Section 2 Block Diagrams & Signal Flow Graphs
Section 2 Block Diagrams & Signal Flow Graphs
BLOCK DIAGRAMS & SIGNAL
FLOW GRAPHS
MAE 4421 – Control of Aerospace
& Mechanical Systems
2 Block Diagram Manipulation
K. Webb MAE 4421
Block Diagrams
3
In the introductory section we saw examples of block diagrams
to represent systems, e.g.:
Block diagrams consist of
Blocks – these represent subsystems – typically modeled by, and labeled
with, a transfer function
Signals – inputs and outputs of blocks – signal direction indicated by
arrows – could be voltage, velocity, force, etc.
Summing junctions – points were signals are algebraically summed –
subtraction indicated by a negative sign near where the signal joins the
summing junction
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Standard Block Diagram Forms
4
The basic input/output relationship for a single block is:
Block diagram blocks can be connected in three basic forms:
Cascade
Parallel
Feedback
We’ll next look at each of these forms and derive a single‐
block equivalent for each
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Cascade Form
5
Blocks connected in cascade:
⋅ , ⋅
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
⋅ ⋅
The equivalent transfer function of cascaded blocks is the
product of the individual transfer functions
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Parallel Form
6
Blocks connected in parallel:
⋅
⋅
⋅
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
⋅
The equivalent transfer function is the sum of the individual
transfer functions:
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Feedback Form
7
Of obvious interest to us, is the feedback form:
⋅
1
The closed‐loop transfer function, , is
1
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Feedback Form
8
Note that this is negative feedback, for positive feedback:
1
The factor in the denominator is the loop gain or open‐loop
transfer function
The gain from input to output with the feedback path broken is the
forward path gain – here,
In general:
forward path gain
1 loop gain
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Closed‐Loop Transfer Function ‐ Example
9
Calculate the closed‐loop transfer function
and are in cascade
is in cascade with the feedback system consisting of ,
, and
⋅
1
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Unity‐Feedback Systems
10
We’re often interested in unity‐feedback systems
Feedback path gain is unity
Can always reconfigure a system to unity‐feedback form
Closed‐loop transfer function is:
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Block Diagram Algebra
11
Often want to simplify block diagrams into simpler,
recognizable forms
To determine the equivalent transfer function
Simplify to instances of the three standard forms,
then simplify those forms
Move blocks around relative to summing junctions
and pickoff points – simplify to a standard form
Move blocks forward/backward past summing junctions
Move blocks forward/backward past pickoff points
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Moving Blocks Back Past a Summing Junction
12
The following two block diagrams are equivalent:
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Moving Blocks Forward Past a Summing Junction
13
The following two block diagrams are equivalent:
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Moving Blocks Relative to Pickoff Points
14
We can move blocks backward past pickoff points:
And, we can move them forward past pickoff points:
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Block Diagram Simplification – Example 1
15
Rearrange the following into a unity‐feedback system
Move the feedback block, , forward,
past the summing junction
Add an inverse block on to
compensate for the move
Closed‐loop transfer function:
1
1 1
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Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
16
Find the closed‐loop transfer function of the following
system through block‐diagram simplification
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Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
17
and are in feedback form
1
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Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
18
Move backward past the pickoff point
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Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
19
Simplify the feedback subsystem
Note that we’ve dropped the function of notation, , for clarity
1
1 1
1
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Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
20
Simplify the two parallel subsystems
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Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
21
Now left with two cascaded subsystems
Transfer functions multiply
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Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
22
The equivalent, close‐loop transfer function is
1
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23 Multiple‐Input Systems
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Multiple Input Systems
24
Systems often have more than one input
E.g., reference, , and disturbance,
Two transfer functions:
From reference to output
⁄
From disturbance to output
/
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Transfer Function – Reference
25
Find transfer function from to
A linear system – superposition applies
Set
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Transfer Function – Reference
26
Next, find transfer function from to
Set
System now becomes:
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Multiple Input Systems
27
Two inputs, two transfer functions
and
is the controller transfer function
Ultimately, we’ll determine this
We have control over both and
What do we want these to be?
Design for desired performance
Design for disturbance rejection
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28 Signal Flow Graphs
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Signal Flow Graphs
29
An alternative to block diagrams for graphically describing systems
Signal flow graphs consist of:
Nodes –represent signals
Branches –represent system blocks
Branches labeled with system transfer functions
Nodes (sometimes) labeled with signal names
Arrows indicate signal flow direction
Implicit summation at nodes
Always a positive sum
Negative signs associated with branch transfer functions
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Block Diagram Signal Flow Graph
30
To convert from a block diagram to a signal flow
graph:
1. Identify and label all signals on the block diagram
2. Place a node for each signal
3. Connect nodes with branches in place of the blocks
Maintain correct direction
Label branches with corresponding transfer functions
Negate transfer functions as necessary to provide negative
feedback
4. If desired, simplify where possible
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Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
31
Convert to a signal flow graph
Label any unlabeled signals
Place a node for each signal
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Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
32
Connect nodes with branches, each representing a system block
Note the ‐1 to provide negative feedback of
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Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
33
Nodes with a single input and single output can be
eliminated, if desired
This makes sense for and
Leave to indicate separation between controller and plant
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Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
34
Revisit the block diagram from earlier
Convert to a signal flow graph
Label all signals, then place a node for each
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Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
35
Connect nodes with branches
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Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
36
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Signal Flow Graphs vs. Block Diagrams
37
Signal flow graphs and block diagrams are
alternative, though equivalent, tools for graphical
representation of interconnected systems
A generalization (not a rule)
Signal flow graphs – more often used when dealing
with state‐space system models
Block diagrams – more often used when dealing with
transfer function system models
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38 Mason’s Rule
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Mason’s Rule
39
We’ve seen how to reduce a complicated block
diagram to a single input‐to‐output transfer
function
Many successive simplifications
Mason’s rule provides a formula to calculate the
same overall transfer function
Single application of the formula
Can get complicated
Before presenting the Mason’s rule formula, we
need to define some terminology
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Loop Gain
40
Loop gain – total gain (product of individual gains) around
any path in the signal flow graph
Beginning and ending at the same node
Not passing through any node more than once
Here, there are three loops with the following gains:
1.
2.
3.
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Forward Path Gain
41
Forward path gain – gain along any path from the input
to the output
Not passing through any node more than once
Here, there are two forward paths with the following
gains:
1.
2.
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Non‐Touching Loops
42
Non‐touching loops – loops that do not have any
nodes in common
Here,
1. does not touch
2. does not touch
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Non‐Touching Loop Gains
43
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Mason’s Rule
44
1
Δ
Δ
where
# of forward paths
gain of the forward path
Δ 1 Σ(loop gains)
Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken two‐at‐a‐time)
Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken three‐at‐a‐time)
Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken four‐at‐a‐time)
Σ…
Δ Δ Σ(loop gain terms in Δ that touch the forward path)
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Mason’s Rule ‐ Example
45
# of forward paths: Σ(NTLGs taken two‐at‐a‐time):
2
Forward path gains: Δ:
Δ 1
Σ(loop gains):
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Mason’s Rule – Example ‐
46
With forward path 1 removed, there are no loops, so
Δ 1 0
Δ 1
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Mason’s Rule – Example ‐
47
2:
Similarly, removing forward path 2 leaves no loops, so
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Mason’s Rule ‐ Example
48
For our example:
1
2 Δ
Δ
Δ 1
Δ 1
Δ 1
The closed‐loop transfer function:
Δ Δ
Δ
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49 Preview of Controller Design
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Controller Design – Preview
50
We now have the tools necessary to determine the
transfer function of closed‐loop feedback systems
Let’s take a closer look at how feedback can help us
achieve a desired response
Just a preview – this is the objective of the whole course
Consider a simple first‐order system
A single real pole at
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Open‐Loop Step Response
51
This system
exhibits the
expected first‐
order step
response
No overshoot or
ringing
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Add Feedback
52
Now let’s enclose the system in a feedback loop
Add controller block with transfer function
Closed‐loop transfer function becomes:
1
2
1 2
1
2
Clearly the addition of feedback and the controller
changes the transfer function – but how?
Let’s consider a couple of example cases for
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Add Feedback
53
First, consider a simple gain block for the controller
Error signal, , amplified by a constant gain,
A proportional controller, with gain
Now, the closed‐loop transfer function is:
2
1 2
2
A single real pole at 2
Pole moved to a higher frequency
A faster response
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Open‐Loop Step Response
54
As feedback gain
increases:
Pole moves to a
higher frequency
Response gets
faster
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First‐Order Controller
55
Next, allow the controller to have some dynamics of its own
Now the controller is a first‐order block with gain and a pole at
This yields the following closed‐loop transfer function:
1
2
1 2 2
1
2
The closed‐loop system is now second‐order
One pole from the plant
One pole from the controller
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First‐Order Controller
56
2 2
Two closed‐loop poles:
2 4 4 4
,
2 2
Pole locations determined by and
Controller parameters – we have control over these
Design the controller to place the poles where we want them
So, where do we want them?
Design to performance specifications
Risetime, overshoot, settling time, etc.
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Design to Specifications
57
The second‐order closed‐loop transfer function
2 2
can be expressed as
2 2
Let’s say we want a closed‐loop response that satisfies the
following specifications:
% 5%
600
Use % and specs to determine values of and
Then use and to determine and
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Determine from Specifications
58
Overshoot and damping ratio, , are related as
follows:
ln
ln
The requirement is % 5%, so
ln 0.05
0.69
ln 0.05
Allowing some margin, set 0.75
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Determine from Specifications
59
Settling time ( 1%) can be approximated from as
4.6
The requirement is 600
Allowing for some margin, design for 500
4.6 4.6
500 →
500
which gives
9.2
We can then calculate the natural frequency from and
9.2
12.27
0.75
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Determine Controller Parameters from and
60
The characteristic polynomial is
2 2 2
Equating coefficients to solve for :
2 2 18.4
16.4
and :
2 12.27 150.5
150.5 2 ⋅ 16.4 117.7 → 118
118
The controller transfer function is
118
16.4
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Closed‐Loop Poles
61
Closed‐loop system
is now second order
Controller designed
to place the two
closed‐loop poles at
desirable locations:
, 9.2 8.13 Controller Plant
pole pole
0.75
12.3
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Closed‐Loop Step Response
62
Closed‐loop step
response satisfies
the specifications
Approximations
were used
If requirements not
met ‐ iterate
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