Elastic versus 1.1 1.

2
Plastic Analysis Stress-Strain
Relationships
Plastic Design
Versus
of Structures Elastic Design

Chapter 1
1.3 1.4 1.5
Basic Concepts of Moment -
Elastic-Plastic Plastic
Plastic Analysis Bending of Curvature
Hinge
Beams Relationship
Concept

Asssoc. Jia-Bao Yan 1.6 1.7

Plastic Effects of Axial
Department of Civil Engineering, and Shear
Collapse
Tianjin University Forces on Plastic
Moment
 :: chapter 1::
1.1 Stress-Strain Relationships
Stress-strain relation (or constitutive relation) describes the material
behaviour. A number of basic types can be identified in
unidirectional stress-strain.

σ σ σ

ε ε ε
Linearly Elastic Non-linearly Elastic Non-linearly Inelastic
 most commonly  difficult  difficult
used  computer is
 computer
solutions by required to obtain
iterations are solutions
necessary
 :: chapter 1::
Stress-Strain Relationship of Mild Steel

 u
y A
p
Failure

0.0012 0.016 0.26


0.001
σy - yield stress (≈ 275 MPa)
σp - proportional limit stress
σu - ultimate stress (≈ 410 MPa)

Question: Load the mild steel coupon to point A and then release the
load. Draw the recovery path on the stress-strain diagram.
 :: chapter 1::
Idealised Stress-Strain Curves

plastic 1) Elastic-plastic strain
Es
hardening model
E strain hardening
elastic Es ≈ 0.04E
 
2) Elastic-plastic model
E Ignoring strain

  hardening

3) Rigid-plastic model
(simple plastic)


Rigid plastic model is particularly suitable for structural analysis
(and design) but a more complete model (2, say) is needed to
describe details of the structural behaviour of individual members
 :: chapter 1::
1.2 Plastic Design Versus Elastic Design
Philosophy of Design
Elastic Plastic
(max permissible stress design) (ultimate load)
 max   permissible q ultimate
qdesign 
where load factor
 permissible
 0.5 to 0.7 where load factor ≈ 1.3 to 1.7
 yield
 Based on STRUCTURE as a whole
 Based on LOCAL stress-state,  May get local yielding at low loads
so that the overall structural
 Simplified procedures when
safety depends on (a) the
degree of redundancy (more compared to that in elastic design
redundancy implies greater  May give cheaper structures when
safety) and (b) weakest element compared to that designed
may dominate design. In elastically
practice σpermissible is often
 More realistic representation of
determined from the ultimate
load tests (i.e. plastic theory) actual behaviour of structures
and scaled down appropriately
 :: chapter 1::
1.2 Plastic Design Versus Elastic Design
The advantages of plastic design are due to the fact that it fully uses
the important property of ductility. Thus, the general description of
plastic analysis applies to any structural material with sufficient
ductility. It is particularly suitable to mild steel with its sharply
defined yield point and large strain value before the beginning of
strain hardening. The plastic reserve strength cannot be fully
realized for structures made of brittle materials that will crack or
soften under relatively small strains, or for structures made of
slender bars that will buckle in compression within either the elastic
or plastic range.
 :: chapter 1::
1.2 Plastic Design Versus Elastic Design
Redistribution of forces in a three-bar structure

1 3
L
2 Purely elastic
A A A L/2

Equlibrium: 2T1 + T2 = P where T3 = T1 owing to symmetry

Compatibility: δ1 = δ2 = δ3 which implies that T1 = T2/2 = T3
 :: chapter 1::
Redistribution of forces in a three-bar structure

1 σyA 3
L Partially plastic

A A L/2

Since the force in Bar 2 is greater, Bar 2 will yield first.

Therefore Py = 2T2 = 2σyA
The corresponding displacement at this yield load is
δy = εyL2 = σyL/(2E)
 :: chapter 1::
Redistribution of forces in a three-bar structure

σyA σyA σyA

Fully plastic
P

After yielding of Bar 2, the structure reduces to a two-bar

structure which is now statically determinate. This two-bar
structure will carry further loading until the two outer bars
also yield at the plastic limit load Pp given by
Pp = 3σyA
with the corresponding deflection δp = εyL1 = σyL/E where
beyond it, the deflections increase without limit while the
load remains constant. Note how simple one can compute
the ultimate load, i.e. the sum of the yield loads of each
bar.
 :: chapter 1::
Redistribution of forces in a three-bar structure

Load

Unrestricted plastic flow

Pp

Py
Contained “plastic
flow”
Elastic

δy δp Deflection

Load deflection relationship

 :: chapter 1::
Problem to be solved in class
Consider the three-bar truss. All bars have the same equal
cross-sectional area A, and are made of steel with yield
stress σy and Young’s modulus E.
Plot (i) the load-deflection (P-∆) relationship for the truss and
(ii) the relationships between member forces and the total
force P. Determine the ultimate load and the plastic reserve
strength beyond the elastic limit.

L
45o 45o

Δ
 :: chapter 1::
Assignment 1
1-1 Consider the three-bar truss. All bars have the same
equal cross-sectional area A, and are made of steel with yield
stress σy and Young’s modulus E.
Plot (i) the load-deflection (P-∆) relationship for the truss and
(ii) the relationships between member forces and the total
force P. Determine the ultimate load and the plastic reserve
strength beyond the elastic limit.

L
60o 60o

Δ
 :: chapter 1::
Assignment 1
1-1 Consider the three-bar truss. All bars have the same equal
cross-sectional area A=75mm2, and are made of steel with yield
stress σy =235MPa and Young’s modulus E=205GPa.
Plot (i) the load-deflection (P-∆) relationship for the truss and (ii) the
relationships between member forces and the total force P.
Determine the ultimate load and the plastic reserve strength beyond
the elastic limit.(III) Plot the relationships between yield force (and
ultimate force) versus θ.

L=0.5m
θ θ

Δ
 :: chapter 1::
Plastic Strength of Simple Structures
1. Tension bar

σy


A

ε ε
y
P
Elastic perfectly plastic
 :: chapter 1::

P P
 є 
A AE
P
P
 Py
AE
Py
when P = Py y 
A

Py 
y  δy δ
AE

For statically determinate system

plastic load = yield load

(No reserve strength beyond initial yielding)
 :: chapter 1::
2. 3-Bar Truss
L L

A1 =A 2 =A3 =A
2
1 3 L L 1 =L 3 = 2L 2 = 2 L

Forces T1, T2, T3

ΔL2
Elongation ΔL1, ΔL2, ΔL3

P σ

σy
By symmetry

T1 = T3
ΔL1 = ΔL3
єy є
 :: chapter 1::
Elastic solution:

From equilibrium:
2T1 cos45 + T2 = P
T2
2 T1 + T2 = P  (1)
T1 T3

From compatibility:
L2cos45 =  L1  (2a)
P
T2 L 1 T1 2 L
 
AE 2 AE

T2 = 2T1  (2b)
 :: chapter 1::

 P   2P 
From (1) & (2b) : T1    ; T2   
2 2  2 2 

Elastic limit is achieved when T2 reaches the elastic limit

(  T 2 > T1 )
2 2
T2 = A σ y  Py  A y  1.707 A y
2

 yL
L 
2 y  y 
Py L
AE

E
 :: chapter 1::
Elastic plastic solution:
Aσy

T1 T3 2T1 cos45 + Aσy = P (T1 = T3)

P  A y
T1   (3)
2

Bars 1 & 3 are still elastic, hence by Hookes’ law

T1 2 L
L1   L3  (4)
AE

Ultimate local is reached, when bars 1 & 3 are fully plastic:

T1 = T3 = Aσy
 :: chapter 1::

Thus from (3), Pu = 2 Aσy + Aσy

= (1+ 2 )Aσy = 2.414Aσy

2 y L
from (4) & (2a), L 
2 u  
 2 L1 u 
E
P
A y
unrestrained plastic flow
2.414
1.707
contained plastic flow
 yL
Elastic 
1.0 2.0 E
Note:
1. There is a reserve in strength beyond first yield
2. Plastic load is reached at which unrestrained plastic flow occurs
3. Deflection at the plastic load is of the same order of magnitude
as the yield deflection
 :: chapter 1::
1.3 Elastic-Plastic Bending of Beams

i) Stress-Strain Relation ii) Stress-Displacement Relation

Euler-Bernoulli Hypothesis:
 Plane sections normal to
y undeformed axis remain plane and
normal to deformed axis

εy  Consider a beam of monosymmetric

cross-section under equal end
moments

  E for    y M M
   y for    y (1.1)
 :: chapter 1::
1.3 Elastic-Plastic Bending of Beams
Strain Distributions
 y  y  

C Ae  1
2
3

 Ap Strain
Axis of
symmetry y Ap Elastic Elastic - Plastic Fully Plastic
1: N.A. (Elastic) & Centroidal Axis, 2:N.A. (Elastic-plastic), 3: Plastic N.A. (axis of equal area)

Stress Distributions
spreading of
plasticity


y

Stress
 y  y  y
Increasing Moment
 :: chapter 1::
Problem to be solved
Determine the full plastic moment Mp of a rectangular-cross-
section beam with a yield stress σy, width b and depth d.
 :: chapter 1::
1.4 Moment-Curvature Relationship

d 1
r Curvature   
dθ ds r
where r = radius of curvature
ds
M M
Normal strain ε

new length  original length


original length
 (r  y )d  rd y
y
ε  
rd r
  y
 :: chapter 1::
Elastic-plastic Bending of Beams
Rectangular cross section
Elastic range
ε < εy σ < σy
σ

 < y y E
d

b
M     y dA

M   E  y 2 dA  EI
 E 
I y
bd 3
E 
12
 :: chapter 1::
Elastic limit
εy σy

y Ey

εy σy
bd 3
M y  E y
12
M    y  bd 3  bd 2 
 in the elastic range     y
M y y  d 2  12  6 
   

My = Sσy
S : Section modulus
 :: chapter 1::
Elastic plastic range

ε > εy σy
ε
y
yo  > y yo
E y
E 
yo

 d d  1 yo   d 2 yo2 
M     y dA    y b  2   yo y  b 2  b y   
 2 4 2 3  4 3 
 

 y y d
yo   
  2
 :: chapter 1::

 2 2  2

 d 1   y d   bd 2
 1   y  
M  b y    y 1
 4 3  2   4  3   
       

  
2
M 3  1  y  
 1
M y 2  3    
 

when  →  , M → MP
3
M p  lim M  My
  2
3 bd 2 bd 2
  y  y
2 6 4
 Z y ; Z is the plastic modulus
 :: chapter 1::

MpZ
f    1.5 f : shape factor
My S
M
My
1.5
1.0


1.0 y
ε→ σy

Fully plastic
σy
 :: chapter 1::
Shape factor α is defined as

M  yS S
 p
 
My  yZ Z
The shape factor is a cross-
sectional property and it Cross Sectional Shape Shape
represents the relative Factor
magnification of moment Isosceles triangle 2.32
capacity beyond initial yield. Diamond 2.0
Round bar 1.7
Table shows the shape Rectangle 1.5
factor for several cross Circular tube 1.27
sections. Note that for Wide flange I-section 1.14
flexurally less effective Idealized I-section 1.0
section, α is larger
 :: chapter 1::
Problem to be solved
Determine the shape factor for (a) a solid rectangular cross-
section (b x d) and (b) a solid circular cross-section (radius R).
 :: chapter 1::

Moment-curvature curves for various cross-sections

M
My


y
 :: chapter 1::
Wide-flange Section

w
 :: chapter 1::
Elastic range

M  d 2 y
 ,  y  y , y  
M y y 2 d E

I
M y  S y , S
d 2

bd 3 (b  w)(d  2t )3
I 
12 12

bd 2 (b  w)(d  2t )3
S 
6 6d
 :: chapter 1::
Elastic-plastic range
Case (a) : Yield surface within the flange
σel

t σy
d/2 yo

    
1

M  S el  2  el   y 
d 2d
  yo  b  yo    yo   
2  3  2 
 2     

E yo   y
d y
yo 
d
E y   y 2 
2
 :: chapter 1::

 el d 2  
   el  y
y yo  y y

 2
M   bd  bd  1   y  
2 2
d d
 1  1 ;  t  yo 
M y y  
6S  4S  3     2 2
 
 :: chapter 1::

Case (b) : Elastic plastic interface is within the web

σy

=
yo yo

 2
 
2
 d   1
 d y 
 
M   y bt (d  t )  w  t     y w
2  
  2   3  

2
d 
bt (d  t )  w  t  2 
2
M  2  wd y 
   
My S 12S   

 :: chapter 1::

2
d 
bt (d  t )  w  t 
→,
Mp
  2  Z
  f
My S S

M
My Rectangular section f = 1.5

1.5

1.0
Wide flange section f = 1.10 – 1.18


y
1.0
 :: chapter 1::

Note: 1. After the elastic limit is reached, the curve

approaches very rapidly to the line corresponding to
the plastic moment

2. There is an indefinite increase in curvature at

constant moment

These two features are expressed in the following idealisation

(plastic hinge concept)
 :: chapter 1::
1.5 Plastic Hinge Concept

Idealized plastic hinge plastic

zone shrinks to zero length for
bilinear (elastic-plastic) M- curve
 :: chapter 1::

M
Mp


p

M = EI 0 <  < p

 Mp 
M = Mp  > p   
 EI 
 

i.e. Member remains elastic until the moment reaches Mp.

Thereafter rotation occurs at constant moment –
Member acts as if it were hinged, but with a constant
restraining moment.
 :: chapter 1::
1.6 Plastic Collapse

qL2/8
Elastic Analysis
Bending moment diagram
M1

Equilibrium:
qL2
M1  M 2 
8

In the elastic range, M2=M1/2. Therefore at initial yield,

M1 = My , M2 = My/2 and q = qy = 12My/L2
 :: chapter 1::

At incipient plastic collapse,

M 1  M p , M 2  M p , q  qc

Mp
qc  16
L2
The increase in load carrying capacity beyond initial yield
up to plastic collapse,

qc 4 M p 4
   Represents increase due to
qy 3 M y 3 shape factor

Represents increase due to

moment distribution
 :: chapter 1::
1.6 Plastic Collapse
 Mp qL2
12
1
2 1. Elastic response
2
qL
24
 Mp
 Mp qL2
 M p
12 2. Initial hinge at clamped end
qL2 12M p
 Mp
24 q
 Mp  Mp
L2
θ1 3. Hinge rotation at ends
qL2
 Mp 8
 Mp

 Mp  Mp
4. Hinge rotations at ends
θ2
continue. Midspan moment
reaches Mp
 Mp 16M p
 Mp
Mp
 Mp qc 
L2
θ3
5. Plastic collapse
θ
 Mp 16M p
Mp θ3  θ 2 
θ qc 
2 L2
 :: chapter 1::
1.6 Plastic Collapse

M M
2 3 4 5 4 5
Mp Mp

3
1 2
1
1 2
(ends) (mid point)
Moment-curvature response at ends and midpoint

q plastic collapse
4 5
qc
3
incipient
qy 2 plastic collapse
elastic
1
2
Load-deflection curve for midpoint
 :: chapter 1::
1.7a Effect of Axial Force on Plastic Moment
Axial load in a member subjected to bending at the
same time has two effects: (i) it reduces the plastic
moment that the member would otherwise sustain and
(ii) it increases the possibility of failure by buckling
Reduction in plastic moment due to axial force P.
Consider a beam of rectangular section under axial force
P. The axial force P moves the neutral axis as shown in
Fig below. The stresses have been replaced by two
equivalent distributions [(a) and (b)] as shown below.

b σy (a) (b)

- σy -
- σy
d - z
Neutral
+ + +
Axis
Section Strain Stress Equivalent Stress Distribution
 :: chapter 1::
1.7a Effect of Axial Force on Plastic Moment
The stresses in (a) are assumed to be wholly due to the
axial force

P = bzσy (1)
The stresses in (b) are due to the changed plastic moment

M p  2
d  z   b  
d z z
 
y
2  4 2
bd 2   z  
2

  y 1     (2)
4   d  

Recall that the plastic moment capacity (without axial

load) Mp = σy bd2/4. Therefore, we may write
M p z
2

 1   (3)
Mp d 
 :: chapter 1::
1.7a Effect of Axial Force on Plastic Moment
The maximum axial force Pp that the section can carry,
ignoring buckling, is called the squash load and it is given by

Pp = bdσy (4)
P z
so that  (1.20)
Pp d
In view of Eq. (3), we can write
2
M p P
 1   (6)
Mp P 
 p
Eq. (6) shows that both tensile and compressive forces
reduce the plastic moment because the reduction term
(P/Pp)2 is always positive.
 :: chapter 1::

Consider an I-beam with flange width b, flange thickness tf,

total depth d and web thickness tw. When the I-beam is
subjected to axial load P, show that
(i) with neutral axis in the web
 A2  2
M p  M p   n  y (7 )
 4t w 
where A is the total cross-sectional area and n = P/Pp.
Eq. (7) is valid when
P 2bt f
 1
Pp A
(ii) with neutral axis in the flange
 A2  2bd 
M p   1  n 
  1  n  y (8)
 4b  A 
 :: chapter 1::

Plot the curve M/Mp versus n = P/Pp for an I-beam and a

beam of rectangular cross section

M/Mp

0.4

n = P/Pp
0.4 1
 :: chapter 1::
1.7b Effect of Shear Force on Plastic Moment
Shear force also causes a reduction in plastic moment.
Generally beams resist a combination of direct stresses
due to bending and shear stresses due to shear force.
Where there is a combination of direct and shear
stresses, the yield criterion can be expressed as
2 2
   
    1 (9)
    
 y  y
Eq. (9) shows that the individual stresses σ and τ cannot
reach their full yield value unless the other is zero. This
means that it is not possible for the full plastic hinge stress
σy to develop across the depth of beam. The shear stresses
have to be zero at the top and bottom edge of the beam and
so the direct stress can reach its yield value there. This
yield will spread inwards, leaving a core of material carrying
shear and direct stresses.
 :: chapter 1::
1.7b Effect of Shear Force on Plastic Moment
In a rectangular section, the shear stress takes on a
parabolic distribution with the maximum stress at the mid-
depth. It would be reasonable to assume this holds in the
core and that the maximum stress at mid-depth is τy
where the plastic hinge forms. This would mean the stress
distributions as shown below
σy

z Parabolic
d z
τy
b σy
Direct Stress Shear Stress
From the direct stress distribution, one can show that the
reduced plastic moment is
 d 2 z2 
M p  b    y (10)
 4 3
 :: chapter 1::
1.7b Effect of Shear Force on Plastic Moment
From the shear stress distribution, the shear force
4
N  bz y (11)
3
The full plastic moment Mp = σybd2/4 and the masximum
possible shear force Np = bdτy (assuming the yield shear
stress over the whole section). Thus
2
M p 3  N 
 1 (12)
Mp 4  N p 

Note that zmax = d/2. If this is substituted into Eq. (11), it can
be seen that Eq. (12) only holds if

N 2
 (13)
Np 3
 :: chapter 1::

Effect of Shear Force on Plastic Moment Capacity

of a Beam of Rectangular Cross-section
 :: chapter 1::
1.7b Effect of Shear Force on Plastic Moment
I-sections need to be treated differently. Almost all the
shear force is resisted by shear stresses in the web, and
elastic theory shows a much more even distribution
across the depth. A satisfactory approach is to take the
shear stress as constant along the depth of the web so
that the shear force is given by
N  t w d  2t f    y (14 )
Assuming that all the material in the web is yielding, the
direct stress in the web is given by
2
 
 w   y 1    (15)
 y 
The shear capacity of the web Npw is found by putting τ = τy
in Eq. (14). This means that
2
 N 
w  y 1   (16)
N 
 pw 
 :: chapter 1::
1.7b Effect of Shear Force on Plastic Moment
The figure below shows the distribution of shear stress in
the I-section.
tf σy τ

d -
tw σ
+

Bending Shear
From the distribution of stresses, the reduced plastic
moment is given by
t w d  2t f 
2

M p  M p   y  w 
4
  
2 
 N  
M p  M p  1  1  
 N  
(17)
  pw  

where Mpw is the plastic moment of the rectangular web.
 :: chapter 1::

Effect of Shear Force on Plastic

Moment Capacity of an I-Beam
 :: chapter 1::
1.7 How important are the effects of axial
forces and shear forces on plastic moment?

In low-rise structures, axial forces are too small to

have any significant impact on the plastic moments.
In high-rise structures, they are more important and
allowance must be made for them.

The shear forces cause smaller reductions in plastic

moment than axial forces, and need only considered
when they are exceptionally large. Reductions from
shear forces are only likely to be significant in short
span beams carrying very large concentrated loads.
 :: chapter 1::
Assignment # 1
1. Determine the shape factor of the T-beam shown in Fig. 1.

300 mm

20 mm

450 mm
15 mm

Fig. 1

2. For a thin pipe section,

a) find the shape factor;
b) derive the m-Φ curve based on elastic-plastic σ-ε curve
c) plot the results.
 :: chapter 1::
3. A beam 15mm wide and 20mm deep is constructed of a
material whose stress-strain curve is shown in Fig. 2. The
beam section is subjected to an increasing bending moment
in the vertical plane. Determine:
a) the position of the neutral axis during the elastic range;
b) the value of the bending moment at which inelastic action
begins;
c) the full plastic moment, Mp, of the beam

 MPa

280
TENSION
20  103

COMPRESSIO N
10  103

160

Fig. 2