FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Sixth Edition

V. RAJARAMAN
Honorary Professor
Supercomputer Education and Research Centre
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore

NEEHARIKA ADABALA
Chief Architect
CybULab Private Limited
Bangalore

Delhi-110092
2015
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS, Sixth Edition
V. Rajaraman and Neeharika Adabala

© 2015 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in
writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-5067-0

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Forty-fourth Printing (Sixth Edition) … … … January, 2015

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited,
New Delhi-110020.
 In memory of
my uncle Dr. P.S. Viswanathan
and
my aunt Srimati Sitalakshmi
—V. Rajaraman
 Contents

Preface  xiii

1. Computer Basics..............................................................................................................1
1.1 Algorithms  2
1.2 Simple Model of a Computer   4
1.3 Characteristics of Computers   5
1.4 Problem Solving Using Computers   6
1.4.1 Flowchart  7
1.4.2 Program  8
1.4.3 Working of a Computer   9
1.4.4 Stored Program Concept   12
1.4.5 Hardware and Software   12
Summary  13
Review Questions  13

2. Data Representation......................................................................................................15
2.1 Representation of Characters in Computers   16
2.2 Representation of Integers   19
2.3 Representation of Fractions   22
2.4 Hexadecimal Representation of Numbers   23
2.5 Decimal to Binary Conversion   24
2.6 Error Detecting Codes   27
Summary  28
Review Questions  29

3. Input/Output Units........................................................................................................31
3.1 Traditional Computer Input/Output Units   32
3.1.1 Keyboard  32
v
vi    Contents

3.1.2 Display Unit    33

3.1.3 Computer Mouse   34
3.2 Other Input Technologies   34
3.2.1 Touch Pad   34
3.2.2 Touch Screen    34
3.2.3 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)   35
3.2.4 Optical Mark Reading and Recognition (OMR)   35
3.2.5 Flatbed Scanner   36
3.2.6 Optical Character Recognizer   37
3.2.7 Bar Code   39
3.3 Computer Output Devices   40
3.3.1 Flat Panel Display Technology   40
3.3.2 E-ink Display   43
3.3.3 Printers  44
3.3.4 Inkjet Printers   45
3.3.5 Laser Printers   46
3.3.6 Dot Matrix Printers   46
3.3.7 Line  Printers   47
3.3.8 Plotters  48
3.4 Choosing a Printer   49
Summary  50
Review Questions  50

4. Computer Memory........................................................................................................52
4.1 Memory Cell   53
4.2 Memory Organization   53
4.3 Read Only Memory   58
4.3.1 Flash Memory   59
4.4 Serial Access Memory   60
4.5 Physical Devices Used to Construct Memories   62
4.5.1 Semiconductor Flip-flop   62
4.5.2 Magnetic Surface Recording   65
4.6 Magnetic Hard Disk   68
4.6.1 Solid State Disks   71
4.7 Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CDROM)   72
4.7.1 Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory   73
4.7.2 CDROM-R (Recordable CDROM or Write Once CDROM—
WOROM)  74
4.7.3 Blu-ray Disc   75
4.8 Magnetic Tape Drive   75
4.9 Memory Hierarchy   76
Summary  78
Review Questions  79
 Contents    vii

5. Processor........................................................................................................................82
5.1 Structure of Instructions   82
5.2 Description of a Processor   85
5.3 Machine Language Program   89
5.4 Algorithm to Simulate the Hypothetical Computer   93
5.5 Enhancing Hypcom    95
Summary  101
Review Questions  102

6. Binary Arithmetic.......................................................................................................105
6.1 Binary Addition   105
6.2 Binary Subtraction   106
6.3 Signed Numbers   107
6.4 Two’s Complement Representation of Numbers   109
6.5 Addition/Subtraction of Numbers in 2’s Complement Notation   110
6.6 Binary Multiplication   111
6.7 Binary Division   113
6.8 Floating Point Representation of Numbers   115
6.9 Arithmetic Operations with Normalized Floating Point Numbers   117
6.9.1 Addition  117
6.9.2 Subtraction  117
6.9.3 Multiplication  118
6.9.4 Division  118
Summary  119
Review Questions  120

7. Logic Circuits...............................................................................................................122
7.1 Introduction  122
7.2 Switching Circuits   123
7.3 AND/OR Operations   124
7.4 NOT Operation   125
7.5 Boolean Functions   126
7.6 Postulates  126
7.7 Duality Principle   126
7.8 Theorems  126
7.9 Precedence of Operators   128
7.10 Venn Diagram   129
7.11 Truth Table   129
7.12 Canonical Forms for Boolean Functions   130
7.13 Logic Circuits   132
7.14 Parallel and Serial Adders   135
7.15 Physical Devices Used to Construct Gates   136
viii    Contents

7.16 Transistors   140

7.17 Integrated Circuits   142
Summary  145
Review Questions  146

8. Computer Architecture...............................................................................................148
8.1 Interconnection of Units   149
8.2 Processor to Memory Communication   151
8.3 I/O Devices to Processor Communication   153
8.4 Interrupt Structures   157
8.5 Bus Architecture of Personal Computers   159
8.6 Multiprogramming  162
Summary  163
Review Questions  165

9. Programming Languages...........................................................................................167
9.1 Why Programming Language?   168
9.2 Assembly Language   168
9.2.1 Executing Assembly Language Program   170
9.3 Higher Level Programming Languages   171
9.4 Compiling A High Level Language Program   176
9.4.1 Tools to Build Compilers   179
9.5 Some High Level Languages   179
9.6 Conclusions  187
Summary  188
Review Questions  189

10. Operating Systems.......................................................................................................191

10.1 Why Do We Need an Operating System?   191
10.2 Batch Operating System   193
10.3 Multiprogramming Operating System   196
10.4 Time Sharing Operating System   203
10.5 On-line and Real-Time Systems   205
10.6 Other Facilities Provided by Operating Systems   206
10.7 Personal Computer Operating System   208
10.8 UNIX Operating System   210
10.8.1 UNIX System Layers   211
10.9 Microkernel-based Operating System   213
10.9.1 Windows XP Operating System   214
10.9.2 Windows 7   214
Summary  215
Review Questions  216
 Contents    ix

11. Microcomputers..........................................................................................................219
11.1 Ideal Microcomputer   220
11.2 Actual Microcomputer   220
11.2.1 CPU   221
11.2.2 Data Bus   223
11.2.3 Address Bus   224
11.2.4 Control Bus   224
11.3 Memory Systems for Microcomputers   226
11.4 Minimum Microcomputer Configuration   227
11.4.1 Interrupts   228
11.4.2 Parallel to Serial and Serial to Parallel Conversion   229
11.4.3 Direct Memory Access   230
11.5 Evolution of Microcomputers   230
11.6 Reduced Instruction Set Computers   231
11.7 Special Purpose Microprocessors   232
11.7.1 Digital Signal Processors   232
11.7.2 Microcontrollers   236
11.8 Special Purpose Microcomputer Software   238
11.9 Special Purpose Applications of Microcomputers   239
11.9.1 Microcomputer as a Furnace Input Feed Controller   239
11.9.2 Other Applications   240
11.10 Smart Cards    241
11.10.1 Memory Cards   241
11.10.2 Microprocessor-based Smart Cards   242
11.11 Radio Frequency Identification   243
Summary  244
Review Questions  246

12. Computer Generations and Classification................................................................249

12.1 First Generation of Computers   249
12.2 Second Generation   250
12.3 Third Generation   251
12.4 Fourth Generation   251
12.4.1 First Decade (1976–1985)   251
12.4.2 Second Phase (1986–2000)   252
12.5 Fifth Generation   253
12.6 Moore’s Law   254
12.7 Classification of Computers   257
12.8 Distributed Computer System   260
12.9 Parallel Computers   260
Summary  261
Review Questions  262
x    Contents

13. Computer Networks....................................................................................................265

13.1 Need for Computer Communication Networks   265
13.2 Communication Protocols   267
13.3 Local Area Networks   270
13.3.1 Ethernet Local Area Network—Bus Topology   271
13.3.2 Ethernet Using Star Topology   272
13.3.3 Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switches   273
13.4 Using Public Switched Telephone Network to Connect Computers   275
13.5 Interconnecting Networks   277
13.5.1 IP Address and Datagram   277
13.5.2 Operation of TCP/IP   278
13.5.3 Packet Switching with TCP/IP   280
13.5.4 Internet and Intranet   281
13.6 Internet and the World Wide Web   281
13.7 Internet Security   283
13.7.1 Extranets and Virtual Private Networks   284
13.8 The Future of Internet Technology   285
Summary  286
Review Questions  289

14. Voice and Data Communications...............................................................................292

14.1 Characteristics of Communication Channels   293
14.2 Allocation of Communication Channel   297
14.2.1 Space Division Multiplexing   297
14.2.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing   297
14.2.3 Time Division Multiplexing   299
14.3 Physical Communication Media   300
14.3.1 Bounded Media   300
14.3.2 Unbounded Media   303
14.4 Public Switched Telephone Networks   308
14.4.1 Digital Communication on the Local Loop with Modems   309
14.4.2 Half Duplex and Full Duplex Transmission   312
14.4.3 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission   312
14.4.4 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines   313
14.5 Cable Modems   315
14.6 Multiplexing Techniques in Wireless Communication   316
14.7 Modulation Methods Used in Wireless Communication   317
14.8 Cellular Communication Systems   317
14.8.1 Architecture of GSM Cellular Mobile Phone System   318
14.8.2 Basics of Frequency Management in GSM   321
14.8.3 Other Services Available in GSM   322
14.9 Basics of Spread Spectrum Technology   322
14.9.1 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum   323
14.9.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum   324
 Contents    xi

14.10 Code Division Multiple Access Telephone System   325

14.11 Wireless LAN   326
14.12 Personal Area Network—Bluetooth   328
14.13 WiMAX   328
14.14 Mobile Communication Among Portable Computers   329
Summary  330
Review Questions  333

15. Advanced Input/Output Interfaces............................................................................337

15.1 Graphical User Interface   337
15.2 Vector Graphics   338
15.3 Raster Graphics   339
15.4 Accelerated Graphics with GPU   340
15.4.1 Rendering Pipeline   340
15.4.2 Programmable Rendering Pipeline   341
15.5 Stereo Display Units   342
15.6 Other Visual Displays   343
15.6.1 Head Mounted Displays   344
15.6.2 3D Projection Systems   344
15.7 Input Devices for Interaction   345
15.7.1 Accelerometers   345
15.7.2 Gesture Recognition   346
15.7.3 Digital Cameras with Computer Vision Technologies   346
15.8 Speech and Audio Interface   347
15.9 Tactile Interfaces   348
15.9.1 Haptic Technology   348
15.10 Other Emerging Technologies   350
Summary  351
Review Questions  353

16. Multimedia Data Acquisition and Processing..........................................................354

16.1 Image Acquisition and Storage   355
16.1.1 Flatbed Scanner   355
16.1.2 Acquiring Monochrome Pictures   356
16.1.3 Acquiring Colour Pictures   356
16.2 Storage Formats for Pictures   357
16.3 Image Acquisition with a Digital Camera   360
16.4 Capturing a Moving Image with a Video Camera    362
16.5 Compression of Video Data   362
16.6 MPEG Compression Standard   364
16.7 Acquiring and Storing Audio Signals   364
16.8 Compression of Audio Signals   366
xii    Contents

16.9 Audio Signal Processing   366

16.9.1 Transforming Audio Signals   366
16.9.2 Generation of Audio Signals   367
16.9.3 Generation of Speech from Text   368
16.9.4 Recognition of Audio Signals   369
Summary  370
Review Questions  372

17. Emerging Computing Environments........................................................................375

17.1 Current Computing Scenario   376
17.2 Peer to Peer Computing   377
17.3 Grid Computing   378
17.3.1 Enterprise Grid   381
17.4 Cloud Computing   382
17.4.1 Cloud Types   383
17.4.2 Cloud Services   383
17.4.3 Advantages of Cloud Computing   384
17.4.4 Risks in Using Cloud Computing   384
17.4.5 Applications Appropriate for Cloud Computing   385
17.5 Conclusions   386
Summary  387
Review Questions  388

References............................................................................................................................391
Glossary................................................................................................................................397
Index.....................................................................................................................................421
 Preface

A student must understand how a computer functions in addition to knowing how to program it.
The main objective of this book is to explain to a beginner how a computer works. Computer
salesmen and advertisers have a tendency of using numerous obscure technical terms to impress
customers. Very often such jargon overwhelms many managers and computer users because they
do not understand them; hence, another objective of this book is to explain in a simple language
what many of these terms really mean. Hardware and software components of a computer are
important for its functioning and, thus, both these aspects are explained in this book.
This book is intended as a text for a course on Fundamentals of Computers to be taught
concurrently with courses on programming. It would, therefore, be useful for the first course
in computers taught in undergraduate and postgraduate courses in computer applications (BCA
and MCA). Rapid advances in computer technology have made it imperative for all engineers
to understand the hardware features of computers besides knowing how to program them in a
high level language. A core course is being introduced in undergraduate engineering curricula
on fundamentals of computers, and this book would be appropriate for this course. In view of
the extensive use of computers in business and industry, students in schools of management
require a course on computers, and this book would be appropriate for such a course. There
is a trend to introduce computer science as a subject in B.Sc. courses; again, this book can be
used as a text in this course.
Besides its use as a text, this book would provide managers, engineers, and scientists a
basic introduction to the hardware and software of computers. This knowledge is essential to
appreciate the power and deficiencies of computers and to select appropriate applications and
hardware.
This book has evolved from a set of notes the first author used in various courses, which
have been thoroughly class-tested. These notes have been used for concurrent reading in short
intensive programming courses, in computer appreciation courses for managers and engineers,
and in undergraduate programmes for engineers.
The first five editions of this book received excellent response from the readers and
were highly acclaimed. A number of suggestions were also received from the readers. The
xiii
xiv    Preface

sixth edition has been written by extensively revising the fifth edition along with a co-author.
The basic structure of the book has been retained. All chapters were thoroughly reviewed.
A number of chapters were rewritten. In particular, Chapter 15 has been rewritten to reflect
advances in input/output to computers, including brain computer interface. A new chapter on
emerging computing environments including cloud computing has been added to accommodate
the changes that have taken place in computer technology in recent times.
Chapter 1 explains the concept of computer algorithms, computer structure and programming
languages. Chapter 2 describes how various types of data are represented and stored in a
computer. Chapter 3 describes various devices used to input data and programs to computers
and the devices used to write the results of computation. Chapter 4 analyzes the properties
of storage devices used to fabricate computer memories. It also describes the structure of
different types of memories. In Chapter 5, the logical structure of a processor (also known
as the Central Processing Unit) of a computer is presented. A small hypothetical computer is
used to explain the basic ideas in the design of processors. Chapter 6 discusses how binary
arithmetic operations are carried out by a computer. Chapter 7 presents Boolean algebra and
its applications in the design of arithmetic and logic circuits. Chapter 8 covers how I-O units,
the memory and the processor are interconnected and the methods used to reduce the effects
of speed mismatch between these units.
Chapters 9 and 10 are mainly concerned with the software of computers. Chapter 9
introduces the need for high level languages for computers and briefly describes a number
of popular programming languages. Chapter 10 presents the important concept of operating
systems. It explains how various units are coordinated and their functioning overlapped, using
software aids. This chapter has been extensively revised.
Chapter 11 deals with microcomputers. In view of the rapid growth of microcomputer
applications, I have devoted a full chapter to this topic and explained the logical structure of
microprocessors, the architecture of microcomputers, and their applications. Recently, smart
cards and radio frequency identification tags are being extensively used. Both these devices
use embedded microprocessors. Thus, a new section has been introduced to describe these.
Chapter 12 explains how computers are classified as tablet, laptop (or notebook) computers,
PCs, servers, mainframes, distributed and parallel computers, and as first, second, third, and
fourth generation machines.
The last four chapters are recent topics not usually found in most ‘first books’ on
computers. Chapter 13 describes Computer Networks. It includes Local Area Networks (LANs),
Internetworking using TCP/IP protocol, Intranets and Virtual Private Networks. Chapter 14
deals with analog and digital communications. In this chapter, various physical media used in
computer communications are introduced. Specifically both wired and wireless communications
are discussed. As wireless communications is becoming important, considerable attention has
been devoted to spread spectrum and cellular communications. We have also described new
wireless systems such as WiMAX and WiGig. Chapter 15 is new and introduces recent advances
in input/output of computers. We describe graphical user interfaces (GUI) and how the extra
computational load resulting from graphics is supported by use of Graphics Processing Units
(GPUs). We illustrate the recent trends towards more natural/intuitive interfaces to computers
by describing 3D displays, multi-touch, gesture, and speech interaction systems. We also
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