Acidity of HnX Compounds

No Solvent

! In the absence of a solvent, the acidity of HX compounds is related to

the ease of dissociation into ions, which defines the proton affinity:
HX(g) ÷ H+(g) + X–(g) ΔH = proton affinity
• Lower ΔH means greater acidity of HX and lesser basicity of X–.

! Group trend — Acidity increases with increasing size of X.

• H–X bond becomes weaker with larger X.

! Period trend — Acidity increases across the period.

• Positive charge on H increases as electronegativity of X increases,
facilitating formation of H+.

Period 2 HnX q(H) Period 3 HnX q(H)

CH4 –0.04 SiH4 –0.72
NH3 +0.35 PH3 –0.57
H2O +0.63 H 2S –0.14
HF +0.78 HCl +0.22
Data from R. J. Gillespie and P. L. A. Popelier, Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry, Oxford University
Press, NY, 2001, pp. 192 & 238.
 HX Strength in Water

! Acid strength in water depends on more than proton affinity.

! Ka is related to the Gibbs free energy of the following process:

HX(aq) ÷ H+(aq) + X–(aq) ΔGodiss = –RT lnKa

in which H+(aq) is H3O+.

! Converting to base-10 logarithms and assuming T = 298.15K,

ΔGodiss = –(2.303)(8.314 × 10–3 kJ/mol@K)(298.15K) logKa

pKa = ΔGodiss/5.709

! If ΔGodiss < 0, the acid is strong; if ΔGodiss > 0, the acid is weak.
 Hess’s Law Cycle Analysis of ΔGodiss

! ΔGodiss can be analyzed in terms of a Hess's Law cycle such as the

following:
GoP
HX(g) H+(g) + X-(g)

Goaq(HX) Goaq(H+) Goaq(X-)

HX(aq) H+(aq) + X-(aq)

Godiss

ΔGodiss = –ΔGoaq(HX) + ΔGoP + ΔGoaq(H+) + ΔGoaq(X–)

+ + – –

! The balance between the positive and negative contributions of these

steps determines whether the acid is strong or weak and the value of
pKa.

! Although precise analysis of acid strengths requires thermodynamic

considerations, for some classes of acids empirical relationships
based on structure can be remarkably predictive.
 Oxoacids, HOXOn

1. Among acids of the same structure type, acid strength increases with the
electronegativity of the central X atom.

HOI < HOBr < HOCl

pKa 10.64 8.69 7.52

H2SeO3 < H2SO3

pKa 2.57 1.90

H3AsO4 < H3PO4

pKa 3.5 2.12

T The acidic H atom is always part of an –OH group.

T As electronegativity of X increases, the polarity of the –O–H

bond increases, making removal of H+ by solvent water more
favorable.
 Oxoacids, HOXOn

2. Acidity increases as the number of terminal (or non-hydroxy) oxygen

atoms attached to X increases.

HOCl < HOClO < HOClO2 < HOClO3

H O Cl H O Cl O

Ka = 3.2 x 10–8 Ka = 1.1 x 10–2

O
O H O Cl O
H O Cl O O

Ka >> 1 Ka >> 1

T The electron withdrawing ability of the terminal –O atoms

increases the formal charge on the central X atom, decreasing
electron density in the –O–H bond, thereby weakening it. This is
an example of an inductive effect.
 Oxoacids, HOXOn

L The number of terminal (non-hydroxy) oxygen atoms in the oxoacids

bears a strong correlation to Ka.

–O atoms Ka range pKa Strength

0 10–7 – 10–10 8.5±1.5 very weak
1 10–1 – 10–4 2.5±1.5 weak
2 > 10–1 <1 strong
3 >> 1 << –1 very strong
 Oxoacids, HOXOn

L Some care must be used in predicting acid strengths from formulas,

because the actual structure may not be apparent.

T For example, H3PO4, H3PO3, and H3PO2 all have only one terminal
–O in their structures and therefore have similar strengths.

H
H
O H
O
H O P O H O P O not acidic
H O P O
O H
H not acidic
H

Ka = 7.6 x 10–3 Ka = 1.6 x 10–2 Ka = 1 x 10–2

 Successive Ka Values of Polyprotic Acids

L Virtually all polyprotic acids have decreasing successive Ka values;

i.e., K1 > K2 > ... > Kn

! For typical inorganic and small organic acids this trend can be
understood as a result of statistical and Coulombic factors.
 Statistical Argument for K1 > K2

L Statistics of available sites for H+ loss versus HX recombination

predict K1 > K2.

HXH º H+ + HX–
2 loss sites 1 recombination site K1 % 2/1

HX– º H+ + X2–
1 loss site 2 recombination sites K2 % 1/2

K1/K2 = 4

! K1/K2 is always greater than 4, usually being a factor of several orders

of magnitude.

H2SO3: K1 = 1.3 × 10–2, K2 = 6.3 × 10–8 K1/K2 . 2 × 10+5

! Only with large molecules, where acidic sites are widely separated,
does K1/K2 approach a value of 4.

malonic acid HO2C-CH2-CO2H K1/K2 = 1120

sebacic acid HO2C-(CH2)8-CO2H K1/K2 = 9.3

 Coulombic Argument for K1 > K2

L Coulombic repulsion is usually responsible for K1/K2 > 4.

! When one H+ is removed, the second H+ must be removed from a

negative HX– ion.

! Most oxoacids have K1/K2 . 104 – 106.

Example: H2SO3, K1/K2 . 2 × 10+5

! For acids with both hydrogen atoms bound directly to the same atom,
K1/K2 . 107–1012.

Example: H2S, K1/K2 . 10–7/10–19 = 10+12

 Hydrated Cations

L The total hydration sphere is the total number of water molecules

associated with an ion in solution.

T The number of water molecules in the total hydration sphere is

determined by the charge density of the ion.

Crystallographic and Approximate Hydrated Radii

of Alkali Metal Ions

Ion rion rhyd nt(H2O)

(pm) (pm)
Li+ 60 340 25.3
Na+ 95 276 16.6
K+ 133 232 10.5
Rb+ 148 228 -10
Cs+ 169 228 9.9
 First Hydration Sphere

L The first hydration sphere is defined as the number of water

molecules in direct contact with the ion.

T The number of water molecules in the first hydration sphere

depends only on the size of the ion.

T Typical cations have first hydration spheres with four to six water
molecules; e.g.,

Be(H2O)42+ Mg(H2O)62+ Al(H2O)63+

Hg(H2O)62+ Cr(H2O)63+

! The number of water molecules in the first hydration sphere depends

principally on cation size.

rion n(H2O)
(pm)
<30 3
30 – 50 4
50-110 6
>110 >8

• Contrary to these criteria, the lighter alkali metal cations appear to

be Li(H2O)4+, Na(H2O)4+, K(H2O)4+.
 Acidic Hydrated Cations

L Ion-dipole attractions have an inductive effect on the O–H bonds of

the water molecules in the first hydration sphere, which weakens the
bond and may allow H+ to be lost to solvent water.

H +
O 
cation H + H +
solvent water
M
n+ O 
H +
water of hydration

Be(H2O)42+ + H2O º Be(H2O)3OH+ + H3O+ Ka = ~1 x 10–5

Cr(H2O)63+ + H2O º Cr(H2O)5OH2+ + H3O+ Ka = 1.6 x 10–4

T This means that when we dissolve an ionic compound in water, the

cation may affect the acid-base character of the solution.
 Acidic and Non-Acidic Hydrated Cations

L As the charge density experienced by water molecules in the first

hydration sphere increases the acidity increases.

T Smaller and more highly charged cations tend to be acidic.

T The alkali and alkaline earth cations (with the exceptions of Be2+
and Mg2+) are too large and too lowly charged to have any
appreciable acidity.

T Transition metal cations tend to be more acidic than non-transition

metal ions of comparable charge and size, because the poorer
shielding d-subshell allows more of the nuclear charge to be
experienced by the attached water molecules; i.e., they have higher
effective nuclear charges, Z*.
Ka Values of Some Hydrated Cation Species

Species Ka
Fe(H2O)63+ 1.84 x 10–3
Hg(H2O)62+ 2.6 x 10–4
Cr(H2O)63+ 1.6 x 10–4
Be(H2O)42+ ~1 x 10–5
Al(H2O)63+ 7.9 x 10–6
Cd(H2O)62+ 8.32 x 10–7
Cu(H2O)62+ 1.6 x 10–7
Pb(H2O)62+ 1.5 x 10–8
Co(H2O)62+ 1.3 x 10–9
Zn(H2O)62+ 2.5 x 10–10
Ni(H2O)62+ 2.5 x 10–11
Fe(H2O)62+ ~1 x 10–11
Mn(H2O)62+ ~6 x 10–12
Mg(H2O)62+ ~4 x 10–12
Ag(H2O)2+ ~7 x 10–13
Al(H2O)3(OH)3(s) ~4 x 10–13
Ca(H2O)62+ 3.2 x 10–13
 Hydrated Cations as Polyprotic Acids

L Hydrated cations with appreciable acidity often act as polyprotic

acids.

T Hydrated Al3+ can act as a tetraprotic acid:

Al(H2O)63+ + H2O º Al(H2O)5OH2+ + H3O+

Al(H2O)5OH2+ + H2O º Al(H2O)4(OH)2+ + H3O+

Al(H2O)4(OH)2+ + H2O º Al(H2O)3(OH)3(s) + H3O+

Al(H2O)3(OH)3(s) + H2O º Al(H2O)2(OH)4– + H3O+

T The addition of a strong base, such as OH–, is necessary to drive

the equilibria to the right by removal of the H3O+ by neutralization.
 Oxoanions as Bases

! Most inorganic oxoanions, AOnx–, have a central atom in a high

oxidation state.

Anion CO32– SO32– SO42– ClO4– CrO42– MnO4–

A ox. state +4 +4 +6 +7 +6 +7

! If such highly charged cations were real and were added to water, they
would immediately lose all hydrogen ions from their waters of
hydration to become the oxoanions: e.g.,

Cr(H2O+)46+ + 8H2O ÷ CrO42– + 8H3O+

! Aprotic oxoanions are the conjugate bases of an acid, and as such may
be genuine bases in water.

• If the conjugate acid is strong, the oxoacid has no basic character.

HClO4 + H2O ÷ H3O+ + ClO4– Ka(HClO4) >> 1 Kb << 10–14

• If the conjugate acid is weak, the oxoanion will be a weak base

whose strength is greater as its related acid’s strength is weaker.

HSO4– + H2O º H3O+ + SO42– Ka(HSO4–) = 1.2 × 10–2

Kb(SO42–) =Kw/Ka = 1.0 × 10–14/1.2 × 10–2 = 8.3 × 10–13

HCrO4– + H2O º H3O+ + CrO42– Ka(HCrO4–) = 3.2 × 10–7

Kb(CrO42–) =Kw/Ka = 1.0 × 10–14/3.2 × 10–7 = 3.1 × 10–8

 Inductive Effects

! Electron withdrawing or donating groups can affect acid-base strengths.

! The acidity of a carboxylic acid can be enhanced by adding

electronegative atoms to the rest of the molecule.

• The electron-withdrawing ability of electronegative atoms weakens

the –O–H bond (inductive effect), thereby enhancing the ability of
solvent water to remove H+.

Acid Ka
CH3CO2H 1.77 × 10–5
BrCH2CO2H 2.05 × 10–3
ClCH2CO2H 1.40 × 10–3
Cl2CHCO2H 3.32 × 10–2
Cl3CCO2H 2 × 10–1
F3CCO2H 5 × 10–1

! Base strengths of pyramidal NX3 species depend on the donor or

acceptor nature of the X ligands.

N
X X
X
• Lewis base strength:
NMe3 > NHMe2 > NH2Me > NH3 > NHF2 >> NF3
 Inductive Effects - Mitigating Factors

! Acid strength of the BX3 compounds (X = F, Cl, Br) might be expected

to increase with increasing electronegativity of X, but the observed
order of acid strength is
BBr3 > BCl3 >> BF3

! Classic explanation of this is that loss of π-bonding on adduct formation

is most important in BF3 and less important in BCl3 and BBr3, where the
energies of the central B 2pz orbital does not match as well with the
energy of either the 3p orbitals of Cl or the 4p orbitals of Br.
"filled" pz

F
B F
F

"empty" pz

! Some properties of BX3 adducts suggest that the strength of the boron-
to-adduct bonds may be BBr3 > BCl3 > BF3, which would also predict
that BF3 would be the weakest Lewis acid.

! Steric factors may be important, with more room available for donor
approach in BBr3.

L No one explanation appears to give an entirely satisfactory

explanation for the Lewis acid trend of the boron trihalides.