproduction and survival
of ablated Penaeus monodon. Kalikasan Philipp. J. BioI., 8., 227-235.
21. Pudadera. R.A.; Primavera, J.H.; Borlongan, E. (1980): Effect of substrate types on fecundity and
nauplii production of ablated Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Philipp. J. Sci., 109., 15-18.
22. Pudadera. R.A.; Primavera, J.H. (1981): Effect of light quality and eyestalk abalation on ovarian
maturation in Penaeus monodon. Kalikasan, Philipp. J. BioI., 10., 231-241.
23. Quayle. D.B.; Newkirk, G.F. (1989): Farming bivalve molluscs: methods for study and development.
Advances in World Aquaculture, Vol. 1. World Aquaculture Soc. In association with the Int'1. Dev. Res.
Center. Canada.
24. Quinitio. E.T.; Parado-Estepa. F.D.; Millamena. O.M.; Biona. H. (1994): Reproductive performance of
captive Penaeus monodon fed various sources of carotenoids. National Seminar-Workshop on Fish
Nutrition and Feeds. 1 to 2 June. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department. TIgbauan. Iloilo. Philippines.
25. Sedgewick, R. W. (1980): The requirements of Penaeus merguiensis for vitamin and mineral supplements
in diets based on freeze-dried Mytilus edulis meal. Aquaculture 19., 127-237.
26. Shigueno. K. (1975): Shrimp culture in Japan. Asso. International Technical Promotion. Tokyo/Japan.
 MOLLUSC PRODUCTS 321

27. Sparks, A.K. (1972): Invertebrate pathology. Non-communicable disease. N.Y. Academic Press.
28. Taufel, A.; Ternes, w.; Tunger, L; Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg/Germany.
29. Watt, B.K.; Merrill, A.L (1963): Composition of Foods. Agricultural Handbook No.8, United States Dep.
of Agri. Washington D.C. 190.
 33. PIG BRISTLE MEAL (HYDROLYSED)

33.1 Rationale

The hair of pigs are bristles. In the past, pig bristles were used for making brushes.
They have been replaced by synthetic bristles. Contrary to the secondary hair (wool hair),
the primary hair (bristles) of the pig has a thick rind and contains marrow. There are
differences in the length of the bristles between summer and winter and between sexes(3).

33.2 Processing and Properties

Processing
Pig bristles can be converted into a suitable feedstuff by hydrolysation. This method is
similar to the processing of feather meal (see chapter 15.2.). The bristles can also be
pulverised in a hammermill.

Properties
Pig bristles contain in the dry matter about(7):
Crude protein: 90.0%
Crude fat: 2.0 to 7.0%
Ash: 2.0%
The hydrolysation of pig bristles damages the amino acids as Table 32-01 demonstrates.
The mineral content of bristles is affected by the pig breed, mineral supply in the feed,
season, age of the animals and pregnancy(2). However, the amount of minerals in pig
bristles is negligible(7).
Keratin is the principal matter of pig bristle. The utilisation of this fibrous protein is
low(2). The digestibility of raw, pulverised pig bristles in land animals is below 50%(7).

33.3 Feeding Value

In rations for chicken and turkeys 2.5% of the protein could be replaced by hydrolysed
pig bristle meal. However a supplementation with lysine and methionine was required.
Encephalomalacia, the degenerative disease of the brain, has been observed when chicken
were fed with raw, pulverised pig bristles. Provision with Vitamin E could cure the illness
which is also known as "crazy chick"(6. 7).
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were fed hydrolysed pig bristle meal as replacement
for feather meal (as protein source) at two different levels for 172 days. The substitution of
50% feather meal with 7.25% pig bristle meal did not affect growth and feed conversion
 PIG BRISTLE MEAL (HYDROLYSED) 323

of fish. However, total replacement of feather meal with pig bristle meal depressed the
performances by around 8.0% (Table 32-02)(4).

Table 33-01: Essential amino acid profile of raw and hydrolysed

pig bristles (g/16 g N)f'1

Amino acid Pig bristles

Raw Hydrolysed

Arginine 9.1 5.5

Histidine 1.1 1.1
Isoleucine 3.6 2.2
Leucine 7.9 5.1
Lysine 3.1 2.7
Methionine 0.7 0.5
Phenylalanine 2.8 1.9
Threonine 6.2 2.2
Tryptophan
Valine 5.8 3.5

Table 33-02: Pig bristle meal (hydrolysed) as a protein source in diets for
rainbow trout (Salrna gairdneri),41

Bristle meal % 7.25 14.50

Feather meal % 13.50 6.80
Fish meal % 34.60 34.60 34.60
Poultry by-product meal % 17.90 17.60 17.60
------------------------------------------------
Growth g 212.1 211.3 195.6
% 100.0 99.6 92.2
Feed conversion I: 1.18 1.18 1.28
% 100.0 100.0 108.5

33.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

The use of pig bristle meal as protein source for aquaculture diets is not recommendable.
However, when used as a partial substitute for high quality protein sources, supplemen-
tation with certain amino acids is advisable.
324 CHAPTER 33

33.5 Legal Aspects

AAFC(Jl) has listed hydrolysed hair as No. 9.54 under the heading "Animal Proteins".
It is described as a product prepared from clean, undecomposed hair, by heat and pressure
to produce a product suitable for animal feeding. Not less than 80% of the crude protein
must be pepsin-digestible.
In the German feedstuff law pig bristle meal is not listed as a permitted feedstuftY6!.

33.6 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher), Sacramento,
CA/USA.
2. Kolb E. (1989): Lehrbuch der Physiologie der Haustiere (I). VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
3. Meyer; W. (1986): Die Haut des Schweines. SchlUtersche Verlagsanstalt und Druckerei GmbH & Co.,
Hannover/Germany.
4. 1iews. K.; Koops, H.; Beck, H.; Schwalb·Biihling, A.; Gropp. J. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfutter flir
die Regenbogenforelle. Bundesforschungsanstalt fllr Fischerei, Vertlffent!. des Inst. fUr KUsten· und Binnen-
fischerei, Hamburg/Germany, Pub!. No. 75.
5. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
6. West, G.P. (1992): Black's veterinary dictionary. A & C Black, London, 17'" Edition.
7. Wahlbier; W. (1977): Keratinhaltige Futtermitte!. In: Kling. M.; Wahlbier; w.: Handelsfuttermitte!. Verlag
Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
 34. POTATO-PROTEIN

34.1 Rationale

The recovery of protein from potato-processing waste is an active contribution to the

improvement of the environment. It is an efficient use of resources, since these wastes
have simply been dumped in the past. The volume of waste material is substantial. It is
estimated that about 35% of the pre-processed potato, which is the World's fourth largest
human food staple, after wheat, rice and maize, is discarded during processing.

34.2 Manufacture and Processing

Potato-protein is a by-product of starch processing from potatoes (Solanum tuberosum).

By a special thermal coagulation, followed by a controlled separation technique, the
potato-protein is precipitated from the potato-juice for further processing (Figure 34-01).
The risk of bacteriological infection is low due to this production process(3).

POTATOES (fresh)

26.0\ dry matter (DM)

I
I I
Potato starch Potato waste
17.5\ DM 0.9\ DM

I
I I
Potato pulp
(cellulose) Potato juice
1. 6\ OM 4.0\

I
I I
Potato starch
milk (slurry) Potato-protein
2.6\ 1. 6\

Figure 34-01. Approximate amounts of potato processing productsldma/mm.-8i.

326 CHAPTER 34

Potato-protein is not like other potato protein sources which are by-products of con-
sumer products. The latter is produced by applying a special strain of Aspergillus niger
to enhance the fermentation. The finished product contains only approximately 37%
crude protein(lO).

34.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Potato-protein is an excellent protein source of high biological value. Not only does its
protein content exceed levels in animal proteins, but it can also replace the most common
protein sources in animal feed (Table 34-01). In addition, the amino acid profile is not
only well balanced but the amino acid content is also high. This particularly applies to
lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan. The amino acid level is higher than those
of other protein feedstuffs (Figure 34-02).

Table 34-01: Chemical composition of potato-protein and some other

protein sources'" 5. 8. 9)

Potato- Fish meal Skimmilk Soybean

protein powder meal

1. t:!l!tri~n!s (%)
Dry matter 89.4 90.6 94.4 94.5
Crude protein 81.8 65.0 34.1 47.0
Crude fat 2.8 7.5 0.7
Crude fibre 0.6 5.0
Ashes 2.6 16.0 8.2 6.7

2. ~ss~nlil!1 ilillinQ acigs (!:l16 I: N):

Arginine 4.9 5.7 3.6 7.2
Histidine 3.8 2.3 2.8 2.5
Isoleucine 5.3 4.4 5.6 4.9
Leucine 9.2 7.4 9.8 7.6
Lysine 6.8 7.5 8.2 6.4
Methionine 2.2 2.8 2.6 1.4
- Methionine + Cystine 2.9 3.7 3.5 3.9
Phenylalanine 5.2 4.2 4.8 4.9
Threonine 4.4 4.3 4.6 4.2
Tryptophan 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.3
Valine 5.5 5.5 6.9 5.0

The crude fibre content is insignificant. Potato protein is rich in phosphorus. It contains
three times more phosphorus than calcium (Table 34-02).
 POTATO-PROTEIN 327

Threonine

Figure 34-02. Essential amino acids of potato-protein compared with some important protein sources.

Table 34-02: Mean mineral content of potato-protein(/' 5)

Calcium Ca % 0.15
Phosphorus P % 0.45
Sodium Na % 0.05
Potassium K % 0.80
Magnesium Mg % 0.10
Iron Fe mg/kg 40.0

Physiological Properties
The gross energy of potato protein, measured in the bomb calorimeter is 5,320 kcal/kg
(22.3 MJ/kg). The digestible and metabolisable energy in pigs is 4,150 kcal/kg (17.4 MJ/kg)
and 3,750 kcal/kg (15.7 MJ/kg), respectively(5). Except for the fat, the digestibility of pota-
to-protein in piglets is high as shown below and increases with the age of the animalsl3i :
Dry matter: 93.8%
• Organic matter: 94.5%
Crude protein: 96.1 %
Crude fat: 43.3%
• Other carbohydrates: 92.9%

Other Properties
Potato-protein contains an antinutritional factor, "glycoalkaloid". It is found in many plants
and has a performance depressing property. At high levels it has a strong toxic effect.
328 CHAPTER 34

The glycoalkaloid content, therefore, restricts the application rate to a maximum of 7.5%
potato-protein in terrestrial animal feeds(2).

34.4 Feeding Value

Potato-protein is a first rate source of protein due to its high protein content combined
with the excellent digestibility and the superior content of balanced essential amino
acids. In trials with terrestrial animals potato-protein has been compared with the best
sources of protein used in animal feeding. The results suggest that the nutritional value
of potato-protein is superior to soybean meal and equal to skim milk powderl6• 7.11).
Cultured aquatic animals are highly demanding with regard to the protein content of
the feed, its digestibility and essential amino acid profile. These needs can be met by pota-
to-protein. But data from scientific experiments in aquatic animals are not yet available.

34.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Potato-protein is an excellent protein feed component for starter, grower and finisher feed
for cultured aquatic animals (crustacean and fish). Recommended inclusion rates are:
• Starter feed: 5.0 to 6.5%
Grower feed: 3.0 to 4.5%
Finisher feed: 2.0 to 3.0%

34.6 Legal Aspects

The EU-Directive for feed ingredients has listed potato protein as no. 4.11 and described
as a dried by-product of starch processing from potatoes and containing predominantly
protein matters. The German feedstuff legislation follows this description, but requires
also nutritional informationlJ2). These are:
Crude protein: min. 75.0%
Moisture: max. 14.0%
Ash: max. 0.5%

34.7 References

1. Anonymous (1990): Protamyl PF high quality potato protein. AVEBE, The Netherlands, Ref. No.
05.52.31.603 EF/9005 SP&AlI09484.
2. Anonymous (1991): Potato by-products as a protein source. Feed International, 12., (6), 27-28.
3. Anonymous (1993): Protamyl PE AVEBE, The Netherlands, Ref. No. 05.52.32.603 EF/9303 SP&A.
4. Anonymous (1993): Potato protein specification. Emsland-Starke GmbH (Mimeograph).
5. Anonymous (w/o year): Tubermine potato protein. Roquette, LestrumIFrance (Mimeograph).
6. Anonymous (w/o year): Potato protein and fish protein in milk replacers for veal calves (unpublished
 POTATO-PROTEIN 329

manuscript}.
7. Borggreve, G.J.; Veen, W.A.G. (1978): Nutritional value of potato protein in feed for piglets. C.L.O.-Inst.
for Animal Nutrition, De SchoothorstlThe Netherlands, No. 104 (March).
8. De Boer, F.; Bickel, H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. E.A.A.P.
Publication No. 37. Elsevier, Oxford, New York, Tokyo.
9. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Ind., Brisbane/Australia, Information Series Q 185001.
10. Gillies, M.T. (1978): Animal feeds from waste materials. Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJIUSA.
II. Lenis, N.P.; Diepen,· J. T.M. van (1992): Ileal atnino acid digestibility and the nutritional value of potato
protein. Dutch Res. Inst. for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO-DLO) (unpublished Manuscript).
12. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. BucheditionAgrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
 35. POULTRY BY-PRODUCT MEAL

35.1 Rationale

Poultry by-product meal is made from the rendered parts of slaughtered poultry. It consists
of heads, feet, undeveloped eggs and viscera. From the latter, the chyme content should
preferably be removed. Feathers are not used for processing poultry by-product meal
which is also called poultry offal meal.
About 70% of the liveweight of a laying hen and a broiler are consumed by man. Head,
feet and intestines amount to 19.7% in laying hens and 16.5% in broilers. The portion of
unconsumable rejects declines by 0.4% per 100 g increase in liveweight of a broiler'5).
World-wide more than 30 billion broilers are slaughtered annually. About 9.0 million
MT of fresh offal in the form of heads, feet and viscera are obtained by assuming
an average liveweight at slaughter of 1.8 kg which gives about 300 g offal per broiler.
This figure does not include the offal from culled laying hens.
In countries where there is no market for poultry meat from culled laying hens, the birds
are processed into the so called "whole poultry meal". The product includes the whole,
feathered carcass. The fat is usually removed(7).

35.2 Manufacture and Processing

Wet-rendering is the classical procedure in processing the offals. The raw material is
cooked under steam pressure at 110° to 130°C for three to six hours. After removal of
the fat, the material is dried and ground.
This process has been widely replaced by dry-rendering, whereby the raw materials
are chopped to hasten heat penetration and the release of fat. Batch or continous
cooking starts with an initial temperature of 100°C which gradually increases to 125°C.
The water evaporates and the fat is separated by screw pressing or solvent extraction.
Finally the material is ground and screened(5. 7). Dangerous pathogens, such as salmonella
which is killed by heating above 82°C for 20 minutes are destroyed completely(5).
Poultry by-product meal is golden to medium brown in colour with a fresh poultry
odour. The poultry by-product meal should be preferably treated with an antioxidant(l7).

35.3 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Poultry by-product meal is a rather heterogeneous material. The protein is predomi-
nantly from connective tissues(l4). The mean crude protein content of 61 % ranges from
 POULTRY BY-PRODUCT MEAL 331

56.4 to 84.2. "Whole poultry meal" is much lower in protein and almost equal to its
fat content (Table 35-01). Poultry by-product meal always contains some urea from
the intestines. A content of 0.5% is considered normal. Higher levels of urea in poultry
by-product meal indicate adulteration. Raw feathers are also used to adulterate the product
which decreases the protein quality(3J). Poultry by-product meal is a good source of
essential amino acids (Table 35_02)17. 20 ).

Table 35-01: Chemical composition (%) of poultry by-product meaJU. 4. 6. 7. 15. 16. 17.

19.21. ]1) and "whole poultry meal"(7) (as fed)

Whole poultry Poultry by-product meal

meal
Mean Variation

Dry matter 98.3 92.4 89.9 95.0

Crude protein 45.2 61.0 56.4 84.2
Crude fat 44.5 17.5 10.0 29.4
Ash 8.4 13.9 3.0 18.0
Crude fibre 2.1 0.4 3.6
N-free extract 0.2 3.5 2.0 5.4

Table 35-02: Essential amino acid profile of poultry by-product meal (g/16 g N)
(2,6,15,16,/9,20,21,31)

Mean Variation

Arginine 4.21 2.64 - 6.60

Histidine 1.17 0.75 - 1.43
Isoleucine 3.43 1.92 - 10.70
Leucine 4.68 3.34 9.50
Lysine 3.04 2.40 3.77
Methionine 1.16 0.77 2.80
Phenylalanine 2.46 1.67 5.30
Threonine 2.23 1.68 2.90
Tryptophan 0.55 0.46 - 0.80
Valine 2.81 2.18 3.50

The fat content of poultry by-product meal depends not only on the method of
processing but also on the raw materials, particularly if meat chickens have a large
amount of abdominal fat(7). The fat content, therefore, varies widely but it is high in
unsaturated fatty acids as follows l7. 15. 16):
332 CHAPTER 35

• Total saturated fatty acids: 32.6%

Total unsaturated fatty acids: 63.1%
PUFA: 17.6%
Linoleic acid: 16.5%
Linolenic acid: 1.1 %
The crude fibre content of poultry by-product meal is merely from the chyme crude
fibre and the keratin of the feet.
The variation of the ash content is high and may rise since consumers increasingly
prefer processed poultry meat rather than whole carcasses so that more bones go to the
offal(17). Poultry by-product meal is a good source of iron and zinc as well as choline
(Table 35-03).

Table 35-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of poultry by-product meal (as fed basis)

Minerals(7, 15, 16, 19, 'I, 31) Vitamins (per 1,000 g(7, 19)

Calcium % 3.36 Vitamin E mg 2.05

Phosphorus % 1.77 Vitamin B, mg 0.20
Sodium % 0.50 Vitamin B, mg 10.50
Potassium % 0.42 Vitamin B. mg 4.40
Magnesium % 0.13 Vitamin B12 mcg 306
Chlorine % 0.54 Folic acid mg 0.75
Sulphur % 0.52 Nicotinic acid mg 43.40
Manganese mg/kg 11.0 Pantothenic acid mg 9.95
Iron mg/kg 506.0 Choline g 4.10
Zinc mg/kg 99.8
Copper mg/kg 9.7
Selenium mg/kg 0.78

Physiological Properties
Due to high levels of abdominal fat in both broilers and culled laying hens poultry
by-product meal has a high gross energy content (35-04){7). There is a tendency for
digestible energy to decline with increasing levels of poultry by-product meal in the diet(22).

Table 35-04: Energy values of pOUltry by-product meal per kg

Species Gross energy Metabolisible energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

(J5,24)
5,554 23.3
(4./8,22, 24)
Rainbow trout 2,870 12.0 3,964 16.4
(28)
Carp 3,554 14.9
(/6,/8)
Fishes' 2,561 10.7 3,926 16.4

Mean/all fishes 2,919 12.4 3,917 16.4

Chicken 3,991 16.1 (7)

, Fish species not specified

 POULTRY BY-PRODUCT MEAL 333

In salmonids the digestibility of poultry by-product is negatively affected because

of the keratin from the feet (Table 35-05). Adulteration with raw feathers reduces the
digestibility further I4), so that in general the protein quality of poultry by-product meal
is considered to be low(8. 22).

Table 35-05: Apparent digestibility (%) of pOUltry by-product meal in

saimonids(J.4. 11.22)

Dry matter 52.0

Crude protein 63.3 50.7 74.7
Crude fat 81.5 78.0 83.6
Energy 71.9 71.0 73.1

35.4 Feeding Value

Salmon ids
Results of trials with poultry by-product meal in diets for Pacific salmons are inconsistent.
Poultry by-product meal in moist diets for the chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus
tschawytscha) depressed appetite(30J, but in a dry diet for the coho salmon (Oncorhynchus
kisutch) the appetite was enhanced(l2). Coho salmon utilises fat of non-defatted poultry
by-product meal to the same extent as marine oil(12). Equivalent growth rates with that of
the control was observed when the moist diet for the coho salmon contained 60% poul-
try by-product meal(13). An all herring meal diet fully replaced with defatted poultry by-
product meal decreased growth rate, increased appetite and lowered feed and protein
conversion in coho salmon, but substitution of 35% or 75% of the herring meal protein
had no major effects on recorded parameters (Table 35-06)(12).

Table 35-06: Response of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) on diets containing increasing levels of
poultry by-product meal and declining levels of herring meal (trial period: 168 days)(I2)

Herring meal' % 40.0 27.0 13.5

Poultry by-product meaF % 14.0 28.5 42.5
Crude protein % 50.0 49.5 49.0 48.6
Crude fat % 11.9 11.6 11.3 11.0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Initial weight g 4.05 4.44 4.35 4.20
Final weight g 26.5 27.2 27.5 25.9
Growth rate3 % 1.100 1.074 1.093 1.057
Weight gain/dry feed g 0.95 0.90 0.84 0.79

Body composition:
- Protein % 17.5 17.4 18.0 17.6
- Fat % 5.5 5.5 5.0 4.6

, 70% crude protein; 2 66% crude protein; 3 % wet weight per day
334 CHAPTER 35

In diets for rainbow trouts (Salmo gairdneri) poultry by-product meal may replace
50% to 75% of fish meal protein without negative effects on performances(9, 25, 27).
However, the full (100%) substitution of fish meal and a standard protein, respectively,
by poultry by-product meal or combinations with feather meal and blood meal provoked
poorer performances, even when the diet was supplemented with amino acids (Table
35_07)19,23,25,27) .
The body composition of salmonids is not affected by feeding poultry by-product
meal (Table 35-06) unless the diet has a higher fat content (Table 35-07).

Table 35-07: Replacement of fish meal with poultry by-product meal in diets for
fry and fingerlings rainbow trouts (Salrna gairdnerijl25)

Fish meal % 51.5

Poultry by-product meal % 50.0
Methionine % 1.5
Lysine % 1.7
Crude protein % 50,3 52,3
Fat % 7,6 13.0
Digestible energy kcallkg 2,901 3,353

Initial weight g 16.4 17.2

Final weight g 45.8 44.8
Weight gain g 29.4 27.6
Weight gain/feeding day % 2,33 2.17
Feed conversion 1: 1.39 1.62

Body composition:
- Crude protein % 15.9 15.8
- Crude fat % 5.9 10.0

Carp
Significant positive results for growth, feed conversion and protein utilisation were obtained
in diets for Indian major carp (Cirrhinus mrigala) fry when pOUltry by-product meal at
levels between 50% and 75% replaced the same amount of fish meal protein. The histo-
logical examinations of gills, liver, muscle, kidneys and intestines of fish revealed no
noticeable changes at these levels(JO).

35.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Poultry by-product meal as the sole protein source depresses performances. For practical
diets the following inclusion rates of poultry by-product meal are recommended:
 POULTRY BY-PRODUCT MEAL 335

Carnivorous fish: max. 25%

Omnivorous fish: max. 35%
Crustaceans: max. 15%.

The supplementation of the formulation with lysine, methionine and tryptophan should
be considered. The use of an antioxidant is advisable to avoid rancidity.

35.6 Legal Aspects

Poultry by-product meal is defined by EU-Directive as a product of dried and ground

offal from slaughterings of poultry. It should be almost free of feathers (No. 9.05).
A product which contains more than 13% fat has to be labelled as "rich in fat"(29).
The German feedstuff law differentiates between two qualities (Table 35-08).

Table 35-08: Quality criteria for poultry by-product meal as required by German
feedstuff legislation (%)12')

Poultry by- Poultry by-

product meal product meal
(high in fat)

Crude protein min. 60.0 56.0

Digestible protein' min. 80.0 80.0
Fat <12.0 >12.0
Moisture max. 10.0 10.0
Ash max. 3.3 3.3
Sodium chloride max. 2.0 2.0

, Pepsin digestibility

In U.S.A. AAFCO(l) has listed two products:

• Poultry by-product meal (No. 9.10)
• Poultry meal (No. 9.71)

The manufacturer of poultry by-product meal has to guarantee minimum crude

protein, minimum crude fat, maximum crude fibre, minimum phosphorus and minimum!
maximum calcium. The calcium level should not exceed the phosphorus content by
more than 2.2 times. Poultry meal is produced predominantly from whole carcasses
(culled laying hens).
336 CHAPTER 35

35.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher), Sacramento,
CA/USA.
2. Behm, G.; Dressler, D.; Gaus, G.; Herrmann, H; Kiither, K.; Tanner, H (1988): Amino acids in animal
nutrition. Arbeitsgemeinschaft fUr Wirkstoffe in der Tieremiihrung, BonnlGermany (Publisher).
3. Cho, c.Y.; Slinger, S.J. (1979): Apparent digestibility measurement in feedstuffs for rainbow trout. Proc.
World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II, 20-23 June, 1978.
4. Cho, c.Y.; Cowey, c.; Watanabe, T. (1985): Finfish nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IDRC, Ottawa/Canada, 233e.
5. De Boer, F.; Bickel, H (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. Elsevier Sciences
Publishers, Amsterdam / The Netherlands.
6. Dupree, H.K.; Huner, J. V. (1984): Third report to the fish farmers. Publ. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, D.C.
7. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. Primary
Ind., Brisbane / Australia (Series Q 18500 1).
8. Friesecke, H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen FUtterung von Rind, Schaf, Pferd, Schwein, GeflUgel
und SUBwasserfischen. BLV Verlagsges., MUnchenlGermany.
9. Gropp, J.; Koops, H.; Tiews, K.; Beck, H. (1976): Ersatz von Fischmehl im Forellenfutter. Arb. Deutscher
Fischerei-Verb., (10), 85-102.
10. Hasan, M.R. (1992): A preliminary study of the use of poultry offal meal as dietary protein source for
Indian major carp Cirrhinus mrigal (Hamilton). Abstr. 3'" Asian Fish. Forum, Singapore, 26-30 October, 96.
11. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, CambridgelU.K.
12. Higgs, D.A.; Markert, J.R.; Macquarrie, D.W.; McBride, J.R.; Dojanjh, c.; Hoskins, G. (1979): Development
of practical diets for coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, using poultry by-product meal, feather meal,
soybean meal and rape seed meal as major protein sources. Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and
Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. II, 20-23 June, 1978, 191-216.
13. Markert, J.R.; et al. (1977): Quoted from Higgs, D.A.; et al. (1979).
14. Meyer, H. (1990): Erniihrung des Hundes. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany (2 0d ed.).
15. Meyer, H.; Heckotter, Elke (1986): Futterwerttabelle fUr Hunde und Katzen. SchlUtersche Verlagsanstalt,
Hannover/Germany.
16. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCP/REP/87126, Romelltaly.
17. NRA (1993): Pocket information manual- a buyers guide to rendered products. National Renderers Ass.,
Inc., Alexandria, Vir.IUSA.
18. NRC (1981): Nutrient requirements of coldwater fishes. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
19. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington, D.C.
20. Paulraj, R. (1995): Aquaculture feed (20d edition). Marine Prod. Export Dev. Authority, KochilIndia (Publ.).
21. Pesti, G.M.; Dubuc, P.G. (1986): The relationship between poultry by-product meal content and market
value. Proc. Arkansas Nutr. Conference, Little Rock, ArkansaslUSA, 18-19 September.
22. Pfeffer, E. (1993): Emiihrungsphysiologische und okologische Anforderungen an Alleinfutter fUr
Regenbogenforellen. Ubers. Tiererniihrung, 21., 31-54.
23. Schulz, D.; Hartfiel, w.; Greuel, E. (1982): Verwendung von Nebenprodukten tierischer Herkunft in
der Emlihrung von Regenbogenforellen (salmo gairdneri). II. Einsatz von Blut-, Feder- und GeflUgel-
 POULTRY BY-PRODUCT MEAL 337

schlachtabfallmehl sowie Gelatine in einer gereinigten Diat. Z. Tierphysio!., Tieremiihrung, Futtermittelkd.,

48., 267-275.
24. Smith, R.R.; Peterson, M. c.; Allred, A. C. (1980): Effect of leaching on apparent digestion coefficients of
feedstuffs for salmonids. Progr. Fish-Culturist, 42.,195-199.
25. Steffens, W (1987): Further results of complete replacement of fish meal by means of pOUltry by-product
meal in feed for fry and fingerling (Salmo gairdneri). Arch. Tieremahrung, 37.,1135-1139.
26. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for warmwater fish, fish meal and other processed feedstuffs. FAO
Fisheries Circular Nc. 856 (FIRIlC856), FAO-UN, Rome/Italy. -23-
27. Tiews, K.; Koops, H.; Beck, H.; Schwalb-Biihling, A.; Gropp, J. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfutter fLir
die Regenbogenforelle. Bundesforschungsanstalt fiir Fischerei, Vertiffent!. des Inst. fiir Kiisten- und
Binnenfischerei, Hamburg/Germany, Pub!. No. 75.
28. Viola, S. (1977): Energy values of feedstuffs for carp. Bamidgeh, 29.,29-30.
29. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
30. Whitmore et al. (1962): Quoted from: Higgs, D.A., et al.(1979).
31. Wohlbier, W (1977): Gefliigelschlachtabfalle. In: Kling, M.; Wohlbier, W: Handelsfuttermitte!. Verlag
Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
 36. PULSES

36.1 Rationale

Pulses are the edible seeds of plants having pods. They belong to the comprehensive
botanical family of Leguminosae. Most of the pulses are primarily for human consumption
but certain species are cultivated mainly for animal feed. Compared to cereals, some
pulses yield much less energy and protein per ha. While wheat yields per ha 510 kg protein,
chick peas (Cicer arietinum) only yield 140 kgiha(5).
Pulses are mainly produced in Asia and Africa. World production of pulses range from
55 to 60 million MT per annum, excluding legumes cropped for their vegetable oil such as
soya beans and ground nuts. The major producers are India (23.5% of World production),
P.R. China (10.2%), Brazil (4.1%), Turkey (3.5%) and Nigeria (2.4%).
Species of pulses produced vary from area to area and cropping is related to the climat-
ical requirements of the species and the customs of the people who use them as food.
The main common pulses produced are listed according to their genus:
Black gram (Phaseolus mungo)
Field bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
Green gram (Phaseolus aureus)

Faba bean (Vicia faba)

Vetch (Vicia sativa)

• Cow pea (Vigna catiang, Vigna unguiculata)

Mung bean (Vigna radiata, Vigna mungo)

Blue (sweet) lupin (Lupinus augustifolius)

White lupin (Lupin us alb us)
Yellow lupin (Lupinus luteus)

Chick pea (Cicer arietinum)

Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis)
Lentils (Lens esculenta)
Pea (Pisum sativum)
Sesbania (Sesbania grandiflora)
Velvet beans (Stizologium sp.)
 PULSES 339

36.2 Harvesting and Processing

In advanced agricultural systems pulses are harvested at the optimum degree of ripeness by
a combine-harvester. Seeds have to be artificially dried depending on the moisture content.
Since almost all pulses contain anti-nutritional substances, various treatments can be
applied for the removal of these factors(51.
De-hulling of pulses reduced the crude fibre content and improves the feeding value.
For example, crude fibre in non-dehulled lupin seeds is 16%,3.0% in dehulled and 51 %
in the hulls(12). Pulses have to be ground before using them in aquaculture feed.

36.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The seeds of pulses are rich in crude protein whereby peas have the lowest protein content
and lupins the highest (Table 36-01). The quality of the protein differs between species
and cultivars. Generally, pulses are deficient in the sulphur-containing amino acids, but
may also contain low levels of tryptophan (Table 36-02)15,91.
The oil of blue (sweet) lupins is rich in mono (31.2% of total fat) and poly-unsaturated
fatty acids (53.7%)(12).
While faba beans, lupins and sesbania seeds have a high crude fibre content, some of
the Phaseolus beans and cow peas are low in crude fibre and make them more suitable
for aquaculture feed (Table 36-01).
Pulses are a fair source of phosphorus but the calcium content is lower than the
phosphorus. Cow peas and field beans are high in iron (Table 36-03). Pulses contain
significant amounts of Vitamin BI' Vitamin B2 and nicotinic acid (Table 36-04).

Table 36-01: Chemical composition of selected pulses (% in dry matter)

Moisture Crude Crude Crude N-free Ash Reference

protein fat fibre extract

Black gram 25.8 1.7 6.1 62,0 4,4 (2,7)

Chick peas 9.2 20,6 4.4 7,7 64.0 3.3 (2)

Cow peas 7.4 25.1 4.9 7.2 58.7 4.1 (7.17)

(2.7. /7)
Green gram 9.0 24.2 2.0 5.0 64.7 4.1
(1I,22}
Faba beans 9.9 28.3 8.4 24.8' 34.9 3.6
(9,1/,12,15)
Lupin. white 10.4 34.5 6.1 15.5 40.2 3.7
Lupin. blue 9.0 29.8 5.5 15.0 46.9 2.8 (26)

Peas 11.2 23.7 1.7 6.8 64.3 3.5 (II)

(/7, /9)
Sesbania seeds 12.3 30.1 2.6 10.3 51.7 5.3

'non-detergent fibre. ash free

340 CHAPTER 36

Table 36-02:Amino acid profile of various pulses (g/16 g N)

Chicken Cow Green White Blue

PealZ) pealZ) gram(Z) lupin(/5) lupins(lZ)

Arginine 12.79 11.74 9.76 11.21 10.53

Histidine 3.94 4.59 3.09 1.77 2.17
Isoleucine 6.14 6.65 5.15 3.85 3.72
Leucine 8.75 8.97 7.49 7.69 6.81
Lysine 11.53 6.68 14.26 4.87 5.08
Methionine 2.83 3.02 2.35 0.50 1.00
Phenylalaline 6.87 7.07 5.70 3.77 6.02
Threonine 4.17 4.71 3.26 4.02 3.92
Tryptophan 0.74 1.20
Valine 5.75 6.85 5.89 3.47 4.02

Table 36-03: Macro and trace mineral contents of selected pulses (lI.ll)

Chick Cow Field Lupines Mung Peas

Peas peas beans beans

Calcium % 0.05 0.27 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.25

Phosphorus % 0.12 0.42 0.43 0.30 0.28
Sodium % 0.16 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.16
Potassium % 0.60 2.00 1.24 0.74 0.72
Magnesium % 0.26 0.39 0.25 0.17 0.12
Chlorine % 0.04
Sulphur % 0.23 0.23
Manganese mg/kg 17.0 29.2 24.0
Iron mg/kg 100 1,000 820 40 270
Zinc mg/kg 42.0 26.8 52.0
Copper mg/kg 7.0 3.4 6.8
Selenium mg/kg 0.80

Table 36-04: The vitamins of selected pulses (per 1,000 g»19)

Chick Cow Field Lupines Mung Peas

Peas peas beans beans

Vitamin A I.U. 16,500 6,400 900

VitaminE mg 1.0
Vitamin B. mg 5.3 0.9 6.0 5.7
VitaminB 2 mg 1.8 0.1 1.8 2.2 1.9
Vitaming B6 mg 0.3 0.7
Biotin mg 90.0
Folic acid mg 1.3 17.1
Nicotinic acid mg 20.0 44.0 23.6 26.0
Pantothenic acid mg 3.0 5.3
Choline mg 1,714 700
 PULSES 341

Physiological Properties
Pulses are both a protein and an energy feedstuff. The gross energy content of pulses is high.
Digestible energy of pulses seems to be related to the individual species of pulses, and for
fish ranges from 1,362 to 2,414 kcallkg (5.7 to 14.7 MJ/kg) (Table 36-05). The digestible
energy of pulses, is affected by their level in the diet as well as the manner of treatment
applied, as found in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)l21. 22). The digestible energy of
untreated pulses is so low that they are unsuitable for aquaculture feed (Table 36-06)(21).

Table 36-05: The energy contents of pulses per kg

Species Gross Metabolisable Digestible References

energy energy energy

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

Black gram 4,923 20.6 (7)

- Fish' 2.323 9.7 (6)

Chick peas (/2)

- Chicken 2,920 12.2 3,320 13.9 (9)

(71217)
Cow peas 4,756 19.9
- Fish' 2,354 9.8 (6)

- Chicken 2,930 12.2 3,220 13.5 (9)

(2.7.17)
Green gram 4,182 18.9
- Fish' 2.331 9.8 (0)

Faba beans 4,517 18.9 (1/,22)

- Rainbow trout 1,840 7.12.3 (/1,20)

1,365 5.7'.4 (11, 20)

2,083 11.8,·3 (/1,20)

2,414 10.74., (//,20)

Lupins, white 4,553 19.0 (11,/9)

- Chicken 2,930 12.3 3,390 14.2 (9)

Lupins, blue 4,300 18.0 (26)

- Chicken 2,008 8.4 (9)

Mung beans 2,750 11.5 6 (2,7. /7)

- Chicken 2,796 11.7 3,400 14.2 (9)

Peas 4,015 16.8 (/J)

- Chicken 2,870 12.0 3,400 14.2 (9)

- Rainbow trout 12.0 2,055 8.62.3 (11.20)

1,840 7.1'.4 (/1,20)

2,700 11.3 3.' (11.20)

1,625 6.8 4., (1l,20)

'Not specified; 2De-hulled seeds; 325% in the diet; 450% in the diet; 'Pulsed treated (autoclaved); 6Dehulled seeds
342 CHAPTER 36

The effect of treatment and inclusion rate applies also to the digestibility of pulses.
Regardless of the treatment and the inclusion rate, the carbohydrate digestibility with
salmonids as carnivores is low while it is higher for the common carp (Cyprinus carpio).
It also digests lupins better than peas (Table 36-06).

Table 36-06: Digestibility (%) of selected pulses

Dry Protein Fat Crude Carbo- Energy Reference

matter fibre hydrates

Faba beans
- Rainbow trout 78.0 18.0 43.01.2 (21}

89.0 35.0 67.0'·3 (21}

70.0 8.0 32.02 •• (21)

86.0 35.0 57.03.• (21}

Lupins, bitter
(/4)
- Common carp 97.5 80.5 86.5 80.5
Lupins, sweet
(/4)
- Common carp 96.0 91.0 81.5 80.7
(/4.23)
57.0
Peas
- Rainbow trout 86.0 21.0 47.0'·2 (21)

91.0 42.0 65.0'·3 (21)

83.0 13.0 39.02.' (111

86.0 18.0 40.03.• (2J)

(14,23)
- Common carp 71.7 40.8 60.0
(14,23)
44.3 45.0

'Pulses untreated; 225% in the diet; 350% in the diet; 'Pulses treated (autoclaved)

Other Properties
Pulses contain a number of anti-nutritional factors. Among the chemical compounds that
can create problems in feeding pulses are(5):
Protease inhibitors,
Phenolic compounds (tannins, isofiavonols),
Goitrogens,
• Anti-vitamins,
Cyanogens,
• Metal-binding factors.
• Lathyrogens,
Lectins (phytohemaglutinins).
 PULSES 343

Trypsin inhibitor is an important anti-nutritional factor that can be eliminated by heat

treatment (roasting or autoclaving)19). The lupins of Western Australia have a particularly
low alkaloid content. The mean alkaloid level is 0.007% with a range from 0.002 to
0.025%(12).
The pelletising ability of pulses is variable. While faba beans contribute to a good
pellet quality, locust beans have a low pelletising abilityllO).

36.4 Feeding Value

Extensive research has been done in countries where pulses are commonly produced and
have been found to be valuable. Experiments in aquaculture are rather limited.

Green gram (Phaseolus aureus: synonym Vigna radiata)

In a lO-week feeding period with tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry (2.9 g) the best daily
weight gain and feed conversion was obtained at the 25% level of green gram substitu-
tion(6). Protein deposition in the carcass was higher in all fish meal diet (Table 36-07).

Table 36-07: Perfonnance of tilapia (Oreochromis nilolicus) fry (2.92 g) on diets containing green
gram (Phaseolus au reus) (crude protein, 25%),6)

Green gram % o 13 25 37 50
Fish meal % 30 24 19 14 8

Final weight g 18.1 11.1 11.4 10.9 11.6

Feed conversion 1: 1.55 2.13 1.92 2.24 2.02
PER' 2.52 1.85 2.12 1.84 2.08
NPlF % 40.91 32.37 33.80 30.72 33.87

'Protein efficiency ratio; 'Net protein utilisation

Faba Beans (Viciajaba)

Faba beans are also known as field beans, broad beans and horse beans. There are summer
and winter varieties.
Various treatments of faba beans do not affect much of their nutrient content.
Only cystine was negatively affected by all manner of treatments when compared to the
untreated control (Table 36-08)(22). Tests on their protein quality parameters and apparent
digestibility were done on rats. In diets for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), faba
beans have a potential as a partial replacement for a brown fish meal (Table 36-09)111.25).
At high levels offaba beans (45%), supplementation with amino acids is needed(25).
344 CHAPTER 36

Table 36-08: Various treatments of faba beans (Vicia Jaba) and their effects on the chemical
composition (in dry matter)!22)

Nutrient Raw Roasted Sprouted Pressure De-hulled

cooked

Crude protein g 25.8 25.8 25.5 24.4 24.5

Lysine available g/16 gN 6.0 4.6 5.3 4.8 5.6
Methionine g/16 gN 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4
Cystine g/16 gN 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3
Tryptophan g/16 gN 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.9
Calcium mg% 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.18 0.16
Phosphorus mg% 0.42 0.42 0.40 0.33 0.42
Iron mg/kg 40 39 29 26 37
Ionisable iron mg/kg 17 16 18 11 15
Copper mg/kg 7 7 6 6 7
Manganese mg/kg 11 II 10 11 9
Zinc mg/kg 57 56 54 50 57

Table 36-09: Responses of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed untreated and treated [aba
beans and sweet lupin, respectivelyill)

Brown fish meal % 57.1 45.7 45.7 45.7 45.7

Faba bean meal raw % 26.0
Faba bean cooked/expanded % 26.0
Lupin meal raw % 22.2
Lupin meal cooked/expanded % 22.2
Crude protein % 42.5 39.1 39.8 41.5 41.3
Crude fat % 12.7 13.5 13.5 14.2 14.0
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Initial weight g 24.9 25.0 24.6 25.3 24.5
Weight gain g 61.9 76.5 78.9 87.4 84.3
Specific growth rate %/day 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1
Protein efficiency ratio 0.95 0.91 1.16 1.5 1.4
Feed conversion I: 2.19 1.70 1.88 1.6 1.7
Liver somatic index 2.83 2.77 2.61 2.5 2.3
Carcass composition (DM)
- Crude protein % 54.6 50.6 53.0 51.9 53.9
- Crude fat % 29.7 28.7 33.4 35.2 34.7
 PULSES 345

Cow peas (Vigna catiang)

The effects of cow peas also "black-eyed peas" on the ovarian development of Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) by substituting part of the fish meal is uncertain. Cow pea meal
18 or 42% in the diet in a 25% protein diet fed for 4) nine weeks ad libitum had smaller
and less mature vitellogenic oocytes than the control fish fed fish meal. Lack of
"vitellogenic proteins" and/or lipids in cow peas may be the cause for negative effects.
But enhanced gonadal development of Nile tilapia males and females were observed
when fed diets with cow peas and 28% total protein(3).
Tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) juveniles fed undehulled and dehulled cow pea diets
that replaced around 15.5% of the animal protein in the diet tended to grow better on
the dehulled rather than on the undehulled cow pea diet (Figure 36-01)(8).

9
0.8

Dehulled cow peas

0.7

0·6

0.5

..
.....c::

....""
0.4
.<:
.,3:
.....""
0.3
.,
...,..."" 0.2
.c>
0.1

0
35 50 65
Feeding period (days)

Figure 36-01. Growth of juvenile tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) fed undehulled and dehulled cow peas
(Vigna catiang) diets("",af~." 8).

Lupins (Lupinus spp)

There are two basic varieties of lupins. The bitter variety (Lupinus luteus) is unsuitable
as a feedstuff due to its high alkaloid content but the sweet lupins (Lupin us angustifolius)
particularly the Australian cultivars are almost free of alkaloids(9. 12).
Sweet lupin meal can partially replace fish meal in diets for rainbow trouts. Up to 30% of
diet's protein from lupins can be used without any negative effect on performances(13. IS. 25).
Supplementation with methionine and lysine is required(15).
346 CHAPTER 36

Heating, cooking and expanding did not improve the nutritional quality of lupin meal
(Table 36-09)111.15).
The combination of lupin meal and fish meal was even significantly better than feeding
fish meal alone as the only protein source. However, lupin feeding increased the fat content
of the carcass (Table 36-09)111).
Sweet lupins (Lupinus angustifolius) at 30% and 45% level in pelletised feeds for
intensive culture of carp performed as well as the respective control diet (without lupin)
(Table 36-10)126).

Table 36-10: Growth performance of carp (Israeli strain Dor-70) fed diets with lupin meal(26)

Herring meal % 15.0 15.0' 20.0 35'

Lupin meal % 30.0 45.0
-------------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain g 171.3 133.5 114.5 117.0
Specific growth rate %/day 1.03 0.85 1.00 1.00
Feed conversion 1: 3.20 4.10 3.25 3.2
Body composition
- Moisture % 72.0 72.1 73.6 73.9
- Protein % 14.8 15.2 15.4 15.0
- Fat % 9.6 10.3 5.8 7.4
- Ash % 2.7 3.0 3.1 2.9

'Controls

Jack Beans (Canavalia ensiformis)

Jack beans have the potential as a partial substitute for fish meal in diets for tilapia
(Oreochromis mossambicus). There is a direct relationship between fish mortality and
the increase of jack bean meal in the diet. Eliminating the non-thermolabile toxic factors
by boiling (30 min. at 125°C) or soaking the beans in a 1:1 ethanol-sulfuric acid solution
improved the feeding value when 25% of the fish meal was replaced with the treated
beans. Non-treated beans depressed appetite and lethargic movements were observed
after three weeks of feeding (Figure 36-02)(16).

Peas (Pisum sativa)

Peas also called field peas has been found to give rainbow trout a significantly better
performance than those fed the fish meal control diet(ll). No differences were observed
in feed conversion and food intake(ll).

Sesbania Seed Meal (Sesbania grandiflora)

Sesbania meal contains thermolabile toxins. Different treatments are costly, but the feeding
value of treated seed is not comparable to fish meal. In addition, there is a direct relation
between mortality and the level of sesbania meal in the diet (Table 36-11)(19).
 PULSES 347

q
LOO
170
1-00
1.50
t.40

!.30
1.20

..,
A
LlO

0\
1.00
'M
4)
:. O.SO-
:>.
'tl
0.00
;:)
~ 0.70
O.SO
0.50
GAO

2 3 4 5 e 7
Weeks

Figure 36-02. Growth of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) fed 25% treated (various treatments) and
untreated seed meal of jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis)lDalajrom." /6)

Table 36-11: Effect of 25% sesbania seed (Sesbania grandijlora), differently treated
as replacement for fish meal in diets fed to tilapia (Oreochromis
mossambicus)l /9)

Treatment Control 1. 2. 3.

Weight gain % 288 134.91 145.29 114.48

Survival % 98.3 77.89 40.00 15.00
SGR %/day 2.5 1.57 1.65 1.4
FCR 1: 1.06 1.70 1.82 2.1
PER 2.44 1.58 1.46 1.29

1. Raw seed meal autoclaved for 30 min. and then soaked for 12 h in distilled water;
2. Sesbania meal boiled in distilled water by autoclaving for 30 min.;
3. Sesbania meal trated by autoclaving at 125°C for 30 min.
348 CHAPTER 36

36.5 Recommended Inclusion Rate

Untreated seeds of pulses cannot be recommended as ingredients for aquatic animals(20).

Even the inclusion rate of treated seeds have to be restricted. A general guideline for
the use of pulses in aquaculture feed is:
• Untreated seeds of pulses should not be used;
• Treated pulses should be avoided in diets for young animals;
• Treated seeds in diets for older aquatic animals should not exceed 15%;
The amino acids, particularly these sulphur-containing, have to be balanced.

36.6 Legal Aspects

EU-Directive 92/87IEEC of 26 October 1992, describes under Section 3 a total of 13

products of pulses. The Directive requires that seeds Phaseolus and Vigna species have
to be heat-treated in order to destroy the toxic lectins(27).
Presently in the U.S.A. under the heading "Miscellaneous Products" are tentatively
listed in the Feed Ingredients Definitions of AAFCO(/):
Sweet lupin meal (No. T60.78)
Sweet lupin meal, de-hulled (No. T60.79)
• Sweet lupin meal, solvent extracted (No. T60.80)
The pulses products defined by the German feedstuff legislation is compiled in Table
36-12. The compulsory heat treatment as mentioned above is compulsory!27).

Table 36-12: Minimum/maximum requirements for pulse products (%) by the

German feedstuff law27)

Moisture Crude protein Crude fibre Starch

Max. min. max. min.

Bean flakes' 13.0 6.0 35.0

Bean hulls 13.0
Paba beans flakes' 13.0
Lentil flakes 14.0
Phaseolus beans' 13.0
Pea flakes' 13.0
Pea feed meal 14.0 21.0 8.0
Pea bran 13.0 28.0
Pea hulls 13.0
Vitch flakes' 13.0

[Heat treatment for these products is compulsary by law

 PULSES 349

36.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. Of American Feed Control Officials (publisher) Sacramento.
CAIUSA.
2. Anonymous (1968): Food Composition Table [Recommended for use in the Philippines]. Food and Nutr.
Res. Inst.. Handbook No.1. 3rd revision.
3. Cumaranatunga. P.R. T.; Mallika. K.LG.P' (1991): Effects of different levels of dietary protein and a legume
(Vigna catiang) on gonadal development in Oreochromis niloticus (1.). Proc. Fourth Asian Fish Nutrition
Workshop. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!. 5. Asian Fish. Soc. ManilalPhilippines. 125.
4. Cumaranatunga, P.R.T.; Thabrew. H. (1989): Effects of legume (Vigna catiang) substituted diets on
the ovarian development of Oreochromis niloticus. Pmc. Third Int. Symp. on Feeding and Nutrition in
Fish. Toba. 28 Aug. to 1 Sept. (I.). Japan. 333-344.
5. De Boer, F.; Bickel. H. (1988): Livestock feed resources and feed evaluation in Europe. Elsevier Sciences
Publishers. AmsterdamfThe Nertherlands.
6. De Silva. S.S.; Gunasekera. R.M. (1989): Effect of dietary protein level and amount of plant ingredient
(Phaseolus aureus) incorporated into the diets on consumption. growth performance and carcass compo-
sition in Oreochromis niloticus (1.) fry. Aquaculture. 80.• 121-133.
7. De Silva. S.S.; Keembiyahetty; Gunasekera. R.M. (1988): Plant ingredient substitutes in Oreochromis
niloticus (L.) diets: Ingredient digestibility and effect of dietary protein content on digestibility. J. Aqua.
Trop.• 3 .• 127-138.
8. Eusebio. P. (1991): Effect of dehulIing on the nutritive value of some leguminous seeds as protein sources
for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) juveniles. Aquaculture. 99.• 297-308.
9. Evans. M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. Primary
Ind .• Brisbane/Australia (Series Q 185(01).
10. Gill. C. (1993): Chemistry for high quality pellets. Feed International. 14.• (3). 10-11.
11. Gouviea, A; Oliva. T.A; Gomes. E.; Rema. P. (1991): Effect of cooking/expansion of three legume seeds
on growth and food utilization by rainbow trout. Proc. Fish Nutrition in Practice. Biarritz (France). 24 to 27
June. 933-938
12. GPWA (1989): Grain Pool of Western Australia. Perth/Australia (Private communication).
13. Groop. J.; Beck, H.; Koops. H.; news. K. (1979): Quoted from: Higuera et al. (1988).
14. Hepher; B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge/U.K.
15. Higuera, M. de la; Garcia-Gallego. M.; Sam. A; Cardenete. G.; Suarez. M.D.; Moyano. F.J. (1988): Evaluation
of lupin seed meal as an alternative protein source in feeding of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri).
Aquaculture. 71 .• 37-50.
16. Martinez-Palacios. C.A; Cruz. R.G.; Olvera. N.A.; Novoa. M.A.; Chavez-Martinez. C. (1988): The use
of jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis Leguminosae) meal as a partial substitute for fish meal in diets for
tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus Cichlidae). Aquaculture. 68 .• 165-175.
17. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp - a manual on the preparation and presentation of
compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCP/REP/87126. Rome/ltaly.
18. NRC (1981): Nutrient requirements of coldwater fishes. National Academy Press. Washington D.C./uSA.
19. Olvera. N.A.; Martinez. P.; Galvan. R.C.; Chavez. C.S. (1988): The use of seed of the leguminous plant
(Sesbania grandiflora) as a partial replacement for fish meal in diets for tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus).
Aquaculture. 71 .• 51-60.
20. Pfeffer, E. (1993): Ernlihrungsphysilogische und Okologische Anforderungen an Alleinfutter fur Regen-
boegenforellen. Obers. Tierernlihrung. 21 .• 31-54.
350 CHAPTER 36

21. Pfeffer, E.; Kinzinger, S.; Rodehutscord, M. (1995): Influence of the proportion of poultry slaughter
by-products and of untreated or hydrothermically tested legume seeds in diets for rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) on apparent digestibilities of their energy and organic compounds. Aquaculture
Nutrition, 1., 111-117.
22. Rani, N.; Hira, C.K. (1993): Effect of various treatments on nutritional quality of faba beans (Vicia faba).
J. Food Sci. Techno\., 30., (61),413-416.
23. Scerbina, M.A. (1973): Quoted from: Steffens, W. [1985].
24. Steffens, W. (1985): Grundlagen der Fischerniihrung VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
25. news, K.; Koops, H.; BecK, H.; Schwalb-Biihling, A.; Gropp, J. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfuttem
flir die Regenbogenforelle. Vertiffent\. Inst. KUsten- und Binnenfischerei, Hamburg/Germany, No.
75/1981.
26. Viola, S.; Arieli, Y.; Zohar, G. (1988): Unusual feedstuffs (tapioca and lupin) as ingredients for carp and
tilapia feeds in intensive culture. Bamidgeh, 40., (1), 29-34.
27. Weinrich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
 37. RICE BY-PRODUCTS

37.1 Rationale

Rice (Oryza sativa) of the family Poaceae is a cereal with more than 10,000 cultivars
that can be subdivided into three sub-species (ssp. indica, ssp.japonica, ssp.javanica)'5l).
Rice is the staple food for about 2/3 of the world population. World-wide, more than
500 million MT rice are produced annually, of which 92% is harvested in Asia.
Individual products of rice are(l81:
• Paddy (or rough rice) 100%
• Rice hulls 20%
• Brown rice 80%
• Rice bran 10%
• Broken rice 6%
• White rice 64%
Rice is composed of several layers: the edible portion is a small, dry one-seeded kernel
that remains joined with the seed hence, is called a caryopsis (Figure 37-01)'221.
Rice bran collected under hygienic conditions and not mixed with hulls may be used
for rice cakes, cookies, croquettes(381. An extract from rice bran is made for the cure of
infantile beri-beri.

STYLE
~/--- PERICARP
TEGUMEN
ALEURONE LAYER

/,.#frA---- :=] GERM OR EMBRYO;

PLUMULE
COLEORHIZA
RADICLE

Figure 37-01. Structure of the rice grain fruit(~-d..ig.<df..m'23)

352 CHAPTER 37

37.2 Milling and Processing

The old way of processing rice was to pound the rice with mortar and pestle and the
resulting grain is unpolished, brown and sometimes only the hull is removed.
The conventional milling of rice sometimes called "abrasive milling" includes cleaning
the paddy of straw and dirt, shelling or dehulling to remove the hull thus producing
the brown or unpolished rice. Bran-removal which involves dry mechanical grinding or
frictional pressure machinery to remove the pericarp. tegumen, aleurone layers, embryo
and part of the outer endosperm produces what is known as polished rice and a by-product,
called rice bran composed of bran, germ and polishings (Figure 37-02)13).
A newer method of milling rice is solvent or hexane milling which produces superior
grain, bran and bran oil from the rice.

RICE GRAIN

I
(shelling)
I
De-hulled
rice

I
I
Polished Rice bran
rice (bran, germ,
polish)

I
(screeninJ
I ----------+---

,0
~eJrtraction
Oil

Whole Broken Rice De-oiled

grain rice bran oil rice bran

Figure 37-02. Flow diagram of rice milling process.

 RICE BY-PRODUCTS 353

37.3 Rice Bran

37.3.1 Description

Rice bran contains the bran layer together with the germ of the rice kernel. It is an energy
feedstuff. Rice pollard is the product which in addition to the bran and the germ,
also contains the husks and the polishings(7). Rice bran (inclusively the germ) has an oil
content of 12 to 15% with high levels of unsaturated fatty acids(5/). The oil deteriorates
very fast into free fatty acids. "Unde-oiled" rice bran, therefore, has a very short shelf-life,
but if the oil is solvent extracted, then the "de-oiled" bran can be stored much longer 8).
Rancidity is prevented by the addition of any anti-oxidant(J9).

37.3.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The removal of the oil from the bran has direct effect on the concentration of other
nutrients by more than 20% (Tables 37-01, 37-02)18). In unde-oiled rice bran, about
5.0 to 6.0% of oil is converted into free fatty acids dailyl56). Its content in fresh rice bran
is 13.7%, and increased to 43.0% when stored at 23°C for three months.
The high fibre content of rice bran is a limiting factor in its use.

Table 37-01: Chemical composition of by-products (1 % in of dry matter)

Rice bran Broken Rice Rice

rice Polishing hulls
(30.32.35) (30.3/.32.33) (8.18,49)
De-oiled Unde-oiled
(31,32,33,36) (36)

Crude protein 15.1 9.0 8.1 13.6 3.1

Crude fat 1.7 7.4 0.6 14.5 1.0
Ash 16.7 24.7 0.7 8.3 17.4
Crude fibre 13.7 17.9 0.4 4.2 44.3
N -free extract 52.8 41.0 90.2 59.4 34.2

Table 37-02: Essential amino acid composition of rice by-products (g/16 g N)

Rice bran Broken rice Rice Polishing

(6,7,30,31,32,49) (30.31,32,33,49)

De-oiled Unde-oiled
(6,33) (6,30,31,32,49)

Arginine 1.1 0.9 0.6 0.6

Histidine 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
Isoleucine 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4
Leucine 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.8
Lysine 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.5
Methionine 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
Phenylalanine 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.5
Threonine 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.4
Tryptophan 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
Valine 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.8
354 CHAPTER 37

Rice bran is high in phytate phosphorus amounting to 3.0 to 5.0%. Of a phosphorus

content of 0.79% in de-oiled rice bran only 25% is available for the common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and 19.0% for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)!39). Rice bran, unde-
oiled and de-oiled, is relatively high in iron and manganese (Table 37-03). and is partic-
ularly rich in the B-vitamins (Table 37-04).

Table 37-03: Macro and trace minerals of rice by-products.

Rice bran Broken Rice

rice Polishing
(7, )0, 49) (30,3/,33,49)
De-oiled Unde-oiled
(32, JJ, 49) (8, JO. JI. 49)

Calcium % 0.61 0.08 0.08 0.04

Phosphorus % 1.47 1.60 0.13 1.13
Sodium % 0.11 0.04 0.06 0.10
Potassium % 1.60 1.90 0.15 0.71
Magnesium % 1.04 0.93 0.02 0.57
Chlorine % 0.08 0.08 0.04 0.11
Sulphur % 0.19 0.20 0.15 0.12
Manganese mglkg 255.0 398.0 12.3 74.7
Iron mglkg 205.0 210.0 12.2 95.5
Zinc mglkg 33.0 38.0 2.1 25.8
Copper mglkg 14.3 14.7 3.3 6.0
Selenium mglkg 0.4 0.3
Iodine mglkg 0.07

Table 37-04: Vitamin content of rice by-products (per 1,000 g)

Rice bran Broken Rice

rice Polishing
(7. JO.49) (Jo. JI. JJ.49)
De-oiled Unde-oiled
(Jl. 33. 49) (8, 30. 31. 49)

Vitamin E mg 66.7 65.95 8.10 65.4

Vitamin B, mg 24.8 24.75 1.00 15.30
Vitamin B2 mg 3.2 2.85 0.60 1.46
Vitamin B. mg 32.0 32.12 0.40 30.81
Biotin mg 0.5 0.46 0.09 0.48
Nicotinic acid mg 312.1 329.90 19.70 395.40
Folic acid mg 2.4 2.40 0.10 1.22
Pantothenic acid mg 25.3 25.30 3.80 32.40
Choline g 1.2 1.4 1.0 1.2
 RICE BY-PRODUCTS 355

Physiological Properties
Un-deoiled rice bran has 2,760 kcallkg (11.5 MJlkg) gross energy(2J).
The common carp digests rice bran better than the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon
idella)(J5). Tropical catfish (Mystus nemurus) uses rice bran protein more efficiently than
channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) (Table 37-05)(23).
Dry matter digestibility of rice bran in white leg shrimp (Penaeus vanname i) is 40%
and protein digestibility is 76.4% while amino acid digestibility rangtis between 73 and
85% (Table 37-05)(2).

Table 37-05: Digestibility (%) of rice bran

Common Grass Channel Tropical White leg

carp carp catfish catfish shrimp
(15) (15) (/5) (23) (2)

Dry matter 85.8 40.0

Crude protein 89.5 71.1 71.0 81.0 70.4
Fat 91.5 73.4
Crude fibre 91.5
Carbohydrates 90.0
Energy 21.5

Arginine 85.1
Histidine 82.6
Isoleucine 73.4
Leucine 74.9
Lysine 81.0
Phenylalanine 74.9
Threonine 73.2
Valine 75.9

Other Properties
The retention of dietary calcium and other minerals is depressed by high levels of rice
bran in the diet<6). Phytic acid renders phosphorus unavailable. The anti-nutritional factors
lectins and thiaminase are also present in rice brad50 ).
The pelletising ability of rice bran is low to very low. Its abrasiveness is high and is
a key factor to the life of a die(J1, 16. 17).

37.3.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
Rice bran is more often used in diets for omnivorous and herbivorous rather than in
carnivorous fish diets. It is an inexpensive feedstuff for simple fish production systems pro-
ducing species such as: Catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala),
356 CHAPTER 37

grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), silver carp (Hypothamichthys rnolitrix), goldfish

(Carassius auratus), channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloti-
cus), milkfish (Chanos chanos), grey mullet (Liza parsia), paddle fish (Polydon spathula).
However, rice bran has been hardly used in comparison to diets without rice bran. But
in combination with oil cakes, pulses, fish meal and even cattle and chicken manure, fish
performed well and early broodstock maturity could be induced(12. /3.14.41.42.43.46).
Rice bran as a single feedstuff has proven to be more economical than commercial
fish feeds(27.28). Channel catfish grew faster and had better feed conversion and protein
efficiency when fed 40% rice bran than 30% wheat bran(JO). On the other hand, rice bran
was not as good as groundnut cake when fed to loach (Paramisgurmus dabrynus)
fingerlings(25) .
In experimental diets, rice bran has been used at levels between 10% and 70.0%
whereby diets for carp contained the highest levels and milkfish(l8. 47) and grey mullet
(Liza parsia) the lowestl5).

Crustaceans
Rice bran is not often used in shrimp diets because of its poor pelletability and relatively
high fibre content. However, it is used in marine and freshwater shrimp diets{4. 9) and in
supplementary diets for shrimps reared extensively or semi-intensively(9). In Indonesia,
shrimp farmers use 20% rice bran in home-made formulated feed for tiger prawn
(Penaeus rnonodon)l47).
For experimental purposes, rice bran has been used in diets for marine shrimps at levels
from 3.0 to 52.0%.

Live Food Organisms

In the initial stage of rearing marine species different kinds of live food is used.
These live food organisms such as brine shrimp (Artemia salina) copepods, (Arcatia
tonsa) and Chironomid larvae, have been found to grow better on rice bran diet than on
manure and other commercial feeds and may eliminate the need to culture phytoplank-
ton separately(52).
Artemia larvae yielded best growth when fed with rice bran than three different algal
species(46). For Daphnia (Daphnia similis), Cladocera (Simocephalus vetulus), water flea
(Moina macrocopa) and Ceriodaphnia cornuta, rice bran is a better food than poultry or
cattle manure(26). High fecundity and bigger size of daphnia were obtained when rice
bran was added to the pond water. It alone affected positively egg production of
daphnia(53). Rice bran also provides all the nutrients necessary to raise Calanoid copepod
(Arcatia tonsa) in seawater(52).

37.4 Broken Rice and Rice Polishings

37.4.1 Description

Broken rice results from the milling and polishing of rice. Three different grades of
broken rice are obtained{5/):
 RICE BY-PRODUCTS 357

Second head (large fragments);

Screenings (medium-sized fragments);
Brewer's milled rice (semolina).

Broken rice is a useful component of aquaculture feed and often used by small scale
farms in on-farm made feeds(20, 34, 39, 44). However, it is not ready available as a feedstuff.
It is a raw material for the food industry for producing extruded breakfast cereals, rice
flour and for beer brewing(S).
Rice polishings constitute 10% of the total quantity of rice bran and is sometimes used
in aquaculture diets(34).

37.4.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of broken rice is similar to that of whole, white rice. Broken rice
is relatively low in crude protein compared to rice bran. Crude protein, fat and crude fibre
are lower than in rice polishings, but crude fibre content of rice polishings is lower than of
rice bran (Table 37-01)(36). The essential amino acid profile of broken rice and rice polish-
ings are similar (Table 37-02).
Except for iron, manganese, potassium and zinc which are higher in rice polishings
the mineral content of broken rice and rice polishings are similar (Table 37-03).
Broken rice and rice polishings contain relatively high amounts of choline just like
rice bran (Table 37-04). Rice polishings have more Vitamin Bl' B6 and nicotinic acid
than broken rice.

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of broken rice for pigs amounts to 3,480 kcallkg (14.6 MJlkg) and
is lower than for polished rice being 3,700 kcallkg (15.5 MJlkg)fS).

Other Properties
The pelletising ability of broken rice is better than of rice bran. The pellet quality factor
is five in a scale of 10 as the best rating(ll). Rice polishings has a medium pelletising ability
but the abrasiveness is high(16, 17).

37.4.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
Broken rice is used as an energy source in diets for catfish (Pangasius sutchi, Clarias
sp.), snakehead (Channa striatus. Channa maculatus), milkfish and other herbivore
fishes at levels of up to 50%(44,55). When broken rice is cooked, it acts as a binder in moist
diets(56). At low levels, broken rice is also incorporated in shrimp feeds(44).
358 CHAPTER 37

37.5 Rice Hulls

37.5.1 Description and Properties

Rice hulls is the largest quantity of by-products from the first stage of milling paddy.
Fine ground rice hulls are a suitable carrier for vitamin and mineral premixes. Rice bran
and tapioca flour, may be adulterated with ground rice hulls.
Crude fibre and ash contents of rice hulls are high but crude protein and fat contents
are very low (Table 37-01). The ash is mainly silica (Si0 2), a hard glassy mineral.
Silicium is an essential element and important for the development of bones(24). In the form
of silica it is a deleterious substance{7}.
Digestible energy amounts to only 650 kcallkg (2.7 MJlkg)l8.18).

37.5.2 Feeding Value

Rice hulls at levels of 8.0 to 15.0% are used in pig feeds for reducing the nutrient intake
of the animals. No deleterious effect of the rice hulls were observed(8). Rations for laying
ducks may also contain rice hulls at levels of 16 to 30%(18).
Using rice hulls in fish feeding is merely suitable for extensive production systems
and when other feedstuffs are in short supply, respectively.
Rice hulls containing feed (20%) is considered as a supplemental food in diets for
grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus)(l8).
For rearing juvenile milkfish in ponds at a stocking density of 7,000 fingerlings per
hectare, rice hulls may be used at levels of 15.0 to 30%(9.45).

37.6 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Recommendation of rice by-products in practical diets for cultured aquatic animals are
listed in Table 37-06.

Table 37-06: Maximum inclusion rate (%) of by-products in practical

aquaculture diets

Rice bran Broken ricel Rice hulls

rice polishings

Carnivorous fish 15 10 0
Omnivorous fish 35 50 5
Herbivorous fish 35 60 10
Crustaceans 10 20 0
 RICE BY-PRODUCTS 359

37.7 Legal Aspects

EU-Directive 92/87 EEC of 26 October 1992, approves the following by-products of

rice milling(54):
• Broken rice (1.07)
• Yellow rice bran ( 1.08)
• White rice bran (1.09)
• Rice bran, high limestone content (1.10)
• Parboiled rice bran (1.11)
• Rice germ cake (1.12)
• Rice germ meal, solvent extracted (1.13)

The American Feed Ingredients Definition contains the following rice products(1):
• Rice polishings (75.1 = AAFCO No.)
• Ground rough rice or ground paddy (75.2)
• Rice bran, solvent extracted (75.3) (not less than 14% crude protein,
not more than 14% crude fibre,
• Chipped or broken or
brewer's rice (75.4)
• Ground brown rice (75.5)
• Rice hulls (75.6)
• Rice bran (75.7) (not more than 13% crude fibre,
more than l.2% calcium has to be
declared on the label)
• Rice mill by-product (75.8) (not more than 32% crude fibre)
• Parboiled rice bran (T75.9)
• Rice by-products fractions (87.6) (at least 5.0% crude protein and
crude protein and 1.5% fat, not
more than 25% crude fibre)

The minimum/maximum requirements for rice by-products, as laid down in the

German feedstuff legislation, are compiled in Table 37-07. The German feedstuff law
does not list rice hulls as a permitted single feedstuff. Its use is illegal, even as a carrier
for pre-mixes. Rice by-products having a higher content of rice hulls as permitted (Table
37 -07) are considered to be adulterated with them. Specification for rice bran in Thailand
are in Table 37-08.
The maximum tolerance, set by FDA for aflatoxin is 20 ppb and 7.0 ppm for lead.
USA regulations require for zero tolerance on salmonella in any kind of feed(29)
360 CHAPTER 37

Table 37-07: Minimum/maximum requirements for rice by-products (%) by the German feedstuff law(54)

Moisture Crude Fat Crude Ash Hulls CaCO,

protein fibre
max. min. min. max. max. max. max.

Yellow rice bran 13.0 12.5 1.7 3.0

Yellow rice bran
(low in limestone) 13.0 12.5 1.7 3.0 3.0
Rice bran 13.0 1.25 2.0
Rice bran, de-oiled 13.0 12.5 1.7 4.0
White rice bran 13.0 8.0 0.6 1.0
White rice bran
(high in limestone) 13.0 1.2 2.0 23.0
Rice germs 12.0 20.0 1.0
Rice germ meal
(solvent extracted) 13.0 24.0 4.0 1.5
Rice germ meal
(with added oil) 13.0 4.0 1.0
Rice germ cake 13.0 23.0 5.0 1.0

Table 37-08: Specifications for rice bran in Thailand (%)148)

Moisture Crude Fat Crude Ash

protein Fibre
max min max max max

Fine rice bran II 12 16 8 10

Rough rice bran II 5 2 28 18
Rice bran extract 13 14 3 12 14

37.8 References

I. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995 Asso. Of American Feed Control Officials (Publisher).
Sacramento, CAIUSA
2. Akiyama, D.M.; Cae/a, S.R.; Lawrence, A.L.; Robinson, E.H. (1989): Apparent digestibility of feedstuffs
by the marine shrimp, Penaeus vannamei Boone. Bull. Japan Soc. Sci. Fish, 55., 91.
3. Arroyo, p.T. (1974): Rice. (1st ed.): The Science of Philippine Foods (Abaniko Enterprises, Araneta
Center, Quezon City, Phil., 321.
 RICE BY-PRODUCTS 361

4. Boonyaratpalin, M.: New, M.B. (1993): On-farm feed preparation and feeding strategies for marine shrimp
and freshwater prawns, 120-134. Proc. FAOIAADCP Regional Export Consultation on Farm-Made
Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 December 1992, BangkokfThailand, 434. (FAO-RAPAlAADCP, Bangkok, Thailand).
5. Chakrabarti, N.M.: Kamakar, H.C.: Roy, A.K. (1984): Observations on the effect of supplementary feed
on growth and survival of grey mullet (Liza parsa, Hamilton) fry in brackishwater nursery ponds at
Kakdurip. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 12 to 18 January 1980, Cochin (Part 3: Finfish Culture
Marine Biological Assoc. of India, CochinlIndia, 1985), 3., 797-802.
6. Creswell, D. (1988): Amino acid composition of feedgrade rice by-products from several countries. Proc.
World Congress On Vegetable Protein Utilization in Human Foods and Animal Feedstuffs. American Oil
Chemists'Society. Champaign, IIIinoislUSA.
7. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and pOUltry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Ind., Brisbane/Australia, Info. Series QI85001.
8. Farrell, D.l.: Hutton, K. (1990): Rice and rice milling by-products. In: Thacker, P.A.; Kirkwood, R.N.; (eds.):
Nontraditional feed sources for use in swine production. Butterworth Publishers, StonehamlUSA.
9. Feed Development Section (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish, nile tilapia, Asian sea bass and tiger
shrimp. SEAFDEC Aqua. Dept., Tigbauan, I1oilolPhilippines. 97.
10. Garcia, M.e.: Toledo, 1. (1989): Effect of rice bran on growth of channel catfish fingerlings (letalurus
punctatus). Rev. Latin Arne. Agricult., 39.,10-13.
II. Gill, C. (l993)Chemistry for high quality pellets. Feed International 14., 10-11.
12. Gupta, S.D.; Khan, H.A.; Bhowmick, R.M. (1987): Observations on the effect ofVit. E and growth hormone
on the gonadal maturity of carps. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India, 19.,26-31.
13. Gupta, S.D.; Reddy, P'y'G.K.; Pani, K.C. (1990): Advancing maturity and spawning in Asiatic carps
through broodstock management. In: Keshavanath, P., Rabhakrishnan, K. Y. (eds.): Carp Seed Prod.
Tech., 2., 34-37.
14. Gupta, Y.K.: Sharma, 1.P.; Sristava, 1.B. (1990): Polyculture of Indian and exotic carps using cattle
manure with and without supplementary feed. In: Agrawal, Y.P.; Das, P. (eds.): Recent trends in limnol-
ogy (Muz Affamagar India Society of Biosciences), 439-446.
15. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, CambridgelEngland.
16. Henrampf, 1. W. (1992): On the water durability of aquaculture feed pellets - A Review. Advances in Feed
Tech. 7., 18-38.
17. Henrampf, 1. W. (1994): Futtermittel von tropischen und sub-tropischen Standorten. Paper pres. At a
Colloquium, Inst. fUr angewandte Botanik, University of Hamburg/Germany. 29 Aug.
18. Henrampf, J. W. (1994): Abschlussbericht tiber einen Senior-Experten-Einsatz in der V.R. China. Projeckt:
TIC-ZXSSFEED (Mimeograph).
19. Hussein, A.S.; Kratzer, F.U. (1982): Effect of rancidity on the feeding value of rice bran for chicken.
Poultry Sci., 61., 2450-2455.
20. lantrarotai, w.: Jantrarotai, P. (1993): On-farm feed preparation and feeding strategies for catfish and
snakehead, 101-119. Proc. FAOIAADCP Regional Export Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to
18 December 1992, BangkokfThailand, 434. (FAO-RAPAlAADCP, Bangkok, Thailand).
21. Jauneey, K.: Ross. B. (1982): Quoted from: Paulraj. R. (1995).
22. Juliano, B.D. (1972): Rice caryopsis and its composition. In: Houston, D.F. (ed.): Rice: Chemistry and
Technology. Arne. Asso. Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, Minnesota, 16-74.
23. Khan, M.S. (1994): Apparent digestibility coefficients for common feed ingredients in formulated diets
for tropical catfish, Mystus nemurus (Curvier and Valenciennes). Aquacult. Fish. Manage., 25., 167-174.
24. Kolb, E. (1989): Lehrbuch der Physiologie der Haustriere. YEB Gustav Fishcer Verlag, Jena/Germany.
362 CHAPTER 37

25. Liang, Z; Liang, J.; Chen, e.; Li, Z; Lim, J. (1988): The embryonic development and fingerling culture
of loach, Paramisgurmus dabrynus Sawage. Acta Hydrobiol. Sin-Shuishen, Shengwu-Xuebao, 12.,27-42.
26. Malhotra, Y.R.; Langer, S. (1993): Nutritional and density - dependent responses of some Cladocera.
Aquacult. Fish. Manage., 24.,631-640.
27. Middendorp, H.A.J.; Verreth, J.A.J. (1991): The development of small-scale hapa culture of tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) in Northeastern Thailand. 2. The feasibility using low-cost compound feeds.
Asian Fish. Sci., 4., 317-327.
28. Mims, S.D.; Clark, J.A.; Williams, J.e.; Rose, D.B. (1993): Comparisons oftwo by-products and a prepared
diet as organic fertilizers on growth and survival of larval paddle fish, Polyodon spathula, in earthen ponds.
J. Appl. Aquacult., 2., 171-187.
29. NRA (1993): Pocket information manual- a buyers guide to rendered products. National Renderes Asso.,
Inc. Alexandria, VirglU.S.A.
30. NRC (1977): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes. Nutrient requirement of domestic animals. Nat.
Acad. Press Wash. D.C.IUSA.
31. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes (revised ed.). Nutrient requirement
of domestic animals. Nat. Acad. Press Wash. D.C.IUSA.
32. NRC (1991): Nutrient requirements of coldwater fish. Nutrient requirementof domestic animals. Nat.
Acad. Press Wash. D.C.IUSA.
33. NRC (1993): Nutrient requirements of fish. Nutrient requirement of domestic animals. Nat. Acad. Press
Wash. D.C.IUSA.
34. Nandeesha, M.e. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in India. Proc. FAOIAADCP Regional Expert
Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 December 1992, BangkoklThailand, 434. (FAO-RAPAI
AADCP, Bangkok, Thailand). 213-254
35. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp. A manual on the preparation and presenttion of
compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAOIADCCPIREP/87126, Romelltaly.
36. New, M.B.; Singholka, S. (1982): Freshwater prawn farming: A manual for the culture of Macrobrachium
rosenbergii. Rome, FAO, FAO Fisheries Technical paper (225) Rev. 1
37. Ogino, e.; Takeuchi, L.; Takeda, H.; Watanabe, T. (1979): Availability of dietary phosphorus in carp and
rainbow trout. BUll. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 45., 1527-1532.
38. Orosa-del Rosario, H. (1970): Maria Y. Orosa - wife and her works (1st ed): Quezon City, Phil. Garcia
Publishing Co., 170-187.
39. Pantha, P. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Nepal. Proe. FAOIAADCP Regional Export
Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 December 1992, BangkoklThailand, 434. (FAO-RAPAI
AADCP, Bangkok, Thailand). 297-316.
40. Paulraj, R. (1995): Aquaculture feed (2nd ed.). Marine Prod. Export Dev. Authority, Koehi,India (publishers).
41. Sanchai, S. (1979) Level of Vit. E content suitable for gonad developing and spawning of goldfish Carassius
auratus (Lim). Master of Science Theses. Fisheries Science, 12., 2 (Abstr.).
42. Shackell, N.L.; Doyle, R. W. (1991): Scale morphology as an index of developmental stability and stress
resistance of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Can. J. Fish. Aqua!. Sci., 48., 1662-1669.
43. Somashekarrapa, 8.; Chandrashekaraish, H.N.; Nandeesha, M.e. (1990): In: Keshavanath. P., Rabhakrish-
nan, K. V. (eds.): Carp Seed Production Tech., 2., 29-33.
44. Somsueb, P. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Thailand. Proc. FAOIAADCP Regional Export
Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 December 1992, BangkoklThailand, 434. (FAO-RAPAI
AADCP, Bangkok, Thailand). 365-385.
45. Sumagaysay, N.S.; Chiu-Chern, Y.N. (1991): Effects of fiber in supplemental feeds on milkfish (Chanos
 RICE BY-PRODUCTS 363

chanos Forsskal) production in brackishwater ponds. Asian Fisheries Sci., Asian Fisheries Soc., Manila!
Philippines, 4., 189-199.
46. Sumitra, V; Krishnakumari, L.; Royan, J.P. (1987): Evaluation of different feeds for optimal growth and
survival of parthenogenetic brine shrimp, Artemia. Indian J. Mar. Sci., 16., 253-255.
47. Suprayitno, H.; Widagdo, D. (1989): Preliminary study on the effect of formulated feed using fermented
aquatic meal ingredients to growth rate of red tilapia. Workshop on Shrimp and Finfish Feed Dev., 25 to
29 October 1988 (Johore BahrulMalaysia), 115.
48. Sitasit, P. (1993): Feed ingredients and quality control. Farm-made aquafeeds. Proc. FAO/AADCP
Regional Export Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 December 1992, BangkokfThailand, 434.
(FAO-RAPA/AADCP, BangkoklThailand). 75-86.
49. Tacon, A. G.J. (1987): The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp 2 - A training manual on nutrient
sources and composition. Field Document 5/E GCP/RLN075IITA, FAO. 129 PP. BrasilialBrazil).
50. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for warmwater fish, fish meal and other processed feedstuffs, 64.
(FAO Fisheries Circular No. 856, FAO, Rome.)
51. Taujel, A.; Taynes, w.; Tunger, L.; Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon Behr's Verlag, Hamburg/Germany.
52. Turk, P.E.; Krejci, M.E.; Yang, W.T. (1982): Laboratory method for the culture of Acartia tonsa (Crustacea:
Copepoda) using rice bran. J. Agricult. Aquat. Sci., 3., 25-27.
53. Venkataraman, K.; Kesary, M.; Krishnaswamy, S. (1986): Influence of various concentrations of rice bran
with tap water and pond water on the longevity, egg production and body size of Daphnia similis Claus
(Crustacea:Cladocera). 1986 Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Anim. Sci., 95., 163-170.
54. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, V; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechthiche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agremedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
55. Wiang, C; Pothisoong, T. (1985): Protein requirements of catfish fry, Pangassius sutchi, Fowler. In: Cho,
CY.; Cowey, CB.; Watanabe, T. (eds.): Finfish nutrition in Asia. IDRC, 233e, 103-106.
56. Williams, M.A. (1989): Extrusion of rice bran. Proc. World Congr. Vegetable Protein Utilization in Human
Foods and Animal Feedstuffs. Singapore, October 1988. 100-102.
 38. SHRIMP MEAL

38.1 Rationale

Shrimp meal is a big by-product of the shrimp industry. Head-on world shrimp produc-
tion for shrimp is estimated to be 983,000 MT by year 2000(24). The head constitutes 34
to 45% of the whole shrimp(5). Assuming 40% waste and 50% of the production is com-
mercially processed, there would be about 200,000 MT or even more of the estimated
983,000 MT head-on production. This waste is a valuable feedstuff for aquaculture.

38.2 Manufacture and Processing

Heads and shells, by-products of shrimp processing and marine-caught crustaceans not
fit for human consumption are made into a meal. Shrimp meal is manufactured by direct-
ly drying the material under the sun or in an oven. A more professional method is by
blanching the fresh or wet material in boiling water, or steaming and then drying the
cooked product in a drier. The dried product is marketed unground or ground. Wet (raw
or ensiled) shrimp material may also be co-extruded with soybean meal by passing the
mixture through an extrusion machine twice. There are several types of shrimp meal
available in the market depending on the kind of raw material used.

38.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of shrimp meal varies widely depending on the source
(whether whole shrimps or heads) (Table 38-01) and method of processing (raw, dried,
etc) (Table 38-02). Shrimp meal is a good source of lysine and methionine (Table 38-03).
Its ratio varies between 1.0:2.5 to 3.7.
Shrimp meal is rich in highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) (Table 38-04). Of the fat
content are 10% cholesterol and, 35 to 50% phospholipids. Oven-drying may damage
the fatty acids, particularly that of linolenic acid(2, 9, 15).
Shrimp meal is a good source of choline (Table 38_05)(25,26). The calcium content of
shrimp meal particularly depends on the amount of shells in the product. The phosphorus
content is much lesser affected by the amount of shells in the meal. Shrimp meal made
from whole shrimps contained 3.03% and 1.13% calcium and phosphorus, respectively(l6)
while that from shrimp head were 12.21% and 1.63%, respectively(23).
 SHRIMP MEAL 365

Table 38-01: Chemical composition of shrimp meals (% in dry matter)

Crude Crude Crude

Protein fat fibre NFE Ash

Shrimp meal:
_ Wholeill. 33) 70.9 3.3 3.1 4.4 18.3
_ Headl II. /3. 14. 14.34) 43.2 5.6 15.8 2.4 33.0
_ WasteI22.37) 31.2 4.1 20.0 15.8 28.9
_ Process residuel25. 26. 27. 28. 39) 46.0 3.5 14.6 4.9 31.0
Acetesl II. 14) 72.0 3.8 3.1 5.2 15.9
Shrimp head silage dried(39) 74.2 7.4 18.4

Table 38-02: Chemical composition of shrimp head meals differently processedll5l .

Method of Moisture Crude Crude Ash Chitin Asta- Canta-

processing protein lipid xanthin xanthin
% % % % % mglkg mglkg

Solar' 5.8 44.4 8.4 27.8 15.0 11 39

Oven2 4.4 46.0 9.8 26.1 14.3 7 27
Cook press' 8.0 42.2 6.2 29.7 17.6 12 37
MBDD4 7.2 51.9 9.5 20.6 10.4 17 72
CookMBDD' 8.2 52.1 12.8 22.2 12.6 14 62

Raw Penaeus monodon head stored at -20°C and thawed prior to processing was used
'Solar - Dried for 24 hours under solar simulator
20 ven - Dried for 12 hours in ventilated oven at 80 a C
'Cook press - Blanched for 20 seconds in boiling water, drained and partiallyde-
watered by pressing, then dried in warm air, 50°C, 14 hours
4MBDD - Shell separated from meat and drum-dried, additional drying of flakes in
warm air stream at 40°C 14 hours to <10% moisture
'Cook MBDD - Blanched in boiling water for 20 seconds before processisng as in MBDD

Table 38-03: Essential amino acid profile of shrimp meal (g/16 g N)

Process residue Shrimp Muscle Acetes

meall 11.2/.25. head meal meal meal
26, 27, 28, 31. 39) 111.2/.39) 12/) (11.39)

Arginine 3.9 56.1 4.8 6.4

Histidine 1.3 1.9 1.7 1.4
Isoleucine 2.3 6.3 2.9 3.5
Leucine 4.1 5.9 7.0 6.8
Lysine 4.2 4.8 7.2 5.3
Methionine 1.4 1.3 2.9 2.0
Phenylalanine 2.5 4.1 3.9 3.6
Threonine 8.2 3.6 3.6 3.2
Tryptophan 0.6 3.6 0.5
Valine 2.6 5.4 2.9 3.8
366 CHAPTER 38

Table 38-04: Fatty acids (%) of total fat in shrimp meal as compared to wild tiger prawn
(Penaeus monodon) muscle'9, J5}

Wild tiger Shrimp meal Range

prawn Mean

Total n-6 14.8 18.9 17.6 - 19.9

Total n-3 PUFA 31.2 19.9 18.6 - 22.2
n-3/n-6 2.11 1.06 0.99 - l.l2
Linoleic 18:2n-6 1.9 8.9 0.5 - 12.3
Linolenic 18:3n-3 0.6 0.8 0,1 - 1.0
Eicosapentaenoic 20:5n-3 13.6 6.5 1.35 - 10.60
Docosahexaenoic 22:6n-3 15.5 9.3 1.45 - 11.8

Table 38-05: Mineral and vitamin contents of various types of shrimp meals

Minerals (9, 11,25, 26, 27, 38, 39) Vitamins (per I,OOOg) (25,26)

Calcium % 6.3 Riboflavin mg 4.4

Phosphorus % 1.6 Pantothenic acid mg 5.8
Potassium % 0,7 Choline g 6.0
Chlorine % 1.2
Magnesium % 0.7
Sodium % 1.7
Iron mg/kg 64.0
Manganese mglkg 33.2
Zinc mg/kg 32,0

Physiological Properties
The variability in digestible energy of shrimp meal depends on the composition and
country of origin (Table 38-06).

Table 38-06: The digestible energy of shrimp meal(38)

Product from ." Product kcal/kg MJ/kg

India Whole 3,656 15.3

Madagascar Whole 2,151 9.0
India Heads 2,080 8.7
Malaysia Heads 2,100 8.8
India Waste 2,262 9.5

The apparent protein and dry matter digestibilities of shrimp meal in the tiger prawn
(Penaeus monodon) and white leg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) is higher for tiger prawn
 SHRIMP MEAL 367

than for the latter (Table 38-07). The apparent essential amino acid digestibility is high-
est for lysine (85.79%) and lowest for histidine (25.4%)(3).
The apparent mineral digestibility of shrimp meal is generally poor. For magnesium,
the utilisation is negative as found in the white leg shrimps(4).

Table 38-07: Apparent digestibility of shrimp meals!]' 10)

Apparent digestibility Protein Dry matter

Tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon):

- Shrimp head meal, high protein 96.0 80.2
- Shrimp head meal, low protein 89.9 78.7
- Acetes meal 95.4 86.5
White leg prawn (Penaeus vannamei):
- shrimp meal 74.6 56.8

Other Properties
Shrimp meal and shrimp head meal have "chemo-attractant" propertiesI3o.35).
Farmed crustaceans preferred fresh, and frozen crustaceans I40). Diets with shrimp
meal were more attractive and enhanced feed consumption by tiger prawn than diets
without shrimp meaI (32 ). White leg shrimps were most attracted to Artemia and krill, both
crustaceans (29).
Shrimp meals are used in trout and salmon diets as a "pigmenter" to improve their
fleshy colour. They contain at an average 12.2 mg/g astaxanthin and 47.4 mg/kg cantax-
anthin (Table 38-02).
"Chitin" (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) which is the major structural component of the
exoskeleton of crustaceans is believed to have a growth promoting effect in shrimps.
The mean chitin content of crustacean meal is 14.0% (Table 38-02)14). Due to the high
chitin content shrimp meals have a poor pelletising ability (36).
Dietary "cholesterol" is needed by shrimps because they cannot synthesize it. About
10% of the organism's fat content is cholesteroI (37).

38.4 Feeding Value

Shrimp meals have multi-purpose functions in feeds for cultured aquatic animals. They are
protein feedstuffs but are also used for their other properties. Shrimp meals are more
commonly used in crustacean feed rather than fish feed.

Fishes
Shrimp meal (30%) in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) diets gave a reddish pigmentation
to the skin and muscle l1 2i. This was also the case when shrimp head meal was fed to Nile
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)l6i • Nile tilapia's growth was stimulated by shrimp head
meal while survival rate was essentially similar for all the test diets that included marigold
368 CHAPTER 38

petal meal, turmeric and spirulina alone. It was also used in the development of a suitable
amino acid test diet for red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus)f7).

Crustaceans
Shrimp meal as the sole source of protein in the diet for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)
juveniles did not perform as good as the combination of shrimp meal and molluscan
meal (Table 38-08)(29). The combination of shrimp head meal and fish meal at the ratio
of 1: 1 or 2: I was also significantly better than shrimp head meal alone at a level of 60%
when fed to tiger prawn post-Iarvae(32.33).
Growth of tiger prawn post-larvae fed shrimp meal compared to mussel meal was
comparable to the latter fed animals but PER and survival was inferior{l9). Feeding tiger
prawn larvae Acetes meal gave highest survival rate (68%) compared to larvae fed zoo-
plankton (Chaetoceros) (48%) or fresh Acetes (39%)(/8).

Table 38·08: Growth response of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)

to two levels of shrimp meal(l7)

Shrimp Meal % 66.7 32.7

Molluscan meal % 32.7
Crude protein of diet % 46.0 46.0
------------------------------------------
Mean weight gain g 0.716 0.828
Growth rate % 14Q.4 162.3
SGR % 3.41 3.94
PER 1.57 1.83
Survival % 86 94

The red swamp crayfish (Procrambarus clarkii) decreased consumption when fed
30% shrimp head meal in addition to menhaden fish meal(8).
Otherwise, shrimp meals are standard components of shrimp diets. In experimental
diets for crustaceans, shrimp meal is used at levels between 3.0 and 30%.

38.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Dietary inclusion levels may be limited by the high crude fibre, chitin and ash content of
shrimp meal in crustacean diets(4.20). Recommended inclusion rates for practical diets
should not be more than 20% and 10% for carnivorous and omnivorouslherbivorous
species, respectively.

38.6 Legal Aspects

The use of shrimp meal and shrimp head meal is not prohibited. No legal hindrance is
recorded for their use. Commercial shrimp meal should contain a minimum of 32%
crude protein and 4.0% crude fat and a maximum of 14% crude fibre(4).
 SHRIMP MEAL 369

German legislation prescribes that shrimp meal should have not more than 5.0% ash
and 12% moisture(4l).
Shrimp meal (No. 51.5) is listed in USA by AAFCO. It is the undecomposed ground
dried waste of shrimp. The salt content (NaCl) of more than 3.0% has to be declared on
the label and must not exceed 7.0%(1).

38.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher).
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
2. Akiyama, D.M. (1988): Soybean meal utilization by marine shrimp. Proc. AOCS World Congo Veg.
Protein Utilization in Human Food and Animal feedstuffs, Singapore, 2 to 7 October.
3. Akiyama, D.M.; Coelho, S.R.; Lawrence, A.L; Robinson, E.H. (1989): Apparent digestibility offeedstuffs
by the marine shrimp, Penaeus vannamei Boone. Bull. Japan. Soc. Sci. Fish 55., (I), 91.
4. Akiyama, D.M.; Dominy, w'G.; Lawrence, A.L. (1991): Penaeid shrimp nutrition for the commercial feed
industry (revised). Proc. Aquaculture Feed Processing and Nutrition Workshop, Thailand and Indonesia,
19 to 25 Sept. 1991. 80.
5. Barrat, A.; Montano, R. (1986): Shrimp heads - a new source of protein. Infofish Marketing Digest,
(4/86), 21-22.
6. Boonyaratpalin, M.; Unprasert, N. (1989): Effects of pigments from different sources on color changes
and growth of red Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture, 79., (1/4), 375-380.
7. Brown, P.B.; Davis, D.A.; Robinson, E.H. (1988): An estimate of the dietary lysine requirement of juvenile
red drum Sciaenops ocellatus. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 19., (3), 109-112.
8. Brown, P.B.; Robinson, E.H.; Clark, A.E.; Lawrence, A.L (1989): Apparent digestible energy coefficients
and associative effects in practical diets for red swamp crayfish. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 20., (3), 122-126.
9. Carver, LA.; Akiyama, D.M.; Dominy, w'G. (1988): Processing of wet shrimp heads and squid viscera
with soy meal by a dry extrusion process. Proc. World Congress on Vegetable Protein Utilization in
Human Foods and Animal Feedstuffs. Arne. Oil Chemists Soc. Champaign, Illinois. 167-170.
10. Catacutan, M. (1995): Apparent protein digestibility of feedstuffs in Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Paper
presented at 4th Asian Fisheries Forum, Beijing, Oct. 1994.
II. Chou, R. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Singapore. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional Expert
Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 Dec. 1992, BangkoklThailand. FAO-RAPAlAADCP,
Bangkok, Thailand. 354-364.
12. Choubert, G. Jr.; Luquet, P. (1983): Utilization of shrimp meal for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Rich.)
pigmentation influence of fat content of the diet. Aquaculture. 32 .• (112).19-26.
13. Djunaidah, I.S. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Indodnesia. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional
Expert Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 Dec. 1992, BangkoklThailand. FAO-RAPAI
AADCP, Bangkok, Thailand. 255-281.
14. Feed Development Section (FDS) (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish, Nile tilapia, Asian sea bass. and
tiger shrimp. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Dept., Tigbauan. Iloilo/Philippines. Extension Manual No. 21.
15. Fox, C.I.; Blow, P.; Brown, I.H.; Watson, I. (1994): The effect of various processing methods on the phys-
ical and biochemical properties of shrimp head meals and their utilization by juvenile Penaeus monodon
Fab. Aquaculture, 122., 209-2226.
16. Gohl, B. (1981): Tropical Feeds. FAO Animal Prod. Health Ser. (12), FAO, Rome.
370 CHAPTER 38

17. Hajra, A.; Ghosh, A.; Mandel, S.K. (1988): Biochemical studies on the detennination of optimum dietary
protein to energy ratio for tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon (Fab.) juveniles. Aquaculture, 71., 71-79.
18. Kungvankij, P.; Tacon, A.G.J; Corre, K.; Pudadera, B.P.; Talen, G.; Borlongan, E.; Potestas, J.D. (1986):
Acetes as prime food for Penaeus monodon larvae. Proc. First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fish. Soc.,
ManilaJPhilippines.
19. Lim, e.; Surarinat, P.; Platon, R. (1979): Evaluation of various protein sources for Penaeus monodon
post-larvae. Kalikasan. Philipp. J. BioI.. 8 .• (1). 29-36.
20. Meyers, S.P. (1981): Quoted from: Fox et al. (1994).
21. Meyers, S.P.; Benjamin, G. (1987): Feeding value of crustacean wastes can be improved through proper
ensilage treatment. Feedstuffs. 30 Mar. 12-13.
22. Nandeesha, M.e. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in India. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional Expert
Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds. 14 to 18 Dec. 1992. Bangkok/Thailand. FAO-RAPAlAADCP,
Bangkok. Thailand. 213-254.
23. New, M. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp - a manual on the preparation and presentation of
compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCPIREP187/26 RomelItaly.
24. New, M.B. (1991): Where will feeds be in the year 2000? Fish Farmer. 5 .• (3). 38-40.
25. NRC (1977): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals.
Nat. Acad.• Washington D.C'/uSA.
26. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes (revised ed.). Nutrient Requirements
of Domestic Animals. Nat. Acad .• Washington D.C./uSA.
27. NRC (1991): Nutrient requirements of coldwater fishes. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals.
Nat. Acad.• Washington D.C./USA.
28. NRC (1993): Nutrient requirements of fish. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. Nat. Acad .•
Washington D.C./uSA.
29. Ogle, 1.1.; Beaugez. K. (1991): Quoted from: Tacon. A.G.J. (1993).
30. Pan, B.S. (1990): Quoted from Fox et al. (1994).
31. Peiiaflorida. V.D. (1989): An evaluation of indigenous protein sources as potential component in the diet
formulation for tiger prawn Penaeus monodon. using essential amino acid index (EAAI). Aquaculture.
83.• 319-330.
32. Piedad-Pascual, F., Destajo, W.H. (1979): Growth and survival of Penaeus monodon post-larvae, fed
shrimp head meal and fish meal as primary animal source of protein. 4., (1), 23.
33. Piedad-Pascual. F.; Bandoni!, L (1977): Preliminary biological evaluation of some formulated feeds for
Penaeus monodon. Quarterly Res. Report. 1st quarter (January-March). 32.
34. Piedad-Pascual. P. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in the Philippines. In: New, M.B.; Tacon.
A.G.J.; Csavas, I. (eds.): Farm-made aquafeeds Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional Expert Consultation on
Farm-Made Aquafeeds. 14 to 18 Dec. 1992. Bangkokffhailand. FAO-RAPAlAADCP, Bangkok,
Thailand. 317-353.
35. Pradhu. P.v.; Madhava, P.N. (1985): Quoted from Fox et al. (1994).
36. Randall R.N.; Dearing. A.S. (1978): Shrimp by-product meal in diets of channel catfish. Prog. Fish. Cult.,
(40),39-40.
37. Sidewell, V.D. (1981): Quoted from: Akiyama et al. (1991).
38. Somsueb, P. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Thailand. Proc. FAO/AADCP Regional Expert
Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 Dec. 1992, Bangkok/Thailand. FAO-RAPAlAADCP,
Bangkok, Thailand. 365-385.
39. Tacon. A.G.J. (1987): The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp - A training manual. 2. Nutrient
 SHRIMP MEAL 371

Sources and Composition, GCPIRLN07511+A, FAO, BrasilialBrazil.

40. Tacon, A.G.J. (1993): Feed ingredients for crustaceans natural foods and processed feedstuffs. FAO
Fisheries Circular No. 866, FAO, Rome/Italy.
41. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften, Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
 39. SILKWORM PUPAE MEAL

39.1 Rationale

Silkworm pupae is the by-product after the silk-thread has been wound-off from the
cocoon and can serve as a feedstuff. Seri culture has its origin in China where it has been
known for almost 5,000 years. Major silk producing countries are P.R. China (57.5% of
World production), Japan (13.2%), India, (10.3%), Republic of Korea (South) (5.4%)
and Thailand (2.1%) (26).
The most common species for commercial silk production is the mulberry silkworm
(Bombyx mori) of the sub-phylum Tracheata (articulated animals)(24). The caterpillar
of the moth feed chiefly on mulberry leaves. The white mulberry (Morus alba) of
the family Moraceae is most common in Japan. This family includes more than 1,000
species(26) .

39.2 Processing

Prior to reeling-off of the silk-thread the cocoon is heated in order to kill the pupae.
One cocoon supplies about 800 m of silk-thread which is a fibroine, peculiar elongated
molecule thread(J9). The pupae remains and is dried and milled. Fat can be removed by
solvent extraction(5, 24). The cocoons have no feeding value(20).

39.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The crude protein content of silkworm pupae meal varies widely. The mean crude
protein content of fat extracted silkworm pupae meal is higher (72.8%) than that of
the fat containing meal (55.1 %) (Table 39-01). The limiting amino acids are lysine,
methionine, arginine, histidine and threonine (Table 39-02). The protein of silkworm
pupae meal is not of high value(5) based on the EAA-Index (essential amino acid) (61.3)
and the biological value (BW) (51.6%) (25).
The silkworm pupae meal fat has a lecithin content of 2.12%(25) and its fatty acid pro-
file is as shown be1oW(25):
Saturated fatty acids: 20.7%
Unsaturated fatty acids: 70.1%
thereof: • Palmitic acid: 14.0%
• Oleic acid: 9.1%
• Linoleic acid: 24.6%
 SILKWORM PUPAE MEAL 373

• Linolenic acid: 14.0%

• Other fatty acids: 8.4%c

Table 39-01: Chemical composition of silkworm pupae meal (% in dry matter)

(5. 19. 20, 24, 10,

Unde-oiled De-oiled

Mean Variation Mean Variation

Dry matter 88.9 68.5 95.1 91.9 90.4 98.5

Organic matter 89.6 87.9 91.8 86.4 84.2 88.8
Crude protein 55.1 49.4 60.9 72.8 44.5 77.6
Crude fat 23.2 14.2 30.3 2.0 0.7 - 7.0
Ash 3.8 2.2 7.5 5.6 4.4 - 9.1
Crude fibre 5.5 3.9 8.8 6.2 4.6 - 9.8
N-free extract 6.4 5.5 10.8 7.3 6.7 - 9.8

Table 39-02: Essential amino acid profile of silkworm pupae meal

(gfl6 g NY3. /4,20, 25)

Mean Variation

Arginine 6.0 3.6 - 7.8

Histidine 3.3 3.2 - 3.3
Isoleucine
Leucine } 7.8 7.5 8.0
Lysine 6.1 2.5 10.1
Methionine 1.9 1.8 1.9
Phenylalanine 2.5 1.8 3.2
Threonine 4.6 3.6 - 5.6
Tryptophan 1.1 0.6 - 1.5
Valine 4.7

The crude fibre of silkworm pupae meal is mostly chitin which is hardly utilised by
animals(5). Information on the mineral and vitamin content of silkworm pupae meal are
limited (Table 39-03).

Table 39-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of silkworm pupae meal

Minerals(5,2o, 30) Vitamins (per 1.000 gY'J)

Calcium % 0.63 Vitamin E mg 1,000

Phosphorus % 1.25 Vitamin B, mg 15.0
Sodium % 0.03 Vitamin B, mg 80.0
Potassium % 1.07 Vitamin BI2 mg 0.5
374 CHAPTER 39

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of the solvent extracted silkworm pupae meal is lower than of the
unde-oiled meal:
Gross energy: 5,939 kcallkg (24.8 MJY30)
Digestible energy, unde-oiled: 4,190 kcallkg (17.5 MJY20)
Digestible energy, de-oiled: 3,672 kcallkg (15.4 MJ)!2°)
The mean digestibility of silkworm pupae meal with fishes is 70.6% and is much
lower than that with chicken. Salmonids utilise the protein of silkworm pupae meal
much better than the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). The true digestibility of protein in
the Indian shrimp (Penaeus indicus) is even lower. The high fat content of silkworm
pupae meal may depress the protein digestibility(24) as demonstrated in chicken (Table
39-04).

Table 39-04: Apparent digestibility (%) of silkworm pupae meal

Species Dry matter Crude protein Crude fibre Reference

Salmonids 71.1 84.4 (7,8)

(12)
Common carp 63.9
(7)
Goldfish 80.0

Mean/all fish species 71.1 70.6

Indian shrimp 61.0 1 (I)

(27)
Pig 79.0' 85.0 92.0
(/5)
Chicken3 58.3 88.0 100.0
Chicken 61.7 84.9 97.2 (/5)

1 True digestibility; 2 Organic matter; 3 De-oiled silkworm pupae meal

Other Properties
Silkworm pupae meal contains food attractants and appetite stimulants for fish (28). Since
the phagostimulatory property is attached to the oil fraction of silkworm pupae, the
attractant capacity in the de-oiled product is negligible.
The physiological value of silkworm pupae oil is favourable, but the high level of
unsaturated fatty acids tend to cause rapid autoxidation.

39.4 Feeding Value

In terrestrial animals the feeding value of silkworm pupae meal is unsatisfactory. Most
probably the high fat content causes the negative responses. De-oiled silkworm pupae
meal is a more suitable protein feedstuff for land animals l5. 24).
 SILKWORM PUPAE MEAL 375

Fishes
Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) fry had poor growth when fed silkworm pupae meal
but feed efficiency was found to be satisfactory(l).
Replacing fish meal with silkworm pupae meal in diets for the common carp as well
as the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) gave better responses(9. 13). However, with
increasing levels of silkworm pupae meal the performances declined. Not more than
10% of the fish meal should be replaced by silkworm pupae meal (Table 39-05)(18)
although in exceptional cases up to 30% silkworm pupae meal in the diet showed good
growth(l1).

Table 39-05: De-oiled silkworm pupae meal replaces fish meal at increasing levels in diets for
common carp (Cyprynus carpio) (trial period: 126 days)(l8)

Silkworm pupae meal % 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

Fish meal % 25.0 15.0 10.0 5.0
Crude protein % 28.6 28.3 28.4 28.1 27.9
Fat % 7.7 7.2 7.8 7.5 7.8

Final weight g 157.4 129.2 105.4 119.9 117.2

Net weight gain g 156.4 128.2 104.4 118.9 116.2
Daily weight gain g 1.35 1.03 0.84 0.95 0.93
Feed conversion I: 2.85 2.96 3.07 3.03 3.06

The Indian major carp (Catla catla) grew better on diets containing non-de-oiled silk-
worm pupae meal (30%) than the de-oiled quality and the fish meal-fed fish, but feed
conversion of the former was poor(16).
Feeding the catla x rohu hybrid (Carla carla male x Labeo rohita female) with 15%
silkworm pupae meal in partial replacement for fish meal gave best responses (Table 39-06),
but performances of fish given higher levels of silkworm pupae meal were
unfavourable{lI.17). On the other hand, the Indian carp, Tor khudree, effectively utilised
silkworm pupae meal even when local fish meal was totally replaced(22).

Table 39-06: Non-defatted silkworm pupae meal replaces fish meal in diets for catla-rohu hybrids
(trial period: 112 days)(l7)

Silkworm pupae meal % 15.0 20.0 25.0 35.0

Fish meal % 20.0 10.0 10.0
Crude protein % 27.3 27.2 27.1 24.7 27.4
Fat % 6.3 7.5 8.2 8.5 9.7
----------------------------------------------------------------
Final weight g 86.2 118.2 84.8 84.7 87.0
Net weight gain g 84.2 116.2 82.8 82.7 85.0
Daily weight gain g 0.75 1.04 0.74 0.74 0.76
Feed conversion 1: 2.39 2.48 2.12 2.07 2.42
376 CHAPTER 39

In diets for the catfish Heteropneustesfossilis and Clarias batrachus, silkworm pupae
meal at increasing levels can significantly replace fish meal (Table 39-07). Up to 75% of
the protein requirement of catfish may be provided by silkworm pupae meal(lO) and was
found to be a better source of protein than other fish meal substitutes(6).
Ornamental fish can be fed satisfactorily with silkworm pupae meal(24).

Table 39-07: Fish meal replacement by silkworm pupae meal in diets for the catfish
Heteropneustis Jossilif 10)

Silkworm pupae meal % 11.3 22.7 34.0 45.3

Fish meal % 61.0 45.7 30.5 14.3
Crude protein % 31.5 32.0 32.5 32.3 32.9
Fat % 11.9 11.9 11.7 12.0 12.1

Initial weight g 2.10 2.11 2.13 2.10 2.14

Final weight g 5.05 5.40 6.08 6.20 5.32
Weight gain % 140.5 155.9 185.4 195.2 148.6
Feed conversion 1: 2.25 2.10 1.82 1.76 2.05
PER 1.41 1.49 1.70 1.76 1.48

Crustaceans
Replacing all fish meal (47%) protein by silkworm pupae meal (50%) in diets for the
Indian shrimp (Penaeus indicus) showed inferior results. All performance parameters
were considerably lower when compared to fish meal. Silkworm pupae meal as the only
protein component in the diet is a poor protein source for the Indian shrimp(2), but at low
levels it might be useful in shrimp diets(20.21).

39.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Silkworm pupae meal is a protein feedstuff. It can be used in diets for fish and shrimp at
levels of 5.0 to 15.0%. To avoid rancidity, non-de-oiled silkworm pupae meal should be
treated with an antioxidant.

39.6 Legal Aspects

The German feedstuff legislation defines silkworm pupae meal as a by-product from the
processing of natural silk. It is the dried, de-oiled and ground pupae of the silkworm and
free of cocoons. Only de-oiled meal is permitted as a feedstuffY29). Legal requirements are:
Moisture: max. 13.0%
• Fat: max. 0.40/0.
 SILKWORM PUPAE MEAL 377

39.7 References

I. Akiyama, T.; Murai, T.; Hirasawa, Y.; Nose, T. (1984): Supplementation of various meals to fish meal diet
for chum salmon fry. Aquaculture, 37., 217-222.
2. Ali, S.A. (1992): Evaluation of some animal and plant protein sources in the diet of the shrimp Penaeus
indicus. Asian Fisheries Sci., 5., 277-289.
3. Bungova, v.G.; Filippovitch. J.B. (1966): Quoted from: Friede, H.J. (1977).
4. Chang, W.Y.B.; Diana, J.S.; Chuapoehutz, W. (1983): Workshop report to agency for international devel-
opment, 19-29 April (Mimeograph).
5. Friede, H.J. (1977): Seidenraupenpuppenschrot. In: Kling, M.; Wohlbier, w.: Handelsfuttennittel. Verlag
Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
6. Habib, M.A.B.; Hasan, M.R.; Akand, A.M. (1992): Evaluation of silkworm pupae, poultry offal and blood
meal as dietary protein sources for Clarias batrachus. 3'" Asian Fish. Forum, Singapore, 26-30 October,
104 (Abstr.).
7. Hastings, W.H. (1969): Nutritional Score. In: Neuhaus, O. w.; Halver; J.H. (eds.): Fish in research.
Academic Press, New YorklUSA.
8. Hepher; B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/England.
9. Hora, S.L.; Pillay, T. V.R. (1962): Handbook on fish culture in the Indo-Pacific fisheries region. FAO Fish.
BioI. Techn. Paper, No. 14.
10. Hossain, M.A.; Islam, N.M.; Alim, M.A. (1991): Evaluation of silkworm pupae meal as dietary protein
source for catfish (Heteropneustes fossiles Bloch). Proc. Fish Nutrition in Practice, BiarritzlFrance, 24-
27 June, 785-791.
II. Jayaram, M.G.; Shetty, H.R.P. (1980): Influence of different diets on the proximate body composition of
Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cyprinus carpio. Mysore 1. Agric. Sci., 14.,381-384.
12. Kim, y.K. (1974): Determination of true digestibility of dietary proteins in carp with chromic oxide con-
taining diets. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries, 40., 651-653.
13. Koyama, H.; Okubo, H.; Miyajima, T. (1961): Studies offish food substitute for silkworm pupae as avail-
able foods for carp-CUlturing in farm ponds. II. Experiment about availability of soybean cake, 'Ko" meal
and fish meal. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab., Tokyo, 11., (I), 49-55.
14. Lakshminarayana, T.; Thirumala, T. (1971): Quoted from: Friede, H.i. (1977).
15. Mangold, E.; Stotz, H.; Columbus, A. (1936): Quoted from: Friede, H.J. (1977):
16. Nandeesha, M.e.; Srikanth. G.K.; Varghese, T.J.; Keshavanath. P.; Shetty, H.C.P' (1989): Growth per-
formance of an Indian major carp, Catla catla (Ham.) on fish meal-free diets. In: Silva, S.S. de (ed.): Fish
Nutrition Res. in Asia, Proc. 3'" Asian Fish Nutr. Network Meeting. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 4.
17. Nandeesha, M.e.; Srikanth. G.K.; Varghese, T.i.; Keshavanath, P.; Shelty, H.e.P. (1989): Influence of
silkworm pupae based diets on growth, organoleptic quality and biochemical composition of Catla-Rohu
hybrid. In: Huisman, E.A.; Zonneveld, N.; Bouwmans, A.H.M. (eds.): Aquaculture research in Asia:
Management techniques and nutrition. Proc. Asian Sem. on Aquaculture, organised by IFS Malang,
Indonesia, 14-18 November, 1988.211-221.
18. Nandeesha, M.e.; Srikanth, G.K.; Varghese, T.J.; Keshavanath, P.; Shetty, H.e.P. (1990): Growth per-
formance of Cyprinus carpio var. communis fed on diets containing different levels of de-oiled silkworm
pupae. In: Hirano, R.; Hanyu, l. (eds.): Proc. Second Asian Fish. Forum, Tokyo/Japan, 17-22 April, 1989.
271-274.
19. Nehring, K. (1955): Lehrbuch der Tierernabrung und Futtermittelkunde (5" edition). Neumann Verlag,
Radebeul and Berlin/Germany.
378 CHAPTER 39

20. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentationof
compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCPIREP/87/26, Rome 1 Italy.
21. Paulraj, R. (1995): Aquaculture feed (2 nd edition). Marine prod. Export Dev. Authority, KochilIndia
(Publ.).
22. Shyama, S.: Keshavanath, P. (1991): Growth response of Tor Khudree to silkworm pupa incorporated
diets. Proc. Fish Nutrition in Practice, BiarritztFrance, 24-27 June, 779-783.
23. Smirnov, M.T.: Mamedov, R.B. (1962): Quoted from: Friede. H.J. (1977).
24. Stahlin. A. (1957): Beurteilung der Futtermittel, Vol. XII. Neumann Verlag. Radebeul and
Berlin/Germany.
25. Steger, H.: Piatkowski, B. (1959): Quoted from: Friede. H.J. (1977).
26. Taufel. A.: Ternes. w.: Tunger, L: Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg/Germany.
27. Tomme. M.E. (1970): Quoted from: Friede. H.J. (1977).
28. Tsushima. J.: Ina, K. (1978): Survey of feeding stimulants for carp, Cyprinus carpio. J. Agric. Chemistry
Soc. Japan, 52., 225-229.
29. Weinreich, 0.: Koch, y.: Knippel. J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
30. Zoher, M.: Mazid. M.A. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Bangladesh. In: New.• M.B.: Tacon.
AG.J.: Csavas. I. (eds.): Farm made aquafeeds. RAP Publication 1993/18, AADCPIPROC/5,
BangkoklThailand, 75-86.
 40. SNAIL MEAL

40.1 Rationale

Snails are slow-moving gastropod molluscs that live on land (lung snails) or in water
(gill snails) and have a spiral protective shell or are shelless (Figure 40-01). Some species
are hermaphrodites. Snails are human food but are also ectoparasites and predators(14).
Major edible snails are the land snails Helix spp. and Achatina Spp.o8).
The African giant snail (Achatina fulica) originated from Africa, is now widespread
throughout the entire South-east Asia and the Pacific(18). It is a potential human health
risk, involved in transmitting meningitis to people when eaten uncookedl l7), and a serious
pest of rice, banana and other vegetable cropS(l5). The common field slug (Agriolimax
meticulatus), a shelless snail, is an intermediate host of the sheep lungworm(l7). The golden
apple snail (Pomacea caniculata) is also a pest of rice fields(15) and Cerithium tenellum
and Telescopium telescopium are pests in milkfish ponds(l6).
All these snail species appear in large numbers and are a potential feedstuff for on-farm
feed preparation but not for industrial manufacturing of aquaculture feed.

Figure 40-01. Land (lung) snails. Edible snail (Helix pomatia) (left) and common field (red)
slug (Agriolimax meticulatus) (right).
380 CHAPTER 40

40.2 Processing

Freshly collected snails are boiled in water for 15 to 20 minutes. The flesh is separated
from the shell, minced and dried at a temperature of not more than 60°C(3· 5. lSI. The adult
Helix aspersa maxima has a liveweight of about 40 g. The shell portion amounts to around
15% of the liveweight(l81.

40.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The manner of processing influences the chemical composition of snail meal. Whole snail
meal (flesh and shells) is low in protein but high in ashes. Meal only from snail flesh is
an excellent protein feedstuff (Table 40-01) and is a source of high levels of essential
amino acids (Table 40-02). The essential amino acid index (EAAI) of golden apple snail
protein is 0.91(21.
The fat of the golden apple snail is a good source of the essential fatty acids linoleic
acid (18:2n-6), linolenic acid (18:3n-3) and arachidonic acid (20:5n-3)!21.
The calcium content of whole snail meal and snail shells is high but the phosphorus
content is extremely low (Table 40-01).

Table 40-01: Chemical composition of snail meal (% in dry matter)

Flesh Shell Whole Whole! Whole'

meal(5) meal(5) meal(5) meaJ!'3) meal(6)

Moisture 4.74 7.0

Crude protein 60.9 2.8 16.1 13.75 52.8
Crude fat 6.1 1.0 2.0 1.68 1.8
Ash 9.6 54.5 46.0 73.84 20.9
Crude fibre 4.5 0.97 1.9
N-free extract 18.9 9.76 22.6
Calcium 2.0 36.1 31.1
Phosphorus 0.84 0.14 0.32

I From Cerithium sp.; 2 From golden apple snail (Pomacea caniculata)

Table 40-02: Essential amino acid profile of snail meal (g116 g Njl5,9)

Arginine 4,88
Histidine 1.43
Isoleucine 2.64
Leucine 4.62
Lysine 4.35
Methionine 0.89
Phenylalanine 2.62
Threonine 2.76
Tryptophan
Valine 3.07
 SNAIL MEAL 381

Physiological Properties
The gross energy of flesh meal amounts to 5,110 kca1/kg (21.4 MJ/kg) and the metabolisable
energy (determined in broilers) is 3,400 kcal/kg (14.2 MJ/kg)(5).
Snail meal is a source of xanthophyll sm. When laying hens were fed with snail meal,
chicken eggs had a deeper yolk colom.(4). It also may contain UGF (see chapter 44)(5. 15).

Other Properties
Meal from unboiled snails contain an anti-nutritional factor which is present in the slime of
the snail. By washing and/or cooking, the toxic and unpalatable factor can be removed(5.8).
The addition of methionine also eliminates the effect of the anti-nutritional factot4,15).

40.4 Feeding Value

The feeding value of snail meal has been tested in broilers(5), laying hens(4) and pigs(l5).
A significant improvement of performances were obtained by using 5.0 to 10.0% snail meal.
Satisfactory results were obtained when tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) until the age of
four months were fed with golden apple snails alone or in combination with carbohydrates.
The mixture of snails and maize gave best results{2}. Golden snails are a useful protein
ingredient in farm-made crustacean feed(3, 11, 12, 13).

40.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates and Precautions

Recommended Inclusion Rates

In experimental diets for the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii snail meal at
levels of 15.0% were used(l). For on-farm mixed aquaculture feed appropriate levels are
5.0 to 10% snail meal prepared from boiled snails and flesh only.

Precautions
Snails are high in protein and calcium. However, snail meal is only of value as feed for
aquatic animals, if cooked(lO).

40.6 References

1. AQUA COP (1976): Incorporation of vegetable protein into a diet for the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium
rosenbergii. Aquaculture, 8., 71-80.
2. Bombeo-Tuburan, I.; Fukumoto, S.; Rodriguez. E. (1994): Use of the golden apple snail, cassava and maize
as feeds for tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon in ponds. National Seminar-Workshop on Fish Nutrition and
Feeds, lto2 June, Tigbauan, IloilolThe Philippines (Abstr.).
3. Basa, S.S. (1988): Country review (Philippines). Proc. Workshop on Shrimps and Finfish Feeds Development,
Johore BahrulMalaysia, 25-29 October.
4. Creswell, D.C.; Habibie, A. (1989): Studies on snail meal as a protein source for chickens. 2. Feeding value
for laying hens. Poultry Sci., 60., 8, 1861-1864.
382 CHAPTER 40

5. Creswell, D.C; Kompiang, l.P. (1989): Studies on snail meal as a protein source for chickens. 1. Chemical
composition, metabolisable energy, and feeding value for broilers. Poultry Sci., 60., 8, 1854-1860.
6. Feed Development Section (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish, Nile tilapia, Asian sea bass, and tiger
shrimp. SEAFDEC, Aquaculture Dept., Tigbauan, Iloilo, The Philippines.
7. Fox, DL (1966): Pigmentation in molluscs. In: Wilbur, K.M.; Yonge. CM. (eds.): Physiology of molluscs,
Vol. II. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
8. Mead. A.R. (1961): The giant African snail. A problem in economical malacology. The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago/uSA.
9. Mead. A.R.; Kemmerer, R. (1951): Quoted from: Creswell and Kompiang (1981).
10. New. M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCPIREP/87126, Romelltaly.
11. New, M.B.; Csavas, l. (1993): A summary of information on aquafeed production in eleven Asian countries.
In: New, M.B.; Tacon, A.G.J.; Csavas, l. (eds.): Farm-made aqua feeds. RAPA Publication 1993118 -
AADCPIPROC/5, 397-419.
12. Pascual, F.p. (1989): Nutrition and feeding of Penaeus monodon. Aquaculture Extension Manual No.3
(3"' ed.) SEAFDEC, lloilolThe Philippines.
13. Piedad-Pascual, F. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in the Philippines. In: New, M.B.; Tacon,
A.G.J.; Csavas.l. (eds.): Farm-made aqua feeds. RAPAPublication 1993/18 - AADCPIPROC/5, 317-343.
14. Quayle, D.B.; Newkirk, G.F. (1989): Farming bivalve molluscs. Methods for study and development.
The World Aquaculture Soc., Baton Rouge, LAIUSA.
15. Sison, J.A. (1985): Handbook on crisis management on feedmilling and technology for the Philippines.
Feedindex (Phils.), Quezon CitylThe Philippines.
16. Trinio, A.T.; Bolivar, E.C; Jerochi, D.D. (1993): Effect of burning of rice straw on snails and soil in
a brackishwater pond. Intern. J. Tropical Aquaculture, 11., (2),93-97.
17. West, G.P. (1992): Black's veterinary dictionary. A & C Black, London, 17'h Edition.
18. Wilhelmsen, D. (1988): Snegleproduksjon - en mulig nisje for landbruket? Institutt for husdyrfag, Norges
Landbruksh0gskole, AslNorway (Mimeograph).
 41. SOYA LECITHIN

41.1 Rationale

Almost 150 years ago the French chemist Maurice Gobley isolated for the first time lecithin
from egg yolk. He found the emulsifying properties of this substance and named it
"Lecithin", from the Greek word - LEKITHOS - for egg yolk.
Scientifically "Lecithin" is the trivial name for one of its components -
"Phosphatidylcholine". But in the colloquial language lecithin is defined as a complex
of "polar" and "neutral" lipids with a polar content of at least 60%. Lecithin is synonymous
to phospholipids and phosphatides. The generic term for lecithin is "Phospholipids".
Hence, the term phospholipids is commonly used(l7).
All products of plant and animal origin contain phospholipids. Soya beans are the main
source of natural phospholipids. It contains 0.5 to 1.5% lecithin. Animal sources of
phospholipids are egg yolk, brain and molluscs. Other sources of phospholipids are
micro-organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi and yeasr56). Apart from its use in aqua-
culture as a feed ingredient, soya lecithin has a wide field of application!29).

41.2 Manufacture and Processing

Crude Lecithin
The crude soybean oil is heated to 70 0 e to 90 0 e and mixed with 1.0 to 4.0% water. The water
swells the lecithin to a jelly-like mass and by high-speed separation it is split from the oil
(Figure 41-01). The moisture of the so obtained lecithin sludge is removed in a thin-layer
evaporator by reduced pressure and at a temperature as low as possible. The moisture-free
material is the crude lecithin which is a plastic viscous, dark-brown, difficult to handle mass.
This process is also known as "de-gumming"(58).

Standardised Lecithin
This is crude lecithin that is refined, and phospholipid content and viscosity are standardised.

Modified Lecithin
By treating crude lecithin biologically or chemically modified lecithin is obtained.
There are a number of processes which can be used for modification. The most common
is hydroxylation with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of lactic acid and the enzymatical
treatment with four different phospholipases. Modified lecithin is still a liquid but has
better emulsifying property than all the other lecithin products(27).
384 CHAPTER 41

8
Degumming

Drying

/ReTing~
Standardizing Enzyme/acid De-oiling

Figure 41-01. Diagram of processing of crude soybean oil to lecithin products used in the feeding of
aquatic animals(l9).

De-oiled Lecithin
This quality is also called "pure lecithin". The adhering soybean oil is removed in several
refining stages. It is available in the form of powder or granules.

41.3 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Soya lecithin is composed of polar lipids, soybean oil, moisture and impurities (Table 41-01).
It is rich in unsaturated fatty acid (Table 41-02) and the phosphorus content is high
(Table 41-03). It contains also cholines, serines, ethanolamines, inositols and glycerols
(sphingosines).
The phospholipids are the major component of soyalecithin. They are "polar lipids"
(Figure 41-02), possessing at least one polar group and are subdivided into phospho-
lipids and glycolipids. The presence of phosphorus is the distinguishing characteristic of
phospholipids which can be divided into:
Glycerophospholipids
Sphingophospholipids.
Phospholipids are chemically composed of the "head" and the "tail". The "head" or
the hydrophilic portion has various chemical structures which determine the different
glycerophospholipid classes(49). Of major interest in aquaculture feed are:
Phosphatidy1choline (PC)
Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE)
• Phosphatidylinositol (PI)
 SOYA LECITHIN 385

Table 41-01: Composition of soybean oil "sludge" and crude lecithin (% Y19J

Sludge Crude lecithin

Polar lipids 33 60 to 70
Soybean oil 12 27 to 37
Moisture 53 0.5 to 1.5
Impurities 2 0.5 to 2.0

Table 41-02: Fatty acid content (% of total fatty acids) of soya lecithin(J6J

Crude lecithin De-oiled lecithin

Palmitic acid 16:0 15.6 20.3

Stearic acid 18:0 4.7 4.6

Saturated fatty acids 20.3 24.9

Oleic acid 18:1 17.9 9.2

Linoleic acid 18:2 54.0 58.9
Linolenic acid 18:3 6.7 7.0

Unsaturated fatty acids 78.6 75.1

Unsaturated:saturated ratio 1: 3.9 3.0

Table 41-03: Macro and trace mineral contents of soya lecithin(56)

Crude lecithin De-oiled lecithin

Phosphorus P % 2.00 3.00

Potassium K % 0.44 0.80
Calcium Ca % 0.04 0.07
Magnesium Mg % 0.06 0.09
Sodium Na % 0.01 0.03
Aluminium Al mg/kg 26.0 16.5
Iron Fe mg/kg 67.0 52.0
Boron B mg/kg 10.0 12.8
Copper Cu mg/kg 0.5 2.4
Zinc Zn mg/kg 12.2 23.7
Manganese Mn mglkg 1.0 1.5
386 CHAPTER 41

Pho£phatidyl- Phosphatidyl- Phosphatidyl-

choline inositol ethanolamine

Figure 41-02. Polar lipids and their c1assification(/9).

The phospholipid content of various lecithins are in Table 41-04. Soya lecithin also has
antioxidative(41.50) as well as chemo-attractant properties(l5).

Table 41-04: Mean composition (%) of soya lecithins(·7)

Standard Modified De-oiled

lecithin lecithin lecithin

Phosphatidylcholine 15.0 12.0 23.0

Phosphatidylinositol 13.0 10.0 19.0
Phosphatidylethanolamine 14.0 9.5 21.0
Other phospholipids, glycolipids,
phosphatidic acid 20.0 24.5 35.0

Total phospholipids' 62.0 56.0 98.0

Soybean oil and other substances 38.0 44.0 2.0

, pure lecithin, incl. glycolipids

 SOYA LECITHIN 387

Quality criteria for lecithins have been initiated by the "German Association of Lipid
Sciences" (Deutsche Gesellschaft fUr Fettwissenschaft e.v. [DGF]) as well as by the
"American Oil Chemists Society" (AOCS). The definition of lecithins by the European
Union (EU) and their quality criteia are compiled in Table 41-05(19).

Table 41-05: Definition of Lecithin by the European Union (EU) (E 322)(/9)

Description: Lecithins are mixtures or fractions of phosphatides obtained by physical procedures from
animal or vegetable foodstuffs; they also include hydrolysed products obtained through
the use of harmless and appropriate enzymes. The final product must not show any signs
of residual enzyme activity;
The lecithins may be slightly bleached in aqueous medium by means of hydrogen-peroxide.
This oxidation must not chemically modify the lecithin phosphatides;

Appearance: Lecithins: brown liquid or semi-liquid or powder;

Hydrolyzed lecithins: liquid brown to brown viscous or paste;

Content: Lecithins: not less than 60% of substance insoluble in acetone;

Hydrolysed lecithins: not less than 56% of substances insoluble in acetone;

Volatile matter: Not more than 2.0% determined by drying at 105 e C for one hour;

Substances
insoluble in toluene: Not more than 0.3%;

Acid value: Lecithins: not more than 35 mg of potassium hydroxide per gram;
Hydrolysed lecithin: not more than 45 mg of potassium hydroxide per gram;

Peroxide value: Equal to or less than 10, expressed as milli-equivalents per kilogram.

Functions of Phospholipids
Phospholipids are the major constituent of most membranes, and are vital to the normal
function of every cell and organ. They have regulatory activity inside the cell, within the
plasma membrane, as well as outside the ceW6) and are present in certain body fluids,
such as blood plasma of vertebrates in the form of "lipoprotein".
In aquaculture feed dietary soya lecithin is:
Necessary in intermediary metabolism, and
As a bio-surfactant (emulsifier) in the intestine.

Phosphatidylcholine particularly is closely involved in lipid metabolism. Phospholipids

are very important in the metabolic transport of fatty acids. Out of the liver they can only
be transported in the form of triglyceride within lipoproteins. An essential constituent
of these lipoproteins is phosphatidylcholine. Inadequate supply of phosphatidylcholine
388 CHAPTER 41

prevents transport of triglyceride from the liver causing an accumulation of fat known as
"fatty liver syndrome". Thus, there is an absolute dependence for phosphatidy1choline(66).
Without phospholipids there is no metabolic transport of fatty acids.
While mammals are capable of synthesising phospholipids de novo from 1,2-diglyc-
erides and from cytidine-5' -diphosphate choline (CDP-choline), crustaceans have a limited
ability to bio-synthesise them and consequently have to be provided with exogenous
phospholipids via the feed(9), but the lobster, Homarus americanus, may bio-synthesise
phospholipids by the pathways established for vertebrates(57).
The biosynthesis of phospholipids in fish may be similar to that of mammals(22. 40. 6l).
Phospholipids are also involved in the acclimatisation of fish to different environmental
temperatures(16), in the migration of fish from freshwater to seawater and vice versa(8. 16.45)
and are important for the osmoregulatory system of marine fish(37).
The bio-surfactant property of soya lecithin enhances the emulsification of dietary
lipids in the intestine and consequently fat absorption. Together with the bile and other
lipid soluble matter, aggregate into micelles which transport the splitted fat products to
the ville membranes where absorption occurs(39). Similarly phospholipids are needed for
the absorption of fat soluble vitamins.

41.4 Feeding Value

Fishes
Early feeding salmonids - rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Salmo gairdneri) and
Atlantic salmon (Safmo safar) - clearly survive better and grow faster when the diet is
supplemented with soya lecithin(53.54.55.59) (Figure 41-03).

9
6.5

6.0 r--

5.5
c:
'0;
-
Ol
E 5.0 r--

-
Ol
.~
>- 4.5
"8
OJ
4.0

o
o 2.0 4.0 8.0
0/0 LeCithin

Figure 41-03. Performances of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed a herring meal basal diet and
supplemental soya lecithin(5J).
 SOYA LECITHIN 389

Soya lecithin in diets for the larval ayu sweetfish (Plecoglossus altivelis) is needed for
better growth and survival and for reducing incidences of malformation and twist of
jawl32. 34). The juvenile white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) responded positively
to diets fortified with refined soya lecithin!24. 25). However, it has been also presumed that
the beneficial effects may have resulted from the choline mOiety of phosphatidylcholine
rather than the lecithin per se(23). The juvenile striped jack (Pseudocaranx dentex) per-
formed better when the diet was fortified with phosphatidylcholine than with phos-
phatidylethanolamine(66) •
In the larval and juvenile stage of red seabream (Chrysophrys major), Japanese flounder
(Paralichthys olivaceus), greenling (Hexagrammos otakii) and gilthead seabream (Sparus
aurata) the supplementation of soya lecithin at levels of 1.5 to 7.4% improved growth
and survival130. 33. 38. 48).
Although most of the trials have been done with larval, juvenile and fingerling fish,
there is evidence that phospholipids are also effective in larger animals(/·18).
In fish, soya lecithin was found superior to chicken egg lecithin. Only bonito egg
lecithin was more effective than soya lecithin!32.34).

Crustaceans
The juvenile spiny lobster (Homarus americanus) grow faster and survival rate is higher
when the feed is supplemented with 3.0 to 8.0% crude soya lecithin!2. 3.13. 36). But, if crab
protein is fed - which has a high phospholipid content - there is no need for dietary
lecithin!3. 13.31). Weight gain increased with increasing levels of crude soya lecithin in the
feedI36. 64), but survival rate improved only up to a supplementation level of 6.0% crude
soya lecithin(64). In the absence of cholesterol, lecithin hardly had any effect on the survival
rate of the juvenile lobsterl36).
The larval and juvenile kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) develop faster when the
diet is fortified with soya lecithinl31. 35. 62. 63) (Figure 41-04). Increasing amounts of soya
lecithin in diets for larvae and juvenile kuruma prawn and white leg prawn (Penaeus
vanameii) improved weight gain and survival rate simultaneously up to an inclusion rate
of 3.5% phosphatidylcholine!12· 35). There is also a synergistic effect between dietary
soybean phosphatidylcholine and dietary cholesterol. The best response was obtained
with 3.0% phosphatidylcholine and 1.0% cholesterol(63).
Soya lecithin in diets for the tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) not only improves
growth and survival!4. 51. 52) but has also a positive effect on maturation and spawning(47).
Weight gain, feed conversion and survival of the red tail prawn (Penaeus penicillatus)
were likewise improved when diets were supplemented with phosphatidylcholine or
cholesterol!11).
Apparently freshwater prawns like Marcrobrachium rosenberg;; do not need dietary
soya lecithin!5. 20).
Like in fish, soya lecithin gives better weight gain and survival than chicken egg lecithin
in the Halifax 10bsterl64), in the kuruma prawn(35) and in the tiger prawn1lO). Only bonito
egg lecithin has been found superior to soya lecithin(35).
390 CHAPTER 41

150

~,oo
c
0;
~

E
(jl
.~

~
C
l!l 50

O-f------,------r------.
10 20 30
Feeding period (days)

Figure 41-04. Weight gain (%) of kuruma prawns (Pe1lLleus japonicus) receiving diets with and without lecithin(62I.

Soya Lecithin Components of Significance

Choline, inositol and phosphorus are significant components of soya lecithin in the form
of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylinositol and phosphorus. Each kg of de-oiled soya
lecithin contains(l9):
36 g choline,
• 38 g inositol,
• 31 g phosphorus.
Soya lecithin, therefore, contributes to the requirement of these nutrients in aqua-
culture diets. Studies in the white sturgeon and Atlantic salmon (Figure 41-05) show that
phospholipids can replace choline chloridel43. 59) and is as well utilised as synthetic
choline chloride as found in chicken I7. 42). In man, lecithin is a more effective source of
choline than choline chloridel2I. 26. 65. 66).
 SOYA LECITHIN 391

%
30

2A')

'%

~L5

8'"
"
1.0

0.5

Q Ie 56
Days in hal

Figure 41-05. Daily growth rates of Atlantic salmon (Salrno salar) fingerlings by trial periods after feeding
phospholipids (de-oiled lecithin) and choline chloride/591•

41.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

The lecithin requirement of fish and shrimp (Table 41-06 and 41-07) comes from about
1/3 of the inherent phospholipid content of the components of the feed and 2/3 of
the supplemenal soya lecithin in the form of pure phospholipids (de-oiled lecithin)/19).
The phospholipid requirement depends on:
The total fat content of the feed;
The age or developmental stage of the aquatic animal;
• The temperature of the water in which the animal is cultured (e.g. coldwater fish
need more phospholipids than warmwater fish).
De-oiled lecithin is advantageous for the phospholipid fortification of feed(14. 35. 46).
The use of fluid lecithin (crude lecithin, standardised lecithin, modified lecithin) should
be based only on its phospholipid content.
392 CHAPTER 41

Table 41-06: Recommendations for the phospholipid requirement (% in the feed) of fishes
(added lecithin in the form of de-oiled powder and the native phospholipid
content of the feed)(l9)

Total fat content Type of feed

of the feed
Starter Grower Finisher

Total phospholipid content of the feed (%)

% Cold' Warm' Cold Warm Cold Warm

up to 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.1 1.0 0.7

3.0 5.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.6 1.4 1.1
5.0 7.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.5
7.0 9.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
9.0 11.0 5.0 4.5 3.5 3.1 2.6 2.3
11.0 and more 6.0 5.5 4.0 3.6 3.0 2.7

'Cold water fish; 'Warm water fish

Table 41-07: Recommendations for the phospholipid requirement (%) of shrimps

(added lecithin in the form of de-oiled lecithin and the inherent
phospholipid content of the feedym

Total fat content Type of feed

of the feed
% Starter Grower Finisher

until 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0

3.0 5.0 2.5 2.0 1.4
5.0 7.0 3.0 2.5 1.9
7.0 9.0 4.0 3.0 2.5
9.0 and more 6.0 4.0 3.0

41.6 Legal Aspects

In the European Union (EU) lecithin is listed in Section L, Annex I, No. E 322 of the EU
Regulations on Feed Additives and can be used in feeds for all kinds of productive farm
animals without quantitative limitation(l9). In U.S.A. lecithin has the GRAS (Generally
Recognised As Safe) status with the FDA registration no. 582.1400(44).
 SOYA LECITHIN 393

41.7 References

1. Allwoerden, H.N. von; Hoffmann, D.; Feldheim, W. (199O): Versuchsbericht des Inst. fiir Humanerniihrung
und Lebensmittelkunde der Univ. KieUGermany.
2. Boghen, A; Castell, 1.D. (1980): Considerations of the lecithin and protein requirements of juvenile
lobsters (Homarus americanus). Proc. 1980 Lobster Nutrition Workshop. University of MainelOrano,
15 to 16 January.
3. Bowser. P.R.; Rosemark, R. (1981): Mortalities of cultured lobster. Homarus. associated with a molt death
syndrome. Aquaculture. 23.• 11-18.
4. Briggs, M.R.P.; Brown, 1.H. (1990): The effect of dietary lipid and phospholipid levels on the growth.
survival. feed efficiency and carcass composition of juvenile Penaeus monodon. (unpublished data).
5. Briggs, M.R.P.; launcey, K.; Brown, 1.H. (1988): The cholesterol and lecithin requirements of juvenile
prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) fed semi-purified diets. Aquaculture. 70.• 121-129.
6. Bruni, A.; Bellini, F.; Mietto, L; Boarato, E.; Viola. G. (1990): Phospholipids absorption and diffusion
through membranes. In: Hanin, I.; Pepeu, G. (199O): Phospholipids. Plenum Press. New York and
London. 59-68.
7. Budowski, P.; Kajri, I.; Sklan, D. (1977): Utilization of choline from crude soybean lecithin by chicks.
2. Absorption measurements. Poultry Sci., 56.• (3). 754-757.
8. Castell, J.D. (1979): Review of lipid requirements of finfish. In: Finfish nutrition and fish feed technology.
Schriften BFF. Hamburg/Germany. 14.115.• (2). 59-84.
9. Castell, J.D.; Mason, E.C.; Covey, J.F. (1975): J. Fish Research Board Canada, 38.,1431-1435.
10. Catucatan, M.; Kanazawa, A. (1985): Quoted from: Piedad-Pascual (1986):
11. Chen, H.Y.; Jenn, 1.S. (1991): Combined effects of dietary phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol on growth,
survival and body composition of marine shrimp, Penaeus penicillatus. Aquaculture, 96., 167-178.
12. Clark, Ann E.; Lawrence, A (w/o year): Lecithin requirement of post larval Penaeus vannameii. Shrimp
Mariculture Project, Texas Agric. Experim. Station, Port Arensas (Mimeograph).
13. Conklin, D.E.; D'Abramo, D.E.; Bordner, C.E.; Baum, N.A (1980): A successful purified diet for the culture
of juvenile lobsters: The effect of lecithin. Aquaculture, 21., 243-249.
14. D'Abramo, LR.; Bordner, c.F.; Conklin, D.E. (1982): Relationship between dietary phosphatidylcholine
and serum cholesterol in the lobster Homarus sp. Marine Biology, 67., 231-235.
15. Harada, K. (1987): Relationship between structure and feeding attraction activity of certain L-amino
acids and lecithin in aquatic animals. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fishery, 53., 2243-2247.
16. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge/U.K.
17. Hertramp/. 1. W. (1991): Feeding aquatic animals with phospholipids. I. Crustaceans. Lucas Meyer
Publication No.8.
18. Hertramp/' J. W. (1991): Zur Phospholipid-Versorgung von Salmoniden. Die Miihle + Mischfuttertechnik.
128.• (36), 463-465.
19. Hertramp/. 1. W. (1992): Feeding aquatic animals with phospholipids, II. Fishes. Lucas Meyer Publication
No.H.
20. Hilton, J. w.; Harrison, K.E.; Slinger, S.1. (1984): Semi-purified test diet for Macrobrachium rosenbergii
and the lack of need for supplemental lecithin. Aquaculture, 37.• 209-215.
21. Hirsch, M.1.; Growdon, 1.H.; Wurtman, R.J. (1978): Relations between dietary choline or lecithin intake,
serum choline levels and various metabolic indices. Metabolism, 27., 953 ff.
22. Holub, B.1.; Nilsson, K.; Piekarski, J.; Slinger, S.l. (1975): Bio-synthesis oflecithin by the CDP-choline
pathway in liver microsomes in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. 1. Fishery Res. Board Canada, 32, 1633-1637.
394 CHAPTER 41

23. Hung, S.S.O. (1989): Choline requirement of hatchery-produced juvenile white sturgeon (Acipenser
transmontanus). Aquaculture, 78.,183-194.
24. Hung, S.S.O.; Lutes, P.B. (1988): A preliminary study on the nonessentiality of lecithin for hatchery
produced juvenile white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus). Aquaculture, 68., 353-360.
25. Hung, S.s.O.; Moore, B.J.; Bordner, e.E.; Conte, FS. (1987): Growth of juvenile white sturgeon
(Acipenser transmontanus) fed different purified diets. J. Nutrition, 117., (2), 328-334.
26. Jope, R.S. et at. (1982): Quoted from Kahl, J. (1991).
27. JWH (1993): Modified lecithin for aquaculture feed. Lecithin Trends 2/93, August, (Lucas Meyer Newsletter).
28. JWH (1993): Shrimp's lecithin requirement. Lecithin Trends 5/93, November, (Lucas Meyer Newsletter).
29. JWH (1994): Unlimited application for soya lecithin. Lecithin Trends 14/64, August (Lucas Meyer Newsletter).
30. Kanazawa, A. (1991): Essential phospholipids of larval fish and crustaceans. Paper pres. 4'h Symp. on Fish
Nutrition and Feeding, 24-27 June, BiarritzlFrance.
31. Kanazawa, A; Teshima, S.; Endo M.; Abdel Razem, FS. (1979): Effects of short-necked clam phospho-
lipids on the growth of prawns. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 45., 961-965.
32. Kanazawa, A.; Teshima, S.; Inamori, S.; Iwashita, T.; Nagao, A. (1981): Effects of phospholipids on
growth, survival and incidence of malformation in the larval ayu. Mem. Fac. Fish. Kagoshima University,
30.,301-309.
33. Kanazawa, A.; Teshima, S.; [namori, S.; Matsubara, H. (1983): Effects of dietary phospholipids on
growth of the larval red sea bream and knife jaw. Mem. Fac. Fish. Kagoshima University, 32., 109-114.
34. Kanazawa, A; Teshima, S.; Kobayashi, T.; [washita, M.; Vendra, R. (1983): Necessity of dietary phos-
pholipids for growth of the larval ayu. Mem. Fac. Fish. Kagoshima University, 32., 109-114.
35. Kanazawa, A; Teshima, S.; Sakamoto, M. (1985): Effects of dietary lipid fatty acids and phospholipids
on growth and survival of prawn (Penaeus japonicus) larvae. Aquaculture, 50., 39-49.
36. Kean, J.e.; Castell, J.D.; Boghen, AG.; D'Abramo, L.R.; Conklin, D.E. (1985): Are-evaluation oflecithin
and cholesterol requirements of juvenile lobsters (Homarus americanus using crab protein-based diets.
Aquaculture, 47., 143-149.
37. Kimelberg, H.K.; Papahadjopolus, D. (1972): Phospholipid requirement or (Na+ and K)ATPase activity.
Head group specificity and fatty acid fluidity. Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 282., 277-292.
38. Koven, W.M.; Kolkovski, S.; Tandler, A; Kissi/, G. w.; Sklan, D. (1991): The effect of dietary lecithin and
exogenous lipases on fatty acid incorporation in the tissue lipids of Sparus aurota larvae. Paper pres.
Symp. on Fish Nutrition and Feeding. 24-27 June, BiarritzlFrance.
39. Lang, K. (1979): Biochemie der Emahrung. 2"d Ed., Dr. Dietrich Steinkopff-Veriag, Darmstadt/Germany.
40. Lee, DJ.; Sinnhuber, R.O. (1972): Lipid requirement. In: Halver, J.E.: Fish Nutrition. Academic Press,
New York, 149-186.
41. Linow, F; Mieth, G. (1976): Zur fettstabilisierenden Wirkung von Phosphatiden. 3. Mitt. Synergistische
Wirkung ausgewahlter Phosphatide. Nahrung, 20., (1), 19-24.
42. Lipstein, B.; Bornstein, S.; Budowski, P. (1977): Utilization of choline from crude soybean lecithin by
chicks.!. Growth and prevention of perosis. Poultry Sci., 56., 251-252.
43. Lucas, e.e.; Ridout, J.H. (1967): Transmethylation and biosynthesis of the methyl group. In: Holman:
Fatty livers and lipotropic phenomena. Progress in Chemistry of fats and other lipids, 10., (1), Pergamon
Press London.
44. Lusas, E. w.; Riaz, M.N. (1996): Fats in feedstuffs and pet foods. In: Hui, Y.H. (ed.): Bailey's industrial
oil and fat products, 5'h Ed., Vol. 3. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
45. Meister, R.; Zwingelstein, e.; Jouanneleau, J. (1974): Salinite et composition en acides grasides phos-
phoglucerides tissulaires chez l'anguille (Anguilla anguilla). Ann. Inst. Michel Pacha,1973, (8), 58-71.
 SOYA LECITHIN 395

46. Meyers, S.P. (1990): Aquaculture diets with lecithin. Feed International, 11., (6), 17-20.
47. Millamena, a.M.; Primavera, J.H.; Pudadera, R.A.; Caballero, R. V. (1986): The effect of diet on the
reproductive perfonnance of pond-reared Penaeus monodon Fabricius broodstock. Proc. 1" Asian Fish.
Forum, 539-596 (Asian Fish. Soc., Manila).
48. ada, T. (1984): Effects of artificial diet supplemented soybean lecithin for fat greenling Hexagrammos
otakii larvae. Bull. Fish. Exp. Station Okayarna Prefecture, 64-68.
49. PaltauJ, F.; Hermetter; A. (1990): Phospholipids - Natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic. In: Hanin,l.; Pepeu,
G.: Phospholipids, Plenum Press, New York and London, 1-12.
50. Pardun, H. (19820; Progress in production and processing of vegetable lecithins. Fette, Seifen,
Anstrichmittel, 84.,1-11.
5!. Piedad-Pascual, F. (1984): Lecithin requirements of Penaeus monodon. In: Taki, Y.; Primavera, J.H.;
llobrera, J.A. (1985): Proc. 1" International Conf. on the Culture of Penaeid prawns/shrimps, 4 to 7 Dec.
1984, Iloilo Cityffhe Philippines.
52. Piedad-Pascual, F. (1986): Effect of supplemental lecithin and lipid sources on the growth and survival
of Penaeus monodonjuveniles. Proc. 1" Asian Fish Forum, 615-618 (Asian Fish. Soc., Manila).
53. Poston, H.A. (1990): Perfonnance of rainbow trout fry fed supplemental soy lecithin and choline. Prog.
Fish. Cult., 52., 218-225.
54. Poston, H.A. (1990): Effect of body size on growth, survival and chemical composition of Atlantic
salmon fed soy lecithin and choline. Prog. Fish. Cult., 52., 226-230.
55. Rumsey, G. w.; Smith, R. (1990): Lecithin with diatomaceous earth works well in fish feed. Feedstuffs,
62. 11-13 (30 June).
56. Schiller; w.; WYwiol, v. (1986): Lecithin - der unvergleichliche Wirkstoff. Verlag Alfred Strothe, Frankfurt.
57. Shieh, H.S. (1969): The biosynthesis of phospholipids in the lobster, Homarus americanus. Compo
Biochem. Physio!., 30., 679.
58. Stansby, M.E. (1990): Fish oils in Nutrition. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
59. Storebakken, T.; Berge, G.; Hung, S.S.O. (1992): Growth effects of dietary phospholipids and choline on
Atlantic salmon fingerlings. Trial-Report of 28 Jan.
60. Takeuchi, T.; Arakawa, T.; Sato, S.; Watanabe, T. (1992): Supplemental effect of phospholipids and
requirement of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid of juvenile striped jack. Nippon Suisan
Gakkaishi, 58., (4), 707-713.
6!. Tarr; H.L.A. (1972): Enzymes and systems of intermediary metabolism. In: Halver; J.E.: Fish Nutrition.
Academic Press, New York, 255-326.
62. Teshima, S.; Kanazawa, A. (1986): Nutritive value of sterols for the juvenile prawn. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.,
52., (3), 519-524.
63. Teshima, S.; Kanazawa, A.; Sasada, H.; Kawasaki, M. (1982): Requirements of the larval prawn Penaeus
japonicus for cholesterol and soybean phospholipids. Mem. Fac. Fish. Kagoshima Univ., 31., 193-199.
64. Trider, D.J.; Castell, J.D. (1980): Some current findings of the Halifax lobster nutrition group. Proc. 1980
Lobster Nutrition Workshop. University of Maine/Orono, 15-16 January.
65. Wurlmann, R.J.; Hirsch, w.J.; Growdon, J.H. (1977): quoted from Chan, M.M. (1984).
66. Zeisel, S.H. (1990): Phospholipids and choline deficiency. In: Hanin, I.; Pepeu, G. (1990): Phospholipids.
Plenum Press, New York and London, 219-231.
67. Ziegelitz, R. (1990): Personal Communication.
 42. SOYA PROTEIN PRODUCTS

42.1 Rationale

Soya protein products are valuable, protein-rich by-products from soybean oil extraction.
Soya proteins have a wide range of application in the food industry where they are used
for their good nutritional value, but the primary interests are their functional properties(lO).
Among others they are used as substitutes for animal protein and are particularly good
animal protein replacements in aquaculture feeds.

42.2 Manufacture and Processing

All soya proteins are made from de-hulled soya beans and for animal nutrition are sub-
divided into (Figure 42-01):
• Soybean meal (see chapter 46);
Soya protein concentrate,
• Soya protein isolate;
Soya protein hydrolysate.

SOYA BEANS
(de-hulled)

I
J 1
Soybean oil Soybean fl akes

I
1 1
Soya protein Soya protein
concentrate isolate

I I
1
Soya protein
hydrolysate

Figure 42-01. Diagram of soya protein products.

 SOYA PROTEIN PRODUCTS 397

Soya Protein Concentrate

The roller milled flakes still contain N-free extracts (carbohydrates, phytic acid, oligosac-
charides) which are removed by an additional extraction with 80% aqueous alcohol or
isoelectric leaching(6). However, the alcohol treatment denatures the protein. The product,
therefore, has a low protein solubility. In the process of extrusion soya protein concentrate
aquires a good texture and remarkably swells(9).

Soya Protein Isolate

In the production of soya protein isolate, de-fatted and ground soybean meal are dispersed
in water. The water soluble carbohydrates are dissolved while the undissolved constituents
are separated by centrifuges or filters (e.g. insoluble polysaccharides, cell-wall material).
The extract is then acidified to pH 4.5 and the proteins are precipitated. The precipitate
is pasty and it is neutralised with caustic soda. Spray-drying the material yields a fine soya
protein isolate which is readily soluble in watd JO ). Soya protein isolate may also be
fractionated into its various globulins by a variety of techniques(8).

Soya Protein Hydrolysate

Soya protein hydrolysate is produced from either soya protein concentrate or soya protein
isolate by enzymatic hydrolysis. The insoluble protein is converted into soluble protein
(Figure 42-02)13). The Oriental soya sauce is an example of hydrolysed soya protein!2l).
The sludge in the separation process step 2, contains polysaccharides and uncon-
verted protein. It can be hydrolysed for a second time or dried and used as animal feed(3).
So far there is no information on the nutritive value of dried sludge as an aquaculture
feed ingredient.

42.3 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Soya protein products are high in protein, fat content is negligible and crude fibre is at
a reasonable level (Table 42-01). Higher crude fibre contents indicate that the respective
product is processed from un de-hulled soya beans(/3).

Table 42-01: Chemical composition of soya protein products (%)(/8)

Soybean meal Soya protein Soya protein

(de-oiled) concentrate isolate

Moisture 5.0 8.0 5.0 8.0 5.0 8.0

Crude protein 52.0 54.0 67.0 72.0 90.0 92.0
Crude fat 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.1 1.0
Crude fibre 3.5 4.5 3.5 5.0 4.0 - 5.0
N-free extract 34.0 - 35.0 19.0 21.0 0.3 0.6
398 CHAPTER 42

Soya protein products have a good amino acid profile, except for lysine and methionine
(Table 42-02). The various production processes hardly affect the amino acid composition
of the products.
For determining the quality and the nutritional value of soya protein products the fol-
lowing parameters are of interest:
Protein dispersibility index (PDI). Indicates the heat damage during treatment
and the water solubility of the protein;
Protein efficiency ratio (PER). Indicates the effectiveness of the protein. Tested
in rats (weight gain per g of protein consumed) and should be in the range of
2.0 to 2.4;
Trypsin inhibitor activity;
Urease activity.

Table 42-02: Essential amino acid content of soya protein products (g/16 g N)15)

Soybean meal Soya protein Soya protein

(de-oiled) concentrate isolate

Leucine 7.0 7.9 7.8

Isoleucine 4.4 4.6 4.5
Lysine 6.3 6.3 6.0
Methionine 1.3 1.3 1.0
Phenylalanine 5.1 5.1 5.2
Threonine 4.0 4.3 3.5
Tryptophan 1.4 1.5 1.2
Valine 4.8 4.8 4.6

Physiological Properties
The true digestibility of soya protein products is high in rats. Hydrolysed soya protein
processed from soya protein concentrate is superior to the same made from soya protein
isolate. Hydrolysation improved the digestibility by 6.0% and 10.0%, respectively.
The "net protein utilisation" differed significantly (Table 42-03)(3). The apparent dry mat-
ter and protein digestibility of soya protein for the white leg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei)
is 84.1 % and 96.4%(4).

Table 42-03: Biological evaluation of soya protein products in ratslJ )

True digestibility Biological value Net protein

utilisation'

Casein (control) 89 80 72
Soya protein concentrate 87 69 60
Soya protein isolate 81 53 43
Hydrolysed soya protein 2 ) 91 49 44
Hydrolysed soya protein') 93 55 52

'(TO x BV) : 100; 2 Made from soya protein isolate; 'Made from soya protein concentrate
 SOYA PROTEIN PRODUCTS 399

SOYA PROTEI"
CO..CEJrTRATE!
ISOLATE

Figure 42-02. Diagram of the production of soya protein hydrolysate/daw/rome J).

The amino acid digestibility of soya protein concentrate and the retention rate is better
for the larger fish than for smaller ones as found in yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata)l20).

42.4 Feeding Value

Soya protein products are protein feedstuffs and useful for young terrestrial animals.
Soya protein isolate can replace skimmilk powder in diets for early weaned piglets(J9)
and veal calves(JI). However, supplementation with lactose has to be consideredW
400 CHAPTER 42

Soya Protein Concentrate

High quality fish meal replaced by soya protein concentrate at levels as high as 56% of
the total protein in diets for older salmonids (Atlantic salmon [Salrno salar], rainbow
trout [Oncorhynchus rnykiss]) had no negative effect on performances of the fish. There was
no difference in the efficacy of soya protein concentrate between rearing in seawater and
freshwaters(J3, 14, 17). Rainbow trout fingerlings, however, showed depressed growth when
fed soya protein concentrate(12).
In the young yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) (100 to 200 g liveweight) brown fish
meal can be partially replaced by 20% soya protein concentrate but has to be supplemented
with amino acids (Table 42-04Y20).

Table 42-04: Response of yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) on replacement of brown fish

meal by soya protein concentrate!'O)

Brown fish meal % 65 55 45 35

Soya protein concentr. % 10 20 30
Amino acids I % 0.398 0.796 1.194
Crude protein % 53.9 54.7 53.9 53.0
Energy/protein 2 % 76.8 76.4 76.9 76.5

Initialliveweight g 128.6 128.6 128.6 128.6

Finalliveweight g 358.6 352.2 354.3 326.1
Daily gain % 2.25 2.19 2.23 2.06
Feed conversion 3 % 81.2 80.5 79.1 74.9
PER4 1.51 1.48 1.46 1.42
Survival rate % 100.0 98.6 100.0 98.6

I Essential amino acid blend: 5.0% I-Threonine; 6.0% I-Valine; 55.0% dl-Methionine; 25.0%
I-Lysine, 9.0% I-Histidine. 2 Metabolisable energy (kcallkg diet) : crude protein (%).
3 (Liveweight gain x 100) : daily feed intake. 4 Protein efficiency ratio: Liveweight gain:
protein intake

Soya Protein Isolate

In separate experiments 30% and 35% soya protein isolate replaced all other animal pro-
tein in basal diets for the Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout without negative effects(J5, 16).

42.5 Recommended Inclusion Rate

Soya protein products have a high protein content and a good digestibility but the inclusion
rate should not exceed 20%. Additional fortification with amino acids (methionine, lysine)
has to be considered.
 SOYA PROTEIN PRODUCTS 401

42.6 Legal Aspects

The use of soya protein products in animal feeds is not restricted. They are described and
listed by the following national and international bodies:
"Codex Alimentaire" of the joint FAOIWHO Food Standards Programme(6);
European Union, Directive 92/871EEC of 26 October, 1992(22);
Feed Ingredient Definitions by AAFCO(l));
German feedstuff legislation (Table 42-05)(22).

Table 42-05: Minimum quality requirements (% in dry matter) for soya protein products as
stipulated by international and national bodies

Soya protein ... Codex(6) EVl22) U.S.AP) Germany22)

Protein Protein Protein Protein Lysine

Concentrate 65 NIRI 65 63 3.7

Isolate 90 90 90 5.0
Hydrolysate NIR

I No requirement

42.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher), Sacramento,
CAIUSA.
2. Adler-Nissen, J. (1976): Enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins for increased solubility. J. Agric. Food Chemistry,
24. (6),1090-1093.
3. Adler-Nissen, J. (1977): Enzymatic hydrolysis of food proteins. Process Biochemistry, 12. (6), 18-21.
4. Akiyama. D.M. (1988): Soybean meal utilization by marine shrimp. Proc. AOCS World Congress on Veg.
Protein Utilization in Human Food and Animal Feedstuffs, Singapore, 2-7 October.
5. Anonymous (1989): Edelsoya. Published by Edelsoya GmbH, Hamburg/Germany.
6. Berry, K.E. (1989): Preparation of soy protein concentrate products and their application in food systems.
In: Applewhite. T.H. (ed): Proceedings of the World Congress on Vegetable Protein Utilization in Human
Foods and Animal Feedstuffs, Singapore, October 1988, 62-65.
7. Coffey, R.D.; Maxwell, e. v.; Clutter, A.C. (1991): The effect of isolated soy protein substitution for milk
proteins with and without maintaining constant lactose on performance of early weaned pigs. Anim.
Science Res. Rep., MP-134, 307-316. Dept. Anim. Science, Oklahoma State University
8. Gibson. P.w.; Yackel. w.e. (1989): Soy protein fractionation and applications. In: Applewhite. T.H. (ed):
Proceedings of the World Congress on Vegetable Protein Utilization in Human Foods and Animal
Feedstuffs. Singapore, October 1988. 507-509.
9. Hayakawa. I. (1992): Texturising soya explained in detail. Extrusion Communique. 5 .• (1). 5-11.
10. Johnson. D.W.; Kikuchi. S. (1989): Processing for producing soy protein isolates.!n; Applewhite. T.H.
402 CHAPTER 42

(ed): Proceedings of the World Congress on Vegetable Protein Utilization in Human Foods and Animal
Feedstuffs, Singapore, October 1988, 66-77.
11. Lalles. J.P.; Toullec. R.; Branco Pardal. P.; Sissons. J. W. (1995): Hydrolyzed soy protein isolate sustains
high nutritional performance in veal calves. J. Dairy Sci .• 78., 194-204.
12. Murai. T.; Ogata. H.; Villanetla, A; Watanabe. T (1989): Utilization of soy flour by fingerling rainbow
trout having different body size. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 55., 1067-1073.
13. Olli. J.J.; Krogdahl. A. (1994): Nutritive value of four soybean products as protein sources in diets for
rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss. Wahlbaum) reared in fresh water. Acta Agric. Scand., Sect. A,
Animal Sci., 44., 185-192.
14. Olli. J.J.; Krogdahl, A.; Ingh. T.S.G.A.M. van den; Brattas. L.E. (1994): Nutritive value offour soybean
products in diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo sala" L.). Acta Agric. Scand .• Sect. A, Animal Sci., 44., 50-60.
15. Poston. H.A. (1990a): Performance of rainbow trout fry fed supplemental soy lecithin and choline.
The Progressive Fish Culturist. 52.• 218-225.
16. Poston. H.A (1990b): Effect of body size on growth. survival and chemical composition of Atlantic
salmon fed soy lecithin and choline. The Progressive Fish Culturist. 52., 226-230.
17. Schulz. D.; Goerlich. R.; Hartfiel. w.; Greuel. E. (1985): Vergleichende Untersuchungen an Regenbogen-
forellen (Salmo gairdneri. R.) tiber den Futterwert eines herklimmlichen Sojafeinmehles und eines
Sojaproduktes ohne Antigenwirkung. Z. TIerphysiol.. Tiererniihrung. Futtermittelkd.• 53.• 199-207.
18. Sipos. E.F. (1990): Edible uses of soybean protein. ASA Technical Bulletin, Vol. HNI2.
19. Sohn. K.S.; Maxwell. C. v. (1991): Alternative protein sources for milk protein in early weaned pig diets.
Anim. Science Res. Rep .• MP-134, 359-366. Dept. Anim. Science. Oklahoma State University.
20. Takii. K.; Shimeno, S.; Nakamura. M.; Itoh. y.; Obatake. A; Kumai. H.; Takeda. M. (1989): Evaluation
of soy protein concentrate as a partial substitute for fish meal protein in practical diet for yellowtail. Proc.
Third Int. Symposium on Feeding and Nutrition in Fish, 28 August - 1 September, Toba/Japan, 281-288.
21. Uchid. K. (1989): Trends in preparation and uses of fermented and acid-hydrolysed soy sauce. In:
Applewhite. T.H. (ed): Proceedings of the World Congress on Vegetable Protein Utilization in Human
Foods and Animal Feedstuffs, Singapore, October 1988, 78-83.
22. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
 43. SQUID MEAL

43.1 Rationale

There are some one thousand species of the class Cephalopoda, mainly two families are
commercially caught: Omnastrephidae and Loliquinidae. World-wide about 1.5 million
MT are landed per year with Japan on the top with more than 600,000 MT per annum(30J.
Koreans consume more than any other country 8.3 kg squid per capital28J .
Squid, also named "cuttlefish" can be found in all oceans. The smallest species of this
rapacious aquatic animal is just 10 cm long (Loligo loligo) while the largest can be as large
as 70 cml30) (Figure 43-01).

Figure 43·01. The common squid (!.oligo vulgaris).

The mantle, head and tentacles are used mainly for human consumption. The squid
waste which usually includes viscera may also contain head and tentacles, fin, skin and
pen amounting to about 52% of the whole weightl14J . These wastes are made into a meal.
A valuable oil may be extracted from the viscera. By-products of squid processing are
important feed ingredients in aquaculture diets, particularly in shrimp diets.

43.2 Manufacture and Processing

Drying is the most common method of processing squid and squid waste. Squid may be
dried whole or sliced lengthwise, viscera and head and tentacles removed. The mantle is
404 CHAPTER 43

either blanched in boiling water or directly dried under the sun or in an oven on screen trays.
The dried product is ground into a meal.
Blanching of squid waste for two minutes in a 2.0% salt solution (2.0% sodium chloride
and 0.5% alum solution) reduces yield but the product can be dried in a shorter time,
colour of the product is improved and grinding is easiet14).
Squid liver meal is of lower quality than squid meal. It usually contains 70% squid
meal (viscera included) and 30% potato pulp or other absorbents as carrier26). Apart from
the cottage-style, manufacture by the industrial method of processing squid waste into
squid meal or squid liver meal follows the described principles but is more sophosticated.
Fresh viscera may also be ensiled(9) (see Chapter 20).

43.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical
Squid meal has high protein value ranging from 70% to almost 90% (fable 43-01).
The crude protein content of squid liver meal is lower because it is not pure squid.
The amino acid profile is well balanced (Table 43-02). Its essential amino acid index"
(EAAI) is high (0.96) and similar to white fish meal (0.96) and shrimp meal (0.98) and
is much higher than soybean meal (0.87)125).
The fat content of squid meal is moderate (Table 43-01). The portion of highly
unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) of the total fat is high (Table 43-03). Of the total fat
content of the squid £Oligo pealei and lllex illegebrosus 57% are polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA), of which 99% are HUFA. Timnodonic acid (eiocosapentaenoic) (20:5n-3)
and docosahexaenoic (22:6n-3) accounted for almost 50% of the total far I8).
Ash content is around 6.0% for squid meal and ranges between 5.0 and 10% for squid
liver meal (Table 43-01). The calcium content of squid meal is low (0.11%) and the
phosphorus contentis 0.41 %(16). A higher phosphorus content, 1.1%, was obtained in
squid viscera from Dosidicus gigas(6).
The amount of cholesterol in squid meal is affected by the squid species and varies
widely within species(l8):
Squid (£Oligo pea/ei): 171 to 449 mg/IOO g raw squid
Squid (Illex illegebrosus): 108 to 336 mg/IOO g raw squid

Table 43-01: Chemical composition of squid products (% in dry matter)

Squid meal Squid Squid Squid

113.14.16. 25)
liver meal viscera viscera
12.15.26) (fresh)16) (silage)16)

Dry matter 95.3 88.88 17.8 19.9

Crude protein 80.5 50.8 75.3 60.8
Crude fat 4.0 17.2 7.4 7.3
Ash 6.4 7.6 6.8 9.5
 SQUID MEAL 405

Table 43-02: Essential amino acid profile of squid meal and squid liver
meal (g/16 g N)I)' IS. 25)

Squid meal Squid liver meal

Arginine 6.08 2.79

Histidine 2.16
Isoleucine 4.19
Leucine 7.28
Lysine 6.30 2.88
Methionine 2.83 1.09
Phenylalanine 3.43
Thereonine 3.60 1.95
Tryptophan 0.90 0.55
Valine 4.16

Table 43·03: Fatty acids and cholesterol content of squid by-products

(% of total fat)(2. 6. 26)

Squid viscera, Squid liver

Fresh meal

Crude fat 0.3

Free fatty acids 1.9
Cholesterol 0.35 - 0.40

Octadecadienoic 18:2n-6 3.0

Eicosapentaenoic 20:5n-3 15.0
Docosahexaenoic 22:6n-3 25.2

Physiological Properties
Fresh squid has in the dry matter a gross energy content of about 4,600 kcal/kg (19.2
MJ/kg). The protein of squid contributes 84% to the gross energy (Table 43-02)130).
Squid meal from Dosidicus gigas is highly digestible in sheep (organic matter = 83%;
crude protein =94.0% and fat =96% digestible)(16). The apparent protein and dry matter
digestibility of squid meal for tiger prawn is 96.0% and 85.5%, respectively(JO).
The apparent amino acid digestibility of squid meal in the experimental diet for white
leg prawn is (% of dry matter)(l):
Arginine 79.4 • Lysine 78.6
• Histidine 73.6 • Phenylalanine 74.1
406 CHAPTER 43

• Isoleucine 77.2 Threonine 79.7

• Leucine 79.4 Valine 79.3

Other properties
Squid meal and other squid products have chemo-attractant properties (glycine and betaine)
which are important activators of the feeding behaviour201 • Raw squid contains 619 to
928 mg glycinelbetaine per 100 g raw muscle, and in octopus 1,434 mg glycinelbetaine
per 100 g fresh material(17).
Squid meal appears to have also growth promoting propertiesl24l • Biological studies
have shown that squid contains some unidentified growth factors which are called "squid
factor"(l3I. Growth was enhanced in Kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) by 30 to 50%
when the diet was supplemented with squid meal.
The lipid of squid reduces the serum cholesterol in animals (29).

43.4 Feeding Value

Squid meal has been classified as an excellent ingredient for aquaculture feed, and fresh
squid is also recommended in moist dietsl24l • Its feeding value is based on growth promotion
and chemo-attractant properties l121 •

Fishes
Studies with squid meal or other squid products in fish are scanty. Fresh squid at a level
of 46% in moist diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
gave greater increases in weight and length, a higher condition factor, no change in
carcass percentage and higher dry matter and fat contents in both fish species than with
the control dietl41 •

Crustaceans
Highest protein efficiency ratio, weight gain and feed conversion were obtained with
squid meal as compared to fresh mussel meat, casein and shrimp meal when fed to 15 mg
tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) post-larvae (Table 43-04)(191.

Table 43-04: Squid meal and other protein feedstuff in diets for post-larvae tiger
prawn (Penaeus monodon)(/9)

Diet Portion of Weight gain Feed PER

the diet conversion
% mg I:

Squid meal 63.0 16.0 1.9 1.05

Shrimp meal 64.4 13.8 0.9 0.91
Mussel meat' 13.7 2.4 0.66
Casein 55.0 12.5 0.8 0.80

'Control diet - fresh brown mussel (Modulus metcalfei) fed at 20% (dry weight basis)
of body weight
 SQUID MEAL 407

Tiger prawns reared in brackishwater ponds and fed diets containing either squid
meal, fish meal, or soybean meal as the main ingredient produced after 110 days, more body
mass 39% and 117%, respectively, when grown on squid meal diet than on fish meal or
soybean meal diets(27).
Rice bran was replaced by varying amounts of squid mantel meal in diets for intensive
culture of the brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) and northern white shrimp (Penaeus setiferus).
Not surprisingly, better results were obtained with diets containing squid meal than with
rice bran as the major component of the diet (Figure 43-02)111. 12). This was also found
when a mixture of squid and soybean meal (60:40) was fed to shrimps(9).
4.0

3.0

2
....:J:
!2 2.0
~
Z
<I
III

'"
1.0

O~---L----~--~----~ __~
10 20 30 40 50

DAYS

Figure 43-02. Response on liveweight of brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) juveniles when fed diets con-
taining squid meal(Da"f-' II).

Frozen squid (squid protein fraction) was effective in improving growth rates even at low
level of 1.5% in diets for blue shrimp (Penaeus stylirostris), white leg shrimp (Penaeus
vannamei) and tiger prawn though not for Indian white prawn (Penaeus indicus){7).
Under semi-intensive pond production, squid meal in extruded feed substantially
improved performances of juvenile tiger prawn. When fed a diet where fish protein
concentrate was replaced by squid mantle. Shrimps were kept in laboratory tanks and
in pond pens. Performances under pond conditions were better than in the laboratory test
(Table 43-05)18).
408 CHAPTER 43

Table 43-05: Squid meal replaces fish protein concentrate in diets for juvenile tiger
prawn (Penaeus monodon)(feeding period: 40 days)!·)

Squid mantel meal % 10.0

Fish protein concentrate % 10.0
Crude protein % 47.6 48.7
Fat % 7.6 8.5

Final weight g 7.0 9.2

Weight gain g 4.9 7.0
Growth rate % 224.0 323.0
Feed conversion 1: 2.2 1.7
Survival % 96.6 95.0

Squid viscera meal increases growth rate and survival of various penaeids such as
tiger prawn, chinese prawn (Penaeus orientalis), kuruma prawn and white leg shrimp.
The feed is more palatable and feed conversion is better3l}.
Fresh squid as well as squid meal is used in maturation diets at levels of 30% for tiger
prawn broodstockl2l , 22, 23}. Fresh squid is also used in moist dietsl24}. In rearing larvae of
shrimp 30% squid meal is fed up to day 3215}.

43.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Squid meal and other dry squid products are not only protein feedstuffs but also serve as
chemo-attractants for aquaculture feeds. The recommended inclusion rates are:
• Grower and finisher feed 5.0 to 10.0%
• Broodstock feed 20.0 to 30.0%
Larval feed 20.0 to 30.0%

43.6 Legal Aspects

The use of squid meal, squid viscera and squid liver meal is not prohibited.
A general standard for squid meal has been set by the "National Fishery Inspection"
of the Republic of Korea for export and domestic use with these requirements I28}:
Moisture: max. 11.0%
• Crude protein: min. 45.0%
Crude fat: 3.0%
 SQUID MEAL 409

43.7 References

1. Akiyama. D.M. (1986): The development of a purified diet and nutritional requirement of lysine in
penaeid shrimp. Dr. Thesis. Graduate College. Texas A&M Univ.IV.S.A.
2. Anonymous (1992): Innovations. Infofish International. (6). 53.
3. Anonymous (1994): Chemical and biological value of Danish LT and special A fish meal, Danish soluble
meal, Alaskan fish meal in shrimp feed. Ass. Fish Meal and Fish Oil Manufacturers Denmark.
4. Asgaard. T. (1987): Squid as feed for salmonids. Aquaculture., 61., 259-273.
5. Bautista. M.N.; Millamena. O.M.; Kanazawa. A. (1989): Use of kappa-carrageenan microbound diet
(C-MBD) as feed for Penaeus monodon larvae. Mar. BioI., 103., (2), 169-174.
6. Carver, L.A.; Akiyama. D.M.; Dominy. w.G. (1989): Processing of wet shrimp heads and squid viscera
with soy meal by dry extrusion process. In: Applewhite. T.R. (ed.). Arne. Soybean Asso. Technical Bull.
3 AQ:1689-4., 167-170.
7. Cruz-Ricque. L.E.; Guillame. J.; Cuzon. G.; Aquacop (1987): Squid protein effect on growth of good
penaeid shrimp. J. World Aquac. Soc. 18., (4), 209.
8. Cruz-Suarez. L.E., Ricque. D.; AQUACOP (1992): Effect of squid meal on growth of Penaeus monodon
juveniles reared in pond pens and tanks. Aquaculture, 106.,293-299.
9. Dominy. w.G.; Lim. C. (1991): Evaluation of soybean meal extruded with wet squid viscera as a source
of protein in shrimp feeds. Proc. Aquaculture Feed Processing and Nutrition Workshop, Thailand and
Indonesia, 20 to 25 September Arne. Soybean Asso., Singapore.
1O. Feed Dev. Section (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish, Nile tilapia, Asian sea bass and tiger shrimp.
Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 21, SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines.
11. Fennuci, J.L.; Zein-Eldin. ZP. (1976): Evaluation of squid mantle meal as a protein source in penaeid
nutrition. FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture" Kyoto, Japan, 601.
12. Fennuci. J.L.; Zein-Eldin, ZP.; Lawrence, A.L. (1980): The nutritional response of two penaeid species
to various levels of squid meal in prepared feed. Proc. World Maricult. Soc., 11.,403-409.
13. Guillame. J.; Cruz-Ricque, E.; Cuzan. E.; Wormhoudt, A. v.; Revol. A. (1990): Growth factors in penaeid
shrimp feeding. In: Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Tahiti, 20 February to 4 March 1989. Aquacop
Ifremer Actes de Colloque. 327-338.
14. Joseph, J.; Prabhu, . v.; Madhavan, P. (1984): Utilization of squid waste as mea!. Fish Techno!' Soc.,
Cochin, 24., 41-43.
15. Kaufmann, T. (1991): Amino acid content of important feed ingredients in Asia and how to predict it using
regression equations. Proc. at First Feed and Food Expo, Victaro Asia '91 Feed Conference, BangkokfThailand.
16. Kling. M.; Wohlbier, W. (1977): Handels-Futtermitte!' Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
17. Konosu; Yamaguchi (1982): Quoted from: Meyers, S.P. (1986).
18. Kryznowek, J.F.; Entremont. L.D.; Murphy. J. (1989): Proximate composition and fatty acid and cholesterol
content of squid, Laligo pealei and lllex illecebrosus. J. Food Science. 54., 45.
19. Lim. c.; Suraniranat. P.; Platon, R. (1979): Evaluation of various protein sources for Penaeus monodon
post-larvae, Kalikasan Philipp. J. BioI, 8., 29-36.
20. Meyers. S.P. (1986): Attractants, aquatic diet development examined. Feedstuffs, 58.. 11-12.
21. Millamena, O.M.; Pudadera, R.; Catacutan. M.R. (1985): Variation as tissue lipid content and fatty acid com-
position during ovarian maturation of unablated and ablated Penaeus monodon broodstock. Proc. of the First
Intern. Conf. Culture ofPenaeid Prawn and Shrimps. Aquaculture Dept., SEAFDEC, Iloilo, Philippines, 166.
22. Mil/amena. O.M.; Pudadera. R.A.; Catacutan. M.R. (1985): Effects of diet on reproductive performance
of wild ablated Penaeus monodon broodstock. Proc. of the First Intern. Conf. Culture of Penaeid Prawn
410 CHAPTER 43

and Shrimps. Aquaculture Dept., SEAFDEC, Iloilo, Philippines, 178.

23. Millamena, O.M.; Primavera, J.H.; Pudadera, R.A.; Caballero, R. V. (1986): The effect of diet on reproduc-
tive performance of pond-reared Penaeus monodon Fabricius broodstock. The First Asian Fisheries Forum.
Manila, Philippines, Asian Fisheries Society, 593-596.
24. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCP/RLP/87126. Rome/ltaly.
25. Penaflorida, V.D. (1989): An evaluation of indigenous protein sources as potential component in the diet
formulation for tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon, using amino acid index (EAAI). Aquaculture, 83., 319-330.
26. Piedad-Pascual, F.; Hertrampf, J. W. (1992): Squid meal: High nutritive value and an excellent attractant.
Advances in Feed Technology, (8), 34-45.
27. Rajyalakshmi, T.; Pillar, S.M.; Roy, A.K.; Verghese, P.U. (1982): Studies on rearing of Penaeus monodon
Fabricius in brackishwater ponds using pelleted feeds. 1. Inland. Fish. Soc. India, 14., 28-35.
28. Roh, J.D. (1992): The squid meal industry in Korea. Infofish International, (3), 26-30.
29. Stansby, M.E. (1990): Nutritional properties of fish oil for human consumption-early development. In:
Stanby, M.E. (ed.): Fish oil in nutrition. Van Norstrand Reinhold, New York/USA.
30. w.; Tunger, L; wbel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag. Hamburg/Germany.
Tiiufel, A.; Ternes,
31. Wang, w.e. (1988): Growth rate and fatty acid composition oflipids of grass prawn fed with diets containing
squid viscera oil. Feed Quality Control, 2., 13-28.
 44. UNIDENTIFIED GROWTH FACTORS

44.1 Rationale

The use of the term "Unidentified Growth Factors" (UGF) dates back to around 1920,
but most research work started from 1950 onwards(l6). They were identified in fish
extract, fish meal, fermentation products and their residues and lucerne (alfalfa) meal.
Particularly good sources of UGF are de-hydrated fish solubles (see chapter 21) and
distillers' feeds (see chapter 13)14.5.6.12.14). Squid might also be a source of UGF since
there is no explanation for good performances of shrimps when added to the diet(8).
Much emphasis has been placed on the identification of UGF. Among others it has
been suggested that the holocellulose fraction of alfalfa meal extracts contain the growth
stimulants(IO), whereby the holocellulose is the residue after hot-water extraction, followed
by sodium hypo-chlorite bleaching of the plant materiaJ(3). Phenolic acids, such as caffeic
acid have also been reported to be the "growth factor" in fibrous feeds(lO). It is also
presumed, that the B-vitamins are related to growth factors.
Even today UGF cannot be isolated nor defined. Nevertheless, UGF can be unequivo-
cally characterised by their beneficial effects on certain growth attributes. UGF might be
a potential alternative to antibacterial performance promoters(17,18).

44.2 Processing

What is notable about UGF is that the product is produced predominantly from by-
and re-cycling products of the agro-industry. In the light of the present knowledge,
UGF are classified as:
• Lucerne-whey Factor;
Fermentation Factor;
• Liver residueIFish soluble factor.
Milk and milk by-products may also contain the whey factot 6).
Components of UGF are:
Corn distillers dried grains (containing high levels of the fermentation factor,
fish soluble factor and lucerne-whey Factor);
• Dried extracted streptomyces meal (containing the lucerne-whey factor);
Fermentation solubles (containing the lucerne-whey factor).
These three components are mixed and standardised.
412 CHAPTER 44

44.3 Chemical and Physiological Properties

A synergistic property is suggested by blending the three individual componentsOi.

The crude protein content of UGP products may reach levels of about 40% (Table 44-01).
The calcium-phosphorus ratio is almost 1: 1 and the inositol and choline contents are
remarkably high (Table 44-02).

Table 44-0 I: Mean chemical composition and essential amino acids of UGP I)

Macro nutrients (as fed) Essential amino acid (g/16 g N)

Dry matter % 95.0 Arginine 1.37

Crude protein % 25.0 Histidine 0.63
Crude fat % 2.8 Isoleucine 1.21
Crude fibre % 5.0 Leucine 1.90
Metabolisable Lysine 0.84
energy kcallkg 2,750 Methionine 0.42
Net energy kcallkg 1,890 Phenylalanine 0.79
Threonine 0.95
Tryptophan 0.22
Valine 1.42

Table 44-02: Mineral and vitamin contents of UGPI)

Macro and trace minerals Minerals Vitamins (per 1,000 g)

Calcium % 0.75 Vitamin E mg 20.0

Phosphorus % 0.80 Vitamin B, mg 4.0
Sodium chloride % 1.00 Vitamin B2 mg 23.0
Iron mg/kg 240 Vitamin B6 mg 12.0
Copper mglkg 30 Vitamin B'2 mcg 3.0
Manganese mglkg 25 Biotin mg 0.4
Zinc mg/kg 60 Folic acid mg 0.5
Cobalt mcglkg 50 Pantothenic acid mg 8.0
Selenium mcglkg 200 Nicotinic acid mg 60.0
Iodine mcg/kg to Choline g 2.0
Inositol g 3.0

UGP may contain residues of antibiotics, if the fermentation mycel is used as a com-
ponent of a UGP blend. Extraction of pure antibiotics from the fermentation material
does not provide residues absolutely free of any antibacterial activity.
 UNIDENTIFIED GROWTH FACTORS 413

44.4 Feeding Value

UGF in the feed stimulates the performances of terrestrial animals (guinea pigS(lI, 19);
pigletsl2, 9); broilersl7, 15, 16); laying hens(13).
Experiments on the use of UGF in aquaculture feeds are absent. Nevertheless, its use in
feeds for shrimps and fishes, particularly in tropical countries, is very common. Field trials
have shown positive results although the findings have not been properly documented.
The presence of UGF in squid known as "squid factor" is suspected and should be
verified. The mode of action should also be elucidated for better utilisation of UGF in
aquaculture feed (8).

44.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates and Legal Aspects

Recommended Inclusion rates

UGF is suitable for all species of cultured aquatic animals. It is particularly fit for young
and rapidly growing animals. Recommended inclusion rates in compound feeds are
0.15% to 0.30%.
Two principles should be observed when UGF is applied to aquaculture feed:
The younger the animal, the higher the inclusion rate;
The higher the performances expected from the animals, the more UGF has to
be used.

Legal Aspects
As long as the blend of UGF raw materials used are not residues of the fermentation
of antibiotics, no legal aspects have to be followed. However, if UGF-blends contain
fermentation residues from antibiotic fermentation, national legal regulations for the
application of antibiotics as a feed additive have to be observed.

44.6 References

1. Anonymous (w/o year): Amofac (UGF), a perfect blend of Unidentified Growth Factors. Helmerpharma,
Enschede, (Leaflet).
2, Bronsch, K. (1984): Bericht tiber einen Ferkelaufzuchtversuch mit Octaferm Plus, Trial Report of 15.8,
3, Cheeke, P.R. (1987): Rabbit feeding and nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando.
4. DFCR (w/o year): Distillers grains. Distillers Feed Research Council, Des Moines, IowalUSA.
5, Fairbanks, B. W: Krider. J.L.: Carro/[, WE. (1944): Distillers by-products in swine rations. I. Creep feeding
and growing fattening rations. J. Animal Sci., 3., 29-40.
6. Feltwell, R.: Fox, S. (1978): Practical poultry feeding. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.
7.. Gropp, J.: Tiews, J.: Schulz, V. (1971: Untersuchungen tiber den EinfluB eines UGF-haltigen Produktes
auf Wachstum und Futterverwertung von MastkUken. Z. Tierphysiologie, Tierernahrung und Futtennittel-
kunde, 28., 102-112.
8. Guillaume, J.: Cruz·Ricque, E.: Cuzon, G.: Warmhoudt, A. van: Revol, A. (1989): Growth factors in Penaeid
shrimp feeding. Aquacop Ifremer Actes de Colloque, 9., 327-338.
414 CHAPTER 44

9. Hoppe, p.p. (1985): Vergleich zwischen Dctafenn Plus und Carbadox bei Ferkeln. Trial Report 14/1985
of 18.12.
10. Huang, H.M.; Johanning, GL; O'Dell, BL (1986): Phenolic acid content of food plants and possible
nutritional implications. J. Agric. Food Chern., 34. 48-51.
11. Knehans, A. w.; Kincaid, RL; Regan, W.D.; O'Dell, B.O. (1979): An unrecognized dietary factor for
guinea pigs associated with the fibrious fractions of plant products. J. Nutrition, 109.,418-425.
12. Lovell, R. T. (1980): Nutritional value of solid by-products from ethanol production of com. Auburn Techn
Assistance Center, Auburn. AUUSA.
13. Monson, w.J. (1976): Borden reports egg output aided with unidentified factors in feed. Feedstuffs. 5.1.
(reprint).
14. New. M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp. A manual on the preparation and presentation of
compound feeds for shrimp and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAOIADCAlREP/87126. Rome/ltaly.
15. Scholtyssek, S. (1983): Einsatz von Wachstumsftirderern fUr die Broilennast. Trial Report of 12.1.
16. T.D. (1988): Helmafac, the perfect blend of unidentified growth factors (UGF). Mimeograph.
17. Thalmann, A. (1986): Personal cummunication, 11.9.
18. Tiews, J. (1972): Gutachten tiber das Auftreten einer antibiotischen Aktivitlit in Dctaferm. Expert opinion
of 7.2.
19. Typpo, J.T.; Anderson, HL; Krause, G.F.; Yu, D.T. (1985): The lysine requirement of young growing
male guinea pigs. 1. Nutrition. 115., 579-587.
 45. VEGETABLE OILS

45.1 Rationale

Vegetable oil is a reservoir and nutrient in seeds and fruit-flesh and can be subdivided
according to their origin into:
Flesh oils.
Seed oils.
Palm oil. olive oil and avocado oil are the most important representatives of fruit-flesh
oils while seed oils are further subdivided into(102):
Seed fats (solid and semi-solid),
• Fats rich in lauric and myristic acids (coconut oil. palm kernel oil. babassu oil)
• Fats rich in palmitic and stearic acid (cocoa butter);
• Seed oils (fluid),
• Oils rich in palmitic acid (cotton-seed oil. maize-germ oil),
• Oils poor in palmitic acid but rich in oleic and linoleic acid (sesame oil. sun-
flower oil, linseed oil),
• Legume oils (ground-nut oil, soybean oil),
• Crucifer oils (rape-seed oil. mustard oil).
• Other seed oils (e.g. castor oil).
Vegetable oils are used in the food. pharmaceutical, cosmetic, detergent. paint. surfactant,
rubber processing and many other industries. The oil-chemistry industry distills (split)
vegetable oil into their fatty acids.
Many factors may affect the composition and constants of fats and oils hence. indi-
vidual samples may vary considerably such as: soil. climate, variety. fertilizer, season,
when produced(5).
In terrestrial and aquatic animal feeds vegetable oils are used as an energy source and
as a source of essential fatty acids. Vegetable oils are used in combination with marine
oils to reduce the cost of the lipid source of energy in fish diets.

45.2 Manufacture and Processing

There are three methods of separating the oil from the seedlflesh(34):
Pressing
Screw pressing
Solvent extraction

Flesh Oils
The fruit-bunches (Figure 45-01) of the oil palm (Elaeis quineensis) are steamed. and
the solid matter (mesocarp. fibre. nuts and shells) is removed by screw pressing.
416 CHAPTER 45

Screening and clarifying separates the mixture of crude oil and water from the solids
for further processing (Figure 45-02). The oil content is removed by solvent extraction.
A common solvent is hexane (C 6H I4 ), a liquid hydrocarbon of the paraffin series.
Thereafter, the crude palm oil is purified (filtered) and refined(98). The absorbent capacity
of bleaching earth (sodium calcium aluminosilicate - AI2S140 IO(OH)2) is used for the removal
of impurities and unwanted matter such as colouring agents (carotenoids), soap, protein
and others(44) (see Chapter 5).

Figure 45-01. Bunches of oil palm (Elaeis quineensis) fruits(43).

Seed Oils
Solvent extraction is the prevailing method for separating the oil from the seeds. The oil
seeds are scoured and ground. The ground material may be pressed prior to solvent extrac-
tion or is immediately solvent extracted (Figure 45-02). With hexane or other hydrocarbons.
After complete extraction, the solvent is removed from the crude oil followed by
de-gumming, de-acidifying, bleaching and deodorising in a vacuum steam of 190°C to
260°0102). Certain variations in the solvent extraction process exist.

General Characteristics o/Vegetable Oils

Vegetable oils are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen(30). They are esters of
glycerol and fatty acids which may be saturated or unsaturated. The latter have a lower
melting point are also more unstable than the saturated fatty acids, and may rapidly
become rancid. Oxidative rancidity is caused by oxygen uptake of unsaturated fatty
 VEGETABLE OILS 417

Figure 45-02. Diagram of vegetable oil extraction.

acids. Use of rancid fats can destroy some nutrients such as vitamins. Light and some
metals like copper, lead, iron, zinc can also hasten rancidity (see Chapter 2.4).
The gross energy values of vegetable oils are similar and range between 9,249 to
9,297 kcal/kg (38.7 to 38.9 MJ/kg).

Antinutritional Substances
Free fatty acids (FFA) are usually found in oils and vary in different oils(54). They are not
an important criteria for determining whether a vegetable oil is fit for feeding aquatic
animals or not. The presence of erucic acid in high amounts in rapeseed oil makes it
unsuitable for feed but a low concentration in a new hybrid (canola oil) allows its use.
Sterculia acid is also present in cotton-seed oil(fJ).
Table 45-01: Fatty acid profiles of vegetable oils,4, 5, a 28, 42, 58, 62, 64, 65, 68, 86, 102, 110) -1:0
00
-
Fatty acid's Oil Source
Systematic name (Common name)
Coco- Cotton Ground- Lin- Maize Olives Palm Palm Rape- Rice Saf- Sesame Soya Sun-
nut seed nuts seed berries kernel seed bran flower beans flower

Chapter 45.3 45.4 45.5 45.6 45.7 45.8 45.9 45.9 45./0 45.11 45.12 45.13 45,14 45.15

Hexanoic (Caprioc) 6:0 0.2

Octanoic (Caprilic) 8:0 7.9 1.0 2.7
Decanoic (Capric) /0:0 7.3 0.1 20.0
Dodecanoic (Lauric) 12:0 48.4 26.0 0.6
Tetradecanoic (Myristic) 14:0 16.6 1.0 0,2 1.6 1.0 20.0 1.6 0.1
Tetradecenoic (Myristoleic) 0.1 n
:I:
Hexadecanoic (Palmitic) 16:0 8.3 22.1 7.4 5.4 9.8 14.3 42.4 19.0 2.3 16.4 9.5 0.3 8.8 4,7 »"1:l
Hexadecenoic (Palmitoleic) 16:1n-7 1.0 1.3 3.0 0.3 8.0 0.2 2.4 0,2 -l
ITl
Octadecanoic (Stearic) 18:0 2.9 1.1 3.8 3.4 2.8 2.5 3.8 3,1 1.0 2.6 4.5 3,8 3,8 ;<l

Octadecenoic (Oleic acid) 18:1n-9 4.5 24.5 56.0 16.4 34.7 70.3 36.2 35,7 34.3 1.9 17.8 44.3 26,6 26.8
....
V>

Octadecadienoic (Linoleic) 18:2n-6 2.7 48.8 30.2 15,5 51.2 9,0 8.5 6.6 17.0 43.8 67.2 33.2 52.6 57.2
Octadecatrienoic (Linolenic) 18:3n-3 0.9 52.4 0.3 0.8 0.2 6.9 1.5 0.5 0.5 6.0 0.3
Octadecatetraenoic (Stearidonic) 18:4n-3 0.1
Eicosanoic( Arachidic) 20:0 0.6 3.5 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 2.0 0.4 0.7 0.6
Eicosenoic (Gadoleic) 20:1n-9 3.8
Eicosatetraenoic (Arachidonic) 20:4n-6 1.6 2.0 0.6
Eicosapentaenoic ( - - -)' 20:5n-3 1.6 1.4
Docosanoic (Behenic) 22:0 1.8 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.4
Docosenoic (Erucic) 22:1n-13 37.8
Docosahexaenoic ( - - -)' 22:6n-3 1.6 1.3
Tetracosanoic (Lignoceric) 24:0 2.5 0.2 2.8 19.1

'No common name

 VEGETABLE OILS 419

45.3 Coconut Oil

45.3.1 Description

Coconut comes from the coconut palm family Arecacea, species Cocos nucifera. The palm
is most common in the tropics. It bears fruit around six years after planting and the nuts
are harvested throughout the year. The meat of mature coconut is dried, and the resulting
product, copra, is the source of oil. Coconut oil is used in foods, soapmaking and cosmetics.
World copra production is about 5.5 million MT a year. Almost 75% of the production
comes from the Philippines (43%), Indonesia (24%) and India (7.0%) (102)

45.3.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
The oil content of copra is 63 to 68%. Crude methods of drying copra gives a high free
fatty acid content in coconut oil as compared to other vegetable oils. Copra should
contain not more than 6.0% moisture so that it can be stored without getting mouldy(8).
Coconut oil contains predominantly saturated fatty acids (91.6%) (Table 45-01). It is
a source of medium chain triglycerides, hence, its low melting point (Table 45-02).
It is considered an "oil" at tropical room temperature (24 to 27°C) but a "fat" at 19°C
to 22°C because its solidification point is at room temperate range and its melting point
range is at tropical room temperature(8).

Table 45-02: Quality characteristics of vegetable oils' /3. 67)

Oil Source Melting Solidification Iodine

point point value
°C °C

Coconut 26.0 20-24 7.5 - 10.5

Cotton-seed 11.0 30-37 99 - 113
Cotton-seed. hydrogenated 60.0
Ground-nut 60.0 26-32
Linseed 19-21
Maize 14-20 103 - 128
Olive 17-26
Palm 40.0 40-47 44 58
Palmkemel 29.0 20-28
Rape-seed 11-15
Sesame 20-25
Soybean 21-23 120 - 141
420 CHAPTER 45

Coconut oil is high in lauric acid. It is extremely resistant to oxidative rancidity

because it contains mostly saturated fatty acids but is susceptible to hydrolytic rancidity
which occurs in the presence of free moisture, catalysed by lipase and is the cause of
the flavour attributed to rancid coconut oil. When coconut oil is derived from copra of
good quality, it is of relatively light colour, nearly free of phospholipids, gums and other
non-glyceride substances(81.

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of coconut oil for dogs is 8,960 kcallkg (37.5 MJ/kg) (Table 45-03y581.
Digestibility of coconut oil is around 90% as observed for land animals (Table 45-04).

Table 45-03: Energy values of vegetable oils per kg

Species Gross energy Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

l:~Qnl!1 Qil 9,250 38.7 (58)

(58)
Dogs' 8,960 37.5
l:QllQn-~!I Qil 9,297 38.9 (58)

(58)
Dogs 9,105 38.1
(58)
Ground-nut oil 9,297 38.9
Chicken 9,010 37.7 8,747 36.6 (28)

(58)
Linseed oil 9,297 38.9
Dogs 9,010 37.7 (58)

~ 9,295 38.9 (58)

Chicken 8,770 36.7 8,745 36.6 (28)

(58)
QIM.Qil 9,297 38.9
Dogs 9,105 38.1 (58)

(58)
Ralle-s!<!<Q oil 9,297 38.9
Dogs 9,010 37.7 (58)

SafftQw!<r oil
Chicken 9,010 37.7 8,745 36.6 (28)

(58)
SoXl!!;iln oil 9,249 38.7
Rainbow trout' 8,007 33.5 (69)

Carp' 8,007 33.5 (69)

Chicken 9,010 37.7 8,745 36.6 (28)

SlIntlQw!<[ Qil 9,297 38.9 (58)

(28)
Chicken 9,010 37.7 8,745 36.6

, Test diet:mixture of soybean oil and cod liver oil (1:1)

 VEGETABLE OILS 421

Table 45-04: Digestibility (%) of vegetable oils

Oil Species Digestibility Reference

Fat Energy

(27)
Coconut Pigs 86.1
Cotton seed Dogs 98.0 (58)

Ground nut Dogs 97.0 (58)

Linseed Salmon 88.6 (83)

Common carp 93.4 (10)

Maize Salmon 85.9 (/0)

Common carp 95.9 (10)

Channel catfish 97.3 (41)

Olives Rainbow trout 94.2 (46)

(46)
95.0
Rats 94.0 (20)

Soyabeans Rainbow trout 96.2' (99)

(271
Pigs 86.1
Sunflower Rainbow trout 63.2 (75)

European eel 99.0 (82)

I and liver oil (3:1)

45.3.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
The feeding value of coconut oil in diets for fish is low. It can only be used as an energy
source rather than for its fatty acid content. The Arctic cohar (Salvelinus alpinus) showed
the poorest performance when the coconut oil diet was not fortified with polyunsaturated
fatty acids(70). The need for polyunsaturated fatty acids when coconut oil is fed was also
demonstrated in milkfish (Chanos chanos). The fish performed best on a diet containing
equal amounts (5.0% and 5.0%) of coconut oil and cod liver oil!2J. Coconut oil in diets
for the Arctic cohar increased hepatic lipids, sterolesters and moisture content of the
muscles while the muscle lipids decreased(78). After feeding coconut oil the sunshine bass
(Morone chrysops - female x Morone saxatilis- male) exhibited erosion of the caudal fin
and skin irritations(64). When the diet contained 7.0% coconut oil, juvenile red drum
(Sciaenops ocellatus) grew insufficiently and had little cold tolerance(22). Compared to
menhaden oil juvenile sunshine bass showed the lowest weight gain, feed efficiency and
PER when fed coconut oil diets(64).

Crustaceans
Performances of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) juveniles is inferior when fed coconut
oil at increasing inclusion rates (Table 45-05)(17).
422 CHAPTER 45

Table 45-05: The response of tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) to various levels of coconut oil in
the diet for juveniles (17)

Coconut oil % 0 4.0 8.0 12.0

Weight gain % 27.5 7.3 5.9 10.1

SGR %/day 0.86 0.26 0.21 0.34
Survival % 66.7 72.2 72.2 50.0
Body lipid content % 0.88 0.82 1.01

45.4 Cotton-seed Oil

45.4.1 Description

Cotton-seed is a by-product of cotton production. It belongs to the Malvaceae family.

The most common species are Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense(881.
The World produces annually around 17.0 to 18.0 million MT cotton. Major producing
countries are P.R. China (23.5% of total production), CIC (formerly USSR) (16.9%),
USA (14.2%) and India (9.2%) (102) •

45.4.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

The oil content of cotton-seed varies from 18.0 to 25.0% and is high in oleic acid (18:1n-9)
and linoleic acid (18:2n-6) (Table 45-01). Crude cotton-seed oil is of light brown to
dark brown colour while refined cotton-seed oil is of light yellow to reddish colour.
The glucoside gossypol and pigments are removed. At a temperature of lOoC solid
components called cotton stearing are discarded(J02).
Cotton-seed oil has a digestible energy of 9,105 kcal/kg (38.1 MJ/kg) (dogs) (Table
45-03y581. The digestiblity is 98% (Table 45-04).
Cotton-seed oil and oil of other species of the family Malvaceae contain minor
quantities of cyclopropenoic fatty acids. These fatty acids cause extreme liver damage,
increased glycogen deposition and elevated saturated fatty acid levels in lipid of rainbow
trouts (Salmo gairdneri). Furthermore, these rare fatty acids also act synergistically with
Aflatoxin Bl which is a carcinogenm . 92).
Gossypol is another toxic substance of cotton-seed oil. It accumulates in the liver of
rainbow trout<76i.

45.4.3 Feeding Value

Liquid and hydrogenated cotton-seed oil were compared in diets for sea trout (Salmo trutta)
and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and no significant differences in performance
were found between the liquid and the solid oil(72. 73).
 VEGETABLE OILS 423

The addition of 5.0% cotton-seed oil and free fatty acids of cotton-seed, respectively,
to the diet of common carp (Cyprinus carpio), kept in crowded cages and ponds, improved
the growth of the fish by 25 to 50%. The basic diet contained 25% crude protein and
3.0% crude far I07).
No significant changes in growth rate were observed when feed pellets coated with
4.0 to 8.0% acidulated cotton-seed oil were fed to 100 to 300 g tilapia hybrids
(Sarotherodon aureus x Sarotherodon niloticus). However, fat content of the viscera
increased with cotton-seed oil supplementation but fat content of the carcass did note JOB).

45.5 Ground-nut Oil

45.5.1 Description

Ground-nut (Arachis hypogea) belongs to the same family, Fabaceae, as faba beans
(Vidafaba). The former has been of commercial interest since around 1850 when France
began importing them from West Africa for their oil content(67). Only four countries
produce about 70% of the World's total production of 21.5 million MT ground-nuts in
shells (India = 29.08%; P.R. China =27.9%; U.S.A. =7.8%; and Nigeria = 3.6%).

45.5.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Crude ground-nut oil is light yellow with characteristic odour and flavour of peanuts(8).
It will solidify if kept at refrigeration temperature for sometime. Whole nuts generally
yield 30% oil while shelled nuts produce 45 to 50% oiF8).
Total saturated fatty acid is 17.3% while 77.8% comprises total unsaturated fatty
acis(86). Ground-nut oil contains linoleic (18:2n-6) but does not have linolenic acid
(18:3n-3) (Table 45-01).
In chicken, metabolisable energy is 9,010 kcal/kg (37.7 MJ/kg) while digestible
energy is 8,747 kcal/kg (36.6 MJ/kg)f28) (Table 45-03). The fat is 97% digested by dogs
(Table 45-04).

45.5.3 Feeding Value

Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) fingerlings responded better to feed

supplemented with ground-nut oil than fat from cattle spleen. No liver and hematopoetic
organ damages were observed in the group fed ground-nut oil(32).
Cod (Gadus morhua) were fed for eight weeks, diet of which 48% of available
energy came from ground-nut oil, cod liver oil and halibut oil. Hepatosomatic index
increased from 9.5 to 13% and liver fat from 55.0 to 67.7%. The fatty acid composition
of dietary fat affected the composition of liver triglycerides, the main fat depot in cod
and also the composition of polar lipid fatty acids in liver and musc1e(52).
424 CHAPTER 45

45.6 Linseed Oil

45.6.1 Description

Flax (Linum usitatissimum) whose scientific name means "most useful", is one of the oldest
crops used by man. The herbaceous plant belongs to the genus Linum, one of the ten
genera of the family Linaceae. The species Linum usitatissimum has two types of cultivars,
one grown for seed and the other for fibre(l6).
Annual production is rather constant and amounts to about 2.9 million MT of linseed
and 0.6 million MT of flax fibre. Major producers of linseeds are Canada (36.8% of
world production), Argentina (19.5%), India (17.8%) and CIC (7.9%) (102) .
Linseed oil is a drying oil used in paints. It is also used to waterproof paper and
toughen fabrics and paper (89).

45.6.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Linseed contains between 30 and 45% oil, mainly linoleic and linolenic acid (Table 45-01).
In aquaculture diets it is used as a source of essential fatty acids, and as an energy source(62!.
The metabolisable energy amounts to 9,010 kcaI/kg (37.7 MJ/kg) in dogs (Table 45-03)159).
The digestibility of linseed oil for carp (Cyprinus carpio) 93.4% is similar to fish oil
(Table 45-04)183).
Linseed oil may contain a cyanogenic glycoside found in the germ of the linseed(102).

45.6.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
Linseed oil in diets of salmonids, in comparison to other fats and oils, showed no
differences in growth and other performances of the fish(3. 36, 62,73).
Dietary linolenic acid (18:3n-3) found abundantly in linseed oil was not deposited
in the body lipids of chinook salmon as such but was apparently converted to docosa-
hexaenoic acid (Behenic acid [22:6n-3])(63).
No significant differences were found when carp were fed with linseed oil or fish oil.
However, increasing the Vitamin E level from 80 mg/kg to 500 mg/kg improved final
weight by 26.4% and 29.9%, respectively (Table 45-06)183).

Table 45-06: Effect on growth of carp (Cyprinus carpio) fed linseed and fish oils for 133 days(84)

Linseed oil % 12 12,0

Fish oil % 12,0 12,0
Vitamin E mglkg 80 80 500 500

Initial weight g 220 220 220 220

Final weight g 685 692 866 899
 VEGETABLE OILS 425

Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) diets with linseed oil and rich in n-3 fatty acids
may have an immuno-suppressant effect at temperatures of 25° and 28°C(33).
Linseed oil as a source of essential fatty acid showed in experiments with juvenile red
drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) and grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) that performances of fish
increased as the level of n-3 fatty acids increased. Levels of tissue n-6 and n-3 fatty acids
were positively correlated with their respective dietary levelsF 53).

Crustaceans
Chinese prawn (Penaeus chinensis) fed a diet containing linseed and maize oils had
increased egg production compared to those fed the lard diet. However, hatchability was
not significantly improved. The n-3-HDFA content of eggs was higher for linseed oil
diets (19.5%), than for maize oil and lard(1l4).

45.7 Maize Oil

45.7.1 Description

Maize oil is derived from the germ of the kernel of Zea mays, a cereal of the family Poaceae.
It is a by-product of the maize starch and grain alcohol production. It is used as one of
the vegetable oils for human consumption (see Chapter 28).

45.7.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Maize oil is dark reddish amber and usually darker than other vegetable oils even after
refining. It is high in oleic acid and linoleic acid (Table 45-01).
Maize oil contains relatively large amounts of phospholipids and other non-oil
substances (2.0% and more). Its free fatty acid content is usually higher (about 1.5%)
than other vegetable oils of good quality(l2).
Maize oil may contain per kg:
Vitamin E: 840 mg
Carotene: 1.4 mg
Calcium: 150 mg
Iron: 13 mg
Manganese: 10 mg
Traces of Vitamin B6 , nicotinic acid, choline, potassium, sodium and copper are also
present in maize oil(58).

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy for chickens is similar to those of ground-nut oil (Table 45-03)128).
Fat digestibility is more than 95% but the energy digestibility is below 90% (Table 45-04).
The digestibility of individual fatty acids of maize oil for the rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdnen) is between 62.8 to 100%(10), for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 52.3 to 97.3%(91)
and tiger prawn (Peneaus monodon) 87.3 to 97.2%(57).
426 CHAPTER 45

Other Properties
Maize oil is used as a vehicle for oral drug administration, of saraftoxacin given to
Atlantic salmon held in seawater<56).

45.7.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
Maize oil is short in linolenic acid (18:3n-3). Retarded performances were observed
when rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were fed with maize oil as the only lipid source.
The addition of fish oil or linolenic acid improved the yield of the fish (Table 45-07)151).
But maize oil at levels of 21 or 29% did not negatively affect growth, feed efficiency and
body lipid content of the brown trout (Salmo trutta). The higher maize oil level gave
significantly higher growth rate (+4.8%), better feed conversion (+ 12.0%) and higher
muscle fat content (+ 12% )19).

Table 45-07: Maize oil as dietary fat source for juvenile rainbow trout (Sa/rna gairdneri) (trial period:
12 weeks)!5I)

Maize oil % 10.0 9.0 5.0

Salmon oil % 1.0 5.0
Linolenic acid % 1.0

Weight gain g 4.2 7.9 13.9 8.4

% 100.0 188.1 331.0 200.0
Feed conversion 1: 1.22 1.02 0.77 0.92
Total losses % 25.0 6.0 5.0 2.0

Higher temperatures are more beneficial for fecundity than lower temperatures when
fish are fed diets containing maize oil. This relationship was found when maize oil was
fed to female broodstock of rainbow trout. The gonadosomatic index (weight of
ovary/weight of fish), weight of spawn, size and lipid content of the eggs were higher in
broodstock reared at 18°C than at 8°021). Maize oil is also a better source of essential
fatty acids than cuttlefish liver oil for red sea bream (Chrysophyrs major) broodstock
diets. Substituting cuttlefish liver oil with maize oil in broodstock diets on the verge
of spawning markedly reduced the proportion of bouyant eggs(/09). Maize oil at a level
of 5.0% enhanced the fecundity of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)l79. 80).
Channel catfish respond inferiorly to the addition of maize oil, either as single added
fat (Table 45-08) or in combination with tallow and fish oil (Figure 45_03)125.26.71).
On the other hand, Nile tilapia (Tilapia nilotica) had best growth and feed conversion
when fed a diet containing maize oil compared to pollack liver oil, beef tallow and
medium-chain triglycerides(lOO).
A relationship between maize oil level and Vitamin E fortification of the diet has
been reported for the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus). For every percent maize oil in
the diet, 3.0 to 4.0 mg Vitamin E/kg feed is needed(78).
 VEGETABLE OILS 427

Table 45-08:Vegetable oils and menhaden oil in diets for the juvenile sunshine bass(Morone chrysops
x Marone saxatilis) (trial period: 8 weeks)!64)

Maize oil % 5.0

Menhaden oil % 5.0
Safflower oil % 5.0

Weight gain % 285 457 332

Feed efficiency I 0.38 0.49 0.38
PER2 0.95 1.23 0.95
Mortality % 83.0 0 83.0
Lipids in the carcass:
- Muscle % 1.5 3.1 2.6
- Liver % 24.5 5.8 23.6

Ig weight gain/g dry feed; 2Protein efficiency ratio

600

..
...
.~
•
3:
400

10 20
Dietary fat (\J

Figure 45-03. Development of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) fed on maize oil and menhaden oiJI""",/rom,26).

The water temperature does not only affect the fecundity of fish but also the development
of growing fish_ Ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) fingerlings grew best at a water temperature of
16.5°C when the diet was supplemented with 8.6% maize oil and 10% chlorella compared
to the diet without maize oil(87). And at higher temperature (23 ° to 24°C) maize oil was more
effective in diets for the rock fish (Sebastes thompsonl)(47).
The Japanese eel (Anguillajaponica) developed best when the diet was fortified with
12.0% of a blend of maize and cod liver oil (2: 1). However, using 20.0% of the oil blend
is apparently an energy over-supply(6).
428 CHAPTER 45

Essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome and mass mortality (85 to 99%) were recorded
when larvae of striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and palmetto bass (Morone saxatilis x
Morone chrysops) were fed diets with maize oil but larvae fed the HUFA-diet showed
a survival rate of 80%(106).
In general, maize oil as a component of diets for various fish species at various different
stages of development is not only a useful energy source but is also an important source
of essential fatty acids, foremost of which is linoleic acid (18:2n-6).

Crustaceans
Tiger prawn fed maize oil-containing diets for 28 days had survival rates similar to those
fed cod liver oil. Weight gain and SGR were significantly lower for maize oil-fed prawns
than for cod liver oil-fed animals(J7). But a combination of 113 maize oil with 213 cod
liver oil did not give negative effects when used at increasing levels in diets for juvenile
tiger prawn as well as in diets for the juvenile freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium
rosenbergii) (84,85).

Molluscs
A combination of maize oil and menhaden oil (1: 1) in a purified diet (25% crude protein)
were fed to two abalone species (Haliotis tuberculata and Haliotis discus Hanai).
Growth was better in the control diet (red algae [Palmaria palmata])(551•

45.8 Olive Oil

45.8.1 Description

The olive tree (Olea europea) of the family Oleaceae was cultivated in the Mediterranean
area even before 6,000 years ago. The olive fruit has a coating which contains the
oil hence, olive oil is a flesh oil.
About 800 million olive trees in the World produce 1.8 million MT olive oil.
Major producing countries are Spain (32.2% of World production), Italy (28.2%), Greece
(18.5%) and Turkey (9.7%)(3J~ Greece has the highest olive oil consumption per capita
(21.1 liters). Since olive oil is a valuable oil, adulteration with inexpensive oils are not
uncommon(3J,102).
The European olive tree is different from those cultivated in China and Vietnam of
the genus Canarium (family: Burseraceae) which also have fruits rich in oil(102).

45.8.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Unlike other vegetable oils, olive oil can be used without refining and is never deodorised
although in some instances, poor quality oil may be refined and mixed with a better oil.
It has a greenish yellow colour and a characteristic mild pleasant odour. It remains liquid
at low temperatures, turns turbid only at 20°C due to its very high oleic acid content/B).
 VEGETABLE OILS 429

Olive oil is distinct among vegetable oils for its monounsaturation (73.3%) (Table 45-01).
It also contains a high level of squalene, an unsaturated hydrocarbon (C30Hso )' a precursor
of cholesterol.
Traces of potassium and iron have been found in olive oil as well as 1.0 mg sodium
per kg. It also contains some carotene (1.2 mg/kg) and Vitamin E (140 mg/kg)!581.

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy for dogs is given as 9,105 kcal/kg (38.1 MJ/kg) (Table 45-03)1581.
The digestibility of olive oil in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) is 94.2% (Table 45_04)1461.

45.8.3 Feeding Value

Olive oil is a suitable lipid source for fish feed(941. It can be used as a single component
in the food for rainbow trout( 391. There were no pathological-anatomical changes in
the internal and external organs even after a test period of ten weeks. Although olive oil
and maize germ oil had lower utilisation values than linseed and sunflower oil,
the differences were insignificant. However, olive oil gave the poorest utilisation among
the other vegetable oils studied when compared to 10% sunflower oil in the reference
diet for rainbow trout(40I.
When European eels (Anguilla anguilla) were fed in open and recirculated systems
a diet with olive oil and other vegetable oils, differences in growth, feed efficiency and
utilisation of these plant oils were found between males and females (phenotypical
sex determination)(8II.
Juvenile sunshine bass (Marone chrysops - female x Marone saxatilis - male) female
fed semi-purified diets containing 5.0% olive oil or menhaden fish oil were reared for
eight weeks in a closed fresh well water recirculating system. Olive oil significantly
reduced weight gain of fish compared to those fed the menhaden fish oil (641. Erosion of
the caudal fin and skin irritation were also observed.

45.9 Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil

45.9.1 Description

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) of the family Arecaceae originated from the west coast
of Africa. It supplies two different oils:
Palm oil, a fruit flesh oil;
Palm kernel oil, a seed oil.

World production amounts to about 9.5 million MT palm oil and 3.0 million MTpalm
kernel oil with Malaysia and Indonesia, producing more than 70% of the World production.
430 CHAPTER 45

45.9.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties

Palm Oil: Palm berries contain around 60% oil. Palm oil is rich in palmitic and
oleic acid. It has around 50% saturated and 50% mono- and poly-unsaturated fatty acids
(Table 45-01).
The crude palm oil is of reddish colour caused by the rather high content of a-and
[3-carotene (544 ppm) in a ratio of 1:2 (a:[3)(lOl). By refining the crude oil with bleaching
earth, the carotenoids and other impurities are removed, and the oil is of white to
yellowish colourl 46).
Palm oil is also rich in Vitamin E. It is, therefore, very stable toward oxidation(8.46).

Palm Kernel Oil: The portion of the nuts is around 20% of that of the palm berries.
The kernels have a fat content of 40 to 52%. Palm kernel oil has a very high level of
saturated fatty acids (88%) (Table 45-01) and its composition is similar to coconut oj]( 102).
The specifications of palm oil and palm kernel oil by the "Palm Oil Refiners Association
of Malaysia" are in Table 45-09.

Table 45-09: Specification of crude palm oil and crude palm kernel oil by the "Palm Oil Refiners
Association of Malaysia"

Palm oil Palm kernel oil

FFA max. % 0.25' 5.02

Moisture and impurities max. % 0.1 0.5
Iodine value max. 55 19
Slip point max. 39

'As palmitic acid; 'As lauric acid

Physiological Properties
The energy content of palm oil and palm kernel oil is similar to that of other vegetable
oils. However, the digestibility is affected by the high level of saturated fatty acids.
Tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) utilise unsaturated fatty acids of palm oil better
(e.g. linoleic acid = 90.7%) than saturated fatty acids (e.g. palmitic acid = 62.7%)(57).

45.9.3 Feeding Value

Information on the feeding value of palm oil and palm kernel oil are lacking. Growth rate
of larvae of an African catfish (Heterobranchus longifilis) was improved when the fish
received diets supplemented with palm oil or a mixture of palm and cod liver oils as
compared to larvae fed either zooplankton (Moina notable) or a compound diet based on
yeast powder and beef liverl50).
 VEGETABLE OILS 431

45.10 Rape-seed Oil

45.10.1 Description

Rape-seed (Brassica napus, family Brassicacea) is an oil seed. More than 80% of
the World production of almost 20 million MT are produced in six countries: P.R.
China (29.9%), Canada (19.8%), India (13.4%), Germany (7.1%), Poland (6.6%) and
France (5.3%).
Rape seed oil is also called "oil of colza". It is used as a technical oil and for human
consumption, particularly in the manufacture of margarine(90).

45.10.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Rape-seed contains 40 to 50% oil(J02). It is rich in mono-unsaturated fatty acid such as

oleic acid (Table 45-01), but contains a high level (20% to 50%) of the undersirable
erucic acid.
In dogs the digestible energy was determined to be 9,010 kcallkg (37.7 MJlkg)
(Table 45-03)1581. The fat digestibility of rape-seed oil is in the same range as of other
vegetable oils due to its high level of unsaturated fatty acids (Table 45-04).
The presence of glucosinolates was the major factor limiting the use of rape-seed
oil as animal feed but by genetic selection of new cultivars the glucosinolates and
erucic acid have been reduced, the former to about 15%(104). Rape-seed oils low in
glucosinolates and erucic acid are also known as "canol a oil" which should not have
less than 5.0% erucic acid(J02).
In land animals, erucic acid is responsible for retarded growth and myocarditis(38).

45.10.3 Feeding Value

Feeding low erucic acid rape-seed oil to Atlantic salmon, juvenile Chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tschwaytscha), rainbow trout, hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus
x Oreochromis aureus) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) did not negatively affect growth,
feed conversion and survival rate(24, 36, 38, 45, 112). There was also hardly any difference in
performances between low and high erucic acid levels in the diet as observed in Atlantic
salmon and rainbow trout.
Contrary to land animals, erucic acid does not damage the myocard of rainbow trout.
After feeding rape-seed oil containing more than 50% and 3.7% erucic acid, respectively,
there was no pathological difference between both rape-seed oil diets(38). In Atlantic
salmon, the erucic acid content of the diet did not affect the fatty acid composition
of both heart and muscle lipids as well as the colour of the fish muscle (Table 45-10).
The typical "salmon odour" and "salmon taste" was significantly fainter when diets
contained erucic acid(I05).
Rape-seed oil has an adequate content of the essential linoleic acid and is, therefore,
a useful ingredient in diets for cultured aquatic animals.
432 CHAPTER 45

Table 45-10: Colour strength in muscle of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) after
feeding different dietary oils (105)

Dietary oil Score'

Rape-seed oil with low erucic acid content 5.03

Rape-seed oil with high erucic acid content 3.99
Soybean oil 4.91
Capelin oil 5.29

'The higher the value, the stronger the colour of the fish

45.11 Rice Bran Oil

45.11.1 Description

Rice bran oil is a by-product of rice milling (see chapter 37) and solvent extracted from
the bran. It contains about 12 to 15% oil. The oil is for human consumption, and is also
a raw material for the cosmetic industry.

45.11.2 Properties and Feeding Value

Rice bran oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, particularly the essential linoleic acid
(Table 45-01). It is, therefore, prone to autoxidation.
The deterioration process is initiated immediately upon removal of the bran from
the rice kernel. This results in a break-up of the rice bran oil into free fatty acids by the
activity of the enzyme lipase which is a component of the crude oil and already active in
the bran before solvent extraction. This is a rapid process causing about 3.0 to 5.0% of
the oil to be converted into free fatty acids each day(102. 113). Lipase is removed by refining
the oil. Refined rice bran oil is of light yellowish colourl102).
The feeding value of rice bran oil for aquatic animals has not been established.
Occasionally, it is used as a partial replacement for fish oil.

45.12 Safflower Oil

45.12.1 Description

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) of the aster family, Asteracea, is cultivated for its
edible oil. It is also used as a dyestuff, spice, medicament and in the paint industry.
The World production is about 700,000 MT a year and the major suppliers are India
(48.6% of World production), Mexico (27.2%) and USA (12.1 %)1102).
 VEGETABLE OILS 433

45.12.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

The seeds contain 49% oil. The oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, particularly in linoleic
acid (Table 45-01).
Safflower oil has 9,010 kcal/kg (37.7 MJ/kg) metabolisable energy and 8,747 kcal/kg
(36.6 MJ/kg) digestible energy (poultry) (Table 45-O3)128). Fat digestibility might be in
the range of 95% due to the high level of poly-unsaturated fatty acids.

45.12.3 Feeding Value

Sunshine bass (Morone chrysops x Marone saxatilis) responded with significantly reduced
weight gain when fed a diet containing 5.00/0 safflower oil instead of 5.0% menhaden oil.
Mortality rate of safflower fed fish was also higher compared to the menhaden fed fish.
The lipid content of the liver was much higher in fish fed safflower oil (Table 45-08)164).
Better results were obtained when safflower oil in comparison to squid liver oil was
fed to the nibbler (Girella punctata). Growth of the fish fed safflower oil was superior
to the squid liver oil fed group. Safflower oil-fed fish had a higher carcass fat content
compared to the squid liver animals(63}.

45.13 Sesame Oil

45.13.1 Description

Sesame (Sesamum indicum) is an annual, herbaceous oil seed crop of the family Pedaliaceae.
The seeds yield an edible oil and are used for its flavour in bread and rolls and other foOOs(8}.
The crop is cultivated in Africa, Asia, Central and South America(/02}. The World
sesame seed production amounts to about 2.45 million MT. Two thirds of the production
is harvested in four countries (P.R. China = 26.1 %; India = 18.6%; Sudan = 12.6%;
Burma (Myanmar) = 11.3%).

45.13.2 Properties

Sesame seeds have an oil content of about 50%. The content of unsaturated fatty acids
is very high. Dominating fatty acids are oleic acid and linoleic acid (Table 45-01).
Sesame oil contains unsaponifiable substances such as sterols which are not removed
by refining. Sesamin and sesamoline are substances of sesame oil that give distinct colour
reactions hence, is readily detected even in small amounts and even after hydrogenation.
The oil is unusually stable, perhaps due to the presence of these substances that have
antioxidant effed J02}.
The feeding value of sesame oil in aquaculture diets has not been elucidated. The nutri-
tional value of sesame oil in poultry feeding is considered to be the same as that of maize
oil, soybean oil and sunflower oi}l30}.
434 CHAPTER 45

45.14 Soybean Oil

45.14.1 Description

The soya bean (Glycine max), of the family Fabaceae has an oil content of about 19%.
World production of more than 100 million MT soya beans a year, means an annual
availability of around 20 million MT of crude soybean oil(102). It is one of the most
important vegetable oils for human consumption (see Chapter 42).

45.14.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Chemical Properties
Soybean oil is rich in linoleic acid. Next to linseed oil it has the highest linolenic acid
content of all vegetable oils (Table 45-01).
A good quality crude soybean oil is light amber and upon alkali refining, the colour is
reduced to light yellow. Like other vegetable oils, high temperature steam deodorisation
makes the oil odorless and flavourless.

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of a mixture of soybean and cod liver oil at a ratio of 1: 1 for
rainbow trout and carp is 8,007 kcal/kg (33.5) MJ/kg) (Table 45_03Y69).
The digestiblity of a blend of soybean and cod liver oil at a 3:2-ratio is 96.2% for
rainbow trout. The addition of phospholipids may improve the lipid digestibility
furtherl 97, 99). The digestibilty of linoleic and linolenic acids for rainbow trout is high(JO).
The apparent digestibility of fatty acids of soybean oil in tiger prawn follows:
Palmtic acid (16:0) 87.8%
Palmitoleic acid (16:1n-7) 78.9%
Stearic acid (18:0) 88.1 %
Oleic acid (18:1n-9) 95.4%
Linoleic acid (l8:2n-6) 95.6%
Linolenic acid (18:3n-3) 96.6%

45.14.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
Soybean oil replacing herring oil partially in diets for Atlantic salmon, reared in marine
net-pens for 23 weeks did not affect growth or composition of the fillets. Fatty acid
composition of the fillets reflected the fatty acid composition of the diets(37). When diets
containing varying soybean oil levels spread on low-fat dry pellets were given to
Atlantic salmon for 18 weeks no differences were observed in weight gain or mortality.
Susbtituting 68% of capelin oil with soybean oil did not give any negative effect on growth
but, the ratio ofn-3:n-6 fatty acids decreased in fish given the soybean oil (Table 45_11YJ05).
 VEGETABLE OILS 435

Table 45-11: Ratio of n-3:n-6 fatty acids in heart phospho-lipids and some HUFAs of muscles' total
lipids of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)1I05)

Ratio n-3:n-6 fatty Fatty acids

acids

Soybean Capelin Soybean Capelin

oil oil oil oil

Heart phospholipids 1: 2.04 8.83

Muscle lipids
- Eicosapentaenoic acid' % 1.5 4.4
- Docosahexaenoic acid2 % 5.4 9.3

'20:5n-3; 222:6n-3

The best weight gain and feed efficiency were obtained in Nile tilapia (Tilapia nilotica)
receiving diets containing soybean oil or maize oil and some other fat sources(100I.
Nile tilapia broodstock fed soybean oil at a 5.0% level gave the highest number of fish
that spawned and spawning frequency. Fish fed the cod liver oil diet had the highest
weight gain, but had the poorest reproductive performance. The ratio of total n-6:n-3
fatty acid in the liver, ovaries and testes was influenced by the supplemental lipid source.
It was highest in fish fed soybean oil and lowest in fish fed the control diet (no lipid
supplement or the cod liver oil diet) (79).
Milkfish fingerlings fed diets containing a combination of equal amounts of soybean
oil and other fats showed highest performances with soybean oil and cod liver oil com-
bination (Table 45-12)12. 14, 291. The combination of soybean oil and cod liver oil was also
the best when fed to sea bass (Lates calcarifer) (Table 45-13)(151•

Table 45-12: Growth response of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fingerlings fed with various oils and fats
(weight: 1.0 g; trial period: 8 weeks)'2)

Soybean oil % 5.0 5.0 5.0

Cod liver oil % 5.0
Beef tallow % 5.0
Pork lard % 5.0

Weight gain % 213 346 306 298

Feed conversion 1: 3.48 2.35 2.91 2.61
Survival rate % 90 100 98 98

'Control
436 CHAPTER 45

Table 45-13: Effect of soybean oil on growth parameters of sea bass (Lates calcarifer) fry!l5)

Soybean oil % 9.0 4.5

Cod liver oil % 9.0 4.5

Weight gain % 152.7 364.6 460.9 530.2

SGR %/day 4.6 7.7 8.6 9.2
Survival rate % 72 89 82 89

·Control

Poor results were obtained when a 10% soybean oil diet was fed to hybrid striped bass
(Morone saxatilix x Morone chrysops). Fishes did not grow as well as those fed fish oil.
Analysis of the fish body also showed significantly less fat, more protein, and greater
moisture content than those fed fish oil. There were no differences in survival(35J.

Crustaceans
Feeding juvenile tiger prawns with increasing levels of soybean oil gave best results at
the 8.0% soybean oil level (Table 45-14). The fatty acid composition of the prawns
reflected that of the dietary lipids. HUFAS were incorporated more into the polar lipid
fraction. A negative effect was observed when linoleic acid exceeded the 5.0% level in
the feed(l7). For high stocking densities, practical grow-out diets may contain 2.5% soybean
oil and 2.5% cod liver oi}!60J.

Table 45-14: Responses of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) to various levels of soybean oi\(l7)

Soybean oil % 0 4.0 8.0 12.0

Initial weight mg 0.54 0.58 0.70 0.54

Weight gain mg 27.5 19.1 37.1 36.9
SGR %/day 0.86 0.60 1.10 0.93
Survival rate % 66.7 77.8 83.3 72.2
Lipid content of prawns % 0.89 1.00 1.13 1.20

The dietary value of soybean oil is inferior to marine lipids for kuruma prawn (Penaeus
japonicus) because the oil is high in linolenic fatty acid (18:3n-3) but not in eicosapen-
taenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3)!49J. However, a mixture of 6.0%
soybean and pollack liver oil (1:3 or 1:1) is a good lipid source for kuruma prawn(23J.
Crude degummed soybean oil was superior to purified soybean oil in diets that were
isonitrogenous and isocaloric fed for eight weeks to tiger prawn juveniles. Survival rates
were significantly higher in shrimps fed diets containing crude degummed soybean oil.
Around 4.0% crude degummed soybean oil was best!74J.
Growth of the Indian shrimp (Penaeus indicus) fed for 35 days diets containing either 5.0%
soybean, sunflower, linseed, or ground-nut oil were not significantly different in growth(l9J•
 VEGETABLE OILS 437

45.15 Sunflower Oil

45.15.1 Description

Sunflowers (Helianthus annus), family Asteraceae, are cultivated for oil and meal. Both oil
and meal are used as food for man and feedstuff for animals. The second most important
vegetable oil is sunflower oil (102). About 21 million MT sunflower seeds are produced
per annum (CIC =25.5% of World production); Argentina =20.2%; France = 8.9%; P.R.
China = 8.2%).

45.l5.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

Unde-hulled sunflower kernel contains 22 to 35% oil and de-hulled seeds 42 to 63%.
Sunflower oil is high in polyunsaturated fatty acids but has very little, if any of linolenic
acid (Table 45-01).
The digestible energy content of sunflower oil is 8,745 kcal/kg (36.6 MJ/kg) (chicken)
(Table 45-03). The European eel digested sunflower oil almost completelyr82) but had
a low energy utilisation with rainbow trout 63% (Table 45-04)1 75 ).

45.l5.3 Feeding Value

Sunflower oil has a high feeding value. In diets for rainbow trout, sunflower oil is the
most effective one when compared to other vegetable oils or marine oils (Table 45-15)
(Figure 45-04). Protein utilisation is improved, indicating the protein sparing effect
of dietary oils. On the other hand, the dietary fat increased the fat content of the rainbow
troutl94. 95, 103).
Sunflower oil in diets for carp showed similar response to those obtained in rainbow
trout. Weight increased by up to 22% but fat content of the fish carcass and its fatty acid
composition was heavily affectedI48,96).
The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) doubled its initial weight of about 175 g when
fed a diet supplemented with sunflower oiI (82).

Table 45-15: Effect of increasing dietary fat levels on performances of rainbow trout (Salma gairdneri),95)

Sunflower oil % 5,0

Cod liver oil % 5.0
Fish oil % 5.0
Total dietary fat % 4.7 9.0 8.9 8.2
Crude protein % 40.1 38.2 38.3 38.6

Weight gain % 262 382 324 313

Feed conversion 1: 1.98 1.28 1.46 1.57
Protein efficiency ratio 1.26 2.04 1.79 1.65
Productive protein value 22.4 34.5 29.5 28,2
438 CHAPTER 45

"'day
1.0

.--
....
Q)

...'" -
..<:
....
:J
~ 0.5-

-
tlI

........0 ....
....
0
0
...CIl
Q)
.....
'"
til
:J
0

....0::...
0
.....
....0::
::s 0
til U

0
Figure 45-04. Specific growth rate (SGR) of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed sunflower oil
compared with fish oiJfData!rom: !O3).

45.16 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Crude vegetable oils are predominantly used for energy supplementation in aquaculture feed.
They contain impurities. Most of the oils have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids,
thus are prone to autoxidation. To prevent oxidation an antioxidant should be added,
preferably during processing at the oil mill.
The use of vegetable oils in practical feed formulations have some technical limitations.
Inclusion rates of vegetable oils in feeding trials may result in poor pellet quality.
The oil level suggested for a common pelletising machine is 4.0 to 5.0%. Higher inclusion
rates such as 20% or more are possible, if the feed is extruded or expanded.

45.17 Legal Aspects

Vegetable oils are permitted as a component for animal feeds according to EU Regulatiomilll!.
According to U.S.A-Regulation vegetable oil must contain, and be guaranteed for, not less
than 90% fatty acids, not more than 2.0% un saponifiable matter and not more than 1.0%
insoluble impurities. Maximum free fatty acids and moisture must also be guaranteed.
The use of an antioxidant has to be declared(/).
The German feedstuff legislation requirements are listed in Table 45-16. Castor oil
from Ricinus communis and mustard oil from Brassica nigra are not permitted under
German feedstuff law(111!.
 VEGETABLE OILS 439

Brominated vegetable oils (BVO) used in softdrinks are not recommended by the World
Health Organisation (WHO) of the United Nations. Brominated fat is badly metabolised
and accumulate in the heart and other tissues. England and the Netherlands have banned
the use of brominated vegetable oil(61).

Table 45-16: Quality requirements by the German feedstuff legislation for

feed grade vegetable oils (%Y III )

Refined oil Crude oil

Moisture max. 0.2 l.0

Impurities max. 0.2 1.5
Unsaponifiable max. 3.0 3.0
Acid value max. 50

45.18 References

l. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Asso. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher),
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
2. Alava, VR. (1986): Combinations of dietary fat sources in dry diets for Chanos chanos fingerlings. Proc.
the First Asian Fish. Forum, Asian Fish. Soc., ManilalPhilippines.
3. Alexis, M.N; Papaparaskeva Papoutsoglou, E; Eheochari, V. (1985): Formulation of practical diets
for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) made by partial or complete substitution of fish meal by poultry
by-products and certain plant by-products. Aquaculture. 50.• 61-73.
4. Anonymous (1975): Average fatty acid composition and constants of fats and oils. Akzochemie U.K. Ltd.
12114 St. Ann's Crescent Wandswonh, London/Great Britain.
5. Anonymous (1975): Typical fatty acid composition of common fats and oils (by GLC analysis). Emery
Industries, Inc. (1300 Carew Tower, Cincinnati, OhiolUSA.
6. Arai, S.; Nose, T.; Hashimoto, Y. (1971): A purified test diet for the eel (Anguilla japonica). Bull.
Freshwater. Fish. Res. Lab., 21., 161-178.
7. Argyropoulou, V; Kalogeropoulos, N; Alexis, M.N (1992): Effect of dietary lipids on growth and tissue
fatty acid composition of grey mullet (Mugil cephalus). Compo Biochem. Physiol., lOlA .• 129-135.
8. Arroyo, P.T. (1974): The Science of Philippine Foods .. Abaniko Enterprises, Araneta Center, Quezon
CitylThe Philippines. (1st ed.).
9. Arzel, J.; Cardinal, M.; Cornet, f.; Metailler. R.; Guillaume, f.e. (1993): Nutrition of brown trout (Salmo
trutta) reared in seawater, effect of dietary lipid on growth performances, body composition and fillet
quality. From Discovery to Commercialization. Europ. Aquacult. Soc. No.19. (OostandelBelgium)
10. Austreng, E; Skrede, A.; Eldegard, A. (1979): Effects of dietary fat source on the digestibility of fat
and fatty acids in rainbow trout and mink. Acta Agric. Scand. 29.,119-126.
11. Austreng, E; Gjefsen, T. (1981): Fish oils with different contents of free fatty acids in diets for rainbow
trout fingerlings and salmon par. Aquaculture, 25., 173-178.
12. Bailey, A.E. (1945): Quoted from: Arroyo, PT. (1974).
440 CHAPTER 45

13. Bimbo, A.P. (1990): Processing of fish oils. In: Stansby, M.E. (ed.): Fish oils in nutrition. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York/USA. 181-225.
14. Boonyaratpalin, M.; Unprasert, N.; Buranapanidgit, J. (1990): Optimal supplementary Vitamin C level
in sea bass fingerling diet. The Current Status of Fish Nutrition in Aquaculture. Proc. Third Inter. Symp.
on Feeding and Nutr. in Fish. Toba/Japan. 20 Aug. to 1 Sept. 1989. 149-157.
15. Borlongan, I.G.; Parazo, M.M. (1991): Effect of dietary lipid sources on growth, survival and fatty acid
composition of sea bass (Lates calcarifer Bloch) fry. Bamidgeh, 43., 95-102.
16. Bowland, J.P. (1990): Linseed meal. In: Thacker, P.A; Kirkwood, R.M. (eds.): Nontraditional feed
sources for use in swine production. Butterworth Publisher, Stoneham, MAIUSA.
17. Catacutan, M.R. (1991): Growth and fatty acid composition of Penaeus monodon juveniles fed various
lipids. Bamidgeh, 43., 47-56.
18. Cheeke,P.R. (1987): Rabbit feeding and nutrition. Academic Press, Inc .. OrlandofU.S.A.
19. Colvin, P.M. (1976): The effect of selected seed oils on the fatty acid composition and growth of Penaeus
indicus. Aquaculture, 8., 81-89.
20. Cook, R.P.; Thomson, R.O. (1951). Quoted from: Cheeke, P.R. (1987).
21. Corraze, G.; Larroquet, L; Maisse, G.; Blanc, D.; Kaushik, S. (1993): Effect oftemperature and of dietary
lipid source on female broodstock performance and fatty acid composition of the eggs of rainbow trout.
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22. Craig, S.R.; Gatlin, D.M. 111; Neill, WM. (1992): Effects of kinds and levels of dietary lipid on growth
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Century. 21 to 25 May, 71-72. (Orlando, FloridafUSA)
23. Deshimaru, 0.; Kuroki, K.; Yone, Y. (1979): The composition and level of dietary lipid appropriate for
growth of prawn. Bull. Jap., Soc. Sci. Fish., 45., 519-594.
24. Dosanjh B.S.; Higgs, D.A; Plotnikoff, M.D.; Markert, J.R.; Duckley, J. T. (1988): Preliminary evaluation
of canola oil, pork lard and marine lipid singly and in combination as supplemental dietary lipid sources
for juvenile fall chinook salmon (Oncorhyncus tshawytscha). Aquaculture, 68., 325-343.
25. Dupree, H.K.; Sneed, K.E. (1966): Response of channel catfish fingerlings to different levels of major
nutrients in purified diets. Techn. Papers U.S. Bureau of Sports, Fishes and Wildlife, 9., 1-21.
26. Dupree, H.K.; Gauglitz. E.1.; Hall, AS.; Houle, C.R. (1979): Effects of dietary lipids on the growth and
acceptability (flavor) of channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus). Proc. World Symp. on Finfish Nutr. and
Fishfeed Techn., Hamburg/Germany, Vol. I, 20 to 23 June 1978.
27. Eusebio, J.H.; Hays, V.W; Speer, v.c.; McGall, U.T. (1965): Utilisation of fat by young pigs. Anim. Sci.,
24., 1001-1007.
28. Evans, M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and pOUltry. Queensland Dept. of Primary
Industries Information, Series Q185001 (Brisbane/Australia).
29. Feed Develop. Section (1994): Feeds and feeding milkfish, Nile tilapia, Asian sea bass, and tiger shrimp.
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department. (Tigbauan, I1oiloffhe Philippines).
30. Feltwell, R.; Fox, S. (1978): The practical poultry feeding. Faber and Faber. London and Boston.
31. Fiebig, H.-J.; Wessels, H. (1994): Olivenol- Speiseol seit - Jahrtausenden. Forschungsreport, (9), 3-5.
32. Fowler, LG.; Wood, E.M. (1966): Effect of type of supplemental dietary fat on chinook salmon fingerlings.
Progr. Fish-Culturist, 28., 123-127.
33. Fracalossi, D.M.; Lovell, R.T.; Craid-Schmidt, M. (1993): Production of leukotriene B. by head kidney
leukocytes of channel catfish fed different lipid sources. From Discovery to Commercialization. Europ.
Aquacult. Soc. no. 19. OostendelBelgium.
34. Friesecke, H. (1984): Hanbuch der praktischen Fiitterung von Rind, Scha!, Pferd, Schwein, Gejiiigel und
 VEGETABLE OILS 441

Sii{3wasserfischen. BLV VerJagsges, MiinchenJGermany

35. Frinsko, M.O.; Robinette, H.R.; Robinson, E.H. (1994): Evaluation of lipid sources for phase II hybrid
striped bass (Morone saxatilis x Morone chrysops). Aquaculture towards the 21" Century. Proc. Infofish
- Aquatech '94, Int'1. Conference on Aquaculture, Colombo/Sri Lanka. 97-98.
36. Greene, D.M.S.; Selivonchick, D.P. (1990): Effects of dietary vegetable, animal and marine lipids on
muscle lipid and hematology ofrainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture, 89., 165-182.
37. Hardy, R. W; Scott, T.M.; Harrell, L. W (1987): Replacement of herring oil with menhaden oil, soybean
oil, or tallow in the diets of Atlantic salmon raised in marine net-pens. Aquaculture, 65., 267-277.
38. Hartfiel, W; Schulz, D.; Greuel, E. (1981): Investigations on the conversion of fats of the rainbow trout
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39. Hartfiel, W; Schulz, D.; Greuel, E. (1982): Investigations of fat utilisation of the rainbow trout (Salmo
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40. Hartfiel, W; Schulz, D.; Greuel, E. (1984): Investigations about fat utilisation of the rainbow trout (Salmo
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41. Hepher, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge Univ. Press. Campbridge. U.K.
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52. Lie. 0.; Lied, E.; Lambertsen, G. (1986): Liver retention offat and of fatty acids in cod (Gadus morhua)
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442 CHAPTER 45

red drum (Scieaenops ocellatus). Aquaculture, 114., 113-130.

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57. Merican, 200.; Shim, K.F. (1994): Lipid and fatty acid utlization in adult Penaeus monodon fed diets
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64. Nematipour, G.R.; Gatlin, lll, D.M. (1993): Effects of different kinds of dietary lipid on growth and fatty
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 VEGETABLE OILS 443

75. Pieper; A.; Pfeffer; E. (1980): The studies on the comparative efficiency of utilisation of gross energy from
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444 CHAPTER 45

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 46. VEGETABLE OIL MEALS

46.1 Rationale

Vegetable oil meals are by-products after the removal of oil from oil-bearing seeds.
They are produced by annual plants and perennial trees. The latter includes oil palm
and coconut palm trees. Most important annual plants belong to the botanical families of
legumes and crucifers (see Chapter 45.1).
Meals from vegetable oil processing are protein feedstuffs whose protein content
ranges between 20 to 50%(163). In the past, vegetable oil producing plants were cultivated
primarily for their oil for human consumption and industrial applications. The increasing
demand for protein for animal production, and aquaculture, made the by-products
of greater importance than the oil. An example is soya bean meal, which is the most
important protein source for feeding farm animals, but originally was a by-product of
little value. The use of full fat oil seed, as a feedstuff is a consequent development of
this situation(40).
However, "not all is gold that glitters." Vegetable oil meals contain undesirable con-
stituents such as high crude fibre, ash and anti-nutritional factors.
The high crude fibre content is caused by the protective cover of the seed's germ and
nutrients in the form of hulls and shells. The external coating of seeds or corticated seeds
can be partially or completely removed mechanically and the process is called decortica-
tion thus, the oil meals are classified as:
Corticated vegetable oil meals (coating not removed, with hulls);
Decorticated vegetable oil meal (coating removed prior to oil extraction, de-hulled,
without hulls).
The crude fibre content of vegetable oil meals is an indicator of whether the meal is
corticated or decorticated. A high crude fibre content means that the meal is corticated.
The method used in the removal of oil from the seeds also determines the feeding value
of vegetable oil meals (see Chapter 45.2.2). Products obtained from oil removal are:
Oil meals (oil removed by solvent extraction);
Oil cake/oil expeller (oil removed by hydraulic or screw pressing).
The term "meal" always refers to a solvent (chemically) extracted product while
"cake" or "expeller" means a product obtained by mechanical pressing. Names such as
"solvent extracted oil meal" or "screw pressed oil meal" are not only misleading but also
redundant. The content of residual fat is the best indicator for the process used in fat
extraction. Levels of more than 5.0% refer to an oil cake or oil expeller. Likewise there
is no need to use the term "un de-hulled oil meal" but there is a demand to describe
a product as "de-hulled oil meal." The proper terms for vegetable oil meals without any
risk of misinterpretation are e.g.:
Soybean meal
De-hulled soybean meal,
446 CHAPTER 46

Soybean cake (expeller),

De-hulled soybean cake (expeller),
Full-fat soybean meal,
De-hulled full-fat soybean meal.

46.2 Manufacture and Processing

The processes for the removal of oil from oil seeds are described in Chapter 45.2.
In addition, each oil seed may require a specific treatment for obtaining the oil. When
the oil seeds such as copra, ground-nuts, linseed, rape-seed and sunflower seeds contain
more than 35% oil, pre-pressing prior to solvent extraction is more economical than
applying only the solvent extraction process(40). Specific procedures are described in
the individual section for each vegetable oil meal.
The amount of vegetable oil meals obtained can be between 38% to 82% from corti-
cated and from 13% to 75% from decorticated seeds. The hull portion varies between
7.0% and 45%(40).
Full-fat oil seeds have to undergo heat treatment to destroy the heat-labile anti-nutrients.
Commercial processes used for treatment of soya beans are:
Dry roasting,
Jet-sploding,
Micronisation,
Extrusion.
Dry roasting is the most common treatment in which the material is exposed directly
to a flame. The more careful treatment which minimises losses of nutrients is jet-sploding
whereby the seeds are only indirectly exposed to the heat source(152).

46.3 Coconut Meal

46.3.1 Description

The by-product of the mature nut (fruit) of the coconut tree (Cacus nucifera) is coconut meal.
The nut is a hard shell, covered by a fibrous outer coat and contains the edible kernels in
the centre. The dry kernel, still containing the oil, is called copra and the residue after
the removal of the oil by solvent extraction or screw pressing is named coconut meal and
coconut cake (expeller), respectively!46). A coconut is 13.0% meal, 62% oil, and 25%
shells(40).

46.3.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Coconut meal is a protein feedstuff, and its crude protein content is just above 20%
(Table 46-01). The limiting amino acids are lysine and methionine (Table 46-02)(75).
The content of sulphur amino acids amounts to only 0.36% in the dry matter(3l).
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 447

Table 46-0 I: Chemical composition of vegetable oil meals and expellers (% as fed)

Dry Crude Crude Ash Crude N-free Reference

matter protein fat fibre extract

(31,46,54,119.163)
Coconut meal 90.2 21.9 2.2 6.9 14.1 45.1
Coconut expeller 91.0 20.6 8.9 5.7 12.4 43.3 (46,49, 119, 120. 163, 171)

Cotton-seed meal,
(54)
- corticated 90.0 32.9 1.7 6.0 21.8 27.6
- decorticated 90.8 44.2 1.2 6.8 9.7 28.9 (46.49,54, 110. 163)

Cotton-seed expeller
(54, JJ9, /6JJ
- corticated 89.7 22.9 5.6 5.4 23.4 32.4
(54, 125, 1(3)
- decorticated 92.1 41.1 6.2 6.0 11.2 27.6
Ground-nut meal
(54, 125. 1(3)
- corticated 91.1 32.0 2.6 5.1 25.0 26.4
(31.49.54,120,122,125.163)
- decorticated 90.2 46.5 1.0 5.4 8.2 29.1
Ground-nut expeller
(54,120, 125, 1(3)
- corticated 91.1 34.1 10.3 6.4 18.1 22.2
(46,54. 120, /25, 1(3)
- decorticated 91.1 46.5 7.0 5.1 6.1 26.4
(26,31,54,110, /63)
Linseed meal 90.0 35.0 2.0 6.2 9.2 37.6
(26.46,54, 1(3)
Linseed expeller 90.1 33.4 5.7 6.4 9.2 35.4
Mustard meal 89.9 42.4 1.8 6.3 9.1 30.3 (14.62.71»

(62. 71, 119, /32. 16J, /88)

Mustard expeller 89.2 28.2 8.9 10.2 8.2 33.7
(2].31, /(3)
Olive meal 92.4 13.3 3.6 8.2 22.8 44.5
Olive expeller 88.1 5.6 12.7 3.1 35.2 31.5 (23, ]J, 1(3)

Palm-kernel meal 89.8 16.3 1.4 3.9 17.8 50.4 (54, 119, 163, 187)

(23,54. /(3)
Palm-kernel expeller 89.9 16.6 7.6 4.0 17.5 44.2
Rape-seed meal
- solvent extracted 91.0 37.3 1.9 7.2 11.4 33.2 (l6J)

- pre-press solvent
(125)
extracted 93.0 38.0 3.8 6.8 11.1 33.3
Rape-seed expeller 91.2 34.5 7.2 6.7 12.1 30.7 (J/9,163)

Safflower meal
- corticated 91.3 23.0 1.4 4.7 31.4 30.8 (46.54, 163)

- decorticated' 91.2 43.1 1.6 7.1 11.5 28.0 (46.49,54, 1(3)

- decorticated,
debittered 91.1 63.0 0.8 7.4 4.4 15.5 (/89)

Safflower expeller
(54, /63)
- corticated 91.0 21.1 5.6 4.8 31.2 28.3
(54, /63)
- decorticated' 90.7 45.2 6.9 7.3 10.4 20.9
(23.31,46,49,120, /38)
Sesame meal 92.4 45.0 4.8 13.0 6.7 24.2
Sesame expeller 90.6 37.0 13.3 11.1 7.8 21.4 (23.46, 120)

Soybean meal
(4,11.46,48,49, /53)
- corticated 90.6 45.9 1.0 6.3 6.3 31.1
- decorticated 89.5 49.8 0.8 5.6 3.2 30.1 (4.22.46)

- full-fat 90.2 37.4 18.9 5.5 5.4 23.0 (I/O, /53)

448 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-01: Continued

Dry Crude Crude Ash Crude N-free Reference

matter protein fat fibre extract

(22.48, /53)
Soybean expeller 88.6 43.5 5.6 6.2 5.4 27.9
(23,46,18/)
Sunflower seeds 93.0 18.9 36.2 3.6 18.7 15.6
Sunflower meal
(23.43)
- corticated 90.3 30.8 1.5 6.3 24.8 26.9
- decorticated 92.6 43.5 3.2 6.6 11.1 28.2 (43,49,120)

Sunflower expeller
(23,46,120)
- corticated 92.7 35.1 8.2 6.5 17.3 25.6
- decorticated 92.2 37.1 9.3 6.3 12.3 27.2 (163)

'Partially decorticated

Table 46-02: Essential amino acid profile of coconut meal and coconut
expeller (g/16g N),46. 163)

Coconut meal Coconut expeller

Arginine 2.37 2.89

Histidine 0.38 0.44
Isoleucine 0.82 0.78
Leucine 1.45 1.33
Lysine 0.56 0.70
Methionine 0.32 0.32
Phenylalanine 0.93 0.94
Threonine 0.71 0.67
Tryptophan 0.18 0.27
Valine 1.14 1.11

Compared to the whole chicken egg protein, coconut cake contains only 37% of lysine
and 34% of methionine + cystine(l21).
Coconut cake has a higher fat content than solvent extracted meal hence, the former
is more prone to spoilage by rancidity than the meal(46. 49, 120). The crude fibre content is
disadvantageous for aquatic feed (Table 46-01).
Coconut meal and expeller have relatively high phosphorus content and are low in
calcium. The choline content is high (Table 46-03).

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of coconut meal in fish is less than 3,000 kcal/kg (Table 46-04).
It increases with the fat content of the product (Table 46-05).
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 449

Table 46-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of coconut meal and coconut expeller

Minerals(J/. 46. 49. 54. 120. 16J/ Vitamins (per 1,000 g)/46. 49. 162. 169/

Expeller Meal Expeller Meal

Calcium % 0.17 0.18 Vitamin A IU 300 400

Phosphorus % 0.58 0.59 Vitamin E mg 4.0
Sodium % 0.09 0.09 Vitamin B, mg 0.4 0.9
Potassium % 1.87 1.49 Vitamin B, mg 2.8 6.4
Magnesium % 0.34 0.34 Vitamin B, mg 1.4 2.1
Chlorine % 0.03 Biotin mg 0.23
Sulphur % 0.34 Folic acid mg 0.14 0.80
Manganese mglkg 45.4 60.0 Nicotinic acid mg 25.1 28.1
Iron mglkg 180.0 683.0 Pantothenic acid mg 8.8 6.3
Zinc mglkg 54.2 Choline g 1.1 1.1
Copper mglkg 28.2 9.0

Table 46-04: Energy values of coconut meal and coconut expellers (per kg)

Species Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ

(120)
Fish' 2,899 12.1'
(46,54)
Poultry 1,635 6.8 3,220 13.5'
(46,49,54)
1,493 6.2 3,120 13.1
(m
Rabbits 3,180 13.3

'Species not specied; 'Coconut expeller

Table 46-05: Relationship between the residual oil content and the digestible energy value of
coconut by-products with pigs(l71}

Type of product Residual oil Digestible energy

Content
% kcal/kg MJlkg

Meal 0.4 3,020 12.6

Expeller 9.1 3,700 15.5
Expeller 16.1 4,340 18.2
Expeller 22.0 4,540 19.0
Expeller 33.3 4,690 19.6
Copra (unpressed) 66.2 7,060 29.5
450 CHAPTER 46

Other Properties
High levels of coconut meal and expeller increases the butterfat content in the milk of
dairy cows and hardens the butterl40. 54 ). Whether coconut meal or expeller in diets for
aquatic animals affect the consistency of carcass fat is unknown.
Coconut expeller improves the press capacity of the pelletising machine due to its fat
content but gives a low pellet quality and is highly abrasive(55.66).

46.3.3 Feeding Value

Coconut meal and expeller are a good source of protein and energy, particularly for rumi-
nants(40). The suitability for aquaculture feeds is limited and only a few investigations on
the feeding value are available. Higher dietary levels than 12% have been found to give poor
growth, even when in combination with fish meal and other plant protein sources(l48. 149).

46.3.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Coconut meal and expeller are useful sources of protein for aquatic animals in tropical
and SUbtropical areas. The limiting factor is the high crude fibre content. It is, therefore, not
a good ingredient for starter feed. Meal and cake are more suitable for herbivorous!
omnivorous than for carnivorous aquatic animals.
The recommended inclusion rates are:
Herbivorous!omnivorous fish: 5.0 to 15.0%
Carnivorous fish: 5.0 to 10.0%
An additional amino acid fortification (lysine and methionine) of the feed might be
necessary when coconut meal and/or cake is used.

46.4 Cotton-Seed Meal

46.4.1 Description

Cotton (Gossypum hirsitum) is grown for its fibre in the manufacture of textiles. The by-
product is cotton-seed. For every 100 kg of cotton fibre produced, the cotton plant also
yields about 160 kg cotton-seed. Cotton-seed oil is obtained by screw pressing, pre-press
solvent extraction, and solvent extraction.
The residues after oil removal is a useful feedstuff (see also chapter 45.4). Cotton-seed
is composed of( 68 ):
Meal: 50.0%
Hulls: 22.0%
Oil: 16.0%
Linters: 7.0%
Processing losses: 5.0%
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 451

Table 46-06: Digestibility (0/0) of coconut meal and coconut expeller

Species Dry Crude Fat Crude Carbo- Energy Refer-

matter protein fibre hydrates ence

Tropical catfish 86.0 90.0 89.0 (83)

Red tilapia 80.6 99.1 100.0 56.0 81.7 (8/)

Poultry 69.0 (54)

81.0' (54)

'Coconut expeller

46.4.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Cotton-seed meal has a relatively high crude protein content. It is higher for decorticated
meal than for expeller (Table 46-01). Cotton-seed meal is low in lysine and methionine
(Table 46-07)140). Processing conditions may also have a negative effect on the amino
acid content(l68).
The fat content of cotton-seed expeller is about 4.0% higher than of cotton-seed meal.
Crude fibre is a limiting factor in the use of cotton-seed meal as feed. It is around 10%
in decorticated meals and expellers while its content in corticated meal can exceed 20%
(Table 46-07).

Table 46-07: Essential amino acid profile of decorticated cotton-seed

products (g/16g N)(l25. 163. 168)

Cotton-seed meal Cotton-seed expeller

Arginine 4.47 4.51

Histidine 1.04 1.07
Isoleucine 1.28 1.39
Leucine 2.23 2.35
Lysine 1.81 1.64
Methionine 0.52 0.57
Phenylalanine 2.21 2.18
Threonine 1.23 1.36
Tryptophan 0.47 0.53
Valine 1.82 1.97

Phosphorus, potassium and iron content of cotton-seed meal is high, and B-vitamins
compare favorably with soybean meal (Table 46-08).
452 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-08: Mineral and vitamin contents of decorticated cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed expeller

Minerals(46. 110. 125) Vitamins (per 1,000 g) (46. 110. 125. 162 1158)

Cotton- Cotton-seed Cotton- Cotton-seed

seed meal expeller seed meal expeller

Calcium % 0.21 0.20 Vitamin A ill 330

Phosphorus % 1.41 1.16 Vitamin E mg 16.1 13.3
Potassium % 1.34 1.64 Vitamin B, mg 6.3 7.2
Chlorine % 0.04 Vitamin B2 mg 4.6 4.3
Magnesium % 0.48 0.72 Vitamin B. mg 4.7 5.0
Sodium % 0.03 0.02 Biotin mg 0.56 0.64
Sulphur % 0.30 4.75 Folic acid mg 2.5 1.7
Copper mglkg 18.03 13.90 Nicotinic acid mg 37.3 41.0
Iron mglkg 326.33 116.00 Pantothenic acid mg 10.4 12.3
Manganese mglkg 21.67 22.90 Choline g 2.7 2.8
Selenium mglkg 0.06 0.18
Zinc mglkg 60.50 64.30
Iodine mg/kg 50.00

Physiological properties
The digestible energy of cotton-seed meal is relatively low due to the high crude fibre
content (Table 46-09). Fat is best digested while carbohydrates have the lowest digestibility
in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) (Table 46-10)1641• Even in ruminants the digestibility
of corticated cotton-seed meal and expeller is only 61 %(541.

Table 46-09:Energy values of cotton-seed meal per kg

Species Gross energy Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

(97. 110. 160)

4,419 18.5
(12.160)
Rainbow trout 2,365 9.9 2,711 11.3
Common carp 2,603 ILl (173.179)

Channel catfish 2,894 12.1 (12,97)

(46,49)
Chicken 2,137 8.9 3,125 13.1

Table 46-10: Digestibility (%) of cotton-seed meal(<S4)

Species Dry Crude Fat Crude Carbo- Energy

matter protein fibre hydrates

Channel catfish 81.0 56.0

Common carp 46.0 77.0 87.0 67.0 39.4
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 453

The amino acid availability of cotton-seed meal for channel catfish (lctalurus punc-
tatus) ranges between 71.2 and 90.6% for the true digestibility and 46.5% to 87.3% for
the apparent digestibility for common carp. For both species, it is high for arginine but
low for lysine. The low availability of lysine can be a result of the solvent extraction
process of the oil and the presence of gossypol because it binds lysine(163). In glandless
cotton-seed meal, the lysine availability is better(185).

Deleterious Substances
Gossypol is a highly reactive polyphenolic dinaphthaldehyde compound present in the oil
gland of cotton-seed. It is either bound or free(46. 168). The bound form is non-toxic and is
of little significance since it is unavailable and passes through the gastro-intestinal tract
unabsorbed(46). But free gossypol is highly toxic,!J01). It can be accumulated in the liver
of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)(145).
The free gossypol content in cotton-seed meal may range from 0.04% to 0.40%(168).
Tolerance levels for cultured aquatic animals have not been established. They are for:
Laying hens: 50 ppm(49)
Broilers: 200 ppm(46)
Pigs: 100 ppm(168)
However, gossypol can be de-toxified by iron salts (most effective is ferrour sulfate
[FeS04 .7H2D by blocking the toxic effects of gossypol. It can be completely eliminated by
including iron on a 1:1 weight ratio of iron to free gossypol when its level is above 100 ppni l68).
Cycloproprenoids (malvalic and sterculic acids) in cotton-seed meal are also undesir-
able(46). In rainbow trout, these cause depressed growth and increase glycogen deposition
in the liver. The rare fatty acids together with aflatoxin B) are liver carcinogens(146, 157).

46.4.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
The use of cotton-seed meal in fish feeds is limited to certain species. Chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) can tolerate
diets with up to 34% and 22% dietary cotton-seed meal, respectively!52).
Up to 15% of cotton-seed meal could replace soybean meal and, if supplemented with
lysine up to 30% cotton-seed meal could be used in the diets for channel catfish(l40. 141. 142. 143).
The chemical composition and dressing-out percentages of the channel catfish fillets
(wet-tissue basis) did not significantly differ (Table 46-11)(141).
Glanded cotton-seed meal depressed performance of channel catfish compared to fish
given glandless meal( 144) and with more than 17.4% glanded cotton-seed meal or 900 ppm
free gossypol, growth was poor44).
Corticated and decorticated cotton-seed meal with and without lysine supplementation
(30% crude protein) were fed to Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) with a fish meal as
control diet for 130 days. Performance of the fish meal group was superior to the cotton-
seed fed group. Decorticated cotton-seed meal was superior to corticated cotton-seed
meal in growth and feed conversion while PER was not significantly different(45).
Nile tilapia fed for 56 days a cotton-seed cake diet (32.4% protein) gained only 31 %
while the fish meal group (31.5% protein) attained an 81% weight gain(127).
454 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-ll: The replacement of soybean meal by cotton-seed meal in diets for channel catfish and the effect
on carcass composition (lctalurus punctatus)(/42)

Soybean meal % 42 16.5 16.5

Cotton-seed meal % 30.0 30.0 51.25 51.25
Lysine % 0.32 0.65
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Carcass Composition:
Moisture % 75.6 75.1 76.0 76.5 75.2
Protein % 17.3 16.6 17.3 16.7 17.6
Fat % 5.5 5.4 5.2 5.2 5.8
Ash % 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
Dressing-out % 61.1 61.3 61.5 60.3 60.1
Visceral fat % 4.1 3.8 3.5 3.7 3.8

Crustaceans
Two levels of glandless cotton-seed meal in relation to the shrimp size were tested for
three-weeks in northern white shrimp (Penaeus setiferus) and white leg shrimp (Penaeus
vannamei). Growth declined with increasing level of cotton-seed meal and decreasing
animal protein: vegetable protein ratio and was more pronounced in northern white
shrimp than in white leg shrimps. Larger shrimps entruded to tolerate cotton-seed meal
better than the smaller animals (Table 46-12)132).

Table 46-12: Effect of cotton-seed meal in diets for northern white shrimp (Penaeus setiferus) and white leg
shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) of different sizes(31)

SI V' S V S V

Cotton-seed meal % 4.5 4.5 9.0 9.0

Crude protein % 28.0 28.0 29.5 29.5 28.3 28.3
Animal protein:plant
Protein ratio 1: 1.5 1.5 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.6
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Daily growth rate:
Large shrimp g 0.006 0.072 0.005 0.064 0.001 0.021
Medium shrimp g 0.023 0.120 0.01l 0.077 0.005 0.068
Small shrimp g 0.011 0.030 0.004 0.013 0.003 0.010
Feed conversion:
Large shrimp 5.6 4.8
Medium shrimp 6.0 2.8 6.4 2.5 20.8 4.1
Small shrimp 3.0 2.1 3.0 2.3 6.2 4.8
Survival rate:
Large shrimp % 80 100 70 100 70 80
Medium shrimp % 95 86 100 100 95 79
Small shrimp % 100 100 93 97 83 87

I Northern white shrimp; 'White leg shrimp

 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 455

Four cotton-seed meal levels at two protein levels gave more favorable results.
Survival ranged from 91 to 100% for northern white shrimp, 84 to 95% for blue shrimp
(Penaeus stylirostris) and 98 to 100% for white leg shrimp. Up to 10% cotton-seed meal
of 20% protein content did not give any negative effect on growth. It appears that the
tolerable cotton-seed meal level in diets for penaeid shrimps depends not only on the
dietary protein level but also on the shrimp species(50).
Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii and Procambarus zonangulus) can utilise whole
cotton-seeds. The crayfish strip away the lint, chew open the seed coat and eat the inner
cotton-seed(74).

46.4.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Only decorticated cotton-seed meal and expeller are suitable feedstuffs for aquatic
animals. Glandless cotton-seed meal should be chosen whenever available. For practical
conditions the following inclusion rates are recommended:
Fishes: 5.0 to 15.0%
Crustaceans: 5.0 to 10.0%
Lysine deficiencies, due to the lysine-binding capacity of free gossypol, can be avoided,
if the amino acid is added to the feed. As a preventive measure 0.05% iron (0.25%
ferrous sulphate) should be incorporated in all diets containing cotton-seed meal, to
block the toxic effects of gossypol in the organism.

46.S Ground-Nut Meal

46.5.1 Description

Ground-nut meal is the residue remaining after extraction of the oil from the ground-nut
(Arachis hypogaea) (see Chapter 45.5). Ground-nuts are also known as peanuts, earthnuts,
arachis nuts, monkey nuts, Manilla nuts, Chinese nuts, pindar and goober peas(46, 49).
Ground-nut meal and ground-nut expeller are obtained from ground-nuts in shells
(corticated ground-nuts) or without shells (decorticated ground-nuts). About 30% of
the ground-nut are the shell (pod) portion while the meal is 34% and the oil is 36%(40).
The ground-nut kernels contain 4.1 % testa or skins(40, 122).

46.5.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Ground-nut meal may contain less than 40% crude protein, but can reach 50% or more
when the nuts are decorticated (Table 46-01). Lysine, methionine, threonine and trypto-
phan are low, compared to soybean meal but arginine is high (Table 46_13)140,93, /00).
Ground-nut meal contains only 1.06% of sulphur amino acids(3l).
The residual oil of ground-nut meal and expeller is high in unsaturated fatty acids.
The crude fibre content of corticated ground-nut meal is the highest of the vegetable oil
meals (Table 46-01).
456 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-13: Essential amino acid profile, and true amino acid availability (%)and the chemical score of
ground-nut meal for channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)

Amino acid profile (gll6g N) True amino ,Scores"20)

acid availability
Ground-nut meal Ground-nut expeller (%)
(49.110,125,161) (46,125, 163) (/85)

Arginine 5.28 5.01 97.7 164

Histidine 1.26 1.05 89.4 92
Isoleucine 1.80 1.58 93.3 43
Leucine 3.18 3.03 95.1 72
Lysine 1.29 1.46 94.1 53
Methionine 0.51 0.43 91.2 24
Phenylalanine 2.37 2.32 96.0 91
Threonine 1.40 1.27 51
Tryptophan 0.48 0.37 93.3
Valine 2.08 2.06 94.5 45

'Scores based on comparison with amino acids of whole egg protein

Ground-nut meal contains appreciable levels of minerals, it is particularly low in sodium.

There are considerable amounts of water soluble vitamins in ground-nut meal (fable 46-14).

Table 46-14: Mineral and vitamin contents of ground-nut products

Mineralsl46. 49 110.125) Vitamins (per 1,000 g) 149. 112. 127. )68)

Ground- Ground-nut Ground-nut Ground-nut

nut meal expeller meal expeller

Calcium % 0.29 0.14 Vitamin A LV. 300

Phosphorus % 0.96 0.71 Vtamin E mg 2.9 3.0
Sodium % 0.06 0.02 Viamin B, mg 4.9 7.6
Potassium % 1.18 1.13 Vitmin B, mg 7.9 6.6
Magnesium % 0.31 0.36 Vitain B6 mg 4.7 6.6
Chlorine % 0.03 0.03 Biotin mg 0.32 0.39
Sulphur % 0.31 0.28 Folic acid mg 0.70 0.36
Manganese mg/kg 36.2 54.0 Nicotinic acid mg 171.5 175.0
Iron mg/kg 366.0 278.0 Pantothenic acid mg 36.5 49.8
Zinc mg/kg 40.0 60.7 Choline g 2.0 2.2
Copper mg/kg 14.0 22.5
Iodine mglkg 5.0
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 457

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy is higher for ground-nut expeller, due to the higher fat content,
than for meal (Table 46-15). There is a big gap between the metabolisable and digestible
energy for poultry (46).

Table 46-15: Energy value of ground-nut meal per kg

Species Gross energy Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

4,230 17.7 (110)

Fish l 2,155 9.0 (120)

(120)
3,172 13.32
(46,49,54)
Chicken 2,460 10.3 3,480 14.62

1 Species not specified; 2 Ground-nut expeller

The digestibility of ground-nut meal is high in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
for protein and fat but insufficient for other nutrients. This is in contrast to the very low
protein digestibility reported for pigs (Table 46-16).

Table 46-16: Digestibility (%) of ground-nut meal

Dry Crude Fat Crude Carbo- Reference

Species matter protein fibre hydrates

Common carp 62.4 92.1 90.5 57.2 69.5 (64,151)

Pigs 87.01 46.1 (54)

IOrganic matter

The true amino acid availability of ground-nut meal for channel catfish (lctalurus
punctatus) appears to be satisfactory(185). However, this could be deceiving because of
the fact that in ground-nut meal most of the amino acids are deficient when compared to
the amino acid profile of whole chicken egg (Table 46_13)(120).
Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) can utilise phosphorus and magnesium of
ground-nut meal effectively but calcium and iron is only scarcely absorbed(73).

Deleterious Substances
The testa or skins of ground-nuts contain 16 to 19% tannins, which are known for there
toxicity. Ground-nut skins added to pig diets reduced significantly the dry matter and
protein digestibility as well as feed efficiency(57). In addition, ground-nut skins react
strongly with copper(137). However, the tannin content of ground-nut meal appears to be
of little practical consequences in feeding of aquatic animals. This is also true for the
458 CHAPTER 46

trypsin inhibitor, which can be found in ground-nut kemels(l22) and the small amount of
the toxic oxalic acid ([COOH]2) (0.16% in dry matter)l40).
Ground-nut meal is prone to fungal growth that produces aflatoxin, a carcinogenl46• 49.122).

46.5.3 Feeding Value

Although ground-nut meal and ground-nut expeller are protein feedstuffs, their use in
aquaculture feeds is limited.

Fishes
The feeding value of ground-nut by-products has been poorly investigated in fish.
Ground-nut meal has been used at different levels together with other protein sources in
diets e.g. for the Indian major carp (Catla catla)l116. 117. 118), tilapia (Tilapia discolor)(126),
and mudfish (Claris anguillaris)l103. 104). From the result of these experiments the feeding
value of ground-nut meal cannot be interpreted due to lack of comparable parameters.
In diets for til apia (Sarotherodon mossambicus) ground-nut meal can replace 25% of
the fish meal(77).
Ground-nut meal is extensively used in diets for Carp(l23). In Thailand it is used in diets
for carp and catfish at levels of around 25%(172). The inclusion rates of ground-nut meal
and expeller in experimental and practical diets for aquatic animals are in the range of
5.0 to 61.0%(3.33.78.82.103.104.121.126.165.179).
The residual oil of ground-nut meal and particularly ground-nut cake may cause soft
fish carcass because of the high level of unsaturated fatty acids as observed in pork.

Crustaceans
Substitution of menhaden fish meal by 30% of ground-nut meal in diets for red swamp
crayfish decreased the consumption of feed and fish meal and shrimps were poorly
digested(28).
Ground-nut meal, providing 30% of the diet's crude protein fed to juvenile red swamp
crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) is an inferior protein source for the crustacea compared
to the diet containing soybean meal and shrimp meal. (Table 46-17)196).

Table 46-17: The effect of ground-nut meal in diets for red swamp crayfish
(Procambarus clarkii) (Trial period: 6 weeks )("')

Ground-nut meal % 25.0

Soybean meal % 35.0 15.0
Crude protein % 28.9 29.7
Crude fat % 10.3 10.4

Weight gain % 1,493 630

Survival rate % 86 86
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 459

46.5.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Ground-nut meal is a protein feedstuff for aquaculture feed in countries where it is

easily available. Only decorticated ground-nut meal, free of any aflatoxin contamination,
should be used in diets for aquatic animals.
The following inclusion rates are recommended:
Herbivorous/omnivorous fish: 10.0 to 15.0%
Carnivorous fish: 5.0 to 10.0%
Crustaceans: 5.0 to 8.0%
When feeding ground-nut meal, supplementation with essential amino acids (methionine,
lysine and threonine) has to be considered; otherwise protein synthesis might be limited.

46.6 Linseed Meal

46.6.1 Description

Linseed meal is the by-product of the extraction of linseed oil from flax (Linum usitatis-
simum) seed (see Chapter 45.6). Linseed production is associated with linseed chaff
amounting to about 200 kg per 100 kg linseed. Approximately 70% meal and 30% oil
are obtained from linseed(40).
Most linseed meal is used in ruminant and horse feeding. Only very little is used in
diets for other monogastric animals. The insignificance of linseed meal for aquaculture
diets is demonstrated by the fact that the feedstuff is not included in the feedstuff com-
position tables in the "Nutrient Requirements of Fish"(I24).

46.6.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The crude protein content of this protein feedstuff averaging 36% is intermediate in
comparison to other vegetable oil meals (Table 46-01). The protein quality of linseed
meal is low due to the low lysine content(3/) which amounts to only 55% of that of soy-
bean meal(26) (Table 46-18). Linseed has a total of 1.41 % sulphur amino acids(3/).
The residual oil of linseed meal and expeller is highly unsaturated and has a low
melting point (18 °C). The difference in the residual oil content between linseed meal and
expeller is about 3.0 to 4.0% (Table 46-01).
The crude fibre content is relatively high but not as high as in some other vegetable meals.
The phosphorus content is about double the calcium level (Table 46-19). Selenium is
particularly high with a wide variation from 0.65% to 1.51%(17). The selenium level
depends on the geographic location, soil composition and other factors but linseed meal
contains a protective factor against selenium-toxicity as found in chickens(79), pigs(l8l),
and rats(58). The vitamin levels of linseed meal and expeller are similar to those of other
vegetable oil meals (Table 46-19).
460 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-18: Essential amino acid profile and apparent and true amino acid
digestibility (%) of linseed meal for carp

Amino acid profile Apparent True

(gll6g NY'6. 31. 46. J2U. /63) digestibility digestibility
(71) (7J)

Linseed Linseed
meal expeller

Arginine 3.06 3.10 84.5 90.2

Histidine 0.75 0.74 87.1
Isoleucine 1.68 1.65 85.6 87.6
Leucine 2.19 2.04 85.8 88.4
Lysine 1.22 1.20 83.7 87.8
Methionine 0.57 0.63 85.0 95.1
Phenylalanine 1.60 1.55 85.5 87.4
Threonine 1.30 1.26 85.5 88.3
Valine 1.79 1.73 85.9 89.6

Table 46-19: Mineral and vitamin contents of linseed meal and linseed expeller

Minerals(26, 31, 46, 4954,110,120, /63) Vitamins (per 1,000 g)/26. 46. flO)

Linseed Linseed Linseed Linseed

meal expeller meal expeller

Calcium % 0.38 0.38 Vitamin A LV. 300 100

Phosphorus % 0.85 0.81 Vitamin E mg 7.7 6.3
Sodium % 0.10 0.11 Vitamin BI mg 3.8 6.9
Potassium % 1.00 1.09 Vitamin B, mg 3.8 3.0
Magnesium % 0.55 0.53 Vitamin B. mg 7.8 7.5
Sulphur % 0.39 0.43 Biotin mg 0.4
Chlorine % 0.04 0.04 Folic acid mg 38.6 35.4
Manganese mg/kg 38.6 41.0 Nicotinic acid mg 3.0 2.1
Iron mg/kg 185.0 246.7 Pantothenic acid mg 11.0 15.8
Zinc mg/kg 60.5 55.8 Choline g 2.2 1.6
Copper mg/kg 24.4 22.3
Selenium mg/kg 0.78 0.91
Iodine mg/kg 0.95

Physiological Properties
The differences between the digestible energy of linseed meal and linseed expeller are
minimal and the digestible energy values for fish and land animals are within the same
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 461

range. Surprisingly, the metabolisable energy in salmonids is much higher than reported
for chicken (Table 46_20)125.46.54).
Carp digests protein of linseed meal better than salmonids but there are no differences
in the energy digestibility (Table 46-21). The mean true digestibility of the amino acids
is 4.1 % better than the apparent digestibility (Table 46-18).
Monogastric animals can hardly digest the carbohydrates of linseed meal due to its
content of 3.0 to 10.0% of mucilage, a thick, sticky water-dispersible carbohydrate.
This substance absorbs large amounts of water and may cover the gut wall that delays
and prevents, the absorption of nutrients(40. 169).

Table 46-20: Energy values of linseed meal per kg! 1/. 46.112.54. I2J. /25)

Species Gross energy Metabolisable Digestible Reference

energy energy

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

4,1ll 17.2 (/10)

Fish' 2,971 12.4 (120)

2,983 12.52 (120)

Rainbow trout 3,128 13.1 3,268 13.7 (12])

(46,54)
Chicken 1,685 7.1 3,220 13.5
1,520 6.4 3,390 14.22 (46)

(1/)
Rabbits 3,370 14.1

'Unspecified species; 2Linseed expeller

Table 46-21: Digestibility (%) of linseed meal

Species Dry Crude Fat Crude Carbo- Energy Reference

matter protein fibre hydrates

Salmonids 76.8 71.1 (64)

Common carp 85.8' 72.1 (7/)

89.92 (71)

Pigs 84.0 (54)

78.03 (54)

'Apparent digestibility; 2True digestibility; 3Linseed expeller

Deleterious Constituents
Immature linseed contains lina-marin, a cyanogentic glucoside which in the presence of
linase, produces hydrogen cyanide (prussic acid) on hydrolysis. Prussic acid is very
toxic. Unprocessed whole seeds and linseed meal processed under low temperature can
be toxic to animals especially if moistened before being fed(56. 62. 109). However, normal
processing involving high temperature treatment and the use of solvents such as
trichlorethylene or carbon tetrachloride destroys linase and most of the linamarin so that
the meal is no longer toxid26. 46. 120).
462 CHAPTER 46

An estrogenic factor, anti-vitamin B) (thiamine) factor, and Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

antagonist have been identified in linseed expeller. The antagonist is a dipeptide called
linatine(26. 120. 163).

46.6.3 Feeding Value

The nutritional value of linseed expeller was evaluated at two levels of partial substitution
for fish meal in the diet of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio)(72). Although the lower
inclusion level of linseed cake performed better than the higher inclusion rate. Both linseed
groups were inferior to the fish meal group (Table 46-22). Since the linseed cake diets
contained hydrocyanic and phytic acids, the growth depression of carp fed these diets
may not only be due to the deficiency in lysine, methionine and threonine but also due
to the presence of these anti-nutritional factors.

Table 46-22: Growth and feed utilisation of linseed meal by common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
fry (Trial period: 8 weeks) (72)

Linseed meal % 29.8 59.3

Fish meal % 52.5 39.3 16.3
Crude protein % 40.6 40.3 39.8
Hydrocyanic acid mglg 0.13 0.26
Phytic acid % 0.28 1.56
-----------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain mg 6.94 5.13 3.00
Weight gain % 643 466 278
SGR %/day 3.58 3.09 2.37
Mortality %
Feed conversion ratio 1: 2.09 2.39 3.16
PER 1.17 1.04 0.79

Linseed cake, 40% of the 35% total protein, partially substituted fish meal in diets for
catfish (Clarias batrachus) fry. After seven weeks the fish showed hardly any differences
on the recorded parameters (Figure 46-01)(61).
In the diet of Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) linseed cake substituted 20 or 40% of
the fish meal protein. No significant differences were observed with increasing levels
of the linseed expeller in the diet although growth was best in the fish meal group.
There were some abnormalities in the liver tissue of fish fed linseed expellerl62).
Residual, unsaturated oil of linseed meal and expeller in diets for pigs could produce
soft porki26. 46). Similar experiences from cultured aquatic animals are not available.

46.6.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Only linseed meal processed under high temperature should be used for aquaculture
feeds. Thus, this statement excludes the use of linseed expeller.
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 463

2000

Linseed expeller
1750 in the diet 38%
....
.<:l
:"'-0°/•
Ot ,-""
... 1500
II
:r
~ 1250
o
III

28 35 42 49
Days

Figure 46-01. Growth responses of catfish (Clarias batrachus) fry to a combination of linseed expeller
(38%) and fish meal (26%) compared with fish meal only(6l).

Although, under experimental condition levels between 30% and 40% have been
successfully used, for practical conditions the levels should be much lower. Using the
pattern from recommendations for monogastric land animalsl26. 46. 49), linseed meal should
be used in diets for aquatic animals at the following rates:
Herbivorous/omnivorous species: 3.0 to 7.0%
Carnivorous species: 2.0 to 5.0%
Fortification with lysine has to be considered.

46.7 MUSTARD MEAL

46.7.1 Description

Mustard is an oil-seed crop that grows well in temperate and high altitude, sub-tropical
areas. Seeds are used for making table mustard as well as for its oil which is used in the
food industry but particularly for industrial applications. Mustard belongs to the family
Brassicacea and is closely related to rape-seed. Most important mustard species culti-
vated arel24. 169):
Black mustard (Brassica nigra)
(synonym: French, red or brown)
Indian mustard (Brassica juncea, var. integrifolia)
(synonym: Russian or oriental)
Abyssinia mustard (Brassica carinata)
Yellow mustard (Brassica hirta)
Sarepta mustard (Brassica juncea juncea)
464 CHAPTER 46

Mustard meal for human consumption is made from unde-oiled or de-oiled seeds.
De-oiled mustard meal is more spicy(175). The non-oil portion of mustard seed is about
65 to 70%.

46.7.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of mustard meal and mustard cake is similar to that of rape-seed
meal and rape-seed expeller. The protein content of mustard meal is around 40% but that
of mustard expeller is just above 30% (Table 46-01). The amino acid profile indicates
that methionine is the limiting amino acid (Table 46-23).
Phosphorus content of mustard meal is double that of the calcium content 0.50 and
0.85 for calcium and 1.00 and 1.62 for phosphorus(62. 72).

Physiological Properties
Mustard expeller has a gross energy content of 4,978 kcallkg (20.8 MJlkg)(188).
The digestible energy amounts to 3,395 kcallkg (14.2 MJlkg) in pigs(24).
Both apparent and true amino acid digestibility of mustard cake for the common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) is relatively high (Table 46-23)17/).

Table 46-23: Essential amino acid profile of mustard meal and apparent and true amino acid
digestibilities of mustard expeller for common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Amino acid profile Apparent digestibilityl72i True digestibilityl72)

(g/16g N)(24, 71, 1.3) % %

Protein 85.3 89.3

Arginine 2.44 84.6 90.1
Histidine 1.14 86.6
Isoleucine 1.78 86.1 89.0
Leucine 2.62 85.9 88.2
Lysine 2.16 84.8 87.7
Methionine 0.77 84.9 96.4
Cystine 85.6 88.0
Phenylalanine 1.64 86.0 88.4
Tyrosine 85.5 88.3
Threonine 1.38 85.9 88.9
Tryptophan 0.50 85.9 89.8
Valine 1.66 89.9 89.8

Deleterious Substances
The pungent aroma and hot taste of table mustard is the characteristic of all Brassica
species. Both are caused by glucosinolates. After the cells are destroyed by treatment of
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 465

the seeds, the glucosinolate is converted into isothiocyanate and together with sinigrine
allylisothiocyanate and sinalbine, p-hydroxybenzylisothiocyanate are formed(u.169).
More than 50 different glucosinolates are known (Table 46_24)1169). They are potentially
toxic to man and animals because they can affect production of thyroxine by the thyroid
gland. Eliminating the glucosinolates from meal by chemical treatment is not economical.
In humans, a high intake of vegetables from the genus Brassicaceae with an inadequate
intake of iodine could precipitate goiterlll). In fish, glucosinolates induce histological
changes in the liver, depressed growth, feed utilisation and thyroid hypertrophy(67).

Table 46-24: Glucosinolate content of mustard products (24. 71. 169)

Mustard product Glucosinolate Content

Mustard meal' Allylisothiocyanate 90 micromolelg

Brown mustard meal Allylisothiocyanate 100 micromole/g
Indian mustard meal Ally l-glucosinolate 25 micromole g
Indian mustard meal Butenyl-glucosinolate 95 micromolelg
Yellow mustard meal p-Hydroxybenzyl-glucosinolate 300 micromolelg
Mustard cake Allylisothiocyanate 0.54 %
Mustard cake' Glucosinolate 1.6 mg/g
Mustard cake3 Glucosinolate 3.3 mglg

'Oil free; '25% mustard cake in the diet; 350% mustard cake in the diet

After feeding diets containing 25 and 50% mustard expeller to common carp (Cyprinus
carpio), thyroid follicles had variable shapes and was especially pronounced in fish fed
the diet with 50% mustard expeller compared to fish meal-fed fish(72). The diet contained
1.6 and 3.3 mg/g glucosinolates, respectively, which is much higher than the 0.3 mglg
glucosinolate suggested for chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha)f68).
Abnormalities in the liver, congestion and cytoplasmolysis were found in the Indian
major carp (Labeo rohita) fry after feeding 20 and 30% mustard cake(62).
In addition, mustard meal and mustard expeller contain up to 1.8% tannins(72). Protease
inhibitor and thiaminase (anti-Vitamin Bl factor) are also present in these feedstuffs(J63).
They may also be contaminated with aflatoxin.

46.7.3 Feeding Value

Fishes
Mustard expeller was tested at two levels and compared to a diet with fish meal as the sole
source of protein in common carp fry reared in a recirculatory system(72 J• Weight gain
decreased with increase in mustard expeller caused by the high content of glucosinolates
from the mustard expeller (Table 46-25).
Mustard cake is an inferior protein source compared to fish meal as sole source of
protein when used at 20 and 40% levels, respectively in 40% protein diets for Indian
major carp fry(62).
466 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-25: Response of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) fry fed mustard expeller (Trial
period: 8 weeks)(72)

Mustard cake % 100 75 50

Fish meal % 0 25 50
Crude protein % 40.6 40.0 40.3
Fat % 9.5 9.6 10.3
Crude fibre % 8.2 7.8 7.7

Weight gain % 643 454 286

SGR %/day 3.6 3.1 2.4
Mortality %
Feed conversion I: 2.1 2.5 3.1
ANPU' % 17.8 15.1 11.4

'Apparent net protein utilisation

Crustacean
Pond trials with giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) were conducted
using mustard expeller and rice bran (I: I) as supplementary food. Survival rates ranged
from 32 to 58% with yields of 172 to 215 kglha(59). A subsequent trial using 30%
mustard expeller, 30% fish meal, 20% rice bran and 20% wheat bran plus fertilisation
gave a survival of 47 to 58% after six months feeding. Yields ranged from 370,542 and
790 kg/ha for ponds stocked at lO,OOO, 15,000 and 20,000/ha, respectively, indicating
the usefulness of mustard expeller for semi-intensive culture of the herbivorous fresh-
water prawn.

Tubificid Worms
Tubifex is a genus of small, freshwater oligochaete worms found predominantly in
polluted water. It is not only an ornamental fish feed but also a natural larval food for
cultured freshwater species such as rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), white sturgeon (Acipen-
ser transmontanus), catfish (Clarias batrachus) and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus).
Tubicifid worms can be produced in 60 days in a culvert system under running water in
a medium containing 20% mustard expeller, 35% wheat bran, 25% cow manure and 20%
fine sand(5).

46.7.4 Recommended Inclusion Rate

Mustard meal and mustard expeller, are not very suitable as protein sources. Inclusion rates
of 5.0 to lO.O%, should not be exceeded.
The use of mustard meal requires checking of the amino acid content. Supplementation
of the diet with iodine may be considered if higher levels of mustard meal are used.
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 467

46.8 OLIVE BY-PRODUCTS

46.8.1 Description

The refuses from removal of the oil from olives (Olea europea) are of different nature,
depending on the extraction process (see Chapter 45.9).
Olive cake is the residue of pressing and centrifugation of olives(41). From 100 kg olives
about 40 kg of olive cake bagasse is obtained (Figure 46-02). Usually, the cake is then
solvent extracted and about 25 kg olive meal from 100 kg olives is gained(40). The olive
pulp from the stone removed prior to oil extraction is around 12 kg. The stone portion is
about 14 to 16% of the olives(169).

OLrVES
100 kg

Olive paste

Olive oil
olive cake + Hater
40 kg 90 kg

Virgin Vegetation
olive oil waters
20 kg 70 kg

Figure 46-02. Diagram of olive oil processinglo.ra ,,,,,,,, 40).

468 CHAPTER 46

45.8.2 Chemical and Physiological Properties

By-products of olive processing are very low in crude protein, but high in crude fibre.
In unprocessed olives the crude protein content is only 13.6% (Table 46-01). Olive meal
contains about 55% stones and 26% pulp. This product has a crude fibre content of more
than 30%.
The metabolisable and digestible energy of olive pulp is very low as established in
rabbits (Table 46-26)1106). The total digestible nutrients (TDN) are about 40%.

Table 46-26: Energy values of olive pulp per kg with rabbits

Gross energy Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

Olives 2,460 10.4 (169)

Olive meal 450 1.9 (106)

Olive meal 400 1.8 (31)

Olive pulp 800 3.3 (31)

46.8.3 Feeding Value

The availability of olive by-products only in the Mediterranean and the unfavourable nutri-
ent content have limited the use of olive by-products in feeding trials for aquatic animals.
In rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), olive cake has been fed at a level of 11 %. No dif-
ferences in weight gain, fish size, chemical composition of the carcass and the palatability
of the feed were observed between the trial and the control group(l50).
The use of 11 % olive cake (bagasse) in a commercial diet did not influence the apolar
lipids and fatty acid composition of rainbow trout muscle (4/).

46.8.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

The high crude fibre content of olive by-products is the limiting factor for their use in
aquaculture diets. Products, which contain stones, have to be considered as unsuitable
for aquaculture feed formulations. In practice, the inclusion rate of olive pulp should not
exceed 10%.

46.9 Palm-Kernel Meal

46.9.1 Description

Palm-kernel is a by-product of processing the fruit bunches of the African oil palm
(Elaeis guineensis) (see Chapter 45.9). From 100 kg crude palm-kernels only about 18.4 kg
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 469

palm-kernel meal are obtained (Figure 46-03)140.65). Palm-kernel meal is both a protein
as well as an energy source.

OIL PALM BERRIES

(100\>

Crude palm
kernels
(29\> 100.0 kg,

I I
Palm kernel
Palm kernels hulls
36.0 kg 64.0 kg

I
I I
Palm kernel Palm kernel
meal oil
18.4 kg 17.6 kg

Figure 46-03. Products obtained from the processing of crude palm-kernels(/)"·f~"4n).

46.9.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The crude protein content of palm-kernel meal is about 15.0 to 18.0% with hardly any
differences between palm-kernel meal and palm-kernel expeller (Table 46-01).
However, the palm-kernel meal of Nigerian origin has a higher crude protein content
(20 to 25%)(13l). Palm-kernel meal is deficient in lysine and methionine (Table 46-27).
The crude fibre content of palm-kernel meal and cake is very high (Table 46-01).
The Ca:P-ratio is 1:2.4 (Table 46-28) and palm-kernel is a good source of manganese.

Physiological Properties
The metabolisable and digestible energy value differ substantially for meal and expeller
caused by the higher fat content of the latter (Table 46-29). Digestibility data for aquatic
animals are unknown. Pigs digest palm-kernel meal better than poUltry (Table 46-30)118. 54.187).
470 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-27: Essential amino acid profile of palm-kernel meal and palm-kernel
expeller (g/16g NY 163. 187)

Palm-kernel meal Palm-kernel expeller

Arginine 2.36 2.18

Histidine 0.32 0.29
Isoleucine 0.64 0.62
Leucine 1.19 2.22
Lysine 0.54 0.59
Methionine 0.33 0.30
Phenylalanine 0.79 0.73
Threonine 0.61 0.55
Tryptophan 0.20 0.17
Valine 0.82 0.93

Table 46-28: Macro and trace mineral contents ofpalrn-kemel meal and palm-kernel
expeller'" 120. 131)

Palm-kernel meal Palm-kernel expeller

Calcium % 0.32 0.26

Phosphorus % 0.73 0.63
Magnesium % 0.16 0.27
Manganese mg/kg 225.0
Iron mg/kg 4.1
Zinc mg/kg 77.0
Copper mg/kg 28.5

Table 46-29: Energy values of palm-kernel meal and palm-kernel expeller per kg

Gross energy Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

kcaI MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

4,135 17.3 (42)

Fish' 3,177 13.3 2 (120)

(120)
2,664 11.1
Chicken 1,760 7.4 2 (187)

(187)
1,470 6.2

'Species not specified; 2PaIm-kernel expeller

 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 471

Table 46-30: Digestibility (%) of palm-kernel meal and palm-kernel expellef IS• 54• /30. 194)

Species Dry Crude Fat Crude Organic Energy Reference

matter protein fibre matter

(l2S.IS7)
Chicken 1 53.0 59.8 24.4 78.9
(IS)
Pigs 76.1 71.8 70.4 71.0
74.02 (54)

140% palm-kernel meal in the diet; 2Palm-kernel expeller

Other Properties
The press capacity for palm-kernel expeller is better than for palm-kernel meal due to the
higher fat content of the former. The pellet quality as well as the abrasiveness is medium(55).

46.9.3 Feeding Value

The suitability of palm-kernel meal for monogastric animals has been comprehensively
tested(l5.18. 75.187). Similar results from experiments in aquatic animals are lacking, except
for a trial in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus )(l3J).
With increasing levels of palm-kernel meal in the diet, the performances of fish
declined due to the increasing crude fibre content. Best results were obtained with 15%
palm-kernel meal which was even better than the control group, although not comparable
due to lack ofisonitrogenicity (Table 46-31).

Table 46-31: Growth and feed utilisation of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed diets
with palm-kernel meal (Trial period: 12 weeks)l/3/J

Palm-kernel meal % 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 0

Fish meal % 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 40
Crude protein % 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 57.9
Crude fibre % 13.5 15.8 15.8 19.0 4.3
-----------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain % 130.31 107.34 108.53 100.38 121.13
Specific growth rate %/day 0.74 0.52 0.43 0.39 0.67
Feed conversion ratio 1: 0.86 1.23 1.49 1.65 0.97
PER 0.58 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.34

46.9.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Palm-kernel meal as well as palm-kernel expeller are of low feeding value for aquaculture
diets due to their high crude fibre content and the rather low crude protein level.
472 CHAPTER 46

They are more suitable for extensive farming systems and where the feedstuff is
abundantly available. It is more suitable for herbivorous/ omnivorous species than for
carnivorous animals, and should not be used in diets for young aquatic animals.
Recommended inclusion rates are:
Herbivorous/omnivorous fish: - 5.0 to 10.0%
Carnivorous fish: - 3.0 to 8.0%
The supplementation of diets with lysine and methionine has to be considered.

46.10 Rape-Seed Meal

46.10.1 Description

Rape-seed meal also known as rape, colza and raps is a by-product of oil production from
rape-seed (Brassica spp.). It is a protein feedstuff. The non-oil containing portion of
rape-seed is about 65% of which 44% is meal and 16% is hulls(40) (see Chapter 45.10).
In the past, the nu1I"i:tional value of rape-seed meal and expeller was limited because
of the high content of deleterious substances like erucic acid and glucosinolates. Two types
mainly cultivated are: Argentine rape-seed (Brassica napus) and Polish rape-seed
(Brassica campestris). The Argentine cultivars mature later but are higher yielding than
the Polish varieties(l70).
Rape-seed cultivars low in deleterious substances are called "Canola meal" or named
"0 rape-seed meal" or "00 rape-seed meal". The latter means that the cultivar is "double
low", not in erucic acid but also in glucosinolates(40.95).
Rape-seed expeller may be available only in countries which do not have facilities for
solvent extraction of the oil.

46.l0.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The crude protein content of rape-seed meal varies between 35 and 39%, depending on
the cultivar and the location from which the meal is produced (Table 46-01). Limiting
amino acids are lysine and the sulphur containing ones (Table 46-32). The processing
method can greatly affect the availability of amino acids. The least destructive process
is the "pre-press solvent extraction" which uses low temperatures(46).
The fat content of rape-seed expeller is in the range of 4.0 to 8.0% while the fat level
of the meal should be less than 2.0%. Higher fat levels are possible, if the gums from oil
refining are added to the solvent-extracted meal(l7O).
A limitation in the use of rape-seed meal is its high crude fibre content, caused by the
high proportion of hulls in relation to the size of the seeds (Table 46-01). Genetical selection
aims for seeds with a lower crude fibre portion (triple zero cultivars)(40).
Rape-seed meal is a rich source of minerals, particularly phosphorus and potassium
but due to its high phytic acid and crude fibre content, the availability of phosphorus is
reduced(40· /70). Remarkable levels of Vitamin Bl' Vitamin B6 , nicotinic acid and pantothenic
acid are found in the meal and expeller (Table 46-33)(9/).
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 473

Table 46-32: Essential amino acid profile of rape-seed products and true amino acid
availability (%) of canola meal for Atlantic salmon (Salma salar)

Amino acid profile True amino acid

(gll6g N)(125. 163) availability( iJ)

Rape-seed Rape-seed Canola Canola

meal expeller meal meal

Arginine 2.11 1.93 3.32 96.7

Histidine 1.00 0.90 1.07 95.0
Isoleucine 1.41 1.38 1.51 87.3
Leucine 2.55 2.40 2.65 85.0
Lysine 2.12 1.68 2127 92.0
Methionine 0.70 0.68 0.70 99.9
Phenylalanine 1.43 1.39 1.52 89.2
Threonine 1.61 1.51 1.71 93.2
Tryptophan 0.44 0.42 0.44
Valine 1.83 1.76 1.94 83.8

Table 46-33: Mineral and vitamin contents of rape-seed meal and rape-seed expeller (as fed)

Minerals(9]) Vitamins (per 1,000 g)f91. 170)

Rape-seed Rape-seed Rape-seed Rape-seed

expeller meal meal expeller

Calcium % 0.57 0.62 Vitamin E mg 1.7

Phosphorus % 0.90 1.07 Vitamin B, mg 6.0 5.2
Potassium % 1.18 1.36 Vitamin B2 mg 3.3 3.7
Magnesium % 0.46 0.50 Vitamin B6 mg 11.2
Sulphur % 1.47 Biotin mg 0.7
Manganese mglkg 51.5 67.1 Folic acid mg 2.3
Iron mg/kg 576 373 Nicotinic acid mg 171.6 159.5
Zinc mglkg 54.2 66.2 Pantothenic acid mg 10.3 9.5
Copper mg/kg 7.6 6.0 Choline g 7.5 9.0
Lead mg/kg 2.0
Cobalt mg/kg 0.27 0.18
Selenium mglkg 0.90
Molybdenum mg/kg 1.1 0.54
Cadmium mg/kg 0.14
474 CHAPTER 46

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of rape-seed meal is rather low due to the high crude fibre content
(Table 46-34). The indigestible lignin is 11.3% of the rape-seed meal(9l). This also explains
why the digestibility is generally low (Table 46-35). The true amino acid digestibility
of canola meal for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) ranges between 83.8 and 99% (Table
46-32)(131• Lower amino acid digestibilities for rainbow trout have been reported (64, 1231.

Table 46-34: Energy values of rape-seed meal per kg

Species Gross energy Metabolisable energy Digestible energy References

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

4,598 19.2 (/60)

Chinook salmon 2,725 11.4 (/3)

Rainbow trout 2,715 11.4 2,685 11.2 (13,160)

Chicken' 2,250 9.4 3,050 12.8 (46)

Pigs 2,900 12.1 (170)

'Rape-seed expeller

Table 46-35: Digestibility (%) of rape-seed meal

Species Crude protein Fat Organic Energy References

matter

Rainbow trout 76.9 61.4 (/3)

43.6 (64)

Chicken 66.0 (54)

Pigs 72.0 (170)

Deleterious Substances
Erucic acid (e22: 1n-9 [cis-13-Docosenoic acid]) is characteristic of all crucifers and may
cause disorders and damages of the myocardium. Rape-seed oil may contain as much as
40% erucic acid. It appears that erucic acid is not dangerous for rainbow trouts, because
no differences in growth between feeding of rape-seed oil, high and low in erucic acid,
were observed(60I.
In the old cultivars between seven and 70 different glucosinolates were identified(46, 681
and were a major limiting factor. Only three of these (progoitrin, gluconapin, gluco-brassi-
canapin) are of physiological importance(9/). The glucosinolates per se are themselves
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 475

quite harmless to animals. But the rape-seed contains an enzyme, myrosinase, which
breaks the glucosinolates into a variety of toxic compounds. They are dangerous because
they impair thyroid functions (goitre) and cause other undesired symptoms(46.170).
Rape-seed meal from new cultivars must contain less thaoi 67. 91. 170):
2.0 % Erucic acid,
30.0 micromol/g Glucosinolates.
Tannins (3.0%) and sinapine 0.5%) also negatively affect the feeding value of rape-
seed meal. Tannin lowers the protein and energy digestibility and sinapine reduces the
palatability of the ration as found in pigs(l70).

46.10.3 Feeding Value

Dietary levels of 20% canola meal have been used for rearing coho salmon successfuly(67).
Chinook salmon performance was not impaired by the inclusion of 13 to 16% of dietary
protein (16 to 20% of dietary dry matter) as canola meal(68). A negative performance of
chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) is not expected at dietary levels of canol a
meal between 30 and 32% of dry matter (25% of dietary protein) as long as total glucosi-
nolate content of the diet on a dry matter basis is less than 300 mmoles/g.
The addition of 3,5,3-triiodothyronine (T 3) to diets containing high levels of canola
meal in the diets for Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) and rainbow trout (Salmo
gairdneri) could destroy the anti-thyroid effect of glucosinolates(69. 88).
A maximum amount of around 30% canol a meal has been found feasible for channel
catfish after seven weeks of feeding it at levels of 0 to 42%. The fish fed the control diet
(0% canola meal) had the least weight gain, and lowest feed efficiency(l08).
Tilapia hybrids (Oreochromis mossambicus x Oreochromis aureus) were fed diets
containing increasing levels of dietary protein from canola meal by replacing soybean
meal protein(70). Complete replacement of soybean meal protein by protein from canola
meal did not significantly depress performances (Table 46-36).

Table 46-36: Effect of feeding canol a meal to hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossam-
bicus x Oreochromis aureus)l'O)

Canol a meal % o 10.6 21.1 31.6

Soybean meal % 23.0 15.3 7.7 o
------------------------------------------------------
Daily weight gain g 4.41 4.06 3.66 3.82
Daily feed intake g 4.90 4.76 4.61 4.82
Feed efficiency % 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.79
SGR %/day 4.48 4.44 4.38 4.38
Mortality % 2.0 0 4.0 0

Good growth of the tilapia (Sarotherodon mossambicus) was reported even when
50% fish meal was substituted by low glucosinolate rape-seed meal. Higher levels of
substitution gave depressed growth(77).
476 CHAPTER 46

46.10.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Although under experimental conditions in fish, levels of 63% OO-rape-seed meal were
used(164), for practical conditions it is recommended to restrict the inclusion to the fol-
lowing levels:
• Meals from old type rape-seed (high erucic and glucosinolate content): 2.0 to 5.0%
• OO-rape-seed meals (low erucic and glucosinolate content): 5.0 to 10.0%.

46.11 Safflower Meal

46.11.1 Description

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) is an oilseed, grown for its edible oil (see Chapter 45.12).
The by-product, after removal of oil, is safflower meal and expeller, respectively, depending
on the process of obtaining the oil.
The characteristic of safflower seeds is its extremely high content of hulls which
amounts to 45% of the seed thus, hampering the use of safflower meal in feeds. The meal
is only 20% and the oil content is around 35%(40). Removal of all the hulls prior to pro-
cessing is difficult due to the hardness of the seed coar46). Genetical selection of seeds
low in hulls has not been very promising.

46.11.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
Although safflower meal and expeller are protein feedstuffs, the protein is not of high
value for poultry(49). The crude protein content of corticated safflower meal is not more
than 20 to 23%. Partially decorticated meal may have as much as 50% crude protein
(Table 46-01). Totally decorticated meals have a crude protein content of between 60 and
70% and a crude fibre content of only 4.0 to 5.0%(38) but totally decorticated safflower
meal is costly and hardly found in the market.
Lysine is the first limiting amino acid of safflower meal followed by methionine and
cystine (Table 46-37).
The hulls of safflower consist of about 60% crude fibre of which 70% is cellulose and
21 % is lignin. Only 3.0% of the carbohydrates in the hulls are available for monogastric
animals(38).
Safflower meal is a plant product rich in iron. Except for biotin and Vitamin B6 the
vitamin content of safflower meal is generally low (Table 46-38).

Physiological Properties
The high crude fibre content and the high portion of indigestible lignin results in low
digestible and metabolisable energy values in productive farm animals (Table 46-39).
Relevant figures for farmed aquatic animals are not available.
For the common carp digestibility data are(64):
Protein: 90.0%
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 477

Table 46-37:Essential amino acid profile of safflower products (gII6 g N)l46.49. /63)

Corticated safflower Decorticated' safflower

Meal Expeller Meal Expeller

Arginine 2.00 1.29 3.43 2.75

Histidine 0.53 0.46 0.99 0.91
Isoleucine 0.52 0.42 1.46 1.60
Leucine 1.34 1.16 2.35 2.44
Lysine 0.70 0.69 1.24 1.04
Methionine 0.30 0.40 0.60 0.79
Phenylalanine 1.03 1.08 1.76 1.75
Threonine 0.62 0.52 1.26 1.36
Tryptophan 0.23 0.30 0.52 0.68
Valine 1.06 1.05 2.03 2.15

'Partially decorticated

Table 46-38: Mineral and vitamin contents of safflower meal

Minerals(38, 46, ... /20. /25) Vitmins (per 1,000 g)(46. /25)

Corti- Decorti- Corti- Decor-

cated cated cated cated'

Calcium % 0.32 0.40 Vitamin E mg 0.9

Phosphorus % 0.92 0.64 Vitamin B, mg 1.6 1.6
Sodium % 0.05 0.04 Vitamin B, mg 18.0 1.5
Potassium % 0.72 0.84 Biotin mg 1.40 1.42
Magnesium % 0.33 0.33 Folic acid mg 0.4 7.7
Sulphur % 0.05 0.14 Nicotinic acid mg 85.8 15.0
Manganese mglkg 17.8 30.6 Pantothenic acid mg 4.0 58.7
Iron mg/kg 500.0 462.0 Choline mg 816.0
Zinc mg/kg 39.8
Copper mglkg 9.7 16.8

'Partially decorticated

Table 46-39: Energy values of safflower meal per kg

Species Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ

Pigs, 4% crude fibre 3,790 15.9 (38)

35% crude fibre 2,650 11.1 (38)
17% crude fibre 3,504 14.7 (38)
Chicken' 1,290 5.4 1,590 6.7 (46)
1,780 7.5 2,770 11.6 (46. '9)

'Corticated meal; 'Decorticated meal

478 CHAPTER 46

Carbohydrates: 67.5%
Dry matter: 80.9%

Deleterious Substances
Aside from the high crude fibre and lignin content, safflower meal also contains pheno-
lic glucosides
Matairesinol-~-glucoside,
2-Hydroxyratiin-~-glucoside.
The first one imparts a bitter flavour to the meal and the latter has cathartic properties.
The amount of glucosides is 0.39 to 1.62% of the dry matter. The meal can be debittered
without any negative effect on the chemical composition (Table 46-01)(102).

46.11.3 Feeding Value

Safflower meal comes from a minor oil seed crop. In aquaculture, no attention has been
paid to this protein feedstuff since the feeding value also for monogastric farm animals
is low.

46.11.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

The recommendation for the use of partially decorticated safflower meal as land animal feed
vary widely from zero to 15%(36.38,49). Based on the experiences from land animals, the fol-
lowing guidelines should be observed when safflower meal is used for aquaculture diets:
Only partially or completely decorticated safflower meal should be used;
The crude fibre content should be as low as possible because it is the limiting
factor;
The meal should not be used in starter and grower feed;
The meal is more applicable for herbivorous/omnivorous than carnivorous fish;
The meal is hardly suitable for crustacean feed;
The inclusion rate of safflower meal should be in the range of 5.0 to 7.0% and
the diet has to be supplemented with lysine and methionine.

46.12 Sesame Meal

46.12.1 Description

Sesame (Sesasum indicum, family Pedaliaceae) is basically a crop of tropical and

sub-tropical zones. The seeds of sesame are very small and 1,000 seeds weight is only
2.0 to 4.0 glJ37). The seeds have a wide range of colours depending on the variety.
Sesame is grown for its oil and the by-product is either the meal from solvent extraction
or the expeller from screw pressing. The meal is around 48% of the seeds. Decorticated
seeds provide about 30% meal and 18% hulls. The oil portion is 52%(40).
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 479

After oil extraction, the annual sesame production of about 2.45 million MT provides
around 1.2 million to 1.3 million MT of sesame meal and sesame expeller, respectively.

46.12.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The crude protein content of sesame meal with an average of 42 to 44% depends very
much on the variety (Table 46-01). Sesame meal is a good source of methionine, cystine
and tryptophan, but it is low in lysine as the first limiting amino acid (Table 46-40).
Sesame meal is used to produce lysine-deficient diets in experiments(3/). It appears that
threonine is the second limiting amino acid(/37).

Table 46-40: Essential amino acid profile (gl16 g N) and apparent and true
digestibilities (%) of sesame meal for common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Amino acid profile Apparent True

(gl16 g N) digestibility digestibility
(31,46, 49, 120, 138) (71) (71)

Arginine 4.78 81.1 83.5

Histidine 1.07 84.1
Isoleucine 1.86 82.4 85.6
Leucine 3.10 82.9 85.2
Lysine 1.25 80.5 86.9
Methionine 1.25 82.5 90.8
Phenylalanine 2.08 81.0 83.1
Threonine 1.58 82.0 85.8
Tryptophan 0.65
Valine 2.23 81.5 86.6

Decortication of sesame meal reduces the crude fibre content by about 50% but even
de-hulled meal may have quite a high crude fibre content which makes it less suitable
for aquaculture feed.
The ash content of both sesame meal and sesame expeller is high (Table 46-01).
Sesame meal is rich in calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and trace minerals. It is not
particularly rich in vitamins with the exception of choline (Table 46-41).

Table 46-41: Mineral and vitamin contents of sesame meal

Minerals!23. 31. 46. 49. 120. 138) Vitamins (per 1,000 g)46.49. 138)

Calcium % 2.33 Vitamin E mg 4.0

Phosphorus % 1.29 Vitamin B J mg 7.4
Sodium % 0.24 VitaminB, mg 3.8
Potassium % 1.28 Vitamin B. mg 12.0
Magnesium % 0.86 Biotin mg 0.34
480 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-41: Continued

Minerals(23. 31. 46. 49. 120. 138) Vitamins (per 1,000 g)46.49. 138)

Manganese mg/kg 36.8 Nictonic acid mg 51.0

Iron mglkg 175.0 Pantothenic acid mg 6.8
Zinc mglkg 100.0 Choline g 1.6
Copper mglkg 32.4

Physiological Properties
There is more information on the energy content of sesame meal from land animals than
from aquatic animals (Table 46-42). Digestibility data for sesame meal protein for common
carp are similar to that for pigs (Table 46-43).
More than 80% of the individual amino acids are utilised by the common carp (Table
46-40). Although the lysine digestibility is high in rabbits, growth rates were unsatisfactory
due to the low lysine content of the sesame meal(89).
The phosphorus availability of sesame meal is as low as 0.39 to 0.60%(46.49) and so is
calcium availability which is due to high phytin and oxalic acid content of the meal(40. 138).

Table 46-42: Energy values of sesame meal per kg

Species Metabolisable energy Digestible Energy References

kcal MJ kcal MJ

(120)
Fish' 3,065 12.8
(46.49)
Poultry 2,281 9.5 3,450 14.4
2,360 9.9 3,520 14.72 (46)

(1J8)
Pigs 3,130 13.1

'Species not specified; 2Sesame expeller

Table 46-43: Digestibility (%) of sesame meal

Species Crude protein Organic matter Energy Reference

(7/1
Common carp 78.9 69.9
(7/1
82.9
(54, /38)
Pigs 79.2 79.0
(54)
81.0' 77.0

'Apparent digestibility; 2True digestibility; 'Sesame expeller

 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 481

Deleterious Substances
Sesame meal contains about 5.0% phytate and 350 ppm oxalates. The hulls have a par-
ticularly high content of phytate. These compounds interfere with the assimilation of the
minerals Ca, P, Mg, Mn, Zn and possibly Fe(40. 62. 1371.
Dark coloured meals are less palatable than lighter coloured ones. Their bitter taste is
caused by the oxalic and phytic acids(40. 1381. Sesame expeller can be contaminated with
mycotoxins (aflatoxin )(1621•

46.12.3 Feeding Value

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) were fed a diet with a total protein content of 40%.
The fish meal protein was increasingly replaced with sesame expeller protein. Results of
the recorded parameters for the sesame meal-fed were inferior to the all fish meal fed
group. Even at the lowest sesame expeller level, growth rate was considerably lower
than for the fish meal-fed fish. Digestibility also decreased as sesame expeller levels
increased (Table 46-44)1721.

Table 46-44: Feeding value of sesame expeller in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) (Trial period:
8 weeks )(72)

Protein from:
- Sesame expeller % 25 50 75
- Fish meal % 100 75 50 25
Crude protein % 40.6 40.2 39.5 40.5

Weight gain % 643 341 194 106

SGR %/day 3.6 2.7 1.9 1.3
Feed conversion I: 2.1 2.9 3.7 6.3
Mortality % 0 0 0 6.3
Digestibility of dry matter % 76.2 61.9 53.3 50.9

Sesame expeller as a partial substitute for fish meal in diets for the Indian major carp
(Labeo rohita) fry gave also unsatisfactory results in comparison to the fish meal fed
group (Figure 46-04)1621.

46.12.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Corticated sesame meal and sesame expeller are not suitable for aquaCUlture feeds. Even
de-hulled sesame meal/expeller have a relatively high crude fibre content. The following
inclusion rates should not be exceeded:
Carnivorous fish: 10.0%
Herbivorous/Omnivorous 20.0%
When sesame meal is used at levels of more than 10.0%, the supplementation of
the diet with amino acid and minerals (zinc) has to be considered(138).
482 CHAPTER 46

mg
1000

900

800
0,"0

...
..<:
...
100
01
GI
:. 600
>-
'tI
0
IZl 500

400

300
/
20
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
Days

Figure 46-04. Growth response ofIndian major carp (Labeo rohita) fry to various levels of sesame expeller 62)

46.13 Soybean Meals

46.13.1 Description

Soybean meal is the by-product after the removal of the oil from soya beans (Glycine
max) (see also Chapter 42 and 45.14). Presently, soybean meal is the most important
protein source as feed of productive farm animals and as partial or entire replacement of
fish meal. It is commonly used not only because of its high protein content but also due
to its worldwide availability.
Not less than 82 kg of soybean meal and 18 kg of soybean oil are obtained from 100 kg
soya beans. De-hulling the seeds, prior to oil extraction, produces 75 kg meal and 7.0 kg
hulls(40).
For about 20 years, meal from whole soya beans, called "full-fat soya bean meal, has
been used as animal feed(153).
Products obtained from soya beans and their processing are as follows:
Soybean meal, solvent extracted;
Soybean meal from de-hulled seeds, solvent extracted;
Soybean expeller;
Soybean expeller from de-hulled seeds;
Full-fat soybean meal;
Full-fat soybean meal from de-hulled seeds.
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 483

46.13.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of soybean meals is fairly consistent (Table 46-01). The crude
protein level depends on the soybean meal quality and a guide for the meal protein content
is as follows:
Soybean meal: 44%
De-hulled soybean meal 48%
Full-fat soybean meal 36%.
Factors that cause variations in the protein content are soil, cultivars, weather condition
during vegetation period, and season among others.
Soybean meal has one of the best amino acid profiles of all vegetable oil meals (Table
46-45). The limiting amino acids are methionine and cystine while arginine and pheny-
lalanine are in good supply(J2G).

Table 46-45: Essential amino acid profile of soybean products (gl16 g N)

(4,48, /53, 180)

Soybean meal Soybean meal, Full-fat

de-hulled soybean meal

Arginine 6.94 7.38 7.44

Histidine 2.64 2.58 2.58
Isoleucine 5.01 5.15 5.31
Leucine 7.54 7.76 7.08
Lysine 6.28 6.45 6.30
Methionine 1.38 1.46 1.29
Phenylalanine 5.03 4.84 5.20
Threonine 4.92 3.93 4.18
Tryptophan U8 1.40 1.44
Valine 4.72 5.24 4.97

The fat content of the solvent extracted soybean meal is insignificant, but soybean
expeller has an oil content between 6.0 and 7.0% while full-fat soybean meal contains
18 to 20% fat (Table 46-01).
Soybean meal and soybean expeller are lower in macro and trace elements than fish
meal. There is no substantial difference between the individual soybean meal products
(Table 46-46). The calcium content is low and the phosphorus level is rather high, however,
the phosphorus is bound to phytic acid, and the availability for aquatic animals is, therefore,
limited. The available phosphorus amounts only to 0.19 to 0.26% as reported for land
animals which is around 30% of the total phosphorus content of soybean meals(46.49).
A phosphorus availability of 50% for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) and 40% for
white leg shrimps (Penaeus vannamei) has been established(7}.
484 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-46: Macro and trace mineral content of soybean meals and expelld39• 46.110.124)

Soybean Soybean Soybean Full-fat

meal expeller meal, dehulled soybean meal

Calcium % 0.28 0.26 0.28 0.25

Phosphorus % 0.68 0.63 0.66 0.59
Sodium % 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.07
Potassium % 1.92 1.89 2.09 1.45
Magnesium % 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.24
Chlorine % 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.03
Sulphur % 0.43 0.33 0.44 0.22
Manganese mg/kg 32.2 34.9 32.5 30.8
Iron mg/kg 186.5 188.5 131.5 82.0
Zinc mglkg 53.5 56.4 54.0 46.8
Copper mglkg 19.9 20.2 18.0 17.2
Selenium mglkg 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.03
Iodine mglkg 0.05 0.05

Soybean meals and expeller are a reasonable source of B-vitamins. For most vitamins,
there are insignificant differences between the different products. However, full-fat soy-
bean meal tends to be higher in some vitamins. While the products are a good source of
choline, the Vitamin Bl2 content is low (Table 46-47), and nicotinic acid and panthothenic
acid are damaged by heat treatment. Losses may amount to 10% to 75%(133).

Table 46-47: The vitamins of soybean meals and expeller (per 1,000 g)l46. II~ 123. /69)

Soybean Soybean Soybean Full-fat

meal expeller meal, soybean
de-hulled meal

Vitamin A LV. 365 400 BOO

Vitamin E mg 2.5 4.2 2.6 8.9
Vitamin B, mg 6.5 4.2 2.6 8.9
Vitamin B2 mg 3.1 3.2 2.9 2.7
Vitamin B6 mg 7.1 8.6 4.0 7.2
VitaminB'2 mg 0.02
Biotin mg 0.31 0.33 0.31 0.94
Folic acid mg 2.81 3.45 0.7 3.18
Nicotinic acid mg 30.1 27.3 21.0 22.0
Pantothenic acid mg 14.6 14.5 13.9 15.5
Choline g 2.B 2.9 2.5 2.6

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of soybean meals over all fish species ranges from 2,572 to
3,340 kcal/kg (10.8 to 14.0 MJ/kg (Table 46-48).
The metabolisable and digestible energy of full-fat soybean meal increases with the
increase of the heating temperature at a given time due to the inactivation of the trypsin
inhibitors (Table 46-48).
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 485

Table 46-48: Energy values of soybean meal per kg

Species Gross energy Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Ref-

erences
kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

1. SQ)1bean Illi:W
(97. 110, 160)
4,518 18.9
Fish 2,925 12.4 (120)

(110.158)
Rainbow trout 2,921 12.2 3,266 13.7
(97, /36)
Channel catfish 2,572 10.8
Nile tilapia 3,340 14.0 (124)

2. S0)111~il!l meal from ~-hyll~g s~e~

4,326 18.1 (110)

(124)
Rainbow trout 2,947 12.3
3. Full-fat sO)1bean m~al
(161)
Rainbow trout 2,564 10.7 1 2,905 12.2
3,641 15.2' 4,083 17.1 (/61)

4,033 16.93 4,349 18.2 (16/)

IRoasted at 127°C for 10 min.; 'Roasted at 175°C for 10 min.; 3Roasted at 204°C for 10 min.

Apparently on the average, shrimps digest the crude protein of soybean meal better
(91.1 %) than fish (84.9%). But the residual fat of soybean meal is better digested by
the fish (88.6%) than by the shrimp (78.6%). The digestibility parameters for full-fat
soybean meal follow the observations made with the energy values (Table 46-49).

Table 46-49:Digestibility (%) of soybean meals

Species Dry Crude Fat Crude Carbo- Energy References

matter protein fibre hydrates

1. SQ)111!:lIn meal
Salmonids 77.6 86.3 54.0 (64)

(64. lSI)
Common carp 44.1 78.1 86.0 51.5 67.3 53.6
Grass carp 81.8 96.2 98.8 63.4 82.7 (64)

(64, 93, 142)

Channel catfish 81.8 81.0 51.4
European eel 68.0 94.0 (64)

(6,30)
Tiger prawn 60.1 92.1 75.5 63.4
Kuruma prawn 63.6 90.1 75.8 (6)

White leg shrimp 59.8 90.8 70.4 73.5 (6.8)

Giant freshwater
prawn 99.0 90.5 90.0 (85)

2. Full-fat sO)1bean ms;al

Salmonids 65.0 66.9 (64)

(160)
Rainbow trout 40.3 1 51.3
(160)
69.9' 71.7
78.23 77.3 (/60)

IRoasted at 127°C for 10 min.; 'Roasted at 175°C for 10 min.; 3Roasted at 204°C for 10 min.
486 CHAPTER 46

Protein digestibility does not always reflect the digestibility of essential amino acids.
Based on the available data, the overall amino acid digestibility of soybean meal by
channel catfish is better than the protein digestibility. On the contrary, shrimps digest
protein better than amino acids of soybean meal (Tables 46-50).
The mineral digestibility of soybean meal for white leg shrimp varies very widely and
is negative for some elements (Table 46-50).
The carbohydrate fraction of soybeans is different from cereals. About 30% carbohy-
drates of soya beans are subdivided into 10% soluble carbohydrates (oligosaccharides)
and 20% insoluble carbohydrates (polysaccharides)(l6. 94) (see Chapter 2.3). Results of
a study in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) suggest that the alcohol-soluble fraction of soya
beans (mainly alcohol-soluble carbohydrates) is partially responsible for the insufficient
nutritional value of soybean meals(l6) which is more anti-nutrient than the heat sensitive
substances(l29).

Table 46-50: Amino acid and mineral digestibilities of soybean meal

Essential amino acid digestibility (%)1£ 142) Apparent mineral digestibility (%)

Channel White leg White leg

Catfish( 142) shrimp(8) shrimp(IO)

Arginine 96.7 91.4 Calcium -84.1

Histidine 87.9 86.3 Phosphorus 39.9
Isoleucine 79.8 90.2 Magnesium 88.7
Leucine 83.5 88.4 Potassium 92.0
Lysine 94.0 91.5 Sodium -88.7
Methionine 84.6 Iron 18.2
Phenylalanine 84.4 89.6 Zinc 15.0
Threonine 81.9 89.3 Copper 60.1
Valine 78.7 87.9 Manganese 33.0

Deleterious Constituents and Other Properties

Trypsin Inhibitors: About 6.0% of the total protein of soya beans(80) reduce activities
of trypsin and chymotrypsin which are pancreatic enzymes and involved in protein
digestion(l86). The trypsin inhibitors are not fully understood, but are responsible for the
poor performance of certain fish species(2. 21. 160. 176. 184). Furthermore, feeding of raw,
unprocessed soya beans enlarges the pancreas(3J).
Determination of trypsin inhibitors in soybean meals is difficult and expensive.
Urease activity is correlated with trypsin inhibitors and can be easily determined, hence,
its determination is used for routine analysis of trypsin inhibitors in soybean meals(153).
Other methods to determine the activity of trypsin inhibitors are: Formaldehyde tritation,
cresole red dye-binding (phthalin test), orange dye binding and the fluorescence test(l80).
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 487

Trypsin inhibitors are inactivated by proper heating time and temperature, often referred
to as "cooking" or "roasting". The longer the heating time, the more trypsin inhibitors
are destroyed but high quality soybean meals should neither be "overcooked" nor "under-
cooked" because both reduce the feeding value. Inactivation of the trypsin inhibitors
improve the feeding value of soybean meals as demonstrated in broilers (Table 46-51).

Table 46-51: Effect of duration of heating of soybean meal on urease activity,

trypsin inhibitor content and feeding value (broilers)(/82)

Heating time Urease activity Trypsin inhibitor Weight gain

Min. pH mg/g g

0 2.26 248
30 1.74 8.2 376
35 0.48 5.0 393
40 0.40 5.5 405
45 0.25 4.6 416
50 0.18 4.8 403
55 0.11 4.6 415
60 0.05 2.5 409

Lectins: This is another type of toxic protein and is chemically hemagglutinin, which
causes agglutination of red blood cells(92). They are bound to the intestinal mucosa and
damage the micro-villi, promoting invasion of gut lining by pathogenic bacteria and impair
absorption of nutrients(31. 153.180). There are indications that lectins reduce the nutritive
value of soybean meal for salmonids but are inactivated by treatment of the meals(63. 76).

Other Anti-nutritional Factors: In raw soya beans, there are other anti-nutritional factors
present such as tannins, alkaloids, estrogens, saponins, glycosides and urease. Whether
these substances are injurious to aquatic animals is not yet well defined(94. 180).

Other Properties: For some fish, soybean meal is unpalatable. While chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tsachawytscha) do not accept soybean meal coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) is not so delicate(53). Herbivorous and omnivorous species are
less choosy. The size or age of the fish may also affect the palatability of soybean meal(6).

Pelletising Ability: High levels of soybean meal may reduce the pelletising ability of the
diets. When soybean meal at levels of 42% and more were used, the water durability was
significantly reduced(94). Full-fat soybean meal and soybean expeller have a better press
capacity and give the pellet die a longer life than soybean meal due to their higher fat
content but there are no differences in pellet quality(55. 66).
488 CHAPTER 46

46.13.3 Feeding Value

Comprehensive research work has been done to evaluate soybean meals as a replacement
of animal protein sources in diets for farmed aquatic animals but the replacement of all
fish meal by soybean meal, has not been very successful perhaps due to the limiting
amino acids and insufficient heat treatment of the soybean meals.

Fishes

Salmon ids: The use of soybean meal at different levels in diets for juvenile rainbow
trouts (Salmo gairdnerilOnchorhynchus mykiss) as replacement of fish meal resulted in
depressed growth. The negative response increased with increasing levels of soybean
meal in the diet!37.113.152). However, when soybean meal diets were fed to older rainbow
trouts and compared to fish meal based diets, no significant differences were found! 12.35).
Increasing levels of soybean meals as replacement for quality fish meal in diets for
the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) reared in seawater and rainbow trout reared in fresh-
water caused significant decrease in growth. Best results were obtained with full-fat
soybean meal, followed by soybean expeller and soybean meal (Figure 46-05)(/28).
g
300

250

200
....III1:1
til 150
....
.<::
....GItil 100 De-hulled
~
soybean meal

50

-so
0 14 28 42 56
Soya protein of total protein {'>
Figure 46-05. The effect of different levels of soybean meal, de-hulled soybean meal and full-fat soybean
meal on the weight gain of Atlantic salmon (Salrna salar)!I3D)

On the other hand, good growth was obtained in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed
full-fat soybean meal (roasted at 177°C for 10 min.) as the predominant protein source
and without fish meal. The positive effects were most probably due to the addition of
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 489

3.0% cod liver oil to the test diet(l65). At the low level of full-fat soybean meal (7.5%)
there was no difference in the performances of rainbow trout compared to 7.5% anchovy
meal, the control, but fish fed 40% full-fat soybean meal in replacement for 30%
anchovy meal required more time to reach the final weight of the control and consumed
more feed per kg growth(l6l).
Additional heating of full-fat soybean meal reduces the weight gain of rainbow trout
compared to a fish meal-soybean meal dietl34). When 75% heat-treated full-fat soybean meal
and 5.0% fish meal were fed to rainbow trouts, fishes developed better than the control, and
the higher energy content of the diet produced carcasses with the highest fat contentl I39 ).

Common Carp: No differences in growth were observed when common carp (Cyprinus
carpio) were fed either with 45% soybean meal (+ 10% fish meal) or 20% soybean meal
(+22% fish meal). Other trials however, showed that growth performance and feed
efficiency of common carp were reduced when dietary fish meal was replaced by
soybean meal. There were no differences in performance between extruded full-fat
soybean meal and oil-reconstituted soybean meal(l76). It is claimed that soybean meal is
deficient in available energy and lysine as well as methionine for carp. Supplementation
of soybean meal diets with methionine coated with aldehyde treated casein significantly
improved utilisation of the amino acid by the common carp(lJ3, IJ4).
Lack of phosphorus rather than the sulphur amino acids may be the cause for poor
results when 40% soybean meal diets were fed to common carp. Addition of 2.0%
di-sodiumphosphate improved performances(84). But in another study a reduced phosphorus
content of the diet, obtained when replacing fish meal with soybean meal, did not affect
the growth of carp(l78).
But replacing a diet for mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio) half of the fish meal by 50%
full-fat soybean meal, fish obtained only 60% to 65% of the weight gain of the control
group and carcasses were fatter than the control(2).

Channel Catfish: Channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) fed on all-plant protein diets
grew significantly less than fish fed diets containing fish meal(lOl). Growth was substan-
tially reduced when menhaden fish meal was replaced by soybean meal at an isoni-
trogenous basis(l4).
The partial replacement of fish meal by soybean meal in the diet for the channel catfish
or the increase of the diet's energy and phosphorus content resulted in better perfor-
mances of the fish. It is claimed that fish meal and dietary phosphates provide sulphur
amino acids and available phosphorus, respectively, of which soybean meal is defi-
cient(90, 112, 115). Adding crystalline sulphur amino acids to improve the soybean protein did
not improve the growth of channel catfish(l4) but significantly improved weight gains of
channel catfish was reported when the soybean meal diet was fortified with either coated
or uncoated methionine(IJ3).
Full-fat soybean meal, heat treated differently, replaced fish meal and/or soybean
meal at low and high levels in diets for channel catfish showed that replacement at
moderate level of full-fat soybean meal gave satisfactory results. However, fish carcasses
had higher fat contents and the fish had a "greasy taste"(27, 147),
490 CHAPTER 46

Tilapia: Growth and feed efficiency were significantly depressed when soybean meal
replaced fish meal at the optimum protein level (30%) in a diet (32% crude protein) for
fingerling hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus x Oreochromis aureus). When the protein
of the diet was below optimum level (24%), fish meal could be partially replaced by
soybean meal(l 541. Without any supplements, soybean meal has been used to replace 50%
of the fish meal in a tilapia diet (25% crude protein) without any negative effects(174I.
On the other hand, the growth of the hybrid til apia was reduced when a 30% crude
protein diet contained 24% soybean meal but by adding 2.0 to 3.0% di-calciumphosphate
to the diet, growth rate of tilapia was comparable to the controI077). In another experiment,
the growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) was improved when a brown fish meal
was replaced by soybean meal plus added methionine(l671. Addition of supplemental oil,
lysine, methionine and vitamins to a diet for tilapia did not prevent significant growth
depression and poor feed efficiency when fish meal was completely substituted by
soybean meal(l751. But growth of tilapia (Sarotherodon mossambicus) was depressed
when fed a diet in which 50% or more fish meal was replaced by soybean meal(77).
Full-fat soybean meal at reasonable levels with and without supplements in diets
for Nile tilapia and hybrid tilapia may replace fish meal without affecting performances
negatively. But these fish species when on higher levels of full-fat soybean meal in the
diet have higher fat content in the carcass than lower levels of the full-fat meal(l54. 1671.

Milkfish: Without any adverse effect on growth and feed conversion, soybean meal with
a methionine supplement could replace up to 67% fish meal in diets for milkfish (Chanos
chanos)f155I •

Table 46-52: Responses of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) juveniles to diets

containing soybean meal (Trial period: 8 weeks)l/34/

Soybean meal % 15.0 35.0

Fish meal % 30.0 16.0
Crude protein % 48.0 44.0
Crude fat % 13.0 11.0

Weight gain % 244 194

Feed conversion 1: 2.6 3.5
SGR %/day 2.2 1.9
Survival % 71.0 67.0

Crustaceans

Penaeid shrimps: Growth, feed conversion and survival of tiger prawn (Peneaus monodon)
juveniles fed two levels of soybean meal under laboratory conditions were lower by the high-
er level of soybean meal (Table 46-52)11341• Weight gain and survival rate of tiger prawns fed
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 491

a 45% soybean meal diet was inferior to those fed 35% soybean meal diet<9). On the other
hand, no significant differences in growth and survival could be established when soybean
meal at levels from 15% to 55% replaced partially or completely fish meal in diets for tiger
prawns stocked in cages in ponds at 10 or 20 shrimps/m2. Under the conditions of the trial,
production results (final weight x survival) were higher at the stocking rate of 20 shrimps/m2
(Figure 46_06y135) and decreased at 45 to 55% level of replacement.

91m2
"0

<20

'00

3110

360

C )40

.......0 320
U
::s )00
'tl
0
Do
... 2.0

..!~o
101m 2
:!40

21.

2""

100

Soybean meal in diet (~)

Figure 46·06. Production results (final weight x survival) of different levels of soybean meal in diets
for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) reared at various stocking rates(lJ')

Banana shrimps (Penaeus merguiensis) responded negatively to fish meal-free diets

and a soybean meal level of 55%. The partial replacement of fish meal did not seem to
affect performances (Table 46-53125).

Table 46-53: Increasing levels of soybean meal as partial or complete replacement

of fish meal in diets for banana shrimps (Penaeus merguiensis)
(Feeding period: 56 days)fz,)

Soybean meal % 25.0 35.0 45.0 55.0

Fish meal % 23.4 15.6 7.8
Fish oil % 4.1 4.7 5.4 6.0
Crude protein % 39.0 40.0 39.2 38.6
Fat % 9.6 10.3 10.9 10.4
------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain % 2,884 2,914 3,920 2,400
Feed conversion 1: 1.66 1.75 1.70 1.81
Survival rate % 88.9 76.7 86.7 74.2
492 CHAPTER 46

White leg shrimps (Penaeus vannamei) did not require any marine animal meals,
except a chemo-attractant, and had excellent performances when fed isonitrogenously
balanced diets containing 75% soybean meal. In a related experiment under field condi-
tions there were no differences in growth of white leg shrimps fed 10% or 40% soybean
meal in the diets(87).
Results of basic experiments with soybean meal in other penaeid shrimps have
demonstrated that there are species and size differences in the ability of marine shrimps
to utilise soybean meal. For these trials, three initialliveweight were used: 0.04 g, 0.5 g,
5.0 g87). Smaller shrimps are more sensitive to the level of soybean meal in the diet than
larger animals. In these trials, soybean meal levels ranging between 15% to 75% replaced
menhaden fish meal and shrimp head meal accordingly(87).
There was good acceptance of soybean meal by pink shrimp (Penaeus duorarum)
when fish meal and shrimp meal where replaced in the dietl l56). On the other hand,
growth of common prawn (Paleamon serratus) was inferior when fish meal was com-
pletely substituted by soybean meal(5l).

Freshwater Shrimps: Soybean meal could successfully replace fish meal and shrimp
meal in the diet for the giant fresh water prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)(l9.20).
Adult giant fresh water prawns utilised soybean meal better than juveniles(86).

Other Aquatic Animals

Soybean meal may be an alternative protein source for formulated feed for abalone
(Haliotis Spp.)l47). It could also be a suitable protein source for formulated feed for frogs
(Rana spp.). Hatchery-reared frog (Rana perezi) larvae have been reared on diets con-
taining soybean meal(J07).

46.13.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Soybean meals may replace animal proteins in diets for aquatic animals to a certain extent.
However, with increasing substitution of e.g. fish meal by soybean meal the performances
of fish decline. Herbivores may tolerate higher levels of soybean meals than carnivores.
It appears that full-fat soybean meal is more beneficial for cold water fish than for
warm water species due to the better utilisation of the energy from the soya bean product
by the former. However, unbalanced diets with full-fat soybean meal may affect the fat
content of the fish carcass.
Only properly heat-treated soya bean products should be used for aquaculture feeds.
Furthermore, it is advisable to use only soybean meals processed from de-hulled seeds
in order to reduce the crude fibre in the diet.
Guidelines for suitable application rates of soybean meals are in Table 46-54.
Supplementation of the diet with marine oils, phosphates and essential amino acids has
to be evaluated.
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 493

Table 46-54: Guideline for the use of soybean meal. soybean expeller. de-hulled soybean
meal and full-fat soybean meal in diets for aquatic animals

Starter feed Grower feed Finisher feed

% % %

1. Fishes
Carnivores 5.0 10.0 15.0
Herbivores/omnivores 10.0 20.0 30.0
2. Crustaceans
Marine shrimps 3.0 8.0 15.0
Freshwater shrimp 5.0 10.0 20.0

46.14 Sunflower Meal

46.14.1 Description

Sunflower meal is the residue of oil extraction from sunflower seeds (Helianthus annuus),
family (Asteraceae) which is basically a plant of temperate zones. The by-product is rich
in protein and used as a feedstuff. The non-oil-containing portion of sunflower seeds
amount to about 70%. When the seeds are de-hulled, the meal portion is 62% and 8.0%
are hulls(40). This means that of the world production of 21 million MT sunflower a year,
theoretically 14.0 to 15.0 million MT sunflower meal and sunflower expeller are available.
Corticated sunflower meal is not a suitable feedstuff. Sunflower meal is commonly of
gray colour because most sunflower seeds have a black hull(43).

46.14.2 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The crude protein content of sunflower meal varies with the method of processing and
ranges between 25% (corticated) and 50% (decorticated). Partly decorticated meal has
a crude protein content of 30 to 35% (Table 46-01).
The protein of sunflower meal is deficient in lysine which is the first limiting amino
acid, but methionine and arginine are higher than in soybean meaJ!43). Due to the higher
protein content of decorticated meal, the amino acid levels are also higher than in corti-
cated meal (Table 46-55).
The fat content depends on the oil extraction method. Un-dehulled meal has only
0.5% fat but sunflower expeller may have 5.0 to 7.0% fat. The linoleic acid content of
whole sunflower seeds is high.
494 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-55: Essential amino acid profile of sunflower products (g/16 g N)(43. 46. 49.125. /63)

Corticated meal Decorticated

Meal Expeller

Arginine 2.88 3.60 4.00

Histidine 0.81 1.04 1.08
Isoleucine 1.38 2.07 2.06
Leucine 2.15 2.99 2.67
Lysine 1.10 0.73 1.79
Methionine 0.65 0.78 1.24
Phenylalanine 1.56 2.20 2.17
Threonine 1.29 1.68 1.57
Tryptophan 0.37 0.55 0.56
Valine 1.76 2.34 2.29

The crude fibre content of sunflower meal is the best indicator as to whether the meal is
from decorticated seeds or not. Corticated sunflower meal may contain up to almost 30%
crude fibre (Table 46-01). The ash content is about 6.0%. Phosphorus and potassium con-
tent is high. Sunflower meal is a useful source of nicotinic acid and choline. In general, the
vitamins of sunflower meal are significantly higher than in soybean meal (Table 46-56)140).
But it is unknown how stable these vitamins are during storage and feed mixingl43• 80).

Table 46-56: Mineral and vitamin contents of sunflower meal and sunflower seeds (as fed)

Minerals(4J. 46, 49,120. 125) Vitamins (Per 1,000 g) (46. 49. (25)

Meal Whole Meal

seeds

Calcium % 0.43 0.18 Vitamin A I.V. 14,000

Phosphorus % 1.3 0.66 Vitamin E mg 11.1
Sodium % 0.15 0.D3 Vitamin B, mg 18.5
Potassium % 1.20 0.78 Vitamin B, mg 3.2
Magnesium % 0.65 Vitamin B6 mg 12.5
Chlorine % 0.15 0.01 Biotin mg 0.08
Sulphur % 0.21 0.02 Nicotinic acid mg 249.0
Manganese mglkg 33.3 21.6 Pantothenic acid mg 30.3
Iron mg/kg 108.3 30.0 Choline g 3.1
Zinc mg/kg 99.0
Copper mglkg 12.0
Selenium mglkg 1.8
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 495

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of sunflower expeller is higher than that of sunflower meal due to
the higher fat content of the former (Table 46-57).

Table 46-57: Energy values of sunflower meal per kg

Species Metabolisable energy Digestible energy Reference

Kcal MJ kcal MJ

(i20}
Fish l 3,394 14.2'
(I20)
2,827 ll.8
(46,49)
Chicken 2,052 8.6 2,650 11.1
Pigs 3,057 12.7 3 (43)

(43}
2,425 10.1'
2,337 9.8' (43}

ISpecies not specified; 'Sunflower expeller; 'Decorticated meal; 'Partly decorticated;

'Corticated

For the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), the dry matter, carbohydrate, and crude fibre
digestibility for sunflower meal is low but protein digestibility is in the medium range
(Table 46-58).

Table 46-58: Digestibility (0/0) of sunflower meal)

Species Dry Crude Fat Crude Carbo- Organic Reference

matter protein fibre hydrates matter

(64,15/)
Common carp 46.1 76.6 86.4 46.5 40.9
(54)
Pigs 73.8 46
74.7 46 1 (54)

ISunfiower expeller

Deleterious Substances
Sunflower meal contains tannins, protease inhibitors, an arginine inhibitor, but does not
have a trypsin inhibitorl l66). Contamination of sunflower meal and sunflower expeller
with aflatoxin is possible.

46.14.3 Feeding Value

The sunflower meal is a good replacement for soybean meal in rations for rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneriYlO5).
496 CHAPTER 46

Sunflower meal had no adverse effect on growth performance and feed conversion
when rainbow trout were fed with increasing levels of sunflower meal in replacement
for soybean meal and wheat flour. However, the total substitution of soybean meal by
sunflower meal with methionine supplementation was not successful. Increasing sunflower
meal levels in the diet also decreased the dry matter digestibility which most probably is
caused by the high crude fibre content of sunflower meal (Table 46-59)(166). Also sun-
flower meal-fed rainbow trout (initialliveweight: 39 g) did not perform as well as the fish
meal-fed fish(29).

Table 46-59: Increasing levels of sunflower meal in diets for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
(trial period 150 days)(I66)

Sunflower meal % 0 11 22 36.5 36.3

Soybean meal % 15 8 0 0 0
Fish meal % 40 40 40 35 35
Methionine % 0.2
Crude protein % 44.1 45.6 44.4 43.9 44.2
Crude fat % 14.2 14.7 14.8 12.7 12.3
Crude fibre % 1.5 3.8 6.3 10.0 9.2
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain % 425 458 420 421 354
SGR/day % 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0
Feed conversion 1: 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7
PER 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3
Apparent digestibility:
- Dry matter % 62.2 53.1 54.9 42.9 47.9
- Organic matter % 67.8 58.1 58.6 47.8 52.5
- Nitrogen % 84.7 82.2 82.2 79.2 79.4

46.14.4 Recommended Inclusion Rates

The high crude fibre content of sunflower meal limits its use in aquaculture diets.
Only decorticated sunflower meal should be used for aquatic animals. The following
inclusion rates for sunflower meal and sunflower expelIer should not be exceeded:
Carnivorous fish: 10.0%
Herbivorous/Omnivorous fish: 20.0%

46.15 Legal Aspects

Meal from solvent extraction or expeller from screw pressing of vegetable oil seeds are
generalIy recognised as useful feedstuffs in animal production. Regulations for their use
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 497

in animal feeds may differ from country to country.

In the EU-countries, the use of these products is laid down by the EU-Commission in
the Directive 92/87 EWG of 26 October 1992(183). The U.S.A. Feed Ingredient
Definitions for vegetable oil meals is similarl!).
The German feedstuff legislation has added to the EU-Regulations minimum and
maximum requirements for each individual feedstuff of this category (Table 46-60)(183).

Table 46-60: Minimum/maximum requirements by the German feedstuff law for meal from solvent
extraction and cakes from screw pressing of vegetable oil seeds (% )(I8J)

Moisture Crude Fat Crude Ash Misc.

Protein fibre
Max. min. max. min. max. max.

1. M!:w from solvent !:lIl1:w;liQIl

Copra meal 13.0 21.0 4.0
Copra 6.0 60.0

Cotton-seed meal,
decorticated 13.0 43.0 4.0 13.5
Cotton-seed meal,
partly decorticated 13.0 34.0 4.0 18.0
Cotton-seed meal 13.0 4.0 30.0

Ground-nut meal,
decorticated 13.0 48.0 4.0 6.0
Ground-nut meal,
partly decorticated 13.0 40.0 4.0 13.0
Ground-nut meal 13.0 4.0 30.0

Linseed meal' 13.0 33.0 4.0

Palm-kernel meal 13.0 16.0 4.0

Olive meal 13.0 4.0 30.0

Rape-seed meal' 13.0 34.0 4.0

Rape-seed meal, low
in Goitrine2 13.0 34.0 4.0 0.35 3

Safflower meal,
decorticated 13.0 45.0 4.0 10.0
Safflower meal,
partly decorticated 13.0 4.0 35.0

Sesame meal 13.0 40.0 4.0 5.0

498 CHAPTER 46

Table 46-60: Continued

Moisture Crude Fat Crude Ash Misc.

Protein fibre
Max. min. max. min. max. max.

1. M!:i!I fr!lm ~o!v!:llt !:xtractioll

Soybean meal 13.0 42.0 5.0 8.0
Soybean meal,
decorticated 13.0 48.0 4.0 3.0 0.4'

Sunflower meal,
decorticated 13.0 40.0 4.0 16.0
Sunflower meal,
partly decorticated 13.0 30.0 4.0 22.0
Sunflower meal 13.0 4.0 30.0

2. Cake from screw l!ressinl:

Copra cake 13.0 19.0 5.0

Cotton-seed cake,
decorticated 13.0 41.0 5.0 13.0
Cotton-seed cake,
partly decorticated 13.0 32.0 5.0 17.5
Cotton-seed cake 13.0 29.0

Ground-nut cake,
decorticated 13.0 45.0 5.0 6.0
Ground-nut cake,
partly decorticated 13.0 28.0

Linseed cake I 13.0 31.0 5.0

Palm-kernel cake 13.0 15.0 5.0

Olive cake 13.0 27.0

Rape-seed cake2 13.0 30.0 5.0

Safflower cake,
decorticatec 13.0 43.0 5.0 9.0
Safflower cake,
partly decorticated 13.0 35.0

Sesame cake 13.0 38.0 5.0 5.0

 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 499

Table 46-60: Continued

Moisture Crude Fat Crude Ash Misc.

Protein fibre
Max. min. max. min. max. max.

2. !:;ak" from screw I1ressin~

Soybean cake 13.0 42.0 5.0 8.0

Sunflower cake.
decorticated 13.0 38.0 5.0 16.0
Sunflower cake.
partly decorticated 13.0 29.0 5.0 21.0
Sunflower cake 13.0 30.0

'Min. 93% Botanical purity; 2Min. 94% botanical purity; 3Vynylthio-oxazolidone; 'Urease-activity

Meals and expellers from the following mustard species are "undesirable feedstuffs"
according to German feedstuff legislation and cannot be used as a component for
compound feed:
Abyssinia mustard (Brassica carinata)
Black mustard (Brassica nigra)
Chinese yellow mustard (Brassicajuncea, va. Lutea)
Indian brown mustard (Brassica juncea, var. integrifolia)
Sarepta mustard (Brassica juncea juncea)
Other undesirable substances in vegetable oil meals and expeller may not exceed
certain levels in the product as laid down by law (Table 46-61).

Table 46-61: Undesirable substances in by-products of vegetable oil seeds processing.

according to German feedstuff legislation(l83)

Undesired substance Feedstuff Max. content per kg

Aflatoxin B, all 0.02 mg

}
Prussic acid linseed meal
linseed meal 350.0 mg
linseed cake
Endosulfan all 0.5 mg

}
Gossypol (free) Cotton-seed meal
Cotton-seed cake 1.200.00 mg
500 CHAPTER 46

46.16 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official Publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officiels (publisher). Sacramento.
CAIUSA.
2. Abel. H.1.; Becker. J.. ; Meske. C.H.R.; and Friedrich. W. (1984): Possibilities of using heat-treated full-fat
soybeans in carp feeding. Aquaculture. 42 .• 97-108.
3. Abu-Hassan. I.; Sayuthi. S.; Chiam. C.S. (1984): Fabrication offeed suitable for smallholder aquaculture.
Rome. RAO. Fl:DPPfMAU77/008 Field Document. 2 .• 262-278.
4. ADCP (1983): Quoted from: Paulraj. R. (1995).
5. Ahamed. M.T.; Mollah. M.F.A. (1992): Effects of various levels of wheat bran and mustard oilcake in
the culture media on tubificid production. Aquaculture. 107.• 107-113.
6. Akiyama. D.M. (1988): Soybean meal utilization in fish feeds. Pres. Korean Feed Asso. Conference.
Seoul. Korea, August 1988.
7. Akiyama. D.M. (1991). The use of soy products and other plant protein supplements in aquaculture feeds.
Proc. Aquaculture Feed Processing and Nutrition Workshop. Thailand and Indonesia. 19 to 25 September
1991. 199. (American Soybean Asso .• Singapore).
8. Akiyama. D.M. (1991): Soybean meal utilization by marine shrimp. Proc. Aquaculture Feed Processing
and Nutrition Workshop. Thailand and Indonesia, 19 to 25 September 1991. 207. (American Soybean
Asso .• Singapore).
9. Akiyama. D.M.; FSGP Aquaculture Research (1989): The use of soybean meal to replace white fish meal
in commercially processed Penaeus monodon Fabricius feeds in Taiwan. R.O.C. Proc. Aquaculture Feed
Processing and Nutrition Workshop. Thailand and Indonesia. 19 to 25 September 1991. 289-299
(American Soybean Asso .• Singapore).
10. Akiyama. D.M.; Dominy. w.G.; Lawrence. A.L. (1991): Penaeid shrimp nutrition for the commercial feed
industry: Revised Proc. Aquaculture Feed Processing and Nutrition Workshop. Thailand and Indonesia,
19 to 25 September 1991. 80 (American Soybean Asso .• Singapore).
11. Alexis. M.. ; Filioglou, M.; Theochari. V. (1988): Apparent digestibility measurements offeedstuffs having
potential for use in rainbow trout diets. Thalassographica. 11.. 19-26.
12. Alexis. M.N.; Papaparaskeva P.E.; Eheochari. V. (1985): Formulation of practical diets for rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) made by partial or complete substitution of fish meal by poUltry by-products and
certain plant by-products. Aquaculture. 50., 61-73.
13. Anderson. J.S.; Lall. S.P.; Anderson. D.M.; Chandrasoma, J. (1992): Apparent and true availability of
amino acids from common feed ingredients for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) reared in seawater.
Aquaculture. 108.• 111-124.
14. Andrews. J. w.; Page. J. W. (1974): Growth factors in the fish meal component of catfish. J. Nutr.• 109.•
1508-1511.
15. Annas. A.B.; Chicco. C.F. (1977): Use of palm-kernel meal of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq)
in broiler chicken diets. Agronomia Tropical. 27.• 339-343.
16. Arnesen. P.; Brattas. L.E.; Olli. J.; Krogdahl. A. (1989): Soybean carbohydrates appear to restrict the
utilization of nutrients by Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Proc. Third Int'!. Symposium on Feeding and
Nutrition in Fish. Toba. Japan. 28 August to 1 September. 273-280.
17. Anhur. D. (1971): Quoted from: Bowland. J.P. 1990).
18. Babatunde. G.M.; Fetuga. B.L.; Odemosu. 0.; Oyenuga, V.A. (1975): Palm kernel meal as the major
protein concentrate in the diets of pigs in the tropics. J. Sci. Fd. Agric .• 26 .• 1279-1291.
19. Balazs. G.H.; Ross. E. (1976): Effect of protein source and level on growth and performance on the
 VEGETABLE OIL MEALS 501

captive freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Aquaculture, 7., 299.

20. Balazs, G.H.; Ross, E.; Brooks, e.e. (1973): Preliminary studies on the preparation and feeding of
crustacean diets. Aquaculture, 2., 369.
21. Balogun, A.M.; Ologhobo, A.D. (1989): Growth performance and nutrient utilization of fingerling Clarias
gariepinus (Burchell) fed raw and cooked soybean diets. Aquaculture, 76., 119-126.
22. Bardach, J.e.; Ryther, J.H.; McLarney, W.O. (1972): Aquaculture farming and husbandry of freshwater
and marine organisms. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New YorklUSA.
23. Bath, D.; Dunbar, J.; King, J.; Berry, S.; Leonard, R.O.; Olbrich, S. (w/o year): Composition of by-products
and unsual feedstuffs (Mimeograph).
24. Bell, J.F.; Raynard, R.S. (1990): Effects of high linoleic acid diet on the fatty acid composition of leuco-
cytes from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Tran. Biochem. Soc., 18.,911-912.
25. Boollyaratpalin, M.; Promkunthong, w.; Supamataya, K. (1988): Quoted from: Akiyama, D.M. (1988).
26. Bowland, J.P. (1990): Linseed meal. In: Thacker, P.A; Kirkwood, R.N. (eds.): Nontraditional feed
sources for use in swine production. Butterworth Publisher, Stoneham, MAIUSA.
27. Brandt, T.M. (1979): Use of heat treated full-fat soybeans in channel catfish and golden shiner feeds.
Proc. 1979, Fish Farming Conference and Annual Meeting Convention, Catfish farmers of Texas, 17 to
19 January, Texas A&M Univ. 52-61.
28. Brown, P.B.; Robinson, E.H; Clark, A.E.; Lawrence, AL (1989): Apparent digestible energy coefficients
and associative effects in practical diets for red swamp crayfish. J. World Aquacult. Soc., 20., 122-126.
29. Cardenete, G.; Morales, AE.; Higuera, M. de la; Sanz, A (1993): Nutritive evaluation of sunflower meal
as a protein source for rainbow trout. Proc. 4th Int'l. Symp. on Fish Nutrition and Feeding. Institut de
National de la Recherche Agronomique., ParislFrance, 61., 927-931.
30. Catacutan, R.M. Quoted from: Feed Development Section (1994).
31. Cheeke, P.R. (1987): Rabbit feeding and nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando Florida/U.S.A.
32. Chen, HY.; Zein-Eldin, z.P.; Aldrich, D. V (1985): Combined effects of shrimp size and dietary protein
source on growth. J. World Maricul. Soc., 16., 288-296.
33. Chow, K. W. (1982): India: Carp Nutrition Research at the Freshwater Aquaculture Research Training
Centre, Dhauli, Establishment of a Nutrition laboratory and Initiation of a FI:DPIINDI75/031, Field
Document. (4), 30.
34. Cocker, J.E.; Cho, e.Y.; Slinger, S.G. (1978): Growth of rainbow trout on a diet containing a high level
of full-fat soybean meal. Fish Arne. Rep. Ontario (Canada), Ministry of Natural Resources. 14-36.
35. Coelho, J.F.S.; De Castro, C.A.M.; Gomes, E.F.S. (1988): Quoted from: Olli, J.J. et al. (1994).
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170. Thacker, P.A. (1990): Canola meal. In: Thacker, P.A.; Kirkwood, R.N. (eds.): Nontraditional feed sources
for use on swine production. Butterworth Publishers, Stoneham, MAIU.S.A.
171. Thorne, P.I.; Cole, D.I.A.; Wiseman, I. (1990): Copra meal. In: Thacker, P.A.; Kirkwood, R.N. (eds.):
Nontraditional feed sources for use on swine production. Butterworth Publishers, Stoneham, MAIU.S.A.
172. Unprasert, N. (1989): Fish feeds and feedstuffs used for aquaculture in Thailand. FAO field document,
ASEANIUNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, Report
SEAN/SF/89IFenlll, ManiialPhilippines, 147-155.
173. Viola, S. (1977): Energy values of feedstuffs for carp. Bamidgeh, 29., 29-30.
174. Viola, S.; Arieli, Y. (1983): Nutrition studies with tilapia (Sarotherodon). 1. Replacement of fish meal by
soybean meal in feeds for intensive tilapia culture. Bamidgeh, 35., 8-17.
175. Viola, S.; Arieli, Y. (1983): Nutrition studies with tilapia hybrids. The effects of oil supplements to
practical diets for intensive aquaculture. Bamidgeh, 35., 44-52.
176. Viola, S.; Mokady, S.; Arieli, Y. (1983): Effects of soybean processing methods on the growth of carp
508 CHAPTER 46

(Cyprinus carpio). Aquaculture, 32., 27-38.

177. Viola, S.; Zohar, G.; Arieli, Y. (1986): Phosphorus requirements and its availability from different sources
for intensive pond culture species in Israel. Part. 1. Tilapia. Bamidgeh, 38., 3-12.
178. Viola, S.; Zohar, G.; Arieli, Y. (1986): Requirement of phosphorus and its availability from different
sources for intensive pond culture species in Israel. Part. II. Carp culture. Bamidgeh, 38., 44-54.
179. Viveen, W.J.A.R.; Richter, C.J.J.; Van Oonit, P.G. w.J.; Janseen, J.A.L; Huisman, E.A. (w/o year): Practical
manual for the culture of the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Univ. of Wageningen Wageningen,
Netherlands.
180. Vohra, P.; Kratzer, RH. (1991): Evaluation of soybean meal determines adequacy of heat treatment.
Feedstuffs, 63., 34.
181. Wahlstrom, R.C.; Kamstra, L.D.; Olson, O.E. (1956): Quoted from: Bowland, J.P. (1990).
182. Waldroup, P. w..; Ramsey, B.E.; Helwig, H.M.; Smith, N.K. (1985): Optimum processing of soybean meal
used in broiler diets. Poultry Sci. 64., 2314-2320.
183. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, V.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimelda.
Hamburg/Germany.
184. Wilson, R.P.; Poe, W.E. (1985): Effects of feeding soybean meal with varying trypsin inhibitor activities
on growth of fingerling channel catfish. Aquaculture, 46., 19-25.
185. Wilson, R.P.; Robinson, E.H.; Poe, W.E. (1987): Quoted from: Lim, c.; Dominy, W. (1991).
186. Yen, J.T.; Jensen, A.H.; Smini, J. (1977): Quoted from: Schutter, A.C. de; Morris, J.R. (1990).
187. Yeong, S. w.; Mukherjee, T.K.; Hutagalung, R.I. (1983): The nutritive value of palm-kernel cake as a feed-
stuff for pOUltry. Proc. Nat. Workshop on Oil Palm By-Product Utilization, 14-15 December 1981, Kuala
LumpurlMalaysia.
188. Zaher, M.; Mazid. M.A. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Bangladesh. Proc. FAO/AADCP
Regional Expert Consultation on Farm Made Aquafeeds. FAO-RAPA/AADCP. 14, to 18 December 1992.
216. (Bangkokffhailand).
189. Zazueta, A.J.S.; Price, R.L (1989): Solubility and electrophoretic properties of processed safflower seed
(Carthamus tinctorius L.) proteins. J. Agric. Food Chern., 37., 308-312.
 47. VERMI MEAL

47.1 Rationale

Invertebrate animals are a source of protein. One of the best known representatives of
this category is the earthworm. The round, segmented worm of the genus Lumbricus
(class: Oligochaeta) is very important in aerating and fertilising the soil and breaking-down
and utilising human and animal wastes(J7) (Figure 47-01). The mealworm, the worm-like,
2.0 cm long larva of any of the various beetles of the genus Tenebrio which infests
granaries and bakeries, can also supply protein. Other species of worms have been tried
in fish feeds and in waste management.

Figure 47-01. The red earthworm (genus: Lumbricus; class: Oligochaeta) ean be 20 to 35 em long and can
live for as long as 10 years.

47.2 Culture of Worms

Vermiculture utilises only waste organic materials and manure. As much as 1.8 kg of
biomass can be produced per m2 of bedding. About 5.0 kg of fresh earthworms are needed
for producing 1.0 kg ofvermi meallJ). Vermiculture is a typical cottage industry. However,
vermi meal can be also commercially produced(l, 13).

47.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
Vermi meal has a crude protein content of 52 to 70% and is remarkably higher than
an average fish meal(l,4, II, 13, 18). The protein content varies from species to species and
510 CHAPTER 47

the substrate in which it has been cultured. This applies also for nutrients other than
protein (Table 47-01). There is not much difference in the essential amino acid profile
for various vermi meals (Table 47-02).
Earthworm meal is rich in highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA)lI7I. The macro and trace
mineral content of e.g. the African night crawler (Eudrilus eugeniae) is low (Table 47-03)18).

Table 47-01: Chemical composition (%) of various worm meals (in dry matter)()' B. II. /5.17)

Eisenia Lumbricus AlioLo- Neries Eudrilus

foetida terrestis bophora sp. eugeniae
Longa

Moisture 83.3 81.1 78.3 85.3

Crude protein 57.4 56.1 50.4 47.0 56.4
Crude fat 13.2 2.1 1.4 25.2 7.9
Ash 10.8 28.7 35.2 6.6 13.1
Crude fibre 0.7 -0.6 5.9
N-free extract 18.2 13.1 12.9 20.6 17.8

Table 47-02: Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g1l6 g NY B. II. 17)
Eisenia Lumbricus Alloto- Eudrilus
foetida terrestis bophora eugeniae
Longa

Arginine 3.67 3.17 3.15 4.95

Histidine 1.39 1.38 1.01 1.58
Isoleucine 2.85 2.20 2.24 2.82
Leucine 4.90 4.11 3.57 5.22
Lysine 4.16 3.52 3.43 4.50
Methionine 0.83 1.11 0.5 1.04
Phenylalanine 2.65 2.02 2.65 2.47
Threonine 3.07 2.48 2.11 3.22
Tryptophan 0.67 0.44 0.63
Valine 3.11 2.30 2.46 3.39

Table 47-03: Macro and trace mineral contents offreeze dried

vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae)l'°)

Calcium % 1.5
Phosphorus % 0.9
Sodium % 0.2
Iron mglkg 100.0
Zinc mglkg 122.5
Copper mglkg 7.8
Cadmium mglkg 21.0
 VERMIMEAL 511

Physiological Properties
The protein digestibility of vermi meal of 95% and above is high as found in the meal
of some worm species. On the other hand the apparent dry matter digestibility of freeze-
dried meal in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) is low (Table 47-04).

Table 47-04: Digestibility (%) of vermi meaF 5, 6, 8)

English name Scientific name Digestibility

Protein Dry matter

Rainbow trout Salrno gairdneri 94.6' 69.2'

Green sunfish Lepornis chanellus 95.7'
Bluegill sunfish Lepomis macrochirus 96.7'
Longear sunfish Lepornis rnicrolophas 97.4'
Perch Percafluviatilis 96.3 3
Sole Solea solea 96.03

, Eudrilus eugeniae (African night crawler);' Tenebrio molitor (mealworm); 3 Oligochaetes

(worm meal)

Other Properties
Vermi meal may replace squid meal as an attractantilJ. Undesirable substances may limit
its use, as e.g. meal of the African night crawler is unpalatable(8), and other vermi meals
have been found to depress growth, perhaps due to the presence of a garlicky smell from
the coelemic fluid of Eiseniafoetida(14 ).

47.4 Feeding Value

Vermi meal may replace fish meal and meat and bone meal. Broilers fed with earthworm
meal consumed 13% less feed for the same weight gain than those fed with ordinary
broiler diet, and ducks given live earthworms matured 15 days earlier than the control
group without earthworms(l3)

Fishes
Terrestrial lumbricoids (Eisenia foetida, Allolobophora longa, Lumbricius terrestris)
were fed to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Frozen and to a lesser extent freeze-dried
Eisenia foetida meal was found to be unpalatable to the fish while trout fed frozen
Allolobophora tonga and Lumbricius terrestris grew well or even better than fish fed
a commercial trout diet<J7). However, freeze-dried meal from Eudrilus eugeniae could
not satisfactorily replace fish meal in diets for rainbow trout(J8).
Dendrodrilus subrubicundus meal replaced fish meal up to 36% in diets for rainbow
trout without negative effect on fish performance, but at 71 % replacement fish growth
512 CHAPTER 47

and feed utilisation decreased significantly(14). Freeze-dried Eisenia foetida meal as

a replacement for herring meal at increasing levels in diets for rainbow trout did not
show any adverse effect when compared to fish fed a diet without earthworm meal,
except for a significant increase in carcass fat (Table 47-05)(15).
Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed with 15% venni meal and 85% rice bran performed
as well as a diet containing 25% fish meal and 75% rice bran(l).

Table 47-05: Response ofrainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) fed diets for 84 days with various
inclusion levels of freeze dried Eisenia foetida i /5i

Eisenia foetida meal % 0 5.0 10.0 20.0 30.0

Crude protein % 44.9 45.2 44.9 43.9 43.5
Crude fat % 12.2 13.0 12.2 10.9 10.4
------------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain % 233.2 223.8 284.2 242.5 205.8
Daily feed intake mg 312.7 311.9 360.5 351.5 303.0
Feed conversion 1: 1.55 1.61 1.63 1.45 1.42
SGR %/day 1.43 1.34 1.60 1.54 1.33
Carcass composition (wet weight):
- Crude protein % 16.6 16.7 16.4 16.1 16.2
- Crude fat % 7.8 8.6 9.0 9.0 8.1

Crustaceans
In diets for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) an earthworm meal at a level of 5.0% increased
growth and survival and also served as a good attractant(10)
Under laboratory conditions tiger prawns of an initial mean weight of 0.54 g and 0,12 g,
respectively, were fed with vermins, dried and fresh, for five weeks. Prawns grew better
and had a higher survival rate when fed dried vermins than fresh ones. In a later trial
30% fish meal was replaced by Eudrilus eugeniae meal. The vermi meal was superior
to the fish meal. There were no differences in the body composition of the prawns
(Table 47-06)(11).
Marine annelids (Nereis sp.) are also fed to tiger prawn. The fresh or live annelid is
given in the morning at 10% to 20% of biomass(4. 9).

47.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates and Precautions

Recommended Inclusion Rates

Dietary inclusion rates of 5.0 to 40% earthworm (Eisenia foetida) meal in practical
aquaculture feeds for carnivorous fish were observed(l6). An average inclusion rate is
15% but it should not exceed a level of 35%.
 VERMIMEAL 513

Precautions
Earthworms can be an intermediate host for gape worms of poultry (caused by Syngamus
trachea) and lung worm in pigs. They may also harbour viruses(l8). In addition earthworm
meal contains an undescribed toxin which can be removed by heating(4).

Table 47-06: The effect of vennins in the diets for tiger prawns
(Penaeus monodon)flll

Eisenia !oetida Eudrilus eugeniae

Vennins. dried 10.0 10.0

Vennins. frozen 67.0
Fish meal 15.0 15.0 30.0
Shrimp head meal 17.0 17.0 15.0 15.0
Crude protein 33.3 33.8 41.2 38.4
Crude fat 12.5 12.7 11.5 11.3

Weight gain 97.8 156.6 178.0 345.0

Survival 46.7 63.3 50.0 72.0

47.6 References

I. Anonymous (1995): Earthworm meal for aquafeeds. Infofish International. (4).40.

2. Birkett, L (1969): Quoted from: Hepher. B. (1988).
3. Cardenette, G.; Garzon, A.; Moyano. F.; Higuera, M. de la (1993): Nutritive utilisation of earthworm
protein by fingerling rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). In: Fish nutrition in practice. INRA. Paris
(ed.). Les Colloques. 61., 927-931.
4. Feed Dev. Section (1994): Feeds and feeding of milkfish Nile tilapia. Asian sea bass. and tiger shrimps.
Aquaculture Extens. Manual. No. 21, SEAFDEC. I1oiloffhe Philippines.
5. Gerking. S.D. (1952): Quoted from: Hepher. B. (1988).
6. Gerking. S.D. (1955): Quoted from: Hepher. B. (1988).
7. Hepker, B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/England.
8. Hilton, J. W. (1983): Potential of freeze-dried worm meal as a replacement for fish meal in trout diet
formulations. Aquaculture. 32.• 277-283.
9. Millamena, a.M.; Primavera, J.H.; Pudadera. R.A.; Caballero, R.Y. (1986): The effect of diet on
reproductive performance of pond-reared Penaeus monodan Fabricius broodstock. Proc. 1" Asian Fish.
Forum. ManilaJThe Philippines. 593-596.
10. Murai, T.; Sumalangcay, A., jr.; Pascual, F.P. (1983): Supplement of various attractants to a practical diet
for juvenile Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Fish Res. J. Philippines. 8., (2), 61-67.
11. Piedad-Pascual, F. (1985): An evaluation of three worms as feed ingredients in formulated diets for
juvenile Penaeus monodon, Fish. Res. 1. Philipp .• 10.• 9-15.
514 CHAPTER 47

12. Roche, P.; Vallernbois, P.; Davant, N.; Lassegues, M. (1981): Protein analysis of earthworm coelomic
fluid. II. Eiseniajoetida andreii factor (EFAF). Compo Biochem. Physio!. B, 69., 829-836.
13. Sison, l.A. (1985): Handbook on crisis management on feedmilling and technology for the Philippines.
Feedindex (Phils.), Quezon Cityffhe Philippines.
14. Stafford, E.A.; Tacon, A.G.J. (1984): Nutritive value of earthworm, Dendrodilus subribicundus, grown on
domestic seawage in trout diet. Agricultureal Wastes, 9., 249-266.
15. Stafford, E.A.; Tacon, A.G.J. (1984): The nutritional evaluation of dried earthworm meal (Eiseniajoetida,
Savigny) included at low levels in productive diets for rainbow trout, Sa/rno gairdneri Richardson).
Aquaculture and Fish. Management, 16., 213-222.
16. Tacon, A.G.J. (1995): The potential for fishmeal substitution in aquafeeds. Infofish International, (3), 29-34.
17. Tacon, A.G.J.; Stafford, E.A.; Edwards, CA. (1983): A preliminary investigation of the nutritive value
of three terrestriailumbricoid worms for rainbow trout, Aquaculture, 35., 187-199.
18. West, G.P. (1992): Black's veterinary dictionary. A & C Black, LondoniEngiand, 17th ed.
 48. VITAMIN C PRODUCTS

48.1 Rationale

Vitamin C, L-ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin widely distributed in plant and

animal kingdoms. It is essential in nutrition, and in the food industry it is used to preserve
processed food(17).
Nearly all animal species synthesise L-ascorbic acid and do not require Vitamin C
in their diet with the exception of man, other primates, guinea pigs, certain birds, fish and
shrimps which cannot synthesise Vitamin C because they lack the liver enzyme
L-gulono-'t-lactone oxidase(l4, 17).
Scurvy is one of the most known Vitamin C deficiency diseases from which people in ancient
Egypt, Greece and Rome suffered, hence, Vitamin C is called the "antiscorbutic vitamin".
In aquatic organisms, Vitamin C is involved in many metabolic processes, has certain
biochemical functions, contributes to proper reproductive processes and increases resis-
tance to diseases(32).
The large number of Vitamin C deficiency symptoms are more pronounced in
the young fish, predominantly in the form of deformations of the gill and the spine.
The "broken back syndrome" or scoliosis and lordosis is caused by severe Vitamin C
deficiency (Figure 48_01)122,23,42). Skeletal deformation were also observed in bullfrog
larvae (Rana catesbeiana) when fed Vitamin C deficient diets(20).

48.2 Synthesis

Small quantities of Vitamin C were manufactured by isolation from natural resources but
subsequently replaced by the chemical synthesis of Vitamin C(24, 25). Various derivatives
and analogs have been prepared to find substances with greater activity than ascorbic acid.
Derivatives such as C-2-scatyl-L-ascorbic acid have been synthesised but have little,
if any, Vitamin 0 17,37). Only salts and C-6-substituted esters have full vitamin C activity.
Na-L-ascorbate, K-L-ascorbate, Ca-L-ascorbate and L-ascorbyl palmitate have com-
mercial applications as Vitamin C and antioxidants(l7).

48.3 Properties

Ascorbic Acid
L-ascorbic acid is a white, odourless crystal or a powder with a sharp acidic taste.
Its formula is C6HP6 with a molecular weight of 176.1 and a melting point of 190°
to 192°C. Figure 48-02 shows the structural formula of L-ascorbic acid and its oxidised
form (dehydro-ascorbic acid).
516 CHAPTER 48

Figure 48-01. "Broken back syndrome: of Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) (scoliosis [above], normal
development [middle], lordosis [below]) redesigned from(4).

o=C O=~l
HO-t
II
l0 -2H
O=C
0 I

HO-~J O=rJ
H-C +2H H-C
I I
HO--C--H HO-C -H
I I
CHzOH CHzOH

Figure 48-02. Structural formula of L-ascorbic acid (left) and its oxidised form dehydro-ascorbic acid
(rightfJ3).
 VITAMIN C PRODUCTS 517

Crystalline feed grade Vitamin C remains stable for a long period when properly
stored in a hermetically sealed container in a cool and dry place but deteriorates rapidly
when exposed to oxygen in air and water, forming dehydro-ascorbic acid. Oxidation
accelerates as temperature increases. Normal processing of aquaculture feed destroys
Vitamin C (Table 48-01)(11). Inherent Vitamin C of feedstuffs also deteriorate when
stored, e.g. wheat after 12 months of storage loses 66.1 % of the original Vitamin C
content after harvest and after 18 months only 38.6% is retainedl2J.

Table 48-01: The effect of pelletising temperature and feed's moisture content on the stability of Vitamin C
(Vitamin C inclusion rate of test feed =5()() mg/kg)(l8)

Feed types Pelletising Moisture Retention of Vitamin C' (%) after

temperature of feed
°C % Storage of... weeks
Pelletising
2 4 6

Mash 0 10.6 100 0 0 0

Pellets' 80 11.6 54 50 32 27
Pellets 80 13.6 37 29 15 0
Pellets 65 9.7 84 97 72 58
Pellets 65 11.6 75 90 58

'The analytical error is ± 10%; 'Pellet diameter: 6.0 mm and 4.0 mm

Approximately 50% of Vitamin C supplement was lost during the extrusion processing
of catfish feed. Extrusion is most damaging to vitamin C(21). Conventional pelletising of
aquaculture feed causes losses of 25 to 50%(28). The half life of ascorbic acid in pelletised
trout feed is 14 to 35 days(16). Storage losses of Vitamin C in pelletised feed averages
10 to 15% per week(28). Even low or zero heat processing of moist fish feeds may cause
losses as high as 30% of the total added Vitamin C(28). This unstable property of Vitamin C
is due to the C2-position in the lactose ring of ascorbic acid which is highly reactive and
susceptible to oxidation(38).
Surface coating of feed pellets for aquatic animals with a Vitamin C-oil emulsion is
not of much value in effectively retaining Vitamin C since the emulsion leaches quickly
into the water3).

Coating and Derivatives of Ascorbic Acid

Due to the high losses of crystalline Vitamin C during feed processing of aquaculture
feed, alternative methods of delivering Vitamin C to cultured aquatic animals have been
developed such as coating, encapsulating the ascorbid acid crystals or chemically reacting
Vitamin C with other molecules to form more stable salts. Ascorbic acid is coated with
either glycerides, gelatine, silicone, ethyl-cellulose, dichlormethan, hydrogenated soybean
oil or a polymer.
518 CHAPTER 48

Other ascorbic acid derivatives are:

L-ascorbyl-2-monosphosphate (AAP),
L-ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate (AAP),
Mg-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (AAP-Mg),
Na-L-ascorbyl-2 monophosphate (AAP-Ma),
Na-L-ascorbyl-2-triphosphate (AAP-Na),
Ca-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (AAP-Ca),
L-ascorbic acid-2-sulphate (AAS).

Stability of Coated and Derivatives of Ascorbic Acid

Coating of crystalline Vitamin C only slightly improves its stability compared to the
unprotected Vitamin C in extruded fish feeds(l9.40). Certain coated products may not be
suitable for extruded or expanded feed as temperature and pressure may destroy the
protective layer of ascorbic acid(28).
The stability of Vitamin C derivatives is better than coated Vitamin C. After pelletising
or extruding and storage of feed for between four and 12 weeks, loss of L-ascorbyl-2-
polyphosphate activity was 17.0% at the most (Table 48-02) while losses of activity of
coated ascorbic acid was at least around 90%(10.40). The stability ofL-ascorbyl-2-phosphate
in pelletised feed is 45 to 83 times greater than crystalline Vitamin 012). Ascorbate-2-
sulphate is considered the most stable Vitamin C derivative for pelletised feed and
long storage(40).
The retention of ascorbic acid from pelletised or extruded fish feed immersed in
seawater was best for L-ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate in an extruded feed (63%) and very
poor for crystalline Vitamin C in a pelletised feed (Table 48-03)(19).

Table 48-02: Storage stability of L-ascorbyl phosphate in pelletised and extruded aquaCUlture feed( 10. 12. 19.34.40)

Processingffype of feed Storage Ascorbid acid activity

time
weeks In feed after In pellets after Retained after
processing storage storage
ppm ppm %

L-aS!;Qrb~l-2-I2QI~l2hQSl1hl!t~
Extrudedlsalmon 5 430 417 96.7
Extrudedlcatfish 4 114 95 83.0
Pelletisedltrout 12 250 227 90.0
Pelletisedlshrimp 8 189 175 92.5
Pelletised shrimp 8 442 413 93.0
L-ascorb~I-2-monollhosl1hat!;l
Pelletisedlshrimp 2 730 690 94.5
 VITAMIN C PRODUCTS 519

Table 48-03: Retention of ascorbic acid preparations from pelletised and extruded
salmonid feeds, immersed in seawater (24 to 28 0 C)(/9)

Type of Immersion Retention of ascorbic acid

Ascorbic acid in seawater in the feed after immersion
Preparation min. (%)

-2-polyphospbate l 120 63
-2-polyphosphate2 120 60
-2-monophosphate2 120 51
-2-monophosphate2 360 19
Crystalline 3 47.5
Crystalline 120 32
Crystalline 180 1.73
Fat coated 90% activity 120 31
Fat coated 70% activity 120 23

I Extruded feed; 2 Pelletised feed

48.4 Biological Value

48.4.1 Fishes

Coated Ascorbic Acid

The bioavailability of L-ascorbic acid coated with hydrogenated soybean oil is equivalent
to crystalline L-ascorbic acid (Table 48-04).
In trials with rainbow trout the bioavailabilty of polymer-coated Vitamin C was the same
as that of crystalline ascorbic acid as detennined by the free ascorbic acid content of
the liverl35). Likewise, dehydro-L-ascorbic acid was found to be effectively utilised by
rainbow trout(31).

Table 48-04: Bioavailability of ascorbic acid coated with hydrogenated soybean oil
and crystalline ascorbic acid in fish diets (trial period: 16 weeks)l28)

Crystalline ascorbic acid mg/kg o 153 o

Coated ascorbic acid mglkg o o 283

Ascorbic acid in:

• Liver mcg/kg 56 264 244
• Kidneys mcglkg 32 196 198
• Brain mcglkg 39 90 137
Signs of deformation % 15 0 0
520 CHAPTER 48

Ascorbic Acid Phosphates

L-ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate was shown to have antiscorbutic activity in rainbow trout,
channel catfish, fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and guppy (Poecilia reticulata)
and was apparently comparable to that of ascorbic acid(l2.43). The magnesium salt of
L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (AAP-Mg) had equimolecular vitamin activity as Vitamin C
for growth and collagen synthesis in channel catfish(8.23).
Na- and Mg-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate in steam pelletised feed for rainbow trout
are adequate at less than 10 mg ascorbic acid-equivalentm. They are very bioavailable
and stable in the presence of heat and moisture. Likewise, the sodium salt of L-ascorbyl-
2-monophosphate has equimolecular activity as the magnesium salt derivative as an
ascorbic acid source for growth and collagen synthesis in channel catfish even only at
levels of 30 mglkg feed (Table 48_05)(27·42).

Table 48-05: Effect of increasing levels of ascorbic acid from Na-L-ascorbyl-2-monophos-

phate (AAP-Na) and Mg-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (AAP-Mg) (27)

Ascorbic acid Concentra- Weigh gain Hematocrit Defonned Bone

source tion in feed of fish fish collagen
mg/kg glfish % % %

0 2.8 29 26 20.9
AAP-Na 30 13.4 39 0 27.0
AAP-Mg 30 13.3 40 0 27.4

AAP-Na 60 13.5 42 0 27.1

AAP-Mg 60 13.3 39 0 27.8

AAP-Na 120 13.1 39 0 28.2

AAP-Mg 120 13.1 39 0 28.2

Female broo~tock of rainbow trout were fed for six months prior to spawning with
increasing levels of L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (AAP). The highest levels of AAP
in the diet did not result in maximum tissue saturation of ascorbic acid, indicating
insufficient utilisation of the derivative(S).

Ascorbic Acid Sulphates

L-ascorbic acid-2-sulphate (AAS) was reported to have Vitamin C activity in salmonids(39)
and in channel catfish(6.26). On the contrary, L-ascorbic-2-sulphate was found to be poorly
utilised by salmonids(9. 29. 30). The derivative had only 5.2% of the vitamin acitivity of
L-ascorbic acid for growth of channel catfish(8). No significant differences in growth,
feed conversion and other recorded parameters were established when 70g rainbow trout
were given L-ascorbic-2-sulphate and crystalline ascorbic acid(IS).
 VITAMIN C PRODUCTS 521

48.4.2 Crustaceans

The bioavailability of L-ascorbic acid. L-ascorbic acid-2-sulphate. and L-ascorbyl-2-

monophosphate tested in diets for tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) showed that 67 to 75%
of the crystalline ascorbic acid were destroyed by the laboratory process while the deriva-
tives had only losses of 21 to 24%(33).
The bioavailability of Mg-L-ascorbyl-2-monphosphate (AAP-Mg) compared to crys-
talline Vitamin C tested in juvenile kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) showed good
utilisation of AAP-Mg as a Vitamin C source. The optimum dietary level appears to be
about 215 mg/kg dieV34).

48.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

The Vitamin C requirement of cultured aquatic species is variable and may range widelyl36).
In experiments. crystalline ascorbic acid has been used at levels of 10 to 1,250 mg/kg
fish diet and 50 to 10,000 mg/kg crustacean diet. For practical conditions, 400 to 1,000 mg
crystalline ascorbic acid are recommended. The actual inclusion rate of Vitamin C
derivatives is guided by their equivalent of crystalline Vitamin C.

48.6 Legal Aspects

The use of crystalline Vitamin C is not limited. However, the approval of using coated
Vitamin C and Vitamin C derivatives in feed for cultured aquatic animals may vary from
country to country. The local regulations have to be observed.
The GRAS status of the Feed and Drug Administration of U.S.A. have the Vitamin C
products, listed in Table 48-06(1).

Table 48-06: Vitamin C products having the GRAS status of F.D.A.!'!

Recognised English Name Substance Registration No.lstatus

Ascorbic acid Crystalline ascorbic acid, 582.5013

commercial feed grade
L-ascorbyl-2-phosphate Stabilised ascorbic 582.5159
acid. feed grade Aquatic species, guinea pigs.
primates (non-human)
Calcium ascorbate Commercial grade 582.3189
Vitamin C activity in dry feeds
(less than 13% moisture)
only/chemical preservative
Ascorbyl palmitate Commercial grade 582.3159
Chemical preservative
522 CHAPTER 48

Vitamin C products are in Annex I (no. E 672) of the EU Feed Additive Directive.
The following products can be used without restrictions:
L-ascorbic acid (crystalline)
L-ascorbic-2-glucosid
Ascorbyl phosphate
Di-potassium-L-ascorbate-2-sulphate
Di-sodium-L-ascorbate-2-sulphate.
The two latter derivatives are only permitted for fish feed(42).

48.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of Amercian Feed Control Officials (publishers).
Sacramento, CAIUSA.
2. Alisheikhov (1994): Vitamin C and B 12 content of feed components. Poultry International, 33., (6), 51-52.
3. Andrews, J.w.; Davis, J.M. (1979): Surface coating of fish feeds with animal fat and ascorbic acid.
Feedstuff. 51., (2).
4. Ashley, LM.; Halver. J.E.; Smith, R.R. (1975): Ascorbic acid deficiency in rainbow trout and coho salmon
and effects on wound healing. In: Pathology of fishes. Univ. of Wisconsin Press Wisconsin.769-785.
5. Blom, J.H.; Dabrowski, K. (1993): Ascorbyl monophosphate requirements of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss, broodstock. European Aquaculture Soc., OostendelBelgium 19., 186.
6. Brandt, T.M.; Deyoe, C. w.; Sick, P.A. (1985): Alternate sources of Vitamin C for channel catfish. Prog.
Fish. Cult., 47., 55-59.
7. Cha, C.Y.; Cowey, c.B. (1993): Utilization of monophosphate esters of ascorbic acid by rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fish Nutrition in Practice. Institut National de la Recherche Agronornique,
ParislFrance, 61.,149-156.
8. El Naggar, G.O.; Lovell, R.T. (1991): Effect of source and dietary concentration of ascorbic acid on
tissue concentrations of ascorbic acid in channel catfish. J. World Aquaculture Soc., 22., 201-206.
9. Fenster, R. (1987): Vitamin C in fish nutrition. Animal nutrition events, Roche, Basle, Switzerland.
F. Hoffman-La Roche & Co. Seminar on Vitamin Nutrition in Fish, Trondheim, August 1997.
10. Gadienr, M.; Fenster. R.; Lotscha, T. (1991): Vitamin stability in aquaculture feeds. Fish farmer. Jan/Feb.
15.,27-28.
II. Gill, C. (1991): Quoted from J.H. (1988).
12. Grant, B.F.; Seib, P.A.; Liao, M.L; Corpron, K.E. (1989): Polyphosphorylated L-ascorbic acid: A stable
form of Vitamin C for aquaculture feeds. J. World Aquacult. Soc., 20., (3), 143-157.
13. Halver. J.E. (1989): Fish Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc. (San Diego, CA, U.S.A.)
14. Halver, J.E.; Ashley, LM.; Smith, R.R. (1969): Ascorbic acid requirements of coho salmon and rainbow
trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 90., 762-771.
15. Halver, J.E.; Felton, S.J.; Palmisano, A.N. (1993): Efficacy ofL-ascorbyl-2-sulfate as a Vitamin C source
for rainbow trout. Fish Nutrition in Practice. Institut National de la Recherche Agromomique.
ParislFrance, 61., 137-147.
16. Hilton, J. w.; Cho, c.Y.; Slinger.J. (1978): Effect of graded levels of supplemental ascorbic acid in
practical diets fed to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnen). J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 35., 431-436.
17. Jaffe, G.M. (1984): Vitamin C. In: Machlin, L.J. (ed.): Handbook on vitamins. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New YorklUSA.
 VITAMIN C PRODUCTS 523

18. J.H. (1988): A guide for reduced Vitamin C losses. Animal Nutrition News, 71188 (June), BASF
Aktienges., LudwigshafeniGermany.
19. Kurmaly, K.; Menasveta, P.; Piyatiratitivorakul; Gadient, M.; Schai, E. (1993): Advances in vitamin
nutrition for aquatic species: Stability, leaching and bioavailability of ascorbic acid. Conference contri-
bution at Victam Asia'93 Bangkokffbailand 25'h October, 1-20.
20. Leibovitch, H.E.; Culley, D.D. Jr.; Geaghan, J.P (1982): Effects of Vitamin C and sodium benzoate on
survival, growth and skeletal deformities of intensively cultured bull frog larvae (Rana catesbeiana)
reared at two pH levels. J. World Mar. Soc., (13), 322-328.
21. Lim, c.; Lovell, R.T. (1978): Pathology of the Vitamin C deficiency syndrome in channel catfish
(lctalurus punctatus). 1. Nutr., 108., 1137-1146.
22. Lovell, R.T. (1973): Essentiality of Vitamin C in feeds for intensively fed channel catfish. J. Nutr., 103.,
134-138.
23. Lovell, R.T.; El-Naggar, G.O. (1990): Vitamin C activity for L-ascorbic acid, L-ascorbyl-2-sulfate,
and L-ascorbyl-2-phosphate Mg for channel catfish. Proc. Third International Symposium on Feeding
and Nutrition in Fish. 28 August to 1 September 1989. 159-165. (Toba/Japan).
24. McCay, C.M.; Tunison, A. V. (1934): Quoted from: Halver (1989).
25. McCollum, E. V. (1957): The nature of antiscorbutic substance (ascorbic acid). In: A history of nutrition.
The Riverside Press Cambridge. (Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston), 252.
26. Murai, T.; Andrews, J. w.; Bauernfeind, J. C. (1978): Use of L-ascorbic acid ethocel coated ascorbic acid
and ascorbic acid 2-sulphate in diets of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). J. Nutr. 108, 1761-1766.
27. Mustin, W.C.; Lovell, R. T. (1992): Na-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate as a source of Vitamin C for channel
catfish. Aquaculture, 105., (1), 95-100.
28. Pacifico, C.J. (1992): Private communicatiom.
29. Sandness, K.; Lei, 0.; Waagboe, R. (1989): Normal ranges of some blood chemistry parameters in adult
farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo solar). J. Fish. BioI., 32.,129-136.
30. Sandness, K.; Hansen, T.; Killie, J.E.; Waagboe, R. (1990): Ascorbate-2-sulfate as a dietary Vitamin C
source for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 1. Growth, bioactivity, haematology and humoral immune
response. Fish. Phys. Biochem. (Amsterdam), 8., 419-427.
31. Sato, M.; Mitani, T.; Yoshinaka, R.; Sakaguchi, M. (1993): Efficacy of dehydro-L-ascorbic acid as a dietary
Vitamin C source in rainbow trout. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 59.,171-176.
32. Schliffka, W. (1992): Vitamin C - ein wichtiger Faktor in der Fishchernahrung. (Mimeograph).
33. Shiau, S.U.; Hsu, T. (1993): Stability of ascorbic acid in shrimp feed during analysis. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci.
Fish., 59., 1535-1537.
34. Shigueno, K.; Itoh, S. (1988): Use of Mg-L-ascorbyl-2-phosphate as a Vitamin C source in shrimp diets.
J. World Aquacult. Soc., 19., 168-174.
35. Skelbaek, T.; Anderssen, N.C.; Winning, M.; Westergaard, S. (1990): Stability in fish feed and bioavail-
ability to rainbow trout of two ascorbic acid forms. Aquaculture, 84., 335-343.
36. Tacon, A.C.J. (1991): Vitamin nutrition in shrimp and fish. Proc. Aquaculture Feed Processing and
Nutrition Workshop. American Soybean Association, Singapore.
37. Tiiufel, A.; Taynes, w.; Tunger; L.; Zobel, M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon Behr's Verlag, Hamburg!
Germany.
38. Tolbert, B.M.; Downing, M.; Carlson, R. w.; Knight, M.K.; Baker; E.M. (1975): Quoted from: Halver (1989).
39. Tucker, B. w.; Halver, J.E. (1984): Distribution of ascorbate-2-sulfate and distribution, half-life and tum
over rates of (1_I4C) ascorbic acid in rainbow trout. J. Nutr., 114.,991-1000.
40. Waagboe, R.; Oeines, S.; Sandness, K. (1991); The stability and biological availability of different forms
524 CHAPTER 48

of Vitamin C feed for Atlantic salmon (Salrrw salar). Fiskeridir.-SKR.-Ernrering, Bergen/Norway, 4., 95-1Ol.
41. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, 11.; Knippel, J. (1994): Futterrnittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia.
Hamburg/Germany.
42. Wilson, R.P.; Poe, W.E. (1973): Impared collagen formation in the scorbutic channel catfish. J. Nutr., 103.,
1359-1364.
43. Wilson, R.P.; William, E.P.; Robinson, E.H. (1989): Evaluation of l-ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate (AsPP)
as a dietary ascorbic acid source for channel catfish. Aquaculture, 81.,129-136.
 49. WATER HYACINTH

49.1 Rationale

The hydrophylic water hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes) related to the pickerelweed, is a pest/).
It is a fast growing plant found throughout tropical and subtropical Asia, the Americas
and the Pacifici5J. Water hyacinth clogs streams and ponds easily and rapidly and clogged
waterways may seriously restrict boat travel(4).
In the culture of freshwater crayfish (Procambarus spp.) water hyacinth, if unchecked,
may completely cover the surface of a pond resulting in reduced oxygen supply(/).
Fresh, cooked or ensiled water hyacinth are used as feed for pigs(/6), cattle(2.3), and
swamp buffaloes(2]). Rabbits responded negatively to dry water hyacinth as feed(8).
The water hyacinth is used as an egg collector when natural spawning is practised in
breeding common carp (Cyprinus carpio)(l). Due to its rapid growth and its removal of
soluble nutrients from water (nitrogen and phosphorus) water hyacinth is a potential
water purifier4 ).
This plant is also used as soil fertiliser, compost and biogas production, mushroom
cultivation, cardboard manufacture and for making handicrafts(l8).

49.2 Processing

The swollen petioles or leaves that float on water are used as feed. They are fed fresh or
have to be cooked, ensiled, compos ted or dried. Processing of the petioles is a backyard
procedure. There is no particular method of processing although some have resorted to
composting by mixing dried and freshly chopped water hyacinth(7).

49.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of water hyacinth varies widely in all nutrients (Table 49-01).
It is not a real protein feedstuff as it is sometimes claimed(lJ). The mean protein content
is only 15.5% (dry matter), which is in the range of wheat bran (17.4%) and wheat grain
(14.2%). The fresh material with roots is higher in crude protein than fresh water
hyacinth without rootS(8).
The crude fibre as well as the ash content of water hyacinth is extremely high.
The ash content may be a limiting factor for its use in aquaculture feed(J). Calcium is high
and the phosphorus content is low, resulting in a wide Ca:P-ratio of 1 :3.4.
526 CHAPTER 49

Table 49-01: Chemical composition of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)

(% in dry matter)' 1.4.9. 13. 15. 201

Mean Variation

Dry matter 8.1 4.0 - 10.2

Crude protein 15.5 8.1 21.5
Crude fat 1.9 0.9 - 2.5
Ash 17.8 13.2 34.1
Crude fibre 25.3 15.0 - 31.8
N-free extract 37.8 18.3 - 50.8
Carbohydrates 65.6 65.4 - 65.9
Calcium 2.06 1.62 - 2.50
Phosphorus 0.60 0.43 - 0.77

Physiological Properties
The digestibility and digestible energy of water hyacinth are low because of the high crude
fibre and ash content. Digestible energy, 1,807 kcallkg (7.6 MJlkg) and 1,620 kcallkg
(6.8 MJlkg) for fishes(15) and rabbits(4), respectively, is rather similar. Increasing levels of
water hyacinth in test diets caused a decline in the apparent protein digestibility in the
Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) (Table 49-02)(11). No differences were observed
between the protein digestibility of dried or composted water hyacinth in Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis nilotica)(17).

Table 49-02: Apparent protein digestibility of water hyacinth

Species Protein of water Protein References

hyacinth' digestibility'
% %

Indian major carp 20.0 60.1 ( 10)

(Labeo rohita) 40.0 55.4 ( 10)

(11)
25.0 77.6
50.0 64.5 (//}

Nile tilapia 50.0' 49.03 (17)

(Oreochromis nilotica) 50.0' 65.04 (/7)

(17)
50.0' 46.0'
50.0' 65.04 (171

'Dried water hyacinth; 'Composted water hyacinth; 3In out-door concrete tanks;
4In recirculating water system; 'In static water system
 WATER HYACINTH 527

Deleterious Substances
Water hyacinth tends to accumulate heavy metals. After feeding water hyacinth at levels
of 25 and 50% to rabbits, the arsenic levels of muscle, liver and kidneys increased with
higher percentage of water hyacinth in the diet(8). Similar results from aquatic animals
are unknown.
Water hyacinth contains also about 2.5% salts of oxalic acid ([COOH]). Free oxalic acid
=
and its alkali salts are very toxic (lethal doses in man 5.0 g). The calcium salt of oxalic
acid has a very low solubility, and is not absorbed by the gut wall hence, is not toxidJ9).

49.4 Feeding Value

Water hyacinth has been tried as a substitute for fish meal in order to develop feeds
for low cost aquaculture systems, particularly for herbivorous fish. However, not all
herbivorous fish like to eat water hyacinth as e.g., grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus)
reI uctant! yeats itll).
Increasing levels of dried water hyacinth were fed to about 7.0 g Nile tilapia. Best results
were obtained with the highest protein level (35%) and the lowest water hyacinth content
(20%) (Table 49-03)113). Nile tilapia fed only composted water hyacinth grew poorly
compared to the control, but in combination with tilapia meal fish performed better when
fed dried water hyacinth (Table 49-04)17).
Common carp fed 2.5 and 10.0%, composted and non-composted water hyacinth,
respectively, grew better at both levels on non-composted than on composted water
hyacinth, although the difference was not pronounced at the end of the trial period
(Figure 49-01). Sepat rawa (Trichogaster sp.) responded negatively to water hyacinth
feeding(I2).

9
35

30 2.5'1;
10.0'1; ,..---_ ..
~"
25

20

.~ 15

'"'"
:::; 10
....'"
~" 5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Weeks

Figure 49-01. Weekly weight gain of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) fed non-composted and composted
water hyacinth (12).
528 CHAPTER 49

Table 49-03: Growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed various amounts of dried
water hyacinth (feeding period: 11 weeks)(l3)

Water hyacinth % 40.0 30.0 20.0

Fish meal % 18.5 37.0 60.0
Rice bran % 34.3 26.8 13.9
Chicken pellets % +
Crude protein % 16.81 16.0 25.0 35.0

Weight gain % 238 117 213 282

SGR %/day 1.58 1.01 1.49 1.74
Feed conversion 1: 2.6 4.3 2.7 2.1
Survival % 97.8 98.9 97.8 98.9

Table 49-04: Growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed composted water hyacinth
(feeding period: 84 days)!')

Composted % 100 1 75 50 25
hyacinth
TIlapia meaP % 25 50 75 1003

Weight gain % 100 416 510 419 432

SGR %/day 0.83 1.96 2.15 1.96 1.99
Feed Connversion 1: 4.89 2.18 2.19 2.57 2.63
PER 1.47 2.87 2.05 1.49 1.21

I The only feed; 2 Prepared by - National Inland Fisheries Institute, BangkokfThaiiand;

3 Control

The performance of water hyacinth-fed Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) were inferior
when fish meal protein was replaced by water hyacinth. Nevertheless, feeding of water
hyacinth was economical under the conditions of this trial (Table 49-05)(11).
On the other hand, three-day old larvae of the rohu were successfully fed with an
extract of water hyacinth( 14).
The effect of fresh, chopped water hyacinth mixed with raw or fermented rice bran
were tested in fingerlings of Nile tilapia, common carp, grass carp and puntius carp
(Puntius gonionatus). The water hyacinth improved the growth compared to common
feeding in the Mekong Delta with rice bran only. Nile tilapia fed with water hyacinth
grew better than the other species tested. Water hyacinth reduced the feeding cost
considerably because it is available for free(20). The performance of tilapia (Tilapia
mossambica) fed exclusively on water hyacinth was similar to the fish fed rice bran and
an unspecified vegetable oil cake (1: 1)16).
 WATER HYACINTH 529

Table 49-05: Growth response of Indian major carp (LAbeo rohita) fed diets containing
water hyacinth (feeding period: 42 days)(/O)

Water hyacinth % o 26.5 53.9

Fish meal % 57.1 45.7 34.3
------------------------------------------------------------
Initial weight mg 209 204 210
Final weight mg 776 583 531
SGR %/day 3.13 2.50 2.21
Mortality % 18.9 9.9 10.1
Feed conversion 1: 1.84 2.31 2.36
PER 1.31 1.04 1.05

49.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Water hyacinth is a feedstuff for farm-mixing of feed and simple farming systems where
labour is easily available at low cost. It is a feedstuff for herbivorous/omnivorous
freshwater fish, but unsuitable for carnivorous fish. The limiting factors for its use are its
high crude fibre and ash content.
The most suitable inclusion rate depends very much on the farming system practised.
A recommended guideline, follows:
Supplementation of basic feed, e.g. rice bran, broken rice,
chicken manure 25.0 to 50.0%
Replacement of protein sources in a formulated feed
(fish meal, vegetable oil meals/cake) 5.0 to 10.0%

49.6 Legal Aspects

Water hyacinth in any processed form is not a commercial feedstuff. Its use, therefore,
is not bound to legal regulations. However, certain countries may have their restrictions
in the use of water hyacinth.

49.7 References

1. Bardach. J.E.; Ryther; J.H.; McLArney. W.O. (1972): Aquaculture: Farming and husbandry of freshwater
and marine organisms. John Wiley and Sons. Inc .• New YorklU.S.A.
2. Carberry. M.; Chatterjee. I.B.; Talapatra. b.K. (1937): Quoted from: Devendra (1985).
3. Chatterjee. I.B.; Hu. M.A. (1938): Quoted from: Devendra (1985).
4. Cheeke. P.R. (1987): Rabbit feeding and nutrition. Academic Press. Inc.
5. Devendra, C. (1985): Non-conventional feed resources in Asia and the Pacific. 2nd ed. FAD Regional
530 CHAPTER 49

Animal Production and Health Commission for Asia. the Far East and the South-West Pacific (APHCA).
Bangkok.
6. Dey. S.c.; Sarman. S. (1982): Prospect of the water hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes) fed to cultivable
fishes. A preliminary study with Tilapia mossambica Peters. Matsya No.8. 40-44.
7. Edwards. P.; Kamal. M.; Wee. KL (1985): Incorporation of composted and dried water hyacinth in
pelleted feed for the tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Peters). Aquaculture and Fish. Manage .• 1 .• 233-248.
8. Gerard. c.; Troncoso. J. (1980): Quoted from: Cheeke. P.R. (1987).
9. Gerpacio. A.L.; Castillo. L.S. (1979): Nutrient composition of some Philippine feedstuffs. College of
Agriculture. Univ. of the Philippines. Los Banos. LagunalPhilippines.
10. Hasan. M.R.; Moniruzzaman. Farooque. O. (1990): Evaluation of leucaena and water hyacinth leaf meal
as dietary protein sources of the fry of Indian major carp (Labeo rohita Hamilton). The Second Asian
Fisheries Forum. Asian Fish. Soc.• ManilalPhilippines. 275-278.
11. Hasan. M.R.; Roy. F.K. (1994): Evaluation of water hyacinth leaf meal as dietary protein source for
Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) fingerlings. The Third Asian Fisheries Forum. Singapore. 1992.
Asian Fish. Soc .• ManilalPhilippines. 671-674.
12. Hutabarat. J.; Syarani. L.; Smith. M.S.A. (1986): The use offreshwater hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes)
in cage culture in Lake Rawa Pening Central Java. The First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fish. Soc .•
Manila/Philippines. 571-580.
13. Klinnavee. S.; Tansakul. R.; Promkuntong. W. (1990): Growth of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed
with aquatic plant mixtures. The Second Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fish. Soc .• ManilaIPhilippines.
283-286.
14. Kumar; K.; Ayyapan. S.; Murijani. G.; Bhandari. S. (1991): Utilization of mashed water hyacinth as feed
in carp rearing. Proc. Nat. Symp. New Horizons in Freshwater Aquaculture. 23 to 25 January. 89-9\.
15. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp. A manual on the preparation and presentation of
compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCP/REP/87126.
16. Polprasen. c.; Kongsrichareom. N.; Kanjanaprapin. W. (1994): Production of feed and fertilizer from
water hyacinth plants in the tropics. Waste Manage. Res .• 12 .• (1). 3-11.
17. Pongsri. C. (1986): Quoted from: Wee (1991).
18. Soerjani. M. (1987): Water enrichment and the possible utilization of aquatic plants. Sustainable Clean
Water Proc. Regional Workshop in Limnology and Water Resources Management in the Developing
Countries of Asia and the Pacific. 29 November to 5 December 1982. Univ. of Malaya. Kuala
LumpurlMalaysia. No. 28. 227-236.
19. Taufel. A.; Temes. w.; Tunger, Zobel. M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexicon. Behr's Verlag. Hamburg/Germany.
20. Tuan. N.A.; Thuy. N.Q.; Tam. B.M.• Ut. U. V. (1994): Use of water hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes) as
supplementary feed for nursing fish in Vietnam. Fish Nutrition Research in Asia. Proc. Fifth Asian Fish
Nutrition Workshop. ManilalPhilippines. Asian Fish. Soc. 101-106.
21. Wanapat. M.; Sriwattanasombat. P.; Chanthai. S. (1983): Quoted from: Devendra (1985).
22. Wee. KL (1991): Use of non-conventional feedstuff of plant origin as fish feeds - is it practical and
economically feasible? Proc. Fourth Asian Fish Nutrition Workshop. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub!. 5.
Asian Fisheries Society. ManiialPhilippines. 13-32.
 50. WHEAT AND WHEAT BY-PRODUCTS

50.1 Rationale

Wheat is a cereal grown in temperate climates and is one of the peoples' staple foods.
The genus Triticum which belongs to the botanical family of Poaceae, is comprised of
many different species. The most common wheat species cultivated in Europe is Triticum
aestivum, ssp. vulgare with a wide range of varieties(12· 47).
Wheat is milled to flour, and by-products available as feedstuffs for aquatic and terres-
trial animal diets are:
Wheat bran,
Wheat pollard (wheat middlings, mill run),
Wheat germ,
Wheat gluten.
The wheat grain comprises 84% endosperm (flour), 14.5% bran and 1.5% germ(30).
Around 7.0 to 14.0% of the total wheat grain is gluten.l22).
About 550 million to 590 million MT of wheat are produced annually. Only five coun-
tries produce more than 50% of the total world harvest (former USSR = 16.2%, P.R. China
= 15.6%, U.S.A. = 10.0%, Canada = 5.6%, France =4.7%). The World production of
wheat gluten amounts to about 250,000 MT a year22).

50.2 Milling Process

Steps in the milling process include: Cleaning, tempering, breaking, sifting, or separa-
tion of primary products, purifying, reducing, bolting, flour blending, and bleaching.
Milling separates the endosperm from the bran and germ. When the main parts are not
separated, the resulting product is whole wheat flour.
Wheat bran is the fibrous coating under the husk which contains most of the vitamins
and protein of the wheat grain. It does not contain wheat germ(34).
The wheat berry may be separated in the process of milling, into portions, the percent-
age of bran progressively increasing with each portion named: patent, straight, first clear,
second clear, red dog, flour middlings, shorts and bran(3O). The last three are the parts that
are often used in aquaculture diets.
Wheat pollard or mill run is also known as wheat middlings. It is less fibrous than
wheat bran, contains more wheat protein (gluten) and has a higher feed value.
Wheat gluten is a by-product in the manufacture of starch from wheat. It is a water-
insoluble protein complex. Gluten surrounds the starch granules as a matrix in the floury
endosperm!22.47). Glutenin and gliadine, components of wheat gluten, have an elastic
property which is why finely ground wheat forms a pasty mass in the mouth and is
532 CHAPTER 50

unpalatable to land animals(12}. It is this elasticity that makes it a relatively good binder
in aquaculture feed. Wheat gluten is widely used in the food industry<25}.

50.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of wheat is affected by the variety, precipitation, temperature,
irrigation, texture and composition of the soil and to a great degree, the milling process,
classes of wheat from which the flour or bran is milled, and use offertilizers (fable 50-01)130).

Table 50-01: Chemical composition of wheat and wheat products (% in dry matter)

Wheat What Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat

Grain Hour bran pollard germ gluten
(9, /0, 12, 32, 34. (10,32. JJ, (9, 10. 18. 20, 32, (9, 18, 20, 32, 34, (19, 35, 45, 49) (10. 19.32)

35,46) JB. 39, 43. JJ, 34, 35, 37, 38, 35, 37, lB, 46. 48)

46,49,53) 39,46.49,53)

Dry matter 87.7 88.0 88.7 89.4 88.7 91.4

Crude protein 13.5 14.3 15.6 16.9 28.5 80.1
Crude fat 1.9 1.7 4.7 4.4 8.8 1.5
Crude fibre 2.6 l.l 12.3 7.8 3.5 0.5
Crude ash 1.8 1.0 5.6 4.7 4.9 0.7
N-free extract 80.2 81.9 61.8 66.2 54.3 17.2
Starch 68.0
Sugar 3.1

The protein content of wheat varies widely. Hard spring wheat may have 15 to 16%
protein, hard winter wheat 13 to 14% and soft wheat 10 to 14%(12}. Wheat and wheat
products are relatively low in protein and its quality is also low. Lysine, threonine and
valine are limiting amino acids (fable 50-02). Protein increases with fertilisation of the soil
but lysine content of the crude protein decreases(12}.
Table 50-02: Essential amino acid profile of wheat and wheat products (gl16 g N)

Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat

grain Hour bran pollard germ gluten
(34. 35. 37. 46) (/0.35.46) (10. /8,34. (/8, 34. 35. 37) (35.46) (f0)

35,37,46)

Arginine 0.63 0.45 1.11 1.06 1.99 3.80

Histidine 0.30 0.27 0.46 0.48 0.27 2.00
Isoleucine 0.51 0.50 0.54 0.69 0.92 3.70
Leucine 0.04 0.94 1.03 1.17 1.57 6.30
Lysine 0.50 0.31 0.59 0.61 1.67 4.90
Methionine 0.19 0.20 0.23 0.35 0.45 1.60
Phenylalanine 0.64 0.64 0.68 0.55 1.01 4.50
Threonine 0.40 0.35 0.51 0.56 1.03 1.60
Tryptophan 0.46 0.12 0.24 0.18 0.32 1.05
Valine 0.58 0.53 0.68 0.82 1.25 4.00
 WHEAT AND WHEAT BY-PRODUCTS 533

Wheat and wheat products are very low in calcium, containing only 0.04% to 0.22%,
but relatively rich in phosphorus with an average of 0.40% and in wheat bran as high as
1.51 % (Table 50-03). Most of the phosphorus is present in the form of phytate. The phos-
phorus availability is only about 30%(/8).

Table 50-03: Mineral content of wheat and wheat products

Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat

grain flour bran pollard germ gluten
(/0. 34. 35. 46) (10. 39. 43. 46. 49) (10. 18.14.35. (18.34.35.37.46) (35.46, 49) (10)

37, 39, 46. 49)

Calcium % 0.05 0.04 0.13 0.13 0.06 0.22

Phosphorus % 0.34 0.20 1.51 1.09 1.05 0.10
Sodium % 0.17 0.02 0.28
Potassium % 0.30 0.22 1.11 1.07 0.83 1.25
Magnesium % 0.17 0.66 0.56 0.28
Chlorine % 1.06 0.03
Sulphur % 0.24 0.25
Manganese mglkg 41.7 131.8 128.5 151.4
Iron mglkg 0.6 33.0 135.7 85.3 94.0
Zinc mglkg 50.5 102.1 69.7 135.7
Copper mglkg 6.5 13.9 17.6 10.6
Iodine mglkg 0.1 0.1
Selenium mglkg 0.5 0.8

Wheat feedstuffs are deficient in Vitamin A and D but are a good source of Vitamin B1
and other B-complex vitamins (Table 50_04)(/21.
Table 50-04: The vitamins of wheat and wheat products (per 1,000 g)

Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat

Grain flour bran pollard germ
(35.37) m.37.49) (/8,35.37, 49) (/8,35.17) (35.3749)

Vitamin E mg 13.0 2.9 18.8 44.0 160.3

Vitamin B, mg 4.8 3.2 7,8 18.0 23.0
Vitamin B2 mg 1.6 0.8 4.2 2.0 6.9
Vitamin B6 mg 4.2 1.0 11.0 9.8 12.9
Biotin mg 0.12 0.43 0.3 0.24
Folic acid mg 0.43 0.10 1.82 1.06 2.30
Nicotinic acid mg 62.2 14.7 254.4 112.1 62.1
Pantothenic acid mg 11.1 6.6 33.8 16.1 23.7
Choline g 1.17 0.93 1.67 1.2 3.47

Physiological Properties
The energy values of wheat and wheat products may be improved by the degree of grind-
ing or heat processing (Table 50-05).
534 CHAPTER 50

Table 50-05: Energy values of wheat and wheat products per kg

Gross Energy Metabolisible energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

I. Wheat !:Illin
3,896 16.3 (32)

2,915 12.2 (II)

Fish' 3,046 12.7 (34)

Pigs 3,402 14.2 (31)

Dogs 3,728 15.6 (32)

Rabbits 3,600 15.1 (8)

2. Wheatl:!riln
4,519 17.4 (32)

Fish' 2,906 12.2 (34)

Dogs 2,581 10.8 (34)

Rabbits 3,600 15.1 (8)

3. Wheill l1011;m!
4,015 16.8 (32)

Rainbow trout 1,509 6.3 1,804 7.5 (36)

(36)
2,759 11.5 2 3,034 12.72
Fish' 2,965 12.4 (34)

Dogs 2,390 10.0 3,633 15.2 (32)

Rabbits 3,600 15.1 (8)

, Species not specified; 2 Finely ground

The protein and fat digestibility are high but they are relatively lower for the dry matter,
energy and carbohydrate. There are only slight differences in protein and fat utilisation
of wheat and wheat products between carnivores and hervivoreslornnivores (Table 50-06).

Other Properties
Wheat flour aside from its energy value is a common pellet binder for shrimp feeds at
20% to 30% levels. It is cost effective compared to wheat gluten, another good pellet
binder for aquaculture feeds(3). The water durability of pellets will depend on the gluten
content of the wheat flour (Figure 50-01). No differences in the water durability exist
between different types of wheat flourl 42).
Wheat inhibits fish amylases. Studies on scorpion fish (Scorpaena ustulata) and golden
mullet (MugU auratus) showed 10% to 20% inhibition of fish amylase by wheat when
used in the diets(44).
 WHEAT AND WHEAT BY-PRODUCTS 535

Table 50-06: Digestibility (%) of wheat and wheat products

Species Dry Crude Fat Crude Carbo- Energy Reference

Matter protein fibre hydrates

I. Wh!:!lt i:[ain
(5)
Atlantic Salmon 57.0 88.0 95.0 34.0
49.0 84.0 95.0 28.0 (5)

(5)
74.0 85.0 95.0 95.0
(24)
Common carp 85.8 51.3
Channel catfish 83.8 96.0 96.0 60.4 (14)

White leg shrimp 3 52.5 67.7 (1/)

2. Wheat flour
Tiger prawn 81.2 79.7 82.7 80.8 (44)

3. Wheat bran
Salmonids 68.0 83.2 91.6 58.8 39.9 (5,24)

(24)
Common carp 92.0 78.5 68.0 76.5
(24)
Channel catfish 82.0 56.2
White leg shrimp 85.4 98.0 (l)

4. Wheat l20llard
(9.36)
Rainbow trout 25.0 78.7 20.3 39.6
67.7 52.8 (36)

5. Wheat germ
(24)
Salmonids 76.8 60.0
Common carp 93.6 (24)

6. Wheat starch
Rainbow trout 90.0 (6)

White leg shrimp 50.6 71.3 (1/)

IPre-e)(truded wheat; 'E)(truded after milling; 3Penaeus vannamei; 4Finely ground

IOOi~~::~~~~~:::;::::::::::::======~
_______ 30_0\ Wheat flour
-----...IL-___--<..........___~ 22_5\ Wheat flour
15.0\ Wheat flour
...
-....
~ 60

..Q
22.5\ Rice flour
~ 40
;:I 30.0\ Rice flour
't:I

.~ 20
liS
3:
o~--------------------------------~
o 30 60 90 120
Minutes

Figure 50-01. Water durability of feed pellets containing 5.0% wheat gluten and wheat flour and extruded rice.
respectively(dlllafrom: 41).
536 CHAPTER 50

50.4 Feeding Value

50.4.1 Wheat Grain

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (175 g mean weight) grown in seawater for 101 days were fed
diets containing increasing levels of whole wheat extruded in various ways. With increasing
levels of whole wheat in the diet the growth significantly declined (Table 59-07)15).
Carp (Cyprinus carpio) fingerlings were successfully fed with wheat in a balanced diet
at different stocking rates (1,500 to 3,000 fingerlings per ha)l45).

Table 50-07: Growth of Atlantic salmon (Salrna salarl fed differently processed whear 5)

Wheat bran % 25 25 25 2S 25 25 25
Whole wheat % 15 45
Pre-extruded wheat % 15 45
After milling
Extruded wheat % 15 45
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain g 301 305 264 290 267 302 275
ReI. 100 101 88 96 89 100 91

50.4.2 Wheat Flour

Fishes
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed different types of raw or extruded wheat and wheat
starches grew better when fed the extruded wheat starch (126.7 g) compared to extruded
wheat (110.8 g)l29).
Catfish (Clarias batrachus) larvae were fed various amounts of wheat flour and fish
meal with worm (Tubifex sp.) as the control. The diet with 14% wheat flour and 56% fish
meal had a survival rate (90.2%) comparable to the larvae fed the worm (Tubifex Sp.)!4).
Wheat flour was found to be effective food for the European eel (Anguilla anguilla).
Performances were best for the diet containing 40% protein and 38% wheat flour regard-
less of whether the fish were reared indoors or outdoors (Table 50-08)(13.14).
Wheat flour at levels of 5.0% with various seaweeds and carrageenan were tested for
their effects on growth of snakehead (Channa striatus) fry. A 10% wheat flour diet was
used as control. The best growth rate and feed efficiency were observed for fish fed the
wheat flour-carrageenan combination(23).
The mullet (Liza parsia) fry performed well when given a diet of wheat flour and fish
meal (1: 1) containing 31.4% protein compared to pond fertilisation with inorganic and
organic fertiliser{7}.
 WHEAT AND WHEAT BY-PRODUCTS 537

Table 50-08: Growth and feed utilization of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) fed various
levels of wheat flour and protein(lJI

Wheat flour % 20 38 56
FishmeaI % 35 25 15
Crude protein % 50 40 30

Weight gain outdoors % 253 290 239

indoors % 572 722 616
Feed conversion outdoors % 1.84 1.61 1.95
indoors % 2.rr7 2.20 2.45
Protein retention outdoors % 18.5 29.1 26.3
indoors % 9.6 19.3 21.8

'Cultured outdoors for 50 days; 2 Cultured indoors for 71 days

Crustaceans
Wheat flour (30%) with toasted brown rice (30%) in diets for tiger prawns (Penaeus mon-
odon) did not significantly affect growth and survival of the shrimps(26). Diets containing
only wheat flour showed significantly better feed efficiency than those fed diets containing
different levels of extruded rice(41). The weight gain between the wheat flour and the lowest
rice level was not significantly different.
There were no differences in the feeding value of three types of wheat flour straight,
first grade clear and second grade clear when evaluated for their feeding value in diets for
tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon)(42).

50.4.3 Wheat Bran

Fishes
Few reports are available on wheat bran in fish feeding. A diet containing 10% wheat
bran gave better performance in the carp than when 20% wheat bran was used(40).
Mullet fry (Mugil auratus) readily accept the artificial food made of fish meal and
wheat bran at the ratio of 3:l. Maximum growth rate (13 mg/day) was observed in the
group that received the maximum food of 10% of body weight indicating that mullet fry
can be reared on a wheat bran-fish meal diev17J.

Crustaceans
Wheat bran (22%) supplemented with mussel meal, squid meal, soybean meal, fish meal
and live Artemia nauplii, respectively, produced the best growth and survival mtes in
post larvae and juvenile blue shrimp (Penaeus stylirostris)l21).
Wheat bran appears to be unsuitable as mono diet for brine shrimp Artemia salind I5 ).
But using it in the cultivation of the harpacticoid copepod (Nitocra spinipes) under lab-
omtory conditions, the density increased to over 150,000 individuals per liter compared
to various vegetables and micro-algae(28).
538 CHAPTER 50

50.4.4 Other Wheat Products

Wheat middlings in the diet of juvenile red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) were used as source
of energy with menhaden fish oil. Weight gain and survival decreased as the amount of
wheat middlings was increased in the dietl J6}. Feed efficiency, apparent net protein and net
energy retentions also decreased with increasing amounts of wheat middlings (Table 50-09).
Artificial soft diets containing wheat germ, fish, shrimp meal, yeast, seaweed, sucrose,
vitamins and trace minerals gave comparable growth with crab viscera diet for adult
maintenance of snail (Hermissenda) maricuItureI52}.
Wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) (20 mg/kg dry food) was found to promote the bacterial
resistance of Chinese prawn (Penaeus orientalis) and increased survival of shrimp(51).

50.5 Recommended Inclusion Rate

The use of wheat and wheat products in diets for aquatic animals is limited, especially
in the use of wheat bran, wheat pollard and wheat middlings because of the high crude
fibre contents (Table 50-0 1)12· 27). Levels of wheat and wheat product in diets for fishes may
be higher than in crustacean feed. In experimental diets for crustaceans, wheat flour and
wheat gluten is used from 2.0 to 26.0% and from 5.0 to 16.0%, respectively. The recom-
mendations for commercial diets are in Table 50-10.

50.6 Legal Aspects and Precautions

According to EU-Regulations wheat and wheat by-products are so called basic products
for manufacturing of compound feed. The AAFCQll) list of feed ingredient definitions
contains the following wheat products:
Wheat bran No. 93.1
Wheat flour No. 93.2 (max. 1.5% crude fibre)
Wheat germ meal No. 93.3
Wheat mill run No. 93.4 (max. 9.5% crude fibre)
Wheat middlings No. 94.5 (max. 9.5% crude fibre)
Wheat shorts No. 93.6 (max. 7.0% crude fibre)
Wheat red dog No. 93.7 (max. 4.0% crude fibre)
Defatted wheat germ meal No. 93.8 (min. 30.0% protein)
The Feedstuff Legislation of the Federal Republic of Germany describes the minimum
requirements of wheat and wheat by-products (Table 50-11)150).
Following the "Codex Alimentarius" vital wheat gluten should internationally meet
the following standards I25}:
Protein (N x 6.25 in IDM) min. 80.0%
Moisture max. 10.0%
Ash max. 2.0%
Fat (ether extract) max. 2.0%
Crude fibre max. 1.5%
 WHEAT AND WHEAT BY-PRODUCTS 539

Wheat and wheat by-products are natural carriers of moulds and when improperly
stored can develop mycotoxins, particularly aflatoxin. According to German Feedstuff
Legislation the maximum allowable aflatoxin content is 0.05 mglkg wheat and wheat
by-products(50) .
Table 50-09: Various levels of wheat middlings in diets for juvenile red drum
(Sciaenops ocellatus) (/6)

Wheat middlings % 28.0 40.7 53.5

Fish oil (menhaden) % 4.5 4.3 4.0
Crude protein % 31.5 32.2 32.4
Gross energy kcal/kg 1,611 1,736 1,891
MJ/kg 9.8 8.5 10.0
------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain % 481.5 378.4 281.3
Feed efficiency % 0.38 0.33 0.26
Net protein retention % 19.8 16.5 13.5
Net energy retention % 10.8 7.5 5.9
Survival rate % 88.3 85.0 88.0

Table 50-10: Recommended inclusion rates for wheat and wheat products in diets
for cultured aquatic animals

Fish feed Crustacean feed

Wheat grain I 10.0 to 15.0 5.0 to 10.0

Wheat flour 10.0 to 15.0 5.0 to 10.0
Wheat flour as pellet binder up to 25.0
Wheat pollard 10.0 to 20.0 3.0 to 5.0
Wheat middlings 10.0 to 20.0 3.0 to 5.0
Wheat bran 2.0 to 5.02 2.0 to 5.02
Wheat germ 2.0 to 5.0 2.0 to 5.0
Wheat gluten 2.0 to 5.0 5.0 to 10.()3

I Wheat should be extruded for maximum utilisation; 2Higher levels may be used in
extensive production systems; 3When used as a pellet binder

Table 50-11: Minimum requirements of wheat and wheat by-products in accordance with the
Feedstuff Legislation of the Federal Republic of Germany(50!

Wheat

Grain Bran Pollard Germ Gluten

Moisture max. 14.0 14.0 14.0 12.0 13.0

Crude protein min. 70.0
Starch min. 58.0 40.0
Crude fibre max. 12.5 3.5
Ash max. 1.5
Components to be declared: Starch. Crude Starch. Crude Crude
crude fibre crude protein, crude protein,
fibre fibre fibre, fat ash
540 CHAPTER 50

50.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher). Sacramento,
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useful for Hermissenda mariculture. BioI. Bull. Mar. BioI. Lab., Woodshole, 175., 309.
53. Zaher, M.; Mazid, M.A. (1993): Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Bangladesh. Proc. FAO/AADCP
Regional Expert Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14 to 18 December 1992. 282-296.
(Bangkokffhailand). FAO-RAPNAADCP, Bangkokffhailand.
 51. WHEY (DE-HYDRATED)

51.1 Rationale

In ancients time the Greek physician Hippokrates of Kos (460 to 377 B.C.) used whey
to cure phthisis and jaundice, and in modem times whey is used for curing certain
metabolic disorders{l8).
Whey is utilised fresh, for human consumption and as a feedstuff, particularly for pigs.
It is decomposed into protein, lactose and non-protein whey fractions and serves as
a substrate for fermentation. Alcohol and acetic acid may be distilled from whey and
finally is dehydrated into whey powderi 18).
Whey powder is used in the food industry (bakeries, sausage making, dietetics,
sweets, confectionery), pharmaceutical industries and as a feedstuftl 18. 22 )

51.2 Manufacture and Processing

Dehydration of whey with its low dry matter content is relatively costly because
the moisture content has to be reduced from 93% to only 8.0%. Drying the liquid
material is the most common form of preserving the dry matter of whey (Figure 51-01).
Drum-drying is less costly than spray-drying. However, the use of high temperature
for drum-drying may damage the nutrients of the product because the whey-film is in
direct contact with the heated drum. A more careful process that minimises the loss of
nutrients is spray-drying. Here the very fine spray-droplets are only indirectly in contact
with the heat source{l8.26).
Whey powder has a creamy colour and a slightly salty taste. Reducing the mineral
content ofthe whey prior to drying gives a so called sweet whey powderi22).

51.3 Chemical, Physiological and other Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical composition of whey powder is determined by the type of liquid whey
used and the type of coagulation of the cow milk . Whey powder from rennin whey
has the highest crude protein content and the lowest ash content (Table 51-01).
There are no significant differences in the chemical composition between drum-drying
and spray-drying(26).
The thermo-labile amino acids such as cystine, lysine, histidine and arginine may be
damaged by the temperature used for the dehydration of the whey (Table 51-02)126).
544 CHAPTER 51

WHOLE KILIt

I
Skim .ilk Cream
(6.6 pB)

I
Whe], Casein
(liquid)

(.Beat injection

Proteose
peptone
solution

Whe], protein
precipitate

(Drying (drmn I spra]').

Whe]'
powder

Figure 51·01. From whole milk to whey powder.

Table 51-01: The influence of the type of coagulation of cow milk on the chemical composi-
tion of of whey powder (% in dry matter)!.· 26)

Rennin Lactic acid Acetic acid

whey powder whey powder whey powder

Crude protein 1 3.5 12.4 11.0

Fat 0.8 0.6 0.7
Ash 8.1 11.9 11.7
N-free extract 77.6 75.1 76.6
Lactose 75.1 66.1 73.2
 WHEY (DE-HYDRATED) 545

Table 51-02: Profile of essential amino acid of whey powder (gl16 g N)!2. 7. 17.21. 26j

Mean Variation

Arginine 2.7 2.2 3.1

Histidine 1.6 1.2 1.8
Isoleucine 5.7 5.2 6.8
Leucine 9.2 8.2 9.8
Lysine 7.3 5.6 8.4
Methionine 1.8 1.3 2.5
Phenylalanine 3.1 2.5 3.7
Threonine 6.5 5.7 6.9
Tryptophan 1.7 1.3 2.6
Valine 5.2 4.8 - 5.6

Rennin whey powder has a lower calcium and phosphorus content than lactic acid
whey powder (Table 51-03)126). The phosphorus is fully available{7}. Whey powder has
reasonable levels of vitamins (Table 51-03). However, the vitamins of whey powder
may be damaged by the drying temperature.

Table 51-03: Mineral and vitamin contents of whey powder

Minnerals!4. 7. 16. 17. 26j Vitamins (per 1,000 g),3. 7. 17. 261

Calcium % 0.63 Vitamin B, mg 3.20

Phosphorus % 0.68 Vitamin B, mg 29.42
Sodium % 0.82 Vitamin B, mg 3.20
Potassium % 2.43 Vitamin Bll mcg 16.70
Magnesium % 0.18 Biotin mg 0.24
Chlorine % 3.67 Folic acid mg 0.64
Manganese mg/kg 2.7 Pantothenic acid mg 42.25
Iron mg/kg 260.0 Nicotinic acid mg 27.10
Zinc mg/kg 6.5 Choline g 1.84
Copper mglkg 5.0
Aluminium mg/kg 1.4
Boron mg/kg 4.8

Physiological Properties
The digestible energy of whey powder for fish amounts to 2,784 kcal/kg (11.6 MJ/kg)
(Table 51-04). Protein digestibility may be affected by the drying process (Table 51-05)
particularly, if high drying temperature is used(26). The digestibility of whey powder in
animals has hardly been studied but is generally high (Table 51-06).
546 CHAPTER 51

Table 51-04: Energy values of whey powder per kg

Species Gross energy Metabolisible energy Digestible energy Reference

kcal MJ kcal MJ kcal MJ

Fish' 2,784 11.6 (16)

Chicken 2,326 9.8 3,420 14.3 (7.9)

, Unspecified species

Table SI-0S: The effect of spray-drying and drum-drying on the protein digestibility
(%) and the biological value of whey powder26)

Spray-dried whey powder Drum-dried whey powder

Mean Variation Mean Variation

Protein digestibility 96.0 93.1 - 99.3 78.2 74.9 - 81.3

Biological Value 91.7 91.0 - 93.9 82.7 81.8 - 83.S

Table SI-06: Digestibility (%) of whey powder

Species Digestibility References

Organic Crude Fat Crude Carbo- Energy

matter protein fibre hydrates

Salmonids 87.8 91.8 84.S (10)

(9)
Pigs 9S.0 95.0
(9)
Chicken 91.0

Whey powder is quite consistent in its effectiveness as indicated by the relatively

low standard deviation of the biological values (Table 51-07). The biological value of
spray-dried whey powder is superior to the drum-dried material (Table 51-05).

Table 51-07: Biological values of whey powderl26)

Mean Standard deviation

Biological value BV 93 3.0

Protein efficiency ratio ER 3.02 0.S3
Net protein utilisation NPU 86.0 6.9
Net protein retention NPR 66.0 8.4
 WHEY (DE-HYDRATED) 547

Other Properties
Whey powder has been presumed by some research workers to contain an unidentified
growth factor (UGF) known as the "whey factor"(8.26) (see chapter 44).
Higher inclusion rates of whey powder may affect the pellet stability of aquaculture feed.
The pelletising ability of whey powder is low but the abrasiveness is considered high( ll. 16).

51.4 Feeding Value

Whey powder is a carbohydrate feedstuff containing a low level of protein but of high
quality. The use of whey powder in diets for land animals is common. The inclusion rates
have to be limited to 2.0 to 5.0% for poultry feeds and 10.0% for pigs. Higher levels may
cause wet droppings due to a high lactose content of whey powder unless its lactose
content is low(8.26).

Fishes
At low level whey powder in diets for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) did not affect
weight gain and feed conversion when compared to the control. But at higher levels
growth of the trout was reduced and feed conversion was poorer. There was no difference
between rennin whey powder and acid whey powder (Table 51-08)(23). Rennin and acid
whey powder can replace up to 15% fish meal in the diet for rainbow trouts, if supple-
mented with arginine(J3·19).

Table 51-08: Whey powder in diets for rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri)l'3)

Fish meal % 34.6 17.3

Feather meal % 13.5 6.7
Poultry by-product meal % 17.9 9.0
Soya protein concentrate % 21.1 42.2 42.7
Rennin whey powder % 5.4 10.7
Acid whey powder % 10.7
Crude protein % 45.0 45.0 45.0 45.0
Fat % 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.6
Arginine % 2.70 2.72 2.73 2.73
---------------------------------------------------------------
Weight gain g 179.4 178.6 149.3 159.5
reI. 100 100 83 89
Feed conversion 1: 1.23 1.24 1.54 1.50
reI. 100 101 125 122

Diets for carps (Cyprinus carpio) containing 12.5% whey powder were more efficient
than the traditional diet of rice and groundnut cake(20). The European catfish (Silurus glanis)
grew better when 50% of a fish meal-feather meal-poultry by-product meal mixture was
replaced by whey powder'12).
548 CHAPTER 51

Crustaceans
Screening tests for high density culturing of brine shrimp showed that whey powder,
soybean meal and rice bran supported good growth although specific precautions have
to be considered to avoid water pollution problems(5}.

Molluscs
The dissolved protein in soluble whey protein concentrate was not sufficiently utilised by
the Australian oyster (Saccostrea commercialis)(l5). Whey was also not a good substitute
in diets for the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) when compared with the growths
of oysters fed on algae/yeast diets alone(24}.

51.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates

Whey powder contains 50% to 70% lactose. High levels of lactose in diets for mono-
gastric land animals can easily cause diarrhoea(7. 14}.
Practical feed formulations for channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) of the Texas
A&M University contain 2.5% whey powder (low lactose)(6). Up to 10% whey powder
has been used in diets for salmonids(l6}.
For practical aquaculture diets inclusion rates of 2.5 to 5.0% whey powder are recom-
mended. When higher levels are used, the amino acid profile of the diet has to be checked
in order to avoid amino acid deficiencies due to the limiting amino acids of whey powder.

51.6 Legal Aspects

Whey powder has to be free of any contamination with pathogenic germs. The use of
preservatives is not allowed but whey powder may contain a maximum of 5.0% skim-
milk powder(l8}. EU-Directive 92/87IEEC of 26 October, 1992, differentiate between
three different whey powder products. These are(25}:
Whey powder EU-No.8.03
Whey powder (low lactose) EU-No. 8.04
Whey protein powder EU-No.8.05
The requirements by the German feedstuff law for whey powder products are given
in Table 51-09. AAFC()il} demands that whey powder should not have less than 11 %
crude protein and not less than 61 % lactose.

Table 51-09: Quality requirements (%) for whey products according to German feedstuffs
legislation(25)

Whey product Crude protein Lactose Ash Moisture

min. min. max. max.

Whey powder 11.0 60.0 0.5 8.0

Whey powder (low lactose) 18.0 30.0 0.5 8.0
Whey powder (high protein) 33.0 0.5 8.0
Whey protein powder 70.0 0.5 12.0
 WHEY (DE-HYDRATED) 549

51.7 References

1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (Publisher), Sacramento,
CAIUSA.
2. Anonymous (1993): Alacen™ 312. New Zealand Dairy Board, Wellington, GD28 2/93.
3. Anonymous (w/o year): A vitamin guide for the ALA range of milk protein products. New Zealand Dairy
Board, Wellington, EZlO. - 12
4. Bath, D., Dunbar, J., King, J., Berry, S., Leonhard, R.O., Olbrich, S. (w/o year): Composition of by-products
and unusual feedstuffs (Mimeograph).
5. Dobbelier; J.; Adams, N.; Bossuyt, E.; Bruggeman, E.; Sorgeloos, P. (1979): New aspects of the use of
inert diets for high density culturing of brine shrimps. Proc. Intern. Symp. on Brine Shrimp Artemina,
20-23 August, Salina Corpus Christi, TexaslU.S.A, 165-174.
6. Dupree. H.K.; Huner; J. If. (1984): Third report to the fish farmers. Publ. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Washington. D.C.
7. Evans. M. (1985): Nutrient composition of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry. Queensland Dept. Primary
Ind.• Brisbane! Australia (Series Q 185(01).
8. Feltwell. R.; Fox. S. (1978): Practical poultry feeding. Faber and Faber. London and Boston.
9. Friesecke. H. (1984): Handbuch der praktischen Fiitterung von Rind, Schaf. Pferd, Schwein, GeflUgel
und SiiBwasserfischen. BLV Verlagsges., MiinchenlGermany.
10. Hepher; B. (1988): Nutrition of pond fishes. Cambridge University Press, CambridgelU.K.
11. Hertrampf, J. W. (1992c): On the water durability of aquaculture feed pellets - A review. Advances in Feed
Techn., (7),18-38. -14-13
12. Hilge. If. (1984): Entwicklung von vollwertigen Mischfuttern fiir Warmwasserfische in der deutschen
Aquakultur. Vertlffl. Inst. Kust. Binnenfisch., Hamburg, 86., 66.
13. Koops. H.; news. K.; Gropp. J.; Schwalb-Bohling. A. (1982): Further results on the replacement of fish
meal by other protein feedstuffs in pellet feeds for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Arch. Fischereiwiss.,
32., (1/3), 59-73.
14. Meyer, H. (1990): Erniihrung des Hundes. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany (2od ed.).
15. Nell, J.A.; Wisely. B. (1983): Experimental feeding of Sydney rock oysters (Saccostrea commercialis).lI.
Protein supplementation of artificial diets for adult oysters. Aquaculture, 32., 1-9.
16. New, M.B. (1987): Feed and feeding of fish and shrimps - A manual on the preparation and presentation
of compound feeds for shrimps and fish in aquaculture. UNDPIFAO/ADCP/REP/87126, Romelltaly.
17. NRC (1983): Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. National Academy Press.
Washington, D.C.
18. Roeder; G. (1954): GrundzUge der Milchwirtschaft und des Molkereiwesens. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg
und BerlinlGermany.
19. Rumsey. G.L; Cacace. M.; Zoll. R.R.; Lisk. D.J. (1981): Dairy-processing waste as a replacement
protein source in diets ofrainbow trout. Prog. Fish. Cult., 43., 86-88.
20. Sehgal. H.S.; Thomas. J.; (1985): Efficacy of two newly formulated supplementary diets for carp,
Cyprinus carpio. va. communis (Linn.). 1. Effects on survival, growth and yield. Ann. Biology, 1.,46-55.
21. Tacon, A.G.J. (1987): The nutrition and feeding offarmed fish and shrimp - A training manual. 2. Nutrient
sources and composition. FAO Field Document 51E, Brasilia.
22. Tiiufel. A.; Ternes. w.; Tunger; Liselotte. Zobel. M. (1993): Lebensmittel-Lexikon. Behr's Verlag,
Hamburg/Germany.
23. news. K.; Koops. H.; Beck, H.; Schwalb-Biihling. A.; Gropp. J. (1981): Entwicklung von Ersatzfutter
550 CHAPTER 51

flir die Regenbogenforelle. Bundesforschungsanstalt fUr Fischerei, Veroffent!. des Inst. fUr KUsten-
und Binnenfischerei, Hamburg/Germany, Pub!. No. 75.
24. Urban, E.R., jr.; Landon, c.J. (1984): Reduction on cost of diets for the American oyster, Crassostrea
virginica (Gmelin), by the use of non-algal supplements. Aquaculture, 38., 277-292.
25. Weinreich, 0.; Koch, v.; Knippel, J. (19940: Futtermittelrechtliche Vorschriften. Buchedition Agrimedia,
Hamburg/Germany.
26. Wahlbier. W; Jager. F. (1977): Futtermittel aus Meerestieren. In: Kling, M.; Wahlbier. W: Handelsfutter-
mittel. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart/Germany.
 52. YUCCA SCHIDIGERA EXTRACT

52.1 Rationale

All of the nitrogenous wastes from animals are degraded sooner or later to ammonia
(NH3), a colourless, pungent gas, which in its free form is toxic, irritant and corrosive.
Aquatic organisms are fed diets of high quality protein. Considerable wastage of food
occurs and undergoes microbial degradation to ammonia. Apart from organic nitrogenous
residues in the faeces, fish eliminate their end products of nitrogen metabolism mainly
as ammonia which pollutes the water. A concentration of 400 JlM (about 7.0 ppm) of
ammonia accumulating in water is highly toxic to the fish(l2).
In ponds, particularly when overstocked, toxic ammonia levels are quickly reached,
especially when the nitrogen cycle has not been established, has been interrupted or
suddenly become overloaded (Figure 52-01)(12). Normally, ammonia is oxidised to nitrite
and nitrate by autotrophic nitrifying bacteria. However, in intensive aquaculture
operations the natural balanced system does not exist and ammonia accumulation is
hazardous to aquaculture production.

PoHutants

Figure 52·01. The environmental nitrogen cycle of aquatic animals1re-d"'8",d/rom,' 12).

The extract of the Yucca schidigera plant is an ammonia binding agent which can
buffer the imbalance of ammonia in the environment of aquatic animals.
552 CHAPTER 52

Yucca schidigera is a species of the genus Yucca, which belongs to the Agave family
and is related to Agave sisalana, the source of sisal fibre. Yucca schidigera has stiff,
sword-shaped leaves and achieve heights of 3.0 to 4.0 m (Figure 52-02). The plant is
native to south-western deserts of U.S.A., Central America and the Caribbees.

Figure 52-02. Yucca schidigera plants.

Another plant with similar properties is Quillaja saponaria which is native to Chile
and Peru(2).
Extracts and preparations from Yucca schidigera are used in the soft drink industry
as flavouring and foaming agents, and in cosmetics for their surfactant properties(lO).
The extract is also used as an ingredient in antiarthritic and antistress preparations(l).

52.2 Manufacture and Processing

The leaves and rhizomes of Yucca schidigera plants are crushed into pulp. The pulp is
centrifuged at high revolution speed and the "juice" obtained is purified and standardised.
 YUCCA SCIDDIGERA EXTRACT 553

The liquid extract is incorporated into a carrier to produce a product in powder form.
Saponin-free Yucca schidigera extract is obtained by butanol extraction of the plant
material(8.I8).

52.3 Chemical Properties and Mode of Action

Chemical Properties
Yucca schidigera extract contains the following steroidal saponins(l):
Sarsasapogenin
Smilagenin
Hecogenin
Markogenin
Samogenin
Gitogenin
Neogitogenin.
The differences in the various saponins is due to the combination of the type of sugars.
It is presumed that Sarsasaponin, Smilonin and Heconin are the most important saponins
of Yucca schidigera(lI). Sarsasapogenin, smilagenin and hecogenin are the respective
glycosides(3) .
The specifications of commercial Yucca schidigera products are in Table 52-01.
Heat treatment of Yucca schidigera at 121°C for 20 minutes does not reduce the ammo-
nia binding capacity(lO).

Table 52-01: Specification and chemical composition of commercial

Yucca schidigera products

Liquid Powder
% %

Appearance dark brown light tan colour

Carrier wheat bran
Heat stability excellent excellent
pH 3.9
Specific gravity 1.09
Shelf-life (min. month) 15 18

Moisture 48.6 5.8

Crude fibre 1.1 8.2
Fat 2.4 3.4
Crude fibre 0.3 22.7
Ash 1.9 ILl
Sugars 28.1 6.2
N-free extract (others) 17.6 42.6
554 CHAPTER 52

Mode of Action
The capacity of Yucca schidigera to survive and grow in the desert is due to its ability to
bind the volatile ammonia from the air. It is retained by the plant in a non-toxic form at
a high concentration. The ammonia is made available for synthesis of varies nitrogenous
compounds as required in order to support rapid growth of this desert plant(JOI.
It is presumed that the three steroid saponins of Yucca schidigera extract prevents
the accumulation of ammonia by the inhibition of the enzyme urease(6.7. 11. 131. But it is
more likely that Yucca schidigera extract binds ammonia directly(lo. 15). The extraction
with butanol, which removes the saponins, shows that the ammonia binding properties
are not associated with the saponins(lO).

52.4 Feeding Value

In aquatic studies it was found that the concentrations of Yucca schidigera extract which
can reduce aqueous ammonia levels were toxic to fish(l5. 17). The saponins of Yucca
schidigera can alter cell wall permeability and cause hemolysis and, therefore, can
severely impair gill function(51. Butanol fractioned, saponin-free Yucca schidigera extract
is non-toxic to fish. At levels of 0.33 ml saponin-free Yucca schidigera extract per litre
of water reduced the ammonia and nitrate concentration of the water I2• 14I , which means
a better water quality for the fish. In terrestrial farm animals it was found that Yucca
schidigera extract not only reduces atmospheric ammonia levels in confinement houses
as well as to bind other noxious gases but also had a positive effect on the animals'
performances(4.9. 19. 161.

52.5 Recommended Inclusion Rates and Legal Aspects

Recommended Inclusion Rates

Only saponin-free Yucca schidigera extract can be used for aquaculture purposes. Saponin-
containing preparations are fatal to aquatic organisms.
For better water quality the liquid saponin-free Yucca schidigera extract has to be
added to the water at a level of 3.0 to 5.0 ppm. To the feed saponin-free Yucca schidigera
powder is used at a level of 100 to 150 ppm.

Legal Aspects
Yucca schidigera is non-toxic to man and land animals, but toxic to aquatic animals.
However, aquatic animals can tolerate saponin-free preparations. No withdrawal periods
have to be observed. Yucca schidigera extract has the GRAS-status from the U.S.
Feed and Drug Administration (FDA Registration No. 172.510).
 YUCCA SCHIDIGERA EXTRACT 555

52.6 References

1. Anonymous (1990): Yucca extracts in products for humans. Nor-Feed Product Information Norponin XI
(December).
2. Anonymous (1993): Data sheet "Quiponin 200 liquid. Nor-Feed, Hvidovre, Denmark.
3. Anonymous (1993): Saponins and sapogenins. Nor-Feed Product information Norponin V (August).
4. Bastien, R. W. (1987): Effects of Yucca schidigera extract on shell strength and ammonia production in
poultry manure. Proc. 78 111 Ann. Meeting Poultry Res. Ass., 10-13 August.
5. Basu, N.; Rastogi, R.P. (1967): Triterpenoid saponins and sapogenins. Phytochemistry, 6., 1249-1270.
6. Ellenburger, M.A.; Rumpler, M. v.; Johnson, D.E.; Goodall, S.R.(1985): Evaluation of the extent of
ruminal urease inhibition by sarsaponin and sarsaponin fractions. J. Anim. Sci., 61. (Suppl.J, 491.
7. Gibson, M.L.; Preston, R.L.; Pritchard, R.H.; Goodall, S.R. (1985): Effect of sarsaponin and monensin
on ruminal ammonia levels and in vitro dry matter digestibilities. 1. Anim. Sci., 61. (Suppl.J, 492.
8. Headon, D.R. (1992): Biotechnology: A case study in identifying glycocomponents and enzymes to assist
in reducing pollution. Proc. Alltech's 6 th Ann. Europ. Lecture Tour, 24 February to 13 March.
9. Headon, D.R.; Dawson, K.A. (1990): Yucca extract controls atmospheric ammonia levels. Feedstuff, 62.,
(29),2-6.
10. Headon, D.R.; Buggie, K.; Nelson, A.; Killeen, G. (1991): Glycofractions of the Yucca plant and the role
in ammonia control. In: Lyons, T.P. (Ed.): Biotechnology in the Feed Industry. Proc. 7th Ann. Alltech's
Symp., 95-108.
II. Kaneda N.; Nakanishi, H.; Staba, E.J. (1987): Steroidal constituents of Yucca schidigera plants and
tissue culture. Phytochemistry, 26., 1425-1429.
12. Leek, B.F. (1992): The problem of nitrogen waste products in animal production: Investigation into
the mode of action of certain glycocomponents capable of manipulating nitrogen. In: Lyons, T.P. (Ed.):
Biotechnology in the Feed Industry. Proc. 8111 Ann. Alltech's Symp., 307-329.
13. Preston, R.L.; Bartle, S.J.; May, T.; Goodall, S.R. (1987): Influence of sarsaponin on growth, feed and
nitrogen utilization in growing male rats fed diets with added urea or protein, 1. Anim. Sci., 65., 481-487.
14. Quinn, T.; Leek, B.F. (1992): Effect of saponin-free De-Odorase on fish, ammonia levels and bacterial
nitrification in aquaria and its mechanism of action in reducing ammonia and nitrate levels. Alltech Res.
Report: 1991-1992 (Sept.).
15. Ryan, J.; Quinn, T.; Leek, B.F. (1991): The effects of De-Odorase and its mechanism of action (I) on rumen func-
tion and (m in reducing ammonium levels in a biological filtered environment. Alltech Res. Report (September).
16. Rowland, L.D.; Plyer, J.E.; Bradley, J. W. (1979): Yucca schidigera extract effect on egg production and
house ammonia levels. Poultry Sci., 55. (Abstr.J, 2086.
17. Tidwell, J.H.; Webster, G.D.; Clark, J.A.; Yance, D.H. (1991): Effects of Yucca schidigera extract on
water quality and fish growth in recirculating aquaculture systems. Progressive Fish Cult. (in press).
18. Wall, M.E.; Krider, M.M.; Rothman, E.S.; Eddy, G.R. (1952): Steroidal sapogenins: 1. Extraction, isola-
tion and identification. J. BioI. Chern., 198.,533-543.
 LIST OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS
USED IN THIS BOOK

Acania Zooplankton
Acartia clause Zooplankton
Acania tonsa Calanoid copepod
Acetes spp.
Achatina spp. Edible land snails
Achatina fulica African giant snail
Acipenser oxyrhynchus Atlantic sturgeon
Acipenser transmontanus White sturgeon
Agriolimax meticulatus Common field slug
Alligator mississipiensis Alligator
Allolobophora longa Terrestrial worm
Ammodytidae spp. Sand eel
Amusium balloti Scallops
Anguilla anguilla European eel
Anguilla japonica Japanese eel
Aplysia dactylomela Tropical sea hare
Aplysia kurodai Japanese sea hare
Arctica islandica Icelandic bivalve
Argopectan irradians Argopecten bay scallop
Arion ater Slug
Aristichtus nobilis Big head carp
Artemia salina Brine shrimp
Anemia nauptii Brine shrimp nauplii
Articulata Class of gill-breathing

B acillariphyta Phylum of diatoms

Bivalvia Class of oysters, mussels, clams, scallops
Boleophthalmus chinensis Mud skipper
Brachionus plicatilis Rotifer
Branchiura sowerby Tubificid worm
Brevoortia spp. Menhaden

Calanus Genus of Copepod

Calanus finmarchicus Copepod
Callinactes sapidus Blue crab
Cancer irroratus Rock crab
Cancer magister Dungeness crab
558 Handbook on ingredients for aquaculture feeds

Caranx delicatissimus Striped jack

Carassius auratus Goldfish
Cardiem spp. Cockle
Catla catla Indian major carp
Caulerpales Order of seaweed
Centropages Zooplankton
Cephalopoda Class of squid
Ceramiales Class of seaweed
Ceriodaphnia comuta Zooplankton
Cerithium sp. Pest snails in ponds
Cerithium tenellum Pest snail in ponds
Chaetoceros spp. Diatoms
Chaetoceros calcitrans Algae
Chanos chanos Milkfish
Channa maculatus Formosan snakehead
Channa micropeltes Indonesian snakehead
Channa striatus Snakehead
Cherax tenuimanus Freshwater crayfish
Chinoecetes opilio Snow crab
Chlamydomonas Flagelate
Chlorella vulgaris Green micro-algae
Chlorophyceae Class of seaweed
Chlorophyta Phylum of green micro-algae
Chrysophrys auratus Gilthead sea bream
Chrysophrys major Red (Japanese) seabream
Cichlasoma urophthalmus Mexican native cichlid
Cirrhinus mrigala Indian major carp
Cirrhinus molitorella Mud carp
Cladophorales Order of green algae seaweed
Clarias anguillaris Mudfish
Clarias batrachus Catfish
Clarias fuscus Formosan catfish
Clarias gariepinus African catfish
Clarias isheriensis African catfish
Clarias lazera African catfish
Clarias macrocephalus Catfish
Clarias mossambicus African airbreathing catfish
Clupea harengus Herring
Clupea harengus harengus Atlantic herring
Clupea harengus pallasii Pacific herring
Colossoma macropomum Tambagui
Conger conger Conger
Coregonus albula Coldwater vendace
Crangonidae Shrimp family
Crassostrea spp. Oyster
 List of scientific names 559

Crassostrea gigas Pacific oyster, blue print ~ster

Crassostrea virginica American oyster
Ctenopharyngodon idellus Grass carp
Cyanobacteria Phylum of micro-algae
Cyprinidae Carp family
Cyprinus carpio Common carp, mirror carp

Daphnia Micro-crustacea, water flea

Daphnia pulex Micro-crustacea
Daphnia similis Micro-crustacea
Decapoda Order of crabs
Decapterus spp. Horse mackerel
Dendrodrilus subrubicundus Terrestrial worm
Dicentrachus labrax European sea bass
Dictyotales Order of seaweed
Dinophyta Phylum of dinoflagellates
Dosidicus gigas Jumbo flying squid
Dunaliella salina Astaxanthin producing algae

E isenia foetida Terrestrial worm

Elliptio complanatus Mussel
Emerita analoga Sand crab
Engraulidae spp. Anchovy (true)
Engraulis mordax Northern anchovy
Eriocheir sinensis Chinese crab
Epinephelus spp. Grouper
Eudrilus eugeniae African night crawler
Euphausia Genus of small, shrimp-like phosphorescent
crustaceans
Euphausia superba Antarctic krill species
Euphausiidae Family of Antarctic krill
Evynnis japonica Crimson sea bream

F ugu rubripes Puffer fish

Fugu vermicularis Puffer fish

Gadus morhua Cod

Geryon quinquedens Red crab
Gigartinales Class of seaweed, order of red algae
Girella punctata Nibbler
Glycera dibranchiata Blood worm
Gobio gobio Gudgeon
Gonyaulax catenella Phytoplankton
Gonyaulax tarensis Phytoplankton
Gymnodium breve Marine dinoflagellate
560 Handbook on ingredients for aquaculture feeds

H aematococcus Green micro-algae

Haematococcus pluvialis Micro-algae
Haliotis spp. Abalone
Haliotis discus Ezo abalone
Haliotis fulgens Pink abalone, southern green abalone
Haliotis sieboldi Japanese abalone
Haliotis tuberculata Ormer abalone
Haptophyta Phylum of micro-algae
Heliantis spp. Snail abalone
Helix spp. Edible land snails
Helix aspersa maxima Giant edible land snail
Heterobranchus longifilis African catfish
Heteropneustes tossilis Catfish
Hexagrammos otakii Greenling
Hippoglossus hippoglossus Halibut
Homarus americanus Spiny lobster, American lobster
Homarus gammarus European lobster
Hypothalmichthys molitrix Silver carp

I ctalurus furcatus Blue catfish

Ictalurus punctatus Channel catfish
Ictiobus cyprinellus Buffalo fish
Illex illegebrosus Short finned squid
Isochrysis galbana Algae

Labeo rohita Rohu (Indian carp)

Labidocera Zooplankton
Lamellibranchiata Class of oysters, mussels, clams, scallops
Laminaria Long leafed kelp
Laminariales Order of seaweed
Lates calcarifer Seabass
Lebictes reticulatus Common guppy
Lepomis chanellus Green sunfish
Lepomis macrochirus Bluegill sunfish
Lepomis microlophas Longear sunfish
Leptobarbus hoevenii Hoven's carp
Liza macrolepis Mullet
Liza parsia Mullet
Loligo loligo Squid (largest species)
Loligo pealei Long fin squid
Loligo vulgaris Common squid
Loliquinidae Family of cephalopods
Lumbricus Genus of earthworm
Lumbricus terrestris Earthworm
Lycera dibranchiata Blood worm
 List of scientific names 561

M acrobrachium Freshwater prawn sub-family

Macrobrachium nobilis Fresh water prawn
Macrobrachium rosenbergii Giant freshwater prawn
Macrocystis Giant kelp
Macrocystis pyrifera Seaweed
Macroramphosus scolopax Snipefish
Mallotus villosus Capelin
Menidia beryllina Silverside
Mercenaria mercenaria Hard clam
Merluccius geyi Chilean hake
Metapenaeus monoceros Speckled shrimp, ginger prawn
Micaractinum Sewage-green algae
Micropogonias undulatus Atlantic croaker
Micropterus dolomieui Small-mouth bass
Monochrysis Genus of micro-algae
Modulus metcalfei Brown mussel
Morone chrysops Striped bass
Morone saxatilis Sunshine bass
Meganyctiphanes norvegica Norwegian krill
Melanogrammus aeglefinus Haddoc
Menidia menidia Atlantic silverside
Merlangus merlangus Whiting
Micropterus salmoides Largemouth
Misgurunus anguillicaudatus Oriental weatherfish
Modiolus modiolus New Zealand green mussel
Modulus metcalfei Brown mussel
Moina macrocopa Water flea
Moina notable Water flea
Mollusca Phylum of oysters, mussels, clams, scallops
Monochrysis Genus of micro-algae
Mugil auratus Golden mullet
Mugil cephalus Grey mullet, Pacific mullet
Mylio macrocephalus Black sea bream
Mylopharyngodon piceus Black carp
Mysidopsis bahia Mysid
Mystus nemurus Tropical catfish
Mytilidae Family of mussels
Mytilus californianus California sea mussel, common mussel
Mytilus edulis Blue mussel

Natantia Suborder of decapode crustaceans

Neomysis integer Crayfish
Neries sp. Marine annelids
Nitocra spinipes Harpacticoid copepod
Nototodarus sloanii Wellington flying squid, New Zealand arrow squid
562 Handbook on ingredients for aquaculture feeds

Oithona Zooplankton
Oligochaeta Class of earthworm
Omnastrephidae Family of Cephalopods
Oncorhynchus spp. Pacific salmons
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Pink salmon
Oncorhynchus keta Chum salmon
Oncorhynchus kisutch Coho salmon
Oncorhynchus mykiss Rainbow trout
Oncorhynchus nerka Sockeye salmon
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha Chinook salmon
Oplegnathus Jasciatus Striped knifejaw
Oplegnathus punctatus Spotted parrot fish
Oreochromis aureus Blue tilapia
Oreochromis mossambicus Mozambique tilapia
Oreochromis niloticus Nile tilapia
Osphyronemus gourami Gourami
Ostrea spp. Flat oysters
Ostreidae Family of oysters
Oxyelotris marmoratus Marble goby

P acificastus leniusculus Freshwater crayfish

Pagrus major Red seabream
Pagurus ehrenborgi Common crab
Palaemon elegans Carribean shrimp
Palaemon serratus Common prawn, pink shrimp
Palaemonidae Freshwater prawn family
Palmaria palmata Red algae
Pandalidae Shrimp family
Pandalus borealis Deepwater prawn
Pangasius sutchi Catfish
Paralichthys olivaceus Japanese flounder
Paraealanus dabryanus Chinese loach
Pavlova Genus of micro-algae
Pecten maximus Scallop
Pectinidae Family of scallops
Penaeus aztecus Brown shrimp
Penaeidae Shrimp family
Penaeus californiensis Yellow leg shrimp
Penaeus chinensis Chinese shrimp
Penaeus duorarum Pink shrimp
Penaeus indicus Indian prawn
Penaeus japonicus Kuruma prawn
Penaeus kerathurus Caramote prawn
Penaeus merguiensis Banana prawn
Penaeus monodon Tiger prawn
 List of scientific names 563

Penaeus orientalis Chinese shrimp

Penaeus paulensis Sao Paulo shrimp
Penaeus penicillatus Red tail shrimp
Penaeus schmittii Southern white shrimp
Penaeus semisulcatus Green tiger prawn, bamboo node prawn
Penaeus setiferus White shrimp
Penaeus stylirostris Blue shrimp
Penaeus vannamei White leg shrimp
Perca spp. Perch
Perca fiuviatilis European perch
Perna canaliculus New Zealand green mussel
Perna viridis Green mussel
Phaeophyceae Order of seaweed
Phoxinus laevis Minnow
Pimephales promelas Fathead minnow
Placuna placenta Window-pane oyster
Platymonas suecica Phytoplankton
Plecoglossus altivelis Ayu sweetfish
Pleuroncodes plannipes Red crab
Pleuronectes platessa Plaice
Pluerobena cordatum Big toe mussel
Poecilia reticulata Guppy
Poecilis latipinna Molly
Poecilla sphenops Molly
Pollachius virens Coalfish, saithe
Pollachius pollachius Pollack
Polydon spathula Paddlefish
Pomacea caniculata Golden apple snail
Procambarus clarkii Red swamp crayfish
Procambarus zonangulus Swamp crayfish
Pseudocaranx dentex Striped jack
Pseudopleuronectis americanus Winter flounder
Puntius gonionotus Puntius carp, silver barb
Puntius javanicus Javanese carp, Java barb
Pyraminontas virginica Algae

Rana catesbeiana Bullfrog

Ranaperezi Frog
Ratatoria Phylum of Rotifer
Rhinicalanus Zooplankton
Rhithropanoperus harrisii Mudcrab
Rhodophyceae Class of seaweed
Rhodophyta Unicellular micro-algae
Rhodotorula aurantica Seaweed
Rhodymeniales Class of seaweed
564 Handbook on ingredients for aquaculture feeds

Saccostrea commercialis Australian oyster

Salmo gairdneri Rainbow trout
Salmo salar Atlantic salmon
Salmo trutta Brown trout, sea trout
Salvelinus alpinus Arctic cohar
Salvelinus fontinalis Brook trout
Salvelinus namaycush Lake trout
Sardina pilchardus Sardine, pilchard
Sardinops melanostictus Sardine
Sarotherodon au reus Blue tilapia
Sarotherodon melanotheron African Tilapia
Sarotherodon mossambicus Mozambiqueian tilapia
Sarotherodon niloticus Nile tilapia
Sciaenidae spp. Croaker
Sciaenops ocellatus Red drum
Scomber spp. Mackerel
Scomber japonicus Chub mackerel
Scomber scombrus Atlantic mackerel
Scomberomorus cavalla King mackerel
Scophthalmus maximus Turbot
Scorpoma ustulata Fish
Scylla serrata Mud crab
Sebastes spp. Bream, redfish
Sebastes marinus Redfish
Sebastes thompsoni Rock fish
Sebastes viviparus Redfish
Seriola quinqueradiata Yellowtail
Serratia liquefaciens Pathogenic bacteria
Siganus canaliculatus Rabbitfish
Siganus guttatus Rabbitfish
Silurus glanis European catfish
Simocephalus vetulus Cladocera
Skeletonema costatum Diatom phytoplankton
Solea solea Sole
Solemya reidi Gutless bivalve
Sparus aurata Gilthead seabream
Spirulina sp. Diatoms
Spratus spratus Sprat
Squalidae Family of dogfish
Squaliformes Order of shark
Squalus acanthias Dogfish
Sterolepsis gigas Sea bass
Stizostedion vitreum Walleyes
Stolephorus commersonii Anchovy (false)
Sunneta scripta Clam
 List ofscientific names 565

Tapes spp. Short-necked clam

Telescopium telescopium Pest snail in ponds
Tenebrio Genus of meal worm
Tenebrio molitor Mealworm
Tetraselmis sp. Algae
Thalassiosira pseudonana Cultured algae
Thunnidae Family of tuna
Thunnus spp. Tuna
Thysandoessa inermis Krill species
Tigriopus spp. Marine copepods
TIlapia aurea Blue tilapia
1ilapia discolor Tilapia
TIlapia mossambica Mozambique til apia
1ilapia nilotica (niloticus) Nile tilapia
ilapia randalli Tropical cichlid
1ilapia zillii Tilapia
Tinca tinca Tench
Tracheata Sub-phylum of articulated animals
Trachurus japonicus Horse mackerel
Trachinotus carolinus Florida pompano
Trichogaster leeri Pearl gourami
Trichagaster pectoralis Siamese gourami
Trisopterus esmarkii Norway pout
Trisopterus luscus Pout
Tubifex Freshwater oligochaete worms

Ulvales Order of green algae

Undaria Brown kelp

Venerupis philippinarum Short-necked clam

Xiphophorus helleri Ornamental swordtail

 INDEX

Abalone (Baliotis discus), 428 Avocado oil, 415

Abalone (Baliotis tuberculata), 428
Abrasiveness, 471 Babassu, oil, 415
Acacia, 232 Bacillariophyta, 243
Acania, 244, 250, 252 Bacteria, 383
Acetes, 365, 367 Bacterial fermentation, 133
Acetic acid whey powder, 544 Baker's yeast, 157,218
Achatina spp, 379 Barley, 80
Acid fish silage, 198, 199 B-carotene, 236
Acid treated blood, 76 Betaine,406
Acid value, 55 Bile,60
Active or live yeast, 158, 169, 170 Bile acid, 60, 61
Active yeast culture, 169 Bile salts, 60
Acute toxicities in dogs, rats, mice, 144 Biogenic amines, 200
Aflatoxin, 98, 422, 481, 495 Biological proterties,144,145
African giant snail (Achatina fulica), 379 Biological value, 10, 89, 304, 399, 519, 520, 546
African night crawler, 511 Bivalves, 9
Algae, 383 Black gram (Phaseolus mungo), 338, 339
Algal astaxanthin,146,151,152 Bleaching earth, 65
Alkaline silage,199 Blood, 69, 70
Alkaloids, 487 Blood collection, 69
Alkane yeast,158,159, 160,161,163, 164, 165 Blood composition dried, fresh, 70
Allolobophora longa, 510,511 Blood meal, 74
Allylisothiocyanate, 465 Blood preservation, 70
Ammonia binding agent, 551 Blood worms (Glycera dibranchiata), 319
Ammoniac amines, 200 Blue disease, 145
Ampbipods, 245, 430 Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), 314, 315, 317
Amylase inhibitor, 534 Bohemeria nivea, 267
Animal fat, 44, 54, 55 Brachionus plicatilis, 243,245, 246, 247
Antinutritional substances, 417 Brain, 383
Antioxidants, 205 Bran,263,264,272,276,531
Antioxidative property, 386 Brewer's grains, 80
Anti-vitamins, 342, 462 Brewer's yeast, 149, 158
Apparent digestibility, 89, 101,164,184,194, Brine shrimp (Anemia salina), 244, 245, 246,
203,204,251,267,285,297,367,398,434, 356
460,464,479 Bristles, 322
Apparent protein digestibility, 405, 526 Broken back syndrome, 515, 516
Appetite stimulants, 374 Broken rice, 351, 353, 356, 357
Approved pigments, 154 Brown rice, 351
Aquatic animals, 4 Bulk density, 83
Arachis nut, 455
Argentine rape-seed (Brassica napus), 472 Cadaverine, 202
Arginine inhibitors, 495 Calanus, 244
Artemia, 244, 245, 246, 247, 537 Ca-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (AAP-Ca), 518
Arthropoda, 244 Candida, 172
Ascomycetes, 157 Candida utilis, 165
Aspergillus niger, 326 Canola meal, 472
Astaxanthin,142,144,146,147,148, 150,151 Cantaxanthin,142,145,146,147,148,149
Asteraceae, 498 Carbohydratres, 13
Autolysis,199 Carcass composition, 286
Autoxidation, 374 Carcass quality, 287
568

Carnivores, 5 Crustacean wastes, 152, 153

Caroteneslcarotenoids, 142, 143, 144,145 Crustaceans,6,15
Cassava,200 Cryptococaceae, 172
Castor oil, 415 Cuttlefish, 403
Cataract, 235 Cyanogenic glycoside, 424
Calla-rohu hybrid, 375 Cyanogens, 342
Centropages, 244, 246 Cyclopropenoids, 453
Cephalopoda,403
Cereals, 169 Danish fish meal,178
Chaetoceros, 368 Daphnia, 244, 245, 250
Cheese loaf, 98 De-hulled rice, 352
Cheese rind, 98 Dehydrated fish solubles, 411, 453, 457, 458,
Cheese scrap, 96 461,464,465,474,481,486,495
Chelated mineral, 310 Deleterious substances, 422,431,433,453,461,
Chemoattractant properties, 185, 317, 367, 386, 462,464,465,474,475,478,531,553
406,511 Dendrodrilus subrubicundus meal, 511
Chick pea (Cicer arietinum), 338 De-oiled rice bran, 352
Chicken egg, 125 Dextrin, 266. 274. 276
Chinese nuts, 455 Detritus feeders, 5
Chitin, 201, 373, 367 Diatoms, 243
Chlorella, 250 Digestibile energy, 13,102, 135.162.170,183.
Chlorophyta, 243 194.203.213,223,259,284.296.327,332.
Cholesterol, 405 341.366.374.420,449,452.457.460,464.
Choline, 390 469,470,474,480,484,485,495,526,534,
Chromium content, 229 545,546,
Chroococcus, 250 Digestibility offeed ingredients, 14, 82, 135,
Cladocerans, 244 136,213,230,234,405.421,451,457,461,
Clams, 8, 314 471,477,480,485,486.495,511,526,535,
Clostridium perfringens, 299 546
Cocoa beanslberrieslpodslshells, 100, 101 Dinoglagellates, 243
Cocoa butter, 415 Dinophyta, 243
Coconut meal,446 Distillers dried grains, 115
Coconut oil, 419 Distillers dried solubles, 115
Cocoon, 372 Distillers feeds, 411
Collagen, 229 Distillery by-products, 115
Colza,472 Downfeathers, 131
Common field slug (Agriolimax meticulatus), Dried feed microbials, 169
379 Dry extrusion technology, 133
Congealing point, 54 Dry roasting, 445
Contaminants in mineral ingredients, 308, 309, Duck egg, 125
311
Contour feathers, 131 Earth nuts, 455
Copepods (Arcatia tonsa), 244, 356 Edible snails/meal, 379
Com, 262 Efficiency index of binders, 34, 35
Corpus luteum, 142 Egg powder, 125, 129
Cotton-seed meal, corticatedldecorticated, 450, Egg protein ratio, 128
454 Egg spray-dried, 127
Cotton-seed oil, 415, 422 Egg white proteins, 127
Cow pea (Vigna catiang, Vigna unguiculata), Egg yolk, 142
338,345 Eichhornia crassipes, 525
Crab meal, 109, 110, 111 Eiseniafoetida,509. 510, 511, 512
Crab protein concentrate, 109, 110,111 Endomycetaceae, 172
Cresole red dye-binding, 486 Endomycopsis fibuliger, 165
Crucifer oil, 415 Ensiling, 364
 569

Enzyme inhibitors, 130 Lobster (Halifax), 389

Erucic acid, 431,474 Mollusc, 91,129,139,167,187,251,428,548
Escherichia coli, 171 Oyster, 150, 168,251,260,548,554
Essential amino acid index, 10 Snail (Hermissenda), 538
Essential amino acid profile, 12, 81, 87, 97, 106, Terrestrial animals, 554
118,128,133,134,160,170,181,184,201, Tubificid worms, 466
202,213,222,230,233,247,256,264,294, Zooplanktons (Brachionus plicatilis), 167
323,326,331,340,365,372,373,380,396, Fermentation factor, 411
398,405,412,448,451,456,460,464,470, Fermented silage, 199, 200, 202
473,477,479,483,494,510,532,543,544, Field bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), 338, 343, 344
545,553 Filoplume, 131
Estrogen, 487 Fish catch, 179
Eudrilus eugeniae, 510, 511,512 Fish extract, 411
Euphasia pacifica, 221 Fish liver oil, 281
Euphasia superba, 221 Fish meal, 177,178,179,199,180,181, 182,
Euphasia, 221 411
Euphausiidae, 221 Fish meal analog, 136, 137
Faba bean (Viciafaba), 338, 343, 344 Fish oil, 281, 283
Fat composition, 105 Fish protein concentrate (hydrolysed), 192
Fat soluble, 20 Fish silage, 198, 199
Fatty acid groups, 18 Fish solubles, 211, 41 I
Fatty acid profile, 44, 55, 417, 418 Fishes, 4, 14
Fatty acids, 100, 117, 128, 182, 193,201,223, Flax (Linum usitatissimum), 459
246,247,282,283,316,332,366,372,373, Flesh oils, 415, 416
385,405,409,510 Floral order, 241
Fatty acids, systematic and common name, 50 Flour, 263
Fatty liver syndrome, 21 Fluoresence test, 486
Faunal order, 241 Food attractants, 374
Feather meal (hydrolysed), 131 Formaldehyde tritration, 486
Feed conversion, 224, 225, 259, 323, 375 Freshwater fish, 18
Feed organisms, 241 Fungi,383
Feed yeast, 157
Feeding habit, 6 Galactomannan gums, 235
Feeding value in: Gastropod molluscs, 379
Abalone (Heliantis spp.), 270, 298, 492 "Gischt",157
Alligator (Alligator mississipiensis), 275 Gitogenin, 553
Crustaceans, 48, 51, 52, 68,75,91, 1J2, 120, Gliadin, 531
129,138,147,151,152,155,186,196,207, G1ucans, 218, 219
214,226,237,250,259,260,270,275,317, Gluco-brassicanapin,474
345,356,368,376,381,389,406,421,425, Gluconapin, 474
42~436,454,458,466,490,491,492,512, Glucose, 275
521,537,538,548 G1ucosinolates, 464, 465, 474
Fishes, 46, 51, 52, 53, 54, 62, 67,74,75,83,90, Gluten feed, 263, 270, 271,272, 276
98,102,106,119,129,13~146,150,163, Gluten meal, 263, 264, 265, 266, 270, 271,272,
164,171,185,195,205,219,224,230,235, 273,276
250,258,267,269,271, 273, 275, 286,297, Glutenin, 531
322,333,343,345,346,347,355,357,358, Glycerphospholipids,384
367,375,388,400,406,421,422,423,424, Glycine betaine concentration, 28
426,427,429,430,431,432,433,434, Glycine, 406
435,437,453,458,462,468,471,475,478, Glycoalkaloid, 327
481,488,489,490,495,496,511,519,527, Glycoside, 487
52~529,536,537,547,554 Goitrogens, 342
Frogs (Rana sp., Rana periZI), 492 Golden apple snail (Pomacea caniculata), 379
Live food organisms, 356 Gonyaulax catenella, 317
570

Gonyaulax tarensis, 317 L-ascorbic acid, 515

Goober peas, 455 L-ascorbic acid-2-sulphate (AAS), 518
Goose egg, 125 L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (AAP), 518
Gossypol, 422, 453 L-ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate (AAP), 518
GRAS, 173 Lathyrogens, 342
Green gram (Phaseolus aureus), 343 Leather meal (hydrolysed), 229
Grits, 263 Leather scrap (fleshings), 229
Gross energy, 102, 194, 203, 249, 266, 284, 296, Leather waste (trimmings), 229
31~327,332,341,355,374,381,420,452, Lecithin (crude de-oiled), 383,384,385,386
457,461,464,468,470,474,485,485,534, Lectins (phytohemagglutinins), 343, 487
546 Legume oil, 415
Ground nut expeller/meal, 455. 456 Leguminosae, 232, 338
Ground-nut oil, 415, 423 Lentils (Lens esculenta), 338, 346
Gymnodinium breve, 317 Leucaena leaf meal, 234
Leucaenaleucocephala,232
Haptophyta, 243 L-gulono-t-Iactone oxidase, 515
Harpacticoid copepod, 537 Limiting amino acids, 81
Heavy metal, 7,223,527 Linamarine, 461
Hecogenin, 553 Linatine, 461,462
Helianthus annuus, 493 Linseed expeller/meal, 459,460
Herbivores, 5, 185, 202 Linseed oil, 415,424
Histamine, 185, 202 Lipids, 16
Hominy, 264 Lipochromes, 143
Hops and dreg, 80 Live cell yeast culture, 169
Hydrogenated fish oil, 285 Live food, 241
Hydrolysed feather meal, 134 Live food organisms, 356
Hygenic aspects, 73 Live yeast feed, 169
Liver, 255
Illex illegebrosus, 404 Liver meal, 256
Immunostimulatory effect, 217 Liver residue, 411
Immunostimulatory substances, 217 Loligo pealeilLoliquinidae, 403, 404
Inactive or dead yeast, 158, 160, 162 Lucerne, 411
Inositol, 390 Lumbricus terrestis, 509, 510, 511
Invertebrates, 509 Lupins, 338, 344, 346, 346
Iodine value, 55, 419 Lutein, 234
Ipil-ipil,232
I sochrysis galbana, 251 Macrominerals, 23,24,302
Isothiocyanate, 465 Afacroramphosus scolapax, 207
Maize distillers dried grains, 116
Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), 338,346,347 Maize germ cake, 273, 276
Jet-sploding, 445 Maize oil, 263
Maize products, 262
Keratin, 322 Maize starch, 264, 268
Koa-haole, 232 Maize-germ oil, 415, 425
Krill meal, 22 I Malt, 80
Malvalic acid, 453
Labidocera, 244 Manilla nuts, 455
Lactic acid whey powder, 544 Marine fish, 18
Lactic yeast (Kluyveromycesjragilis), 158, 159, Marine oil, 281
160,161,165,166,167 Marine silage, 198
Lamtoro, 232 Markogenin, 553
Land snails (Helix spp), 379 Mass culture, 245
Lard, 50, 51 Matairesinol-B-glucoside, 478
Larval movement, 242 Mealworm, 509
 571

Meat and bone meal, 291 OligocluJeta, 509

Meganyctiphanes norvegica, 226 Oligochaete worms, 245
Melting point, 17, 55, 285, 419 Olive by-productslcakelbagasse, 467
Mercenaria mercenaria, 319 Olive meal/pulp, 468
Metabolisable energy, 13, 102, 135,163,171, Olive oil, 415, 428
183,194,203,213,266,284,296,32~332, Omnivores, 5
341,355,381,420,449,451,457,460,468, Onmastrephidae, 403
470,474,477,480,484,485,495,534,546 Ornamental fish,154
Metal-binding factors, 342 Ostrich egg, 125
Mg-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (AAP-M),518 Ovoinhibitor, 128, 129, 130
Micro--crustacea, 241, 243 Ovomucoid, 129, 130
Micronisation, 445 Oxalates, 481
Milk,86 Oxalic acid salts, 527
Mill run, 531 Oxides, 308, 309
Mimosine, 232, 235 Oxidised oils, 204
Mineral content in Dosidicus gigas, 405 Oysters (Ostreidae), 8, 317
Mineral content, 82, 88, 97, 119,129,134,161,
162,170,182,194,201,213,234,24~257, Palm oil/palm kernel oil, 415, 429
265,295,316,322,327,332,340,354,366, Palm-kernel expeller/meal, 468, 469, 470
373,385,412,425,429,449,452,456,460, Paracalanus, 252
470,473,477,479,484,494,533,545 Pea (Pisum sativum), 338, 346
Mineral feed ingredients, 302 Peanuts, 455
Modiolus modiolus, 317 Pellet binder, 534
Moina, 250 Pellet quality, 471
Molasses absorption capacity, 83 Pelletising ability, 83,185, 343, 357, 487
Mold inhibitor, 199 Pelletising temperature, 517, 518, 519
Molluscs, 8, 16 Pepsin digestibility, 137
Monkey nuts, 455 Pereskia aculeata, 267
Montmorillonite, 65 Perna viridis, 317
Mulberry (Morus alba), 372 Peroxide value, 55
Mulberry silkworm (Bombyx morl), 372 Pesticide residues, 223
Mung bean (Vigna radiata, Vigna mungo), 338, Pesticides, 7
343 Pests in:
Mussels (Mytilidae), 8, 314, 315 milkfish ponds (Telescopium telescopium),
Mustard meal, 463, 464 379
Mustard oil, 415 ricefield (Ceritium tenellum), 379
Mytilus edulis, 317 PhajJia rhodo;;yma, 149
Phagostiumulatory substances, 28
Na-L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate (Na), 518 Phenolic compounds, 342
Na-L-ascorbyl-2-triphosphate (AAP-Na),518 Phosphatidylcholine, 383, 384
Naviculla, 250 Phosphatidylethanolamine,384
Nematodes, 245 Phosphatidylinositol, 384
Neogitogenin, 553 Phospholipids, sources, functions, 383,387,388
Nereis sp., 510, 512 Phosphorus, 390
Net protein utilisation, 10, 89, 251, 398 Phytates, 481
Nitrifying bacteria, 551 Phytoplanktons, 241, 242,243
Nitrogen cycle, 551 Pichia pastoris yeast, 172
Nitrogen fraction of milk, 87 Pig bristle meal (hydrolysed),322
Non-protein nitrogen, 202 Pigeon egg, 125
Nucleic acid, 164 Pigmented flesh, 144
Pigmenter, 367
Oil of colza, 431 Pindar,455
Oil-bearing seeds, 445 Pink flesh of salmonids, 142
Oithona, 252 Pink plumage, 142
572

Platymonas suecica, 251 Salmons, 154

Poaceae, 531 Samogenin, 553
Polar lipids, 384, 386 Saponification value, 55
Polish rape-seed (Brassica campestris), 472 Saponin, 235, 487
Potato juice, 325 Sarafloxacin, 426
Potato products - starch, protein, pulp, 325 Sarsasapogenin, 553
Potato protein, 325 Scallops (PectinidlJe), 8, 314, 315, 317
Poultry fat, 53 Scurvy, 515
Poultry by-products meal, 330, 331 Seed fats (solid and semi-solid), 418
PTecautions,84,I07,108,113,154,208,252, Seed oils, 415
319 Sericulture, 372
Preservatives, 199,201 Se"aton liquefaciens, 251
Preserved blood, 76 Sesame expeller/meal, 478
Procyanidins, 235 Sesame oil, 415, 433
Productive protein value, 10 Sesamin, 433
Progoitrin, 474 Sesamoline, 433
Protease inhibitor, 235, 342, 465, 495 Sesbania (Sesbania grandijlore), 338, 346, 347
Proteins, 9 Short-necked clam (Venerupis philippinarum),
Protein efficiency ratio, 10, 251 314,318
Protein requirement, 10, 11, 12 Shrimp meal, 364, 365, 411
Protozoa, 245 Shrimp head meals/silage, 365
Putrescine, 202 Silkworm pupae meal, 372
Sinalbine, 465
Rana sp,245 Sinapine, 475
Rape,472 Sinigrine, 465
Rape-seed (Brassica spp.) expeller/meal, 472 Slip point, 430
Rape-seed meal, double low, 472 Sludge, 385
Rape-seed oil, 415, 431 Smilagenin, 553
Raps, 472 Snail,538
Ratatoria, 243 Sodium hydroxide treatment, 133
Red algae, 242 Solidification point, 419
Red drum, 538 Solvent extraction, 445
Red earthworm, 509 Soya lecithin, 383
Red exoskeleton, 142 Soya protein concentratelhydrolysate, 396, 397,
Red tide, 243 398
Rendering,192,292 Soya protein products/isolate, 396, 397, 398, 399
Residual oil, 449, 459, 462 Soybean meal, 482
Rhinicalanus, 244 Soybean expeller/meal, 383, 396, 482, 484
Rice (Oryza sativa), 351 Soybean oil, 415, 434
Rice bran, 351, 352, 353, 354 Sphingophospholipids,384
Rice bran oil, 352, 432 Spirulina platensis, 250
Rice hulls, 351, 358 Spyrogira, 250
Rice, polished, 352 Squid meal, 403, 411
Rice pollard, 353 Squid liver meal, 404
Rock crab (Cancer irroratus), 109 Squid viscera fresh, 404
Rotifers, 243 Starch,263,264,276
Sterculic acid, 453
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 158, 167, 169 Steroidal saponins, 553
Saccharomycetaceae, 172 Sterols, 433
Safflower expeller/meal, 476 Sterol content, 128
Safflower meal, corticatedldecorticated, 476, 477 Storage, 517,518,519
Safflower oil, 432 Sucrose, 275
Salmonella Sulphates, 308, 309
Salmonids, 146 Sunflower expeller/meal/seeds, 493
 573

Sunflower oil, 415, 437 429,430,449,452,456,460,470,473,477,

Sunnepta scripta, 317 479,480,484,494,533,545
Surfactants, 7 Vitamin interactions, 22
Vitamin toxicity, 24
Tallow, 44, 47 Volatile nitrogen, 200
Tannins, 235, 457, 475, 487, 495
Tapioca, 200 Water durability, 89
Taste bud, 27 Water flea, 244
Taurocholic acid, 61 Water hyacinth, 525
Tenebrio, 509 Wet process, 105, 179
Tetraselmis suecica, 251 Wet rendering, 330
Tetraselmis tetrahele, 252 Whale, 256
Thalassiosera pseudonana, 251 Wheat by-producUVberryfbnuVgerm,531, 532
Theobromine, 99 Wheat distillers dried grains, 116
Thiaminase enzyme, 204 Wheat germ agglutinin, 538
Thiaminase, 465 Wheat gluten, 531, 532
Torula yeast, 163 Wheat grain composition, 531, 532
Toxic algae, 317 Wheat middlings, 531
TOldcity, 120,227 Wheat pollard, 531, 532
Trace minerals 24, 308, 309 Wheat protein, 531, 532
Trassi-udang, 100 Whey, 543, 544
Trigriopus japonicus, 250 Whole egg 127, 128, 129
Trimethylamine, 200 Worm meal, 511
Triticum aestivum, 531 Wort, 80
Triticum vulgare, 531
Triticum, 531 Xanthophylls, 142, 143,234,235,381
True digestibility, 89, 398, 464, 479 Xeaxanthin, 234
Trypsin inhibitors, 343, 458, 486, 487
Tubifex, 245 Yeast, 162, 383
Turkey egg, 125 Yucca schidigera extract, 551
Tyramine, 202 Yucca schidigera plant, 552
Undesirable substances, 187
Unidentified growth factor (UGF), 119,120, 135, Zea mays, 262
164,204,214,258,381,406,411 Zeaxanthin, 145
Unpalatable factor, 381 Zooplanktons, 241, 243
Unsaturated fatty acids, 281,283
Urea nitrogen, 202
Urease activity, 486, 487
Urease, 487

Vegetable oils, 415

Velvet bean (Stizologium sp), 338
Vermi meal, 509
Vermiculture, 509
Vetch (Vicia sativa), 338
Vibrio anguilLarum, 251
Vibrio salmonicida, 251
Vitamins, 19, 96
Vitamin B. antagonist, 461
Vitamin C products (see also ascorbic acid), 515,
516,517,518,519
Vitamin content, 82, 88, 119,129,134,161,162,
170,183,194,201,213,234,248,257,265,
295,316,332,340,354,366,373,412,425,