11 – 19 PROGRESSION

Edexcel AS and A level Mathematics

Statistics and Mechanics

Year 1/AS
Series Editor: Harry Smith
Authors: Greg Attwood, Ian Bettison, Alan Clegg, Gill Dyer, Jane Dyer, Keith Gallick,
Susan Hooker, Michael Jennings, Jean Littlewood, Bronwen Moran, James Nicholson,
Su Nicholson, Laurence Pateman, Keith Pledger, Harry Smith

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 Contents

Contents

Overarching themes iv 5.3 Mutually exclusive and independent

Extra online content vi events 75
5.4 Tree diagrams 78
STATISTICS Mixed exercise 5 80
1 Data collection 1
1.1 Populations and samples 2 6 Statistical distributions 83
1.2 Sampling 5 6.1 Probability distributions 84
1.3 Non-random sampling 7 6.2 The binomial distribution 88
1.4 Types of data 9 6.3 Cumulative probabilities 91
1.5 The large data set 11 Mixed exercise 6 94
Mixed exercise 1 16
7 Hypothesis testing 98
2 Measures of location and spread 20 7.1 Hypothesis testing 99
2.1 Measures of central tendency 21 7.2 Finding critical values 101
2.2 Other measures of location 25 7.3 One-tailed tests 105
2.3 Measures of spread 28 7.4 Two-tailed tests 107
2.4 Variance and standard deviation 30 Mixed exercise 7 109
2.5 Coding 33
Mixed exercise 2 36
Review exercise 1 113

3 Representations of data 40
MECHANICS
3.1 Outliers 41
8 Modelling in mechanics 118
3.2 Box plots 43
8.1 Constructing a model 119
3.3 Cumulative frequency 46
8.2 Modelling assumptions 120
3.4 Histograms 48
8.3 Quantities and units 122
3.5 Comparing data 53
8.4 Working with vectors 125
Mixed exercise 3 54
Mixed exercise 8 128

4 Correlation 59
9 Constant acceleration 130
4.1 Correlation 60
9.1 Displacement–time graphs 131
4.2 Linear regression 63
Mixed exercise 4 66 9.2 Velocity–time graphs 133
9.3 Constant acceleration formulae 1 137
5 Probability 69 9.4 Constant acceleration formulae 2 142
5.1 Calculating probabilities 70 9.5 Vertical motion under gravity 146
5.2 Venn diagrams 72 Mixed exercise 9 152

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 Contents

10 Forces and motion 156 11.4 Using integration 188

10.1 Force diagrams 157 11.5 Constant acceleration formulae 191
10.2 Forces as vectors 160 Mixed exercise 11 193
10.3 Forces and acceleration 162
10.4 Motion in 2 dimensions 166 Review exercise 2 197
10.5 Connected particles 169
10.6 Pulleys 173 Exam-style practice: Paper 2 201
Mixed exercise 10 177
Appendix 204
11 Variable acceleration 181
11.1 Functions of time 182 Answers 209
11.2 Using differentiation 185
11.3 Maxima and minima problems 186 Index 231

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 Overarching themes

Overarching themes
The following three overarching themes have been fully integrated throughout the Pearson Edexcel
AS and A level Mathematics series, so they can be applied alongside your learning and practice.
1. Mathematical argument, language and proof
• Rigorous and consistent approach throughout
• Notation boxes explain key mathematical language and symbols
• Dedicated sections on mathematical proof explain key principles and strategies
• Opportunities to critique arguments and justify methods
2. Mathematical problem solving The Mathematical Problem-solving cycle

• Hundreds of problem-solving questions, fully integrated specify the problem

into the main exercises

• Problem-solving boxes provide tips and strategies interpret results
collect information
• Structured and unstructured questions to build confidence
• Challenge boxes provide extra stretch process and
represent information
3. Mathematical modelling
• Dedicated modelling sections in relevant topics provide plenty of practice where you need it
• Examples and exercises include qualitative questions that allow you to interpret answers in the
context of the model
• Dedicated chapter in Statistics & Mechanics Year 1/AS explains the principles of modelling in
mechanics

Finding your way around the book Access an online

digital edition using
the code at the
front of the book.

Each chapter starts with

a list of objectives
The real world applications
of the maths you are about
to learn are highlighted at
the start of the chapter with
The Prior knowledge check links to relevant questions in
helps make sure you are the chapter
ready to start the chapter

iv

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 Overarching themes

Exercise questions are

carefully graded so they
increase in difficulty and
gradually bring you up
to exam standard

Exercises are packed

with exam-style
questions to ensure
you are ready for the
exams

Problem-solving boxes
provide hints, tips and
strategies, and Watch out
boxes highlight areas
where students often
lose marks in their exams

Exam-style questions
are flagged with E Each chapter ends Challenge boxes Each section begins Step-by-step
Problem-solving with a Mixed exercise give you a chance to with explanation worked examples
questions are flagged and a Summary of tackle some more and key learning focus on the key
with P key points difficult questions points types of questions
you’ll need to tackle

Every few chapters a Review exercise

helps you consolidate your learning
with lots of exam-style questions

A full AS level practice paper at

the back of the book helps you
prepare for the real thing

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 Extra online content

Extra online content

Whenever you see an Online box, it means that there is extra online content available to support you.

Differentiation 12A
1 a Examples of estimates of gradients:
Gradient of tangent at x = −1 is 2 c i Gradient of AD = y2 − y1
y2 − y1 3 −1 x2 − x1
=
x2 − x1 (−1) − (−0.5) 0.8 − 0.19
=
= − 4 0.6 − 0.9
Gradient of tangent at x = 0 is = −1.21 (3 s.f.)
y2 − y1 1 − (−1)
=
x2 − x1 (−0.5) − (0.5) ii Gradient of AC = y2 − y1

SolutionBank = −2
Gradient of tangent at x = 1 is
y2 − y1 (−1) − (−1)
=
x2 − x1
0.8 − 0.6
0.6 − 0.8
=
x2 − x1 2−0 = −1

SolutionBank provides a full worked solution for =0

Gradient of tangent at x = 2 is
y2 − y1 (−1) − 1
iii Gradient of AB = y2 − y1
x2 − x1
=
every question in the book. x2 − x1
=2
1.5 − 2.5

Gradient of tangent at x = 3 is
=
0.8 − 0.51
0.6 − 0.7
= − 0.859 (3 s.f.)
y2 − y1 3 −1
= =4 d As the points move closer to A, the
x2 − x1 3 − 2.5
gradient tends to − 0.75.
x-coordinate −1 0 1 2 3
Estimate for 3 a i Gradient= 16 − 9= 7= 7

Online Full worked solutions are gradient of

curve
−4 −2 0 2 4 4−3 1

12.25 − 9 3.25
b The gradient of the curve at the point ii Gradient
= = = 6.5
3.5 − 3 0.5

available in SolutionBank.
where x = p is 2p − 2.

c Gradient of tangent at x = 1.5 is 9.61 − 9 0.61

iii Gradient
= = = 6.1
y2 − y1 (−1.7) − 0.3 3.1 − 3 0.1
=
x2 − x1 0.5 − 2.5
=1 9.0601 − 9 0.0601
iv Gradient
= = = 6.01
  2p − 2 = 2(1.5) − 2 = 1 3.01 − 3 0.01

2 a Substituting x = 0.6 into =

y 1 − x2 : ( 3 + h )2 − 9
v Gradient =
y = 1 − 0.6 2 = 0.64 = 0.8 , therefore the (3 + h) − 3
point A (0.6, 0.8) lies on the curve. h + h2
6h
=
b Gradient of tangent at x = 0.6 is h
y2 − y1 1.1 − 0.8 h (6 + h)
= =
x2 − x1 0.2 − 0.6 h
=6+h
Differentiation, Mixed Exercis e 12
= − 0.75
dy 2
1 f(x) = 10x2 3 When = x 2,= 6 × 2 − 3
dx 2
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′(x) = lim 2
h →0 h = 12 −
2 8
10( x + h) − 10
2
x © Pearson Education Ltd 2017. Copying permitted for purchasing
= lim 3 institution only. This material is not copyright free.
h →0 h = 11 1
2 4
10 x + 20 xh + 10h − 10 x
2 2

= lim dy 2
h →0 h When = x 3= , 6×3− 3
2 dx 3
20 xh + 10h 2
= lim = 18 −
h → 0 h
27
h(20 x + 10h)
= lim 25
h →0 h = 17
27
Download all the solutions = lim(20 x + 10h)
h →0

As h → 0, 20x + 10h → 20x

The gradients at points
11 34 and 17 27 , respectively.
25
A, B and C are 4,

So f ′(x) = 20x
as a PDF or quickly find the 2 a A has coordinates (1, 4).
4 y = 7x − x
dy
2 3

2
The y-coordinate of B is = 14x − 3x
solution you need online (1 + δx)3 + 3(1 + δx)
= 1 + 3δx +
3 3(δx) 2
+ (δx) 3
+ 3 + 3δx
dx
dy
= 16 when
= (δx) + 3(δx)
3 2
+ 6δx + 4 d x
Gradient of AB 14x − 3x2 = 16
y −y 3x2 − 14x + 16 = 0
= 2 1 (3x − 8)(x − 2) = 0
x2 − x1
8
x = or x = 2
( δx ) + 3 ( δx ) + 6δx + 4 − 4
3 2
3
=
δx
y = x3 − 11x + 1
( δx ) + 3 ( δx ) + 6δx 5
3 2

= dy
δx = 3x2 − 11
dx
= ( δx ) + 3δx + 6
2
dy
= 1 when
dx
b As δx → 0, (δx) + 3δx + 6 → 6
2
at 3x2 − 11 = 1
Therefore, the gradient of the curve 3x2 = 12
point A is 6. x2 = 4
x = ±2
1 −2 When x = 2, y = 2 − 11(2)
3 + 1 = −13
3 y = 3x 2
+ 3 + = 3x 2
+ 3 + x
= 15
When x = −2, y = (−2) − 11(−2) + 1
3
x2
dy 2 The gradient is 1 at the points (2, −13)
= 6x − 2x
−3
= 6x −
dx x3 and (−2, 15).

dy 2 9
= 6 ×1 − 3 6 a f(x) = x + = x + 9x−1
When x = 1, 1 x
dx
9
=4 f ′(x) = 1 − 9x = 1 − x 2
−2

only. This material is not copyright

free. 1
permitted for purchasing institution
© Pearson Education Ltd 2017. Copying

Access all the extra online content for free at:

www.pearsonschools.co.uk/sm1maths
You can also access the extra online content by scanning this QR code:

vi

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 Extra online content

Use of technology y

Explore topics in more detail, visualise Online Find the point of intersection
problems and consolidate your understanding. graphically using technology.
Use pre-made GeoGebra activities or Casio
resources for a graphic calculator.

GeoGebra-powered interactives Graphic calculator interactives

Interact with the maths

you are learning using
GeoGebra's easy-to-use
tools

Interact with the maths you are Explore the maths you are learning
learning using GeoGebra's easy-to- and gain confidence in using a
use tools graphic calculator

Calculator tutorials
Our helpful video tutorials will
guide you through how to use
your calculator in the exams.
They cover both Casio's scientific
and colour graphic calculators.

Online Work out each coefficient Step-by-step guide with audio

quickly using the nCr and power instructions on exactly which
buttons to press and what should
functions on your calculator. appear on your calculator's screen

vii

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 Published by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL.
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Copies of official specifications for all Pearson qualifications may be found on the website:
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Text © Pearson Education Limited 2017
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Typeset by Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Original illustrations © Pearson Education Limited 2017
Cover illustration Marcus@kja-artists
The rights of Greg Attwood, Ian Bettison, Alan Clegg, Gill Dyer, Jane Dyer, Keith Gallick, Susan
Hooker, Michael Jennings, Jean Littlewood, Bronwen Moran, James Nicholson, Su Nicholson,
Laurence Pateman, Keith Pledger and Harry Smith to be identified as authors of this work have
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First published 2017
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ISBN 978 1 292 20771 1 (PDF)
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 Data collection
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
1
● Understand ‘population’, ‘sample’ and ‘census’, and comment on the
advantages and disadvantages of each  → pages 2–3

● Understand the advantages and disadvantages of simple random

sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, quota sampling
and opportunity sampling  → pages 4–9

● Define qualitative, quantitative, discrete and continuous data, and

understand grouped data → pages 9–10

● Understand the large data set and how to collect data from it,
identify types of data and calculate simple statistics → pages 11–16

Prior knowledge check

1 Find the mean, median, mode and range of these data sets:
a 1, 3, 4, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 b 20, 18, 17, 20, 14, 23, 19, 16
 ← GCSE Mathematics
2 Here is a question from a questionnaire surveying TV viewing
habits.
How much TV do you watch?
0–1 hours   1–2 hours   3–4 hours
Give two criticisms of the question and write an improved
question. ← GCSE Mathematics
3 Rebecca records the shoe size, x, of the female students in her
year. The results are given in the table.
Number of
Find: x
students, f
a the number of female students who
Meteorologists collect and 35  3
take shoe size 37
analyse weather data to
b the shoe size taken by the smallest 36 17
help them predict weather
number of female students 37 29
patterns. Selecting
weather data from specific c the shoe size taken by the greatest
38 34
dates and places is an number of female students
example of sampling. d the total number of female students 39 12
 → Section 1.5 in the year. ← GCSE Mathematics

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 Chapter 1

1.1 Populations and samples

■ In statistics, a population is the whole set of items that are of interest.
For example, the population could be the items manufactured by a factory or all the people in a town.
Information can be obtained from a population. This is known as raw data.
■ A census observes or measures every member of a population.
■ A sample is a selection of observations taken from a subset of the population which is used
to find out information about the population as a whole.
There are a number of advantages and disadvantages of both a census and a sample.

Advantages Disadvantages
Census • It should give a completely accurate result • Time consuming and expensive
• Cannot be used when the testing
process destroys the item
• Hard to process large quantity of data
Sample • Less time consuming and expensive than • The data may not be as accurate
a census • The sample may not be large enough
• Fewer people have to respond to give information about small sub-
• Less data to process than in a census groups of the population

The size of the sample can affect the validity of any conclusions drawn.
• The size of the sample depends on the required accuracy and available resources.
• Generally, the larger the sample, the more accurate it is, but you will need greater resources.
• If the population is very varied, you need a larger sample than if the population were uniform.
• Different samples can lead to different conclusions due to the natural variation in a population.
■ Individual units of a population are known as sampling units.
■ Often sampling units of a population are individually named or numbered to form a list
called a sampling frame.

Example 1
A supermarket wants to test a delivery of avocados for ripeness by cutting them in half.
a Suggest a reason why the supermarket should not test all the avocados in the delivery.
The supermarket tests a sample of 5 avocados and finds that 4 of them are ripe.
They estimate that 80% of the avocados in the delivery are ripe.
b Suggest one way that the supermarket could improve their estimate.
a Testing all the avocados would mean that When testing a product destroys it, a ‘census’ is
there were none left to sell. not appropriate.
b They could take a larger sample, for
example 10 avocados. This would give a In general, larger samples produce more accurate
better estimate of the overall proportion predictions about a population.
of ripe avocados.

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 Data collection

Exercise 1A
1 A school uses a census to investigate the dietary requirements of its students.
a Explain what is meant by a census.
b Give one advantage and one disadvantage to the school of using a census.

2 A factory makes safety harnesses for climbers and has an order to supply 3000 harnesses. The
buyer wishes to know that the load at which the harness breaks exceeds a certain figure.
a Suggest a reason why a census would not be used for this purpose.
The factory tests four harnesses and the load for breaking is recorded:
320 kg    260 kg    240 kg    180 kg
b The factory claims that the harnesses are safe for loads up to 250 kg. Use the sample data to
comment on this claim.
c Suggest one way in which the company can improve their prediction.

3 A city council wants to know what people think about its recycling centre.
The council decides to carry out a sample survey to learn the opinion of residents.
a Write down one reason why the council should not take a census.
b Suggest a suitable sampling frame.
c Identify the sampling units.

4 A manufacturer of microswitches is testing the reliability of its switches. It uses a special

machine to switch them on and off until they break.
a Give one reason why the manufacturer should use a sample rather than a census.
The company tests a sample of 10 switches, and obtains the following results:
23 150    25 071    19 480    22 921    7455
b The company claims that its switches can be operated an average of 20 000 times without
breaking. Use the sample data above to comment on this claim.
c Suggest one way the company could improve its prediction.

5 A manager of a garage wants to know what their mechanics think about a new pension scheme
designed for them. The manager decides to ask all the mechanics in the garage.
a Describe the population the manager will use.
b Write down the main advantage in asking all of their mechanics.

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 Chapter 1

1.2 Sampling
In random sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The
sample should therefore be representative of the population. Random sampling also helps to
remove bias from a sample.
There are three methods of random sampling:
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
■ A simple random sample of size n is one where every sample of size n has an equal chance of
being selected.
To carry out a simple random sample, you need a sampling frame, usually a list of people or things.
Each person or thing is allocated a unique number and a selection of these numbers is chosen at
random.
There are two methods of choosing the numbers: generating random numbers (using a calculator,
computer or random number table) and lottery sampling.
In lottery sampling, the members of the sampling frame could be written on tickets and placed into a
‘hat’. The required number of tickets would then be drawn out.

Example 2

The 100 members of a yacht club are listed alphabetically in the club’s membership book.
The committee wants to select a sample of 12 members to fill in a questionnaire.
a Explain how the committee could use a calculator or random number generator to take a simple
random sample of the members.
b Explain how the committee could use a lottery sample to take a simple random sample of the
members.

a Allocate a number from 1 to 100 to each member of the yacht

club. Use your calculator or a random number generator to
If your calculator generates
generate 12 random numbers between 1 and 100.
a number that has already
Go back to the original population and select the people been selected, ignore that
corresponding to these numbers. number and generate an
b Write all the names of the members on (identical) cards and extra random number.
place them into a hat. Draw out 12 names to make up the sample
of members.

■ In systematic sampling, the required elements are chosen at regular intervals from an
ordered list.

For example, if a sample of size 20 was required from a population of 100, you would take every fifth
person since 100 ÷ 20 = 5.

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 Data collection

The first person to be chosen should be chosen at random. So, for example, if the first person chosen
is number 2 in the list, the remaining sample would be persons 7, 12, 17 etc.

■ In stratified sampling, the population is divided into mutually exclusive strata (males and
females, for example) and a random sample is taken from each.

The proportion of each strata sampled should be the same. A simple formula can be used to calculate
the number of people we should sample from each stratum:
number in stratum
The number sampled in a stratum = ___________________
​    ​× overall sample size
  
number in population

Example 3
A factory manager wants to find out what his workers think about the factory canteen facilities.
The manager decides to give a questionnaire to a sample of 80 workers. It is thought that different
age groups will have different opinions.
There are 75 workers between ages 18 and 32.
There are 140 workers between 33 and 47.
There are 85 workers between 48 and 62.
a Write down the name of the method of sampling the manager should use.
b Explain how he could use this method to select a sample of workers’ opinions.

a Stratified sampling.
Find the total number of
b There are: 75 + 140 + 85 = 300 workers altogether.
workers.
75
18232: _____
​    ​× 80 = 20 workers.
  
300
140 For each age group find the
33247: _____
​   ​× 80 = 37​ _31  ​ ≈ 37 workers.
   number of workers needed
300
85 for the sample.
48262: _____​    ​× 80 = 22​ _23 ​ ≈ 23 workers.
  
300
Number the workers in each age group. Use a random Where the required number
number table (or generator) to produce the required of workers is not a whole
quantity of random numbers. Give the questionnaire to number, round to the
the workers corresponding to these numbers. nearest whole number.

Each method of random sampling has advantages and disadvantages.

Simple random sampling

Advantages Disadvantages
• Free of bias • Not suitable when the population size or the
• Easy and cheap to implement for small sample size is large
populations and small samples • A sampling frame is needed
• Each sampling unit has a known and equal
chance of selection

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 Chapter 1

Systematic sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple and quick to use • A sampling frame is needed
• Suitable for large samples and large • It can introduce bias if the sampling frame is
populations not random

Stratified sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• Sample accurately reflects the population • Population must be clearly classified into
structure distinct strata
• Guarantees proportional representation of • Selection within each stratum suffers from
groups within a population the same disadvantages as simple random
sampling

Exercise 1B
1 a The head teacher of an infant school wishes to take a stratified sample of 20% of the pupils at
the school. The school has the following numbers of pupils.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Problem-solving
40 60 80
When describing advantages or
Work out how many pupils in each age group will be in disadvantages of a particular
the sample. sampling method, always refer
b Describe one benefit to the head teacher of using a to the context of the question.
stratified sample.

2 A survey is carried out on 100 members of the adult population of a city suburb. The population
of the suburb is 2000. An alphabetical list of the inhabitants of the suburb is available.
a Explain one limitation of using a systematic sample in this situation.
b Describe a sampling method that would be free of bias for this survey.

3 A gym wants to take a sample of its members. Each member has a 5-digit membership number,
and the gym selects every member with a membership number ending 000.
a Is this a systematic sample? Give a reason for your answer.
b Suggest one way of improving the reliability of this sample.

4 A head of sixth form wants to get the opinion of Year 12 Year 13

year 12 and year 13 students about the facilities Male 70 50
available in the common room. The table shows Female 85 75
the numbers of students in each year.
a Suggest a suitable sampling method that might be used to take a sample of 40 students.
b How many students from each gender in each of the two years should the head of sixth
form ask?

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 Data collection

5 A factory manager wants to get information about the ways their workers travel to work. There
are 480 workers in the factory, and each has a clocking-in number. The numbers go from 1 to 480.
Explain how the manager could take a systematic sample of size 30 from these workers.

6 The director of a sports club wants to take a sample of members. The members each have a
unique membership number. There are 121 members who play cricket, 145 members who play
hockey and 104 members who play squash. No members play more than one sport.
a Explain how the director could take a simple random sample of 30 members and state one
disadvantage of this sampling method.
The director decides to take a stratified sample of 30 members.
b State one advantage of this method of sampling.
c Work out the number of members who play each sport that the director should select for the
sample.

1.3 Non-random sampling

There are two types of non-random sampling that you need to know:
•   Quota sampling    •   Opportunity sampling
■ In quota sampling, an interviewer or researcher selects a sample that reflects the
characteristics of the whole population.
The population is divided into groups according to a given characteristic. The size of each group
determines the proportion of the sample that should have that characteristic.
As an interviewer, you would meet people, assess their group and then, after interview, allocate them
into the appropriate quota.
This continues until all quotas have been filled. If a person refuses to be interviewed or the quota into
which they fit is full, then you simply ignore them and move on to the next person.

■ Opportunity sampling consists of taking the sample from Notation

Opportunity
people who are available at the time the study is sampling is sometimes called
carried out and who fit the criteria you are looking for. convenience sampling.

This could be the first 20 people you meet outside a supermarket on a Monday morning who are
carrying shopping bags, for example.
There are advantages and disadvantages of each type of sampling.

Quota sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• Allows a small sample to still be • Non-random sampling can introduce bias
representative of the population • Population must be divided into groups,
• No sampling frame required which can be costly or inaccurate
• Quick, easy and inexpensive • Increasing scope of study increases number
• Allows for easy comparison between different of groups, which adds time and expense
groups within a population • Non-responses are not recorded as such

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 Chapter 1

Opportunity sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to carry out • Unlikely to provide a representative sample
• Inexpensive • Highly dependent on individual researcher

Exercise 1C
1 Interviewers in a shopping centre collect information on the spending habits from a total of 40
shoppers.
a Explain how they could collect the information using:
i  quota sampling ii  opportunity sampling
b Which method is likely to lead to a more representative sample?

2 Describe the similarities and differences between quota sampling and stratified random
sampling.

3 An interviewer asks the first 50 people he sees outside a fish and chip shop on a Friday evening
about their eating habits.
a What type of sampling method did he use?
b Explain why the sampling method may not be representative.
c Suggest two improvements he could make to his data collection technique.

4 A researcher is collecting data on the radio-listening habits of people in a local town. She asks
the first 5 people she sees on Monday morning entering a supermarket. The number of hours per
week each person listens is given below:
4    7    6    8    2
a Use the sample data to work out a prediction for the average number of hours listened per
week for the town as a whole.
b Describe the sampling method used and comment on the reliability of the data.
c Suggest two improvements to the method used.

5 In a research study on the masses of wild deer in a particular habitat, scientists catch the first
5 male deer they find and the first 5 female deer they find.
a What type of sampling method are they using?
b Give one advantage of this method.
The masses of the sampled deer are listed below.
Male (kg) 75 80 90 85 82
Female (kg) 67 72 75 68 65

c Use the sample data to compare the masses of male and female wild deer.
d Suggest two improvements the scientists could make to the sampling method.

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 Data collection

6 The heights, in metres, of 20 ostriches are listed below:

1.8, 1.9, 2.3, 1.7, 2.1, 2.0, 2.5, 2.7, 2.5, 2.6, 2.3, 2.2, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.5, 1.9, 2.0, 2.2, 2.5
a Take an opportunity sample of size five from the data.
Hint
An example of an
b Starting from the second data value, take a systematic opportunity sample from this
sample of size five from the data. data would be to select the
c Calculate the mean height for each sample. first five heights from the list.
d State, with reasons, which sampling method is likely to
be more reliable.

1.4 Types of data

■ Variables or data associated with numerical observations are called quantitative variables
or quantitative data.
For example, you can give a number to shoe size so shoe size is a quantitative variable.
■ Variables or data associated with non-numerical observations are called qualitative
variables or qualitative data.
For example, you can’t give a number to hair colour (blonde, red, brunette). Hair colour is a qualitative
variable.
■ A variable that can take any value in a given range is a continuous variable.
For example, time can take any value, e.g. 2 seconds, 2.1 seconds, 2.01 seconds etc.
■ A variable that can take only specific values in a given range is a discrete variable.
For example, the number of girls in a family is a discrete variable as you can’t have 2.65 girls in a family.

Large amounts of data can be displayed in a frequency table or as grouped data.

■ When data is presented in a grouped frequency table, the specific data values are not
shown. The groups are more commonly known as classes.
● Class boundaries tell you the maximum and minimum values that belong in each class.
● The midpoint is the average of the class boundaries.
● The class width is the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries.

Example 4
The lengths, x mm, to the nearest mm, of the forewings of a random sample of male adult
butterflies are measured and shown in the table.
Length of Number of
forewing (mm) butterflies, f
30–31  2

32–33 25

34–36 30

37–39 13

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 Chapter 1

a State whether length is

i quantitative or qualitative
ii discrete or continuous.
b Write down the class boundaries, midpoint and class width for the class 34–36.

a i Quantitative Watch
out Be careful when finding class
ii Continuous boundaries for continuous data. The data values
have been rounded to the nearest mm, so the
b Class boundaries 33.5 mm, 36.5 mm
upper class boundary for the 30–31 mm class is
Midpoint = ​ __
1
2   ​ (33.5 + 36.5) = 35 mm 31.5 mm.
Class width = 36.5 − 33.5 = 3 mm

Exercise 1D
1 State whether each of the following variables is qualitative or quantitative.
a Height of a tree b Colour of car
c Time waiting in a queue d Shoe size
e Names of pupils in a class

2 State whether each of the following quantitative variables is continuous or discrete.

a Shoe size b Length of leaf
c Number of people on a bus d Weight of sugar
e Time required to run 100 m f Lifetime in hours of torch batteries

3 Explain why:
a ‘Type of tree’ is a qualitative variable
b ‘The number of pupils in a class’ is a discrete quantitative variable
c ‘The weight of a collie dog’ is a continuous quantitative variable.

4 The distribution of the masses of two-month-old lambs is shown in the grouped frequency table.

Mass, m (kg) Frequency

1.2 < m , 1.3  8

Hint
The class boundaries are given using
1.3 < m , 1.4 28 inequalities, so the values given in the table are
the actual class boundaries.
1.4 < m , 1.5 32

1.5 < m , 1.6 22

a Write down the class boundaries for the third group.

b Work out the midpoint of the second group.
c Work out the class width of the first group.

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1.5 The large data set

You will need to answer questions based on real data in your exam. Some of these questions will be
based on weather data from the large data set provided by Edexcel.

The data set consists of weather data samples provided by the Met Office for five UK weather stations
and three overseas weather stations over two set periods of time: May to October 1987 and May to
October 2015. The weather stations are labelled on the maps below.

Leuchars
Beijing
Jacksonville
N Leeming
Northern hemisphere

W E Southern hemisphere

S Heathrow Perth

Camborne
Hurn 
The large data set contains data for a number of different variables at each weather station:
• Daily mean temperature in °C – this is the average of the hourly temperature readings during a
24-hour period.
• Daily total rainfall including solid precipitation such as snow and hail, which is melted before
being included in any measurements – amounts less than 0.05 mm are recorded as ‘tr’ or ‘trace’
• Daily total sunshine recorded to the nearest tenth of an hour
• Daily mean wind direction and windspeed in knots, averaged over 24 hours from midnight to
midnight. Mean wind directions are given as bearings and as cardinal (compass) directions. The
data for mean windspeed is also categorised according to the Beaufort scale
Beaufort scale Descriptive Average speed at
term 10 metres above ground
Notation
A knot (kn) is a
0 Calm Less than 1 knot ‘nautical mile per hour’.
1–3 Light 1 to 10 knots 1 kn = 1.15 mph.
4 Moderate 11 to 16 knots
5 Fresh 17 to 21 knots

• Daily maximum gust in knots – this is the Watch out

For the overseas locations, the only
highest instantaneous windspeed recorded. data recorded are:
The direction from which the maximum gust • Daily mean temperature
was blowing is also recorded • Daily total rainfall
• Daily maximum relative humidity, given • Daily mean pressure
as a percentage of air saturation with water • Daily mean windspeed
vapour. Relative humidities above 95% give
rise to misty and foggy conditions

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 Chapter 1

• Daily mean cloud cover HURN © Crown Copyright Met Office 1987
measured in ‘oktas’ or eighths of

Daily mean temperature (°C)

the sky covered by cloud

Daily mean windspeed (kn)

Daily maximum gust (kn)

Daily total sunshine (hrs)
Daily total rainfall (mm)
• Daily mean visibility measured

Daily mean windspeed

(Beaufort conversion)
in decametres (Dm). This is the
greatest horizontal distance at
which an object can be seen in
daylight
• Daily mean pressure measured in

Date
hectopascals (hPa)
Any missing data values are 01/6/1987 15.1 0.6 4.5  7 Light 19
indicated in the large data set as 02/6/1987 12.5 4.7 0  7 Light 22
n/a or ‘not available’. 03/6/1987 13.8 tr 5.6 11 Moderate 25
Data from Hurn for the first days of 04/6/1987 15.5 5.3 7.8  7 Light 17
June 1987 is shown to the right. 05/6/1987 13.1 19.0 0.5 10 Light 33
06/6/1987 13.8 0 8.9 19 Fresh 46
You are expected to be able to take
07/6/1987 13.2 tr 3.8 11 Moderate 27
a sample from the large data set,
08/6/1987 12.9 1 1.7  9 Light 19
identify different types of data and
calculate statistics from the data. 09/6/1987 11.2 tr 5.4  6 Light 19
10/6/1987  9.2 1.3 9.7  4 Light n/a
■ If you need to do calculations on
11/6/1987 12.6 0 12.5  6 Light 18
the large data set in your exam,
12/6/1987 10.4 0 11.9  5 Light n/a
the relevant extract from the
13/6/1987  9.6 0 8.6  5 Light 15
data set will be provided.
14/6/1987 10.2 0 13.1  5 Light 18
15/6/1987  9.2 3.7 7.1  4 Light 25
16/6/1987 10.4 5.6 8.3  6 Light 25
17/6/1987 12.8 0.1 5.3 10 Light 27
18/6/1987 13.0 7.4 3.2  9 Light 24
19/6/1987 14.0 tr 0.4 12 Moderate 33
20/6/1987 12.6 0 7.7  6 Light 17

Example 5
Look at the extract from the large data set given above.
a Describe the type of data represented by daily total rainfall.
Alison is investigating daily maximum gust. She wants to select a sample of size 5 from the first
20 days in Hurn in June 1987. She uses the first two digits of the date as a sampling frame and
generates five random numbers between 1 and 20.
b State the type of sample selected by Alison.
c Explain why Alison’s process might not generate a sample of size 5.

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 Data collection

a Continuous quantitative data. Watch

out Although you won’t need to recall
b Simple random sample specific data values from the large data set in
c Some of the data values are not available your exam, you will need to know the limitations
(n/a). of the data set and the approximate range of
values for each variable.

Example 6
Using the extract from the large data set on the previous page, calculate:
a the mean daily mean temperature for the first five days of June in Hurn in 1987
b the median daily total rainfall for the week of 14th June to 20th June inclusive.
The median daily total rainfall for the same week in Perth was 19.0 mm. Karl states that more
southerly countries experience higher rainfall during June.
c State with a reason whether your answer to part b supports this statement.

The mean is the sum of the data values divided

a 15.1 + 12.5 + 13.8 + 15.5 + 13.1 = 70.0
by the number of data values. The data values are
70.0 ÷ 5 = 14.0 °C (1 d.p.)
given to 1 d.p. so give your answer to the same
b The values are: 0, 3.7, 5.6, 0.1, 7.4, tr, 0 degree of accuracy.
In ascending order: 0, 0, tr, 0.1, 3.7, 5.6,
7.4 Trace amounts are slightly larger than 0. If you
The median is the middle value so 0.1 mm. need to do a numerical calculation involving a
trace amount you can treat it as 0.
c Perth is in Australia, which is south of the
UK, and the median rainfall was higher
Online
Use your calculator to find the
(19.0 mm > 0.1 mm). However, this is a
mean and median of discrete data.
very small sample from a single location in
each country so does not provide enough
Problem-solving
Don’t just look at the
evidence to support Karl’s statement.
numerical values. You also need to consider
whether the sample is large enough, and whether
there are other geographical factors which could
affect rainfall in these two locations.
Exercise 1E
1 From the eight weather stations featured in the large data set, write down:
a the station which is furthest north b the station which is furthest south
c an inland station d a coastal station
e an overseas station.

2 Explain, with reasons, whether daily maximum relative humidity is a discrete or continuous
variable.

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 Chapter 1

Questions 3 and 4 in this exercise use the following extracts from the large data set.

LEEMING HEATHROW
© Crown Copyright Met Office 2015 © Crown Copyright Met Office 2015
Daily mean temperature (°C)

Daily mean temperature (°C)

Daily mean windspeed (kn)

Daily mean windspeed (kn)

Daily total sunshine (hrs)

Daily total sunshine (hrs)

Daily total rainfall (mm)

Daily total rainfall (mm)

Date

Date
01/06/2015  8.9 10  5.1 15 01/06/2015 12.1 0.6  4.1 15

02/06/2015 10.7 tr  8.9 17 02/06/2015 15.4 tr  1.6 18

03/06/2015 12.0 0 10.0  8 03/06/2015 15.8 0  9.1  9

04/06/2015 11.7 0 12.8  7 04/06/2015 16.1 0.8 14.4  6

05/06/2015 15.0 0  8.9  9 05/06/2015 19.6 tr  5.3  9

06/06/2015 11.6 tr  5.4 17 06/06/2015 14.5 0 12.3 12

07/06/2015 12.6 0 13.9 10 07/06/2015 14.0 0 13.1  5

08/06/2015  9.4 0  9.7  7 08/06/2015 14.0 tr  6.4  7

09/06/2015  9.7 0 12.1  5 09/06/2015 11.4 0  2.5 10

10/06/2015 11.0 0 14.6  4 10/06/2015 14.3 0  7.2 10

P 3 a Work out the mean of the daily total sunshine for the first 10 days of June 2015 in:
i Leeming
ii  Heathrow.
b Work out the range of the daily total sunshine for the first 10 days of June 2015 in:
i Leeming
ii Heathrow.
Hint
State in your answer
c Supraj says that the further north you are, the fewer the
whether Leeming is north or
number of hours of sunshine. State, with reasons, whether
south of Heathrow.
your answers to parts a and b support this conclusion.

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 Data collection

P 4 Calculate the mean daily total rainfall in Heathrow for the first 10 days of June 2015.
Explain clearly how you dealt with the data for 2/6/2015, 5/6/2015 and 8/6/2015.

P 5 Dominic is interested in seeing how the average monthly temperature changed over the
summer months of 2015 in Jacksonville. He decides to take a sample of
two days every month and average the temperatures before comparing them.
a Give one reason why taking two days a month might be:
i  a good sample size
ii  a poor sample size.
b He chooses the first day of each month and the last day of each month.
Give a reason why this method of choosing days might not be representative.
c Suggest a better way that he can choose his sample of days.

P 6 The table shows the mean daily temperatures at each of the eight weather stations for
August 2015:

Camborne Heathrow Hurn Leeming Leuchars Beijing Jacksonville Perth

Mean daily
mean temp 15.4 18.1 16.2 15.6 14.7 26.6 26.4 13.6
(°C)

© Crown Copyright Met Office

a Give a geographical reason why the temperature in August might be lower in Perth than in
Jacksonville.
b Comment on whether this data supports the conclusion that coastal locations experience
lower average temperatures than inland locations.

P 7 Brian calculates the mean cloud coverage in Leeming in September 1987. He obtains the answer
9.3 oktas. Explain how you know that Brian’s answer is incorrect.

E/p 8 The large data set provides data for 184 consecutive days in 1987. Marie is investigating daily
mean windspeeds in Camborne in 1987.
a Describe how Marie could take a systematic sample of 30 days from the data for
Camborne in 1987. (3 marks)
b Explain why Marie’s sample would not necessarily give her 30 data points for her
investigation. (1 mark)

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 Chapter 1

Large data set

You will need access to the large data set and spreadsheet software to answer
these questions.
1 a Find the mean daily mean pressure in Beijing in October 1987.
b Find the median daily rainfall in Jacksonville in July 2015.
c i Draw a grouped frequency table for the daily mean temperature in Hint
You can use the
Heathrow in July and August 2015. Use intervals 10 < t , 15, etc.
CountIf command in
ii  Draw a histogram to display this data.
a spreadsheet to work
iii  Draw a frequency polygon for this data.
out the frequency for
2 a i Take a simple random sample of size 10 from the data for daily mean each class.
windspeed in Leeming in 1987.
ii  Work out the mean of the daily windspeeds using your sample.
b i Take a sample of the last 10 values from the data for daily mean
windspeed in Leuchars in 1987.
ii Work out the mean of the daily mean windspeeds using your sample.
c State, with reasons, which of your samples is likely to be more
representative.
d Suggest two improvements to the sampling methods suggested in part a.
e Use an appropriate sampling method and sample size to estimate the
mean windspeeds in Leeming and Leuchars in 1987. State with a reason
whether your calculations support the statement ‘Coastal locations are
likely to have higher average windspeeds than inland locations’.

Mixed exercise 1

1 The table shows the daily mean temperature recorded on the first 15 days in May 1987 at
Heathrow.
Day of month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Daily mean
14.6 8.8 7.2 7.3 10.1 11.9 12.2 12.1 15.2 11.1 10.6 12.7 8.9 10.0 9.5
temp (°C)
© Crown Copyright Met Office
a Use an opportunity sample of the first 5 dates in the table to estimate the mean daily mean
temperature at Heathrow for the first 15 days of May 1987.
b Describe how you could use the random number function Hint
Make sure you describe
on your calculator to select a simple random sample of your sampling frame.
5 dates from this data.
c Use a simple random sample of 5 dates to estimate the mean daily mean temperature at
Heathrow for the first 15 days of May 1987.
d Use all 15 dates to calculate the mean daily mean temperature at Heathrow for the first
15 days of May 1987. Comment on the reliability of your two samples.

2 a Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using:

i a census ii a sample survey.
b It is decided to take a sample of 100 from a population consisting of 500 elements. Explain
how you would obtain a simple random sample from this population.

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 Data collection

3 a Explain briefly what is meant by:

i a population ii a sampling frame.
b A market research organisation wants to take a sample of:
i owners of diesel motor cars in the UK
ii persons living in Oxford who suffered injuries to the back during July 1996.
Suggest a suitable sampling frame in each case.

4 Write down one advantage and one disadvantage of using:

a stratified sampling b simple random sampling.

5 The managing director of a factory wants to know what the workers think about the factory
canteen facilities. 100 people work in the offices and 200 work on the shop floor.
The factory manager decides to ask the people who work in the offices.
a Suggest a reason why this is likely to produce a biased sample.
b Explain briefly how the factory manager could select a sample of 30 workers using:
i  systematic sampling   ii  stratified sampling   iii  quota sampling.
6 There are 64 girls and 56 boys in a school.
Explain briefly how you could take a random sample of 15 pupils using:
a simple random sampling b stratified sampling.

7 As part of her statistics project, Deepa decided to estimate the amount of time A-level students
at her school spent on private study each week. She took a random sample of students from
those studying arts subjects, science subjects and a mixture of arts and science subjects. Each
student kept a record of the time they spent on private study during the third week of term.
a Write down the name of the sampling method used by Deepa.
b Give a reason for using this method and give one advantage this method has over simple
random sampling.

8 A conservationist is collecting data on African springboks. She catches the first five springboks
she finds and records their masses.
a State the sampling method used.
b Give one advantage of this type of sampling method.
The data is given below:
70 
kg  76  kg  82  kg  74 
kg  78 
kg.
c State, with a reason, whether this data is discrete or continuous.
d Calculate the mean mass.
A second conservationist collects data by selecting one springbok in each of five locations.
The data collected is given below:
79 
kg  86 
kg  90 
kg  68 
kg  75 
kg.
e Calculate the mean mass for this sample.
f State, with a reason, which mean mass is likely to be a more reliable estimate of the mean
mass of African springboks.
g Give one improvement the second conservationist could make to the sampling method.

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 Chapter 1

E 9 Data on the daily total rainfall in Beijing during 2015 is gathered from the large data set.
The daily total rainfall (in mm) on the first of each month is listed below:
May 1st   9.0
June 1st   0.0
July 1st   1.0
August 1st 32.0
September 1st   4.1
October 1st   3.0
a State, with a reason, whether or not this sample is random. (1 mark)
b Suggest two alternative sampling methods and give one advantage and one
disadvantage of each in this context. (2 marks)
c State, with a reason, whether the data is discrete or continuous. (1 mark)
d Calculate the mean of the six data values given above. (1 mark)
e Comment on the reliability of this value as an estimate for the mean daily total rainfall
in Beijing during 2015. (1 mark)

Large data set

You will need access to the large data set and spreadsheet software to answer
these questions.
a Take a systematic sample of size 18 for the daily maximum relative
humidity in Camborne during 1987.
b Give one advantage of using a systematic sample in this context.
c Use your sample to find an estimate for the mean daily maximum relative
humidity in Camborne during 1987.
d Comment on the reliability of this estimate. Suggest one way in which the
reliability can be improved.

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Summary of key points

1 • In statistics, a population is the whole set of items that are of interest.
• A census observes or measures every member of a population.

2 • A
 sample is a selection of observations taken from a subset of the population which is used
to find out information about the population as a whole.
• Individual units of a population are known as sampling units.
• O
 ften sampling units of a population are individually named or numbered to form a list
called a sampling frame.

 simple random sample of size n is one where every sample of size n has an equal chance
3 • A
of being selected.
• In systematic sampling, the required elements are chosen at regular intervals from an
ordered list.
• In stratified sampling, the population is divided into mutually exclusive strata (males and
females, for example) and a random sample is taken from each.
• In quota sampling, an interviewer or researcher selects a sample that reflects the
characteristics of the whole population.
 pportunity sampling consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the
• O
time the study is carried out and who fit the criteria you are looking for.

 ariables or data associated with numerical observations are called quantitative variables
4 • V
or quantitative data.
• V
 ariables or data associated with non-numerical observations are called qualitative
variables or qualitative data.

5 • A variable that can take any value in a given range is a continuous variable.
• A variable that can take only specific values in a given range is a discrete variable.

6 • W
 hen data is presented in a grouped frequency table, the specific data values are not
shown. The groups are more commonly known as classes.
• Class boundaries tell you the maximum and minimum values that belong in each class.
• The midpoint is the average of the class boundaries.
• The class width is the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries.

7 If you need to do calculations on the large data set in your exam, the relevant extract from the
data set will be provided.

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 2 Measures of location
and spread
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Calculate measures of central tendency such as the mean,
median and mode → pages 21−25

● Calculate measures of location such as percentiles and

deciles  → pages 25−28

● Calculate measures of spread such as range, interquartile

range and interpercentile range  → pages 28−29

● Calculate variance and standard deviation → pages 30−33

● Understand and use coding → pages 33−36

Prior knowledge check

1 State whether each of these variables is
qualitative or quantitative:
a Colour of car
b Miles travelled by a cyclist
c Favourite type of pet
d Number of brothers and sisters.
 ← Section 1.4

2 State whether each of these variables is

discrete or continuous:
a Number of pets owned
b Distance walked by ramblers
c Fuel consumption of lorries
d Number of peas in a pod
e  Times taken by a group of athletes to
run 1500 m.  ← Section 1.4

3 Find the mean, median, mode and range

of the data shown in this frequency table.
Number of Wildlife biologists use statistics such as mean
3 4 5 6 7
peas in a pod wingspan and standard deviation to compare
Frequency 4 7 11 18 6 populations of endangered birds in different
 ← GCSE Mathematics habitats.  → Mixed exercise Q12

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 Measures of location and spread

2.1 Measures of central tendency

A measure of location is a single value which describes a position in a data set. If the single value
describes the centre of the data, it is called a measure of central tendency. You should already
know how to work out the mean, median and mode of a set of ungrouped data and from ungrouped
frequency tables.
■ The mode or modal class is the value or class that occurs most often.
■ The median is the middle value when the data values are put in order.
■ The mean can be calculated using the Notation
Sx
​ ¯​ = ​ ___
formula x  n   ​  . ● ​ ¯​ represents the mean of the data. You say ‘x bar’.
x 
● Sx represents the sum of the data values.
● n is the number of data values.

Example 1
The mean of a sample of 25 observations is 6.4. The mean of a second sample of 30 observations
is 7.2. Calculate the mean of all 55 observations.

For the first set of observations:

Σx Σx
​ ¯​  = ​ ___
x  ___
n   ​ so 6.4 = ​ 25  
​

​Σx​= 6.4 × 25 = 160 Sum of data values = mean × number of data values.
For the second set of observations:
Σy Σy
​ ¯​  = ​ ___
y  ___
m ​ ​ so 7.2 = ​ 30   
​ Notation
You can use x and y to represent
​Σy​= 7.2 × 30 = 216 two different data sets. You need to use different
letters for the number of observations in each
160 + 216
Mean = __________
  
​  = 6.84 (2 d.p.)
  ​  data set.
25 + 30

You need to decide on the best measure to use in particular situations.

• Mode T his is used when data is qualitative, or quantitative with either a single mode or two
modes (bimodal). It is not very informative if each value occurs only once.
• Median T his is used for quantitative data. It is usually used when there are extreme values, as
they do not affect it.
• Mean T his is used for quantitative data and uses all the pieces of data. It therefore gives a true
measure of the data. However, it is affected by extreme values.

You can calculate the mean, median and mode for discrete data presented in a frequency table.
■ For data given in a frequency table, the
mean can be calculated using the formula Notation
Sxf ● Sxf   is the sum of the products of the
​ ¯​ = ​ ____ ​  ​ .
x  data values and their frequencies.
Sf
● Sf   is the sum of the frequencies.

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 Chapter 2

Example 2

Rebecca records the shirt collar size, x,  Shirt collar size 15 15.5 16 16.5 17
of the male students in her year. Number of students 3 17 29 34 12
The results are shown in the table.
Find for this data:
a the mode b the median c the mean.
d Explain why a shirt manufacturer might use the mode when planning production numbers.

16.5 is the collar size with the

a Mode = 16.5
highest frequency.
b There are 95 observations
95 + 1
so the median is the ​_______
     ​= 48th.
 
2
The 48th observation is therefore
There are 20 observations up to 15.5
16.
and 49 observations up to 16.
Median = 16
Online
You can input a
15 × 3 + 15.5 × 17 + 16 × 29 + 16.5 × 34 + 17 × 12
​ ¯​  = ​ _________________________________________________
c x              ​ frequency table into your
95
calculator, and calculate the mean
1537.5
45 + 263.5 + 464 + 561 + 204 _______
= ​ ______________________________
          ​= ​  ​= 16.2
   
  and median without having to
95 95
enter the whole calculation.
d The mode is an actual data value and gives the
manufacturer information on the most common size
The mean is not one of the data
worn/purchased.
values and the median is not
necessarily indicative of the most
popular collar size.
Exercise 2A
1 Meryl collected wild mushrooms every day for a week. When she got home each day she weighed
them to the nearest 100  g. The weights are shown below:
500    700    400    300    900    700    700
a Write down the mode for this data.
b Calculate the mean for this data.
c Find the median for this data.
On the next day, Meryl collects 650 g of wild mushrooms.
d Write down the effect this will have Hint
Try to answer part d without recalculating the
on the mean, the mode and the median. averages. You could recalculate to check your answer.

2 Joe collects six pieces of data, x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 and x6. He works out that Sx is 256.2.
a Calculate the mean for this data.
He collects another piece of data. It is 52.
b Write down the effect this piece of data will have on the mean.

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 Measures of location and spread

3 From the large data set, the daily mean visibility, v metres, for Leeming in May and June 2015
was recorded each day. The data is summarised as follows:
May: n = 31, Sv = 724 000 Hint
You don’t need to
June: n = 30, Sv = 632 000 refer to the actual large data
set. All the data you need is
a Calculate the mean visibility in each month.
given with the question.
b Calculate the mean visibility for the total recording period.

4 A small workshop records how long it takes, in minutes, for each of their workers to make a
certain item. The times are shown in the table.
Worker A B C D E F G H I J
Time in minutes 7 12 10 8 6 8 5 26 11 9

a Write down the mode for this data.

b Calculate the mean for this data.
c Find the median for this data.
d The manager wants to give the workers an idea of the average time they took.
Write down, with a reason, which of the answers to a, b and c she should use.

5 The frequency table shows the number of  Breakdowns 0 1 2 3 4 5

breakdowns, b, per month recorded by a road Frequency 8 11 12 3 1 1
haulage firm over a certain period of time.
a Write down the modal number of breakdowns.
b Find the median number of breakdowns.
c Calculate the mean number of breakdowns.
d In a brochure about how many loads reach their destination on time, the firm quotes
one of the answers to a, b or c as the number of breakdowns per month for its vehicles.
Write down which of the three answers the firm should quote in the brochure.

6 The table shows the frequency distribution for  Number of petals 5 6 7 8 9

the number of petals in the flowers of a group Frequency 8 57 29 3 1
of celandines.
Calculate the mean number of petals.

P 7 A naturalist is investigating how many eggs the endangered kakapo bird lays in each brood cycle.
The results are given in this frequency table.
Number of eggs 1 2 3 Problem-solving
Frequency 7 p 2 Use the formula for the mean of
an ungrouped frequency table to
If the mean number of eggs is 1.5, find the value of p.
write an equation involving p.

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 Chapter 2

You can calculate the mean, the class containing the median and the modal class for continuous data
presented in a grouped frequency table by finding the midpoint of each class interval.

Example 3

The length x mm, to the nearest  Length of pine cone (mm) 30–31 32–33 34–36 37–39
mm, of a random sample of pine Frequency 2 25 30 13
cones is measured. The data is
shown in the table.
a Write down the modal class. b Estimate the mean. c Find the median class.

The modal class is the class with the

a Modal class = 34–36
highest frequency.
30.5 × 2 + 32.5 × 25 + 35 × 30 + 38 × 13
b Mean = _________________________________________
     
​       ​
70 Sxf
​ ¯​ = ​ ____ ​ ​, taking the midpoint of
Use x 
= 34.54 Sf
each class interval as the value of x.
c There are 70 observations so the median is the 35.5th.
The answer is an estimate because
The 35.5th observation will lie in the class 34–36.
you don’t know the exact data values.
 ← Section 1.4

Exercise 2B

1 The weekly wages (to the nearest £) of the production  Weekly wage Frequency
line workers in a small factory is shown in the table. (£)
a Write down the modal class. 175–225  4
b Calculate an estimate of the mean wage. 226–300  8
c Write down the interval containing the median. 301–350 18
351–400 28
401–500  7

E 2 The noise levels at 30 locations near an outdoor concert venue were measured to the nearest
decibel. The data collected is shown in the grouped frequency table.
Noise (decibels) 65–69 70–74 75–79 80–84 85–89 90–94 95–99
Frequency 1 4 6 6 8 4 1

a Calculate an estimate of the mean noise level. (1 mark)

b Explain why your answer to part a is an estimate. (1 mark)

E 3 The table shows the daily mean temperature at Heathrow in October 1987 from the large
data set.
Temp (°C) 6<t,8 8 < t , 10 10 < t , 12 12 < t , 14 14 < t , 16 16 < t , 18
Frequency 3 7 9 7 3 2
© Crown Copyright Met Office
a Write down the modal class. (1 mark)
b Calculate an estimate for the mean daily mean temperature. (1 mark)

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 Measures of location and spread

P 4 Two DIY shops (A and B) recorded the ages of their workers.  Problem-solving
Age of worker 16–25 26–35 36–45 46–55 56–65 66–75 Since age is always
Frequency A 5 16 14 22 26 14 rounded down, the class
boundaries for the 16–25
Frequency B 4 12 10 28 25 13
group are 16 and 26. This
By comparing estimated means for each shop, determine which means that the midpoint
shop is better at employing older workers. of the class is 21.

2.2 Other measures of location

The median describes the middle of the data set. It splits the data set into two equal (50%) halves.
You can calculate other measures of location such as quartiles and percentiles.
The lower quartile is one-quarter This is the median value. The upper quartile is
of the way through the data set. three-quarters of the way
Lowest Highest through the data set.
value Q1 Q2 Q3 value
Percentiles split the 25% 25% 25% 25% 85% of the data values
data set into 100 parts.
10% are less than the 85th
The 10th percentile lies
85% percentile, and 15% are
one-tenth of the way
greater.
through the data.

Use these rules to find the upper and lower quartiles for discrete data.
■ To find the lower quartile for discrete data, divide n by 4. Notation
Q1 is the lower
If this is a whole number, the lower quartile is halfway quartile, Q2 is the median
between this data point and the one above. If it is not a and Q3 is the upper quartile.
whole number, round up and pick this data point.
■ To find the upper quartile for discrete data, find _​ 34 ​ of n. If this is a whole number, the upper
quartile is halfway between this data point and the one above. If it is not a whole number,
round up and pick this data point.

Example 4
From the large data set, the daily maximum gust (knots) during the first 20 days of June 2015 is
recorded in Hurn. The data is shown below:
14  15  17  17  18  18  19  19  22  22
23  23  23  24  25  26  27  28  36  39
© Crown Copyright Met Office
Find the median and quartiles for this data.

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 Chapter 2

Q2 is the median. It lies halfway between the 10th

20 + 1
Q2 = _______
​     ​ th value = 10.5th value
  and 11th data values (which are 22 knots and 23
2
knots respectively).
22 + 23
Q2 = ________
​      ​= 22.5 knots
 
2
20
___
​   ​ ​= 5 so the lower quartile is halfway between
Q1 = 5.5th value 4
the 5th and 6th data values.
Q1 = 18 knots

Q3 = 15.5th value 3 × 20
______
​      ​= 15 so the lower quartile is halfway
 
4
Q3 = 25.5 knots between the 15th and 16th data values.

When data are presented in a grouped Watch out

For grouped continuous data, or
frequency table you can use a technique called data presented in a cumulative frequency table:
interpolation to estimate the median, quartiles n
and percentiles. When you use interpolation, Q1 = __
​   ​ th data value
4
you are assuming that the data values are n
Q2 = __​   ​ th data value
evenly distributed within each class. 2
3n
Q3 = ​ ___ ​ ​ th data value
4

Example 5

The length of time (to the nearest minute)  Length of time spent
30–31 32–33 34–36 37–39
spent on the internet each evening by a on internet (minutes)
group of students is shown in the table. Frequency 2 25 30 13
a Find an estimate for the upper quartile. b Find an estimate for the 10th percentile.

3 × 70 The endpoints on the line represent the class

a Upper quartile: _______
​     ​= 52.5th value
 
4 boundaries.
Using interpolation:
33.5 Q3 36.5
The values on the bottom are the cumulative
27 52.5 57
frequencies for the previous classes and this class.
Q3 − 33.5
____________ 52.5 − 27
  
​ 
    ​= __________
  
​    ​ 
36.5 − 33.5 57 − 27 Problem-solving
Q3 − 33.5
__________ 25.5 Use proportion to estimate Q3. The 52.5th value
​    ​ = _____
 
  ​     ​ 
3 30 52.5 − 27
lies ________
​    
​of the way into the class, so Q3 lies
Q3 = 36.05 57 − 27
b The 10th percentile is the 7th data value. Q3 − 33.5
__________
​    ​ 
of the way between the class
36.5 − 33.5
P10 − 31.5
___________ 7−2
  
​ 
    ​= ​ _______ 
 ​  boundaries. Equate these two fractions to form
33.5 − 31.5 27 − 2
an equation and solve to find Q3.
P10 − 31.5
__________ 5
​    ​= ___
 
  ​    ​ 
2 25 Notation
You can write the 10th percentile
P10 = 31.9 as P10.

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 Measures of location and spread

Exercise 2C
1 From the large data set, the daily mean pressure (hPa) during the last 16 days of July 2015 in
Perth is recorded. The data is given below:
1024  1022  1021  1013  1009  1018  1017  1024
1027  1029  1031  1025  1017  1019  1017  1014
a Find the median pressure for that period.
b Find the lower and upper quartiles.

2 Rachel records the number of CDs in the collections of Hint

This an ungrouped
students in her year. The results are in the table below.
frequency table so you do not
Number of CDs 35 36 37 38 39 need to use interpolation. Use
Frequency  3 17 29 34 12 the rules for finding the median
and quartiles of discrete data.
Find Q1, Q2 and Q3.

E 3 A hotel is worried about the reliability of its lift.  Number of Frequency

It keeps a weekly record of the number of times breakdowns
it breaks down over a period of 26 weeks. 0–1 18
The data collected is summarised in the 2–3  7
table opposite. 4–5  1
Use interpolation to estimate the median
number of breakdowns.  (2 marks)

4 The weights of 31 Jersey cows were recorded to the nearest kilogram. The weights are shown in
the table.
a Find an estimate for the  Weight of
median weight. 300–349 350–399 400–449 450–499 500–549
cattle (kg)
b Find the lower quartile, Q1. Frequency 3 6 10 7 5
c Find the upper quartile, Q3.
d Interpret the meaning of the value you have found for the upper quartile in part c.

E 5 A roadside assistance firm kept a record over a week of the amount of time, in minutes, people
were kept waiting for assistance. The times are shown below.
Time waiting, t (minutes) 20 < t , 30 30 < t , 40 40 < t , 50 50 < t , 60 60 < t , 70
Frequency 6 10 18 13 2

a Find an estimate for the mean wait time.  (1 mark)

b Calculate the 65th percentile.  (2 marks)
The firm writes the following statement for an advertisement:

Only 10% of our customers have to wait longer than 56 minutes.

c By calculating a suitable percentile, comment on the validity of this claim. (3 marks)

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 Chapter 2

E 6 The table shows the recorded wingspans, in metres, of 100 endangered Californian condors.
Wingspan, w (m) 1.0 < w , 1.5 1.5 < w , 2.0 2.0 < w , 2.5 2.5 < w , 3.0 3.0 < w
Frequency 4 20 37 28 11

a Estimate the 80th percentile and interpret the value. (x marks)

b State why it is not possible to estimate the 90th percentile. (x marks)

2.3 Measures of spread

A measure of spread is a measure of how spread out Notation
Measures of spread
the data is. Here are two simple measures of spread. are sometimes called measures of
■ The range is the difference between the largest dispersion or measures of variation.
and smallest values in the data set.
■ The interquartile range (IQR) is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower
quartile, Q3 − Q1.
The range takes into account all of the data but can be affected by extreme values. The interquartile
range is not affected by extreme values but only considers the spread of the middle 50% of the data.
■ The interpercentile range is the difference between the values for two given percentiles.
The 10th to 90th interpercentile range is often used since it is not affected by extreme values but still
considers 80% of the data in its calculation.

Example 6
The table shows the masses, in tonnes, of 120 African bush elephants.
Mass, m (t) 4.0 < m , 4.5 4.5 < m , 5.0 5.0 < m , 5.5 5.5 < m , 6.0 6.0 < m , 6.5
Frequency 13 23 31 34 19

Find estimates for:

a  the range   b  the interquartile range    c the 10th to 90th interpercentile range.

The largest possible value is 6.5 and the smallest

a Range is 6.5 − 4.0 = 2.5 tonnes.
possible value is 4.0.
b Q1 = 30th data value: 4.87 tonnes.
Q3 = 90th data value: 5.84 tonnes. Q1 − 4.5 _______
30 − 13
The interquartile range is therefore Use interpolation: ________
​    ​= ​ 
      ​
 
5.0 − 4.5 23
5.84 − 4.87 = 0.97 tonnes.
c 10th percentile = 12th data value: Q3 − 5.5 _______
90 − 67
Use interpolation: ________
​    ​= ​ 
       
​
4.46 tonnes. 6.0 − 5.5 34
90th percentile = 108th data value:
6.18 tonnes. Use interpolation to find the 10th and 90th
The 10th to 90th interpercentile range is percentiles, then work out the difference between
therefore 6.18 − 4.46 = 1.72 tonnes. them.

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 Measures of location and spread

Exercise 2D

P 1 The lengths of a number of slow worms were Lengths of slow Frequency

measured, to the nearest mm. worms (mm)
The results are shown in the table. 125–139  4
a Work out how many slow worms were 140–154  4
measured. 155–169  2
b Estimate the interquartile range for the lengths 170–184  7
of the slow worms. 185–199 20
c Calculate an estimate for the mean length of 200–214 24
slow worms. 215–229 10
d Estimate the number of slow worms Problem-solving
whose length is more than one
For part d, work out ​ x ¯​ + IQR, and determine which
interquartile range above the mean.
class interval it falls in. Then use proportion to work
out how many slow worms from that class interval
you need to include in your estimate.

E 2 The table shows the monthly income for workers in a factory.

Monthly income, x (£) 900 < x , 1000 1000 < x , 1100 1100 < x , 1200 1200 < x , 1300
Frequency 3 24 28 15

a Calculate the 34% to 66% interpercentile range. (3 marks)

b Estimate the number of data values that fall within this range. (2 marks)

E 3 A train travelled from Lancaster to Preston. The times, to the nearest minute, it took for the
journey were recorded over a certain period. The times are shown in the table.
Time for journey (minutes) 15–16 17–18 19–20 21–22
Frequency 5 10 35 10

a Calculate the 5% to 95% interpercentile range. (3 marks)

b Estimate the number of data values that fall within this range. (1 mark)

E/p 4 From the large data set, the daily mean temperature (°C) for Leeming during the first
10 days of June 1987 is given below:
14.3  12.7  12.4  10.9  9.4  13.2  12.1  10.3  10.3  10.6
a Calculate the median and interquartile range. (2 marks)
The median daily mean temperature for Leeming during the first 10 days of May 1987 was
9.9 °C and the interquartile range was 3.9 °C.
b Compare the data for May with the data for June. (2 marks)
The 10% to 90% interpercentile range for the daily mean temperature for Leeming during July
1987 was 5.4 °C.
c Estimate the number of days in July 1987 on which the daily mean temperature fell
within this range. (1 mark)

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 Chapter 2

2.4 Variance and standard deviation

Another measure that can be used to work out the spread of a data set is the variance. This makes
¯​. 
use of the fact that each data point deviates from the mean by the amount x − ​ x 

​  n    ​− (​ ___
​  n   ​ )​ = ___
​ ¯​)  2
S(x − x  Sx2 Sx 2 S
■ Variance = _________
​  n    ​= ____
 
xx
​  n   ​  Notation
Sxx is a summary
(Sx)2 statistic, which is used to make
​ ¯)​  2 = Sx2 − _____
where Sxx = S(x − x  ​  n   
​
  formulae easier to use and learn.

​  n   ​ − ​(___
​  n   ​ )​ , is easier to work with when given raw data.
Sx2 Sx 2
The second version of the formula, ____
It can be thought of as ’the mean of the squares minus the square of the mean’.
Sxx
The third version, ​ ___
n   ​  , is easier to use if you can use your calculator to find Sxx quickly.
The units of the variance are the units of the data squared. You can find a related measure of spread
that has the same units as the data.
■ The standard deviation is the square root of the variance:
_________

√ 
___________

√ 
____
S(x − x 
n  
​ ¯​)  2
σ = ​ ​ _________   
​
 
  = ​
Sx2
____
 
​ n    ​− (​ ___
 
Sx 2
 
​ n    )​   
 
​ ​= √ 
​
Sxx
___
 
​ n   ​  
Notation
σ is the symbol we use
for the standard deviation of a data
set. Hence σ 2 is used for the variance.

Example 7
The marks gained in a test by seven randomly selected students are:
3  4  6  2  8  8  5
Find the variance and standard deviation of the marks of the seven students.

Sx = 3 + 4 + 6 + 2 + 8 + 8 + 5 = 36
Sx2 = 9 + 16 + 36 + 4 + 64 + 64 + 25 = 218 Use the ‘mean of the squares minus the square
​− (​ ___
7)
218 36 2 of the mean’.
variance, σ2 = ____
​     
  ​   ​ 
 ​ = 4.69
​  n    ​− (​ ___
​  n   ​)  ​
7 Sx2 Sx
2
_____ σ 2 = ____
standard deviation, σ = ​√ 4.69 ​ 
= 2.17

■ You can use these versions of the formulae for variance and standard deviation for grouped
data that is presented in a frequency table:

( S f )
 ​¯)​  2 _____
S f  (x − x  S fx2 S fx 2
● σ2 = __________
​      ​= ​     
  ​− ​ ____
​   ​ 
 ​
S f S f

√  √ 
__________ ______________

( S f )
S f  (x −  ​¯​)  2
x  S fx2 S fx 2
● σ = ​ __________
​      = ​ ​ _____
​  
       ​− ​ ____
​   ​ 
  ​  ​
S f S f
where f  is the frequency for each group and S f  is the total frequency.

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 Measures of location and spread

Example 8

Shamsa records the time spent out of school  Time spent out of school (min) 35 36 37 38
during the lunch hour to the nearest minute, Frequency 3 17 29 34
x, of the female students in her year.
The results are shown in the table.
Calculate the standard deviation of the time spent out of school.

S fx2 = 3 ×
 352 + 17 × 362 + 29 × 372 The values of S fx2, S fx and S f might be given
+ 34 × 382 = 114 504 with the question.
S fx = 3 ×
 35 + 17 × 36 + 29 × 37
+ 34 × 38 = 3082
S f = 3 + 17 + 29 + 34 = 83 σ 2 is the variance, and σ is the standard deviation.
− ​(______
83 )
114 504 3082 2
( S f )
σ2 = ________
​     
​  ​    ​ = 0.741 47…
​  S fx2 S fx 2
83 Use σ 2 = _____
​      ​− ​ ____
​   ​ ​
___________ S f
σ = ​√ 0.741 47… 
  ​= 0.861 (3 s.f.)

If the data is given in a grouped frequency table, you can calculate estimates for the variance and
standard deviation of the data using the midpoint of each class interval.

Example 9
Andy recorded the length, in minutes, of each telephone call he made for a month. The data is
summarised in the table below.
Length of telephone call (l min) 0 , l < 5 5 , l < 10 10 , l < 15 15 , l < 20 20 , l < 60 60 , l < 70
Frequency 4 15 5 2 0 1

Calculate an estimate of the standard deviation of the length of telephone calls.

You can use a

Length of Frequency Midpoint fx fx2
table like this to
telephone x
keep track of your
call (l min)
working.
0,l<5 4 2.5 4 × 2.5 = 10 4 × 6.25 = 25
5 , l < 10 15 7.5 112.5 843.75
10 , l < 15 5 12.5 62.5 781.25
15 , l < 20 2 17.5 35 612.5 Online

20 , l < 60 0 40 0 0 Work this
out in one go on
60 , l < 70 1 65 65 4225
your calculator.
total 27 285 6487.5
You might need to
S fx2 = 6487.5    S fx = 285    S f = 27 enter the values

− (​ _____
27 )
6487.5 285 2 manually for the
σ2 = ________
​     ​  ​   ​ ​ = 128.858 02
 
midpoint of each
27
___________
class interval.
σ = √​  128.858 02 
  ​= 11.35

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 Chapter 2

Exercise 2E

1 Given that for a variable x:  Sx = 24   Sx2 = 78   n = 8

Find:
a the mean b the variance σ2 c the standard deviation σ.

E 2 Ten collie dogs are weighed (w kg). The summary data for the weights is:
Sw = 241   Sw2 = 5905
Use this summary data to find the standard deviation of the collies’ weights.  (2 marks)

3 Eight students’ heights (h cm) are measured. They are as follows:

165  170  190  180  175  185  176  184
a Work out the mean height of the students.
b Given Sh2 = 254 307 work out the variance. Show all your working.
c Work out the standard deviation.

P 4 For a set of 10 numbers: Sx = 50   Sx2 = 310

For a different set of 15 numbers: Sx = 86   Sx2 = 568
Find the mean and the standard deviation of the combined set of 25 numbers.

E 5 Nahab asks the students in his year group how  Number of £s 8 9 10 11 12

much pocket money they get per week. Frequency 14 8 28 15 20
The results, rounded to the nearest pound,
are shown in the table.
a Use your calculator to work out the mean and standard deviation of the pocket money.
Give units with your answer. (3 marks)
b How many students received an amount of pocket money more than one standard
deviation above the mean? (2 marks)

E 6 In a student group, a record was kept of the  Number of days

number of days of absence each student had 0 1 2 3 4
absent
over one particular term. The results are Frequency 12 20 10 7 5
shown in the table.
Use your calculator to work out the standard deviation of the number of days absent.  (2 marks)

E/p 7 A certain type of machine contained a part that tended to wear out after different amounts of
time. The time it took for 50 of the parts to wear out was recorded. The results are shown in the
table.
Lifetime, h (hours) 5 , h < 10 10 , h < 15 15 , h < 20 20 , h < 25 25 , h < 30
Frequency 5 14 23 6 2

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 Measures of location and spread

The manufacturer makes the following claim: Problem-solving

90% of the parts tested lasted longer than You need to calculate estimates for the mean
one standard deviation below the mean. and the standard deviation, then estimate the
Comment on the accuracy of the manufacturer’s number of parts that lasted longer than one
claim, giving relevant numerical evidence. standard deviation below the mean.

 (5 marks)

E 8 The daily mean windspeed, x (kn) for Leeming is recorded in June 2015. The summary data is:
Sx = 243   Sx2 = 2317
a Use your calculator to work out the mean and the standard deviation of the daily mean
windspeed in June 2015. (2 marks)
The highest recorded windspeed was 17 kn and the lowest recorded windspeed was 4 kn.
b Estimate the number of days in which the windspeed was greater than one standard deviation
above the mean. (2 marks)
c State one assumption you have made in producing this estimate. (1 mark)

2.5 Coding
Coding is a way of simplifying statistical calculations. Each data value is coded to make a new set of
data values which are easier to work with.
x−a
In your exam, you will usually have to code values using a formula like this: y = ​ _____
   
​
 
b
where a and b are constants that you have to choose or are given with the question.
When data is coded, different statistics change in different ways.
x−a
■ If data is coded using the formula y = _____
​     ​
  Hint
You usually need to find the mean
b
​ ¯​ − a
x  and standard deviation of the original
● ​ ¯​ = ​ _____
the mean of the coded data is given by y     
​
  data given the statistics for the coded
b
data. You can rearrange the formulae as:
● the standard deviation of the coded data is given
σx ● ​ ¯​ = b​​ y 
x  ¯​ + a
by σy = ___
​   ​ ​ , where σx is the standard deviation ● σx = bσy
b
of the original data.

Example 10
A scientist measures the temperature, x °C, at five different points in a nuclear reactor. Her results
are given below:
332 °C  355  °C  306  °C  317  °C  340  °C
x − 300
a Use the coding y = _______
​     ​to code this data.
 
10
b Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the coded data.
c Use your answer to part b to calculate the mean and standard deviation of the original data.

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 Chapter 2

a Original data, x 332 355 306 317 340 332 − 300

When x = 332, y = _________
​      ​= 3.2.
 
Coded data, y 3.2 5.5 0.6 1.7 4.0 10

b Sy = 15, Sy2 = 59.74

15
​ ¯​  = ___
y  ​= 3
​   ​ 
5
¯​ − a
​ x 
​ ¯​ = ​ _____
​− (​ ___
5)
59.74 15 2 Substitute into y      ​ ¯​. 
​ and solve to find x 
σy2 = ______
​        ​   ​ ​  ​= 2.948 b
5
______ You could also use x  ​ ¯​ = b  ​ y 
¯​ + a with a = 300, b = 10
σy = √​  2.948  
​= 1.72 (3 s.f.) ¯​ = 3.
and ​ y 
​ ¯​  − 300
x 
c 3 = ​ ________    ​  ¯​  = 30 + 300 = 330 °C
so ​ x  σx
10
Substitute into σy = ___
​   ​ ​and solve to find σx .
σx b
1.72 = ___ ​   ​ so σx = 17.2 °C (3 s.f.)
10 You could also use σx = b  σy with σy = 1.72 and
b = 10.

Example 11
From the large data set, data on the maximum gust, g knots, is recorded in Leuchars during May
and June 2015.
g−5
The data was coded using h = _____
​     
​and the following statistics found:
 
10
Shh = 43.58   ​h ​​ ¯​ = 2   n = 61
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the maximum gust in knots.

​ ¯​  − 5
g  Use the formula for the mean of a coded variable:
2 = ______
​      ​  ¯​ − a
​ g 
10 ​ ¯​ = ​ _____
h ​ ​ with a = 5 and b = 10.
   
b
​ ¯​  = 2 × 10 + 5 = 25 knots
g 

√ 
_______
43.58
σh = ​ ______
​      = 0.845…
​  
  Calculate the standard___
deviation of the coded

√ 
61 Shh
σg data using σh = ​ ___ ​  n    ​  , then use the formula for
σh = ___
​   ​ 
10 the standard deviation of a coded variable:
σg
σg = σh × 10 = 8.45 knots (3 s.f.) σh = __
​   ​ ​with b = 10.
b

Exercise 2F
1 A set of data values, x, is shown below:
110  90  50  80  30  70  60
x
a Code the data using the coding y = ___
​     ​ .
10
b Calculate the mean of the coded data values.
c Use your answer to part b to calculate the mean of the original data.

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 Measures of location and spread

2 A set of data values, x, is shown below:

52  73  31  73  38  80  17  24
x−3
a Code the data using the coding y = _____
​     
​ .
 
7
b Calculate the mean of the coded data values.
c Use your answer to part b to calculate the mean of the original data.
x − 65
E 3 The coded mean price of televisions in a shop was worked out. Using the coding y = ​ ______
  ​
 
200
the mean price was 1.5. Find the true mean price of the televisions.  (2 marks)

4 The coding y = x − 40 gives a standard deviation Watch

out Adding or subtracting
for y of 2.34. constants does not affect how
Write down the standard deviation of x. spread out the data is, so you can
ignore the ‘−40’ when finding the
P 5 The lifetime, x, in hours, of 70 light bulbs is shown standard deviation for x.
in the table.
Lifetime, x (hours) 20 , x < 22 22 , x < 24 24 , x < 26 26 , x < 28 28 , x < 30
Frequency 3 12 40 10 5
x−1
The data is coded using y = _____
​     
 ​ .  Problem-solving
20
Code the midpoints of each class interval.
¯​. 
a Estimate the mean of the coded values ​ y 
The midpoint of the 22 , x < 24 class
b Hence find an estimate for the mean lifetime interval is 23, so the coded midpoint will
​ ¯​. 
of the light bulbs, x  23 − 1
be ​ ______
   ​ = 1.1.
c Estimate the standard deviation of the lifetimes 20
of the bulbs.

E 6 The weekly income, i, of 100 women workers was recorded.

i − 90
The data was coded using y = ​ _____   
​ and the following summations were obtained:
100
Sy = 131,  Sy2 = 176.84
Estimate the standard deviation of the actual women workers’ weekly income.  (2 marks)

E 7 A meteorologist collected data on the annual rainfall, x mm, at six randomly selected places.
The data was coded using s = 0.01x − 10 and the following summations were obtained:
Ss = 16.1,  Ss2 = 147.03
Work out an estimate for the standard deviation of the actual annual rainfall.  (2 marks)
E/p 8 A teacher standardises the test marks of his class by adding 12 to each one and then reducing
the mark by 20%.
If the standardised marks are represented by t and the original marks by m:
a write down a formula for the coding the teacher has used. (1 mark)
The following summary statistics are calculated for the standardised marks:
n = 28   t ​ ¯​ = 52.8   Stt = 7.3
b Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the original marks gained. (3 marks)

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 Chapter 2

E/p 9 From the large data set, the daily mean pressure, p hPa, in Hurn during June 2015 is recorded.
p
The data is coded using c = __​   ​− 500 and the following summary statistics are obtained:
2
n = 30   c  ​ ¯​ = 10.15   Scc = 296.4
Find the mean and standard deviation of the daily mean pressure. (4 marks)

Mixed exercise 2

 1 The mean science mark for one group of eight students is 65. The mean mark for a second
group of 12 students is 72. Calculate the mean mark for the combined group of 20 students.

 2 The data shows the prices (x) of six shares on a particular day in the year 2007:
807  967  727  167  207  767
x−7
a Code the data using the coding y = ​ _____
  
 ​ .
80
b Calculate the mean of the coded data values.
c Use your answer to part b to calculate the mean of the original data.

 3 The coded mean of employees’ annual earnings (£ x) for a store is 18. The coding used was
x − 720
y = _______
​    
​ . Work out the uncoded mean earnings.
 
1000

 4 Different teachers using different methods taught two groups of students. Both groups of
students sat the same examination at the end of the course. The students’ marks are shown in
the grouped frequency table.
Exam mark 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70–79 80–89
Frequency group A 1 3 6 6 11 10 8
Frequency group B 1 2 4 13 15 6 3

a Work out an estimate of the mean mark for group A and an estimate of the mean mark for
group B.
b Write down whether or not the answer to a suggests that one method of teaching is better
than the other. Give a reason for your answer.

 5 The lifetimes of 80 batteries, to the nearest hour, are shown in the table below.
Lifetime (hours) 6–10 11–15 16–20 21–25 26–30
Frequency 2 10 18 45 5

a Write down the modal class for the lifetime of the batteries.
b Use interpolation to find the median lifetime of the batteries.
The midpoint of each class is represented by x and its corresponding frequency by f, giving
S fx = 1645.
c Calculate an estimate of the mean lifetime of the batteries.
Another batch of 12 batteries is found to have an estimated mean lifetime of 22.3 hours.
d Estimate the mean lifetime for all 92 batteries.

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 Measures of location and spread

 6 A frequency distribution is shown below.

Class interval 1–20 21–40 41–60 61–80 81–100
Frequency 5 10 15 12 8
Use interpolation to find an estimate for the interquartile range.

 7 A frequency distribution is shown below.

Class interval 1–10 11–20 21–30 31–40 41–50
Frequency 10 20 30 24 16

a Use interpolation to estimate the value of the 30th percentile.

b Use interpolation to estimate the value of the 70th percentile.
c Hence estimate the 30% to 70% interpercentile range.

E  8 The times it took a random sample of runners to complete a race are summarised in the table.
Time taken (t minutes) 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69
Frequency 5 10 36 20 9
a Use interpolation to estimate the interquartile range. (3 marks)
The midpoint of each class was represented by x and its corresponding frequency by f giving:
S fx = 3740   S fx2 = 183 040
b Estimate the variance and standard deviation for this data. (3 marks)

 9 The heights of 50 clover flowers are summarised in the table.

Heights in mm (x) 90 < x , 95 95 < x , 100 100 < x , 105 105 < x , 110 110 < x , 115
Frequency 5 10 26 8 1
a Find Q1. b Find Q2. c Find the interquartile range.
d Use S fx = 5075 and S fx2 = 516 112.5 to find the standard deviation.

E/p 10 The daily mean temperature is recorded in Camborne during September 2015.
Temperature, t (°C) 11 , t < 13 13 , t < 15 15 , t < 17
Frequency 12 14 4
© Crown Copyright Met Office
a Use your calculator to find estimates for the mean and standard deviation of the
temperatures. (3 marks)
b Use linear interpolation to find an estimate for the 10% to 90% interpercentile range. (3 marks)
c Estimate the number of days in September 2015 where the daily mean temperature
in Camborne is more than one standard deviation greater than the mean. (2 marks)

E 11 The daily mean windspeed, w knots was recorded at Heathrow during May 2015. The data were
w−3
coded using z = _____
​     
​  .
2
Summary statistics were calculated for the coded data:
n = 31   Sz = 106   Szz = 80.55

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 Chapter 2

a Find the mean and standard deviation of the coded data. (2 marks)
b Work out the mean and standard deviation of the daily mean windspeed at
Heathrow during May 2015. (2 marks)

E 12 20 endangered forest owlets were caught for ringing. Their wingspans (x cm) were measured to
the nearest centimetre.
The following summary statistics were worked out:
Sx = 316   Sx2 = 5078
a Work out the mean and the standard deviation of the wingspans of the 20 birds. (3 marks)
One more bird was caught. It had a wingspan of 13 centimetres.
b Without doing any further calculation, say how you think this extra wingspan will affect the
mean wingspan. (1 mark)
20 giant ibises were also caught for ringing. Their wingspans (  y cm) were also measured to the
y−5
nearest centimetre and the data coded using z = _____
​     
​ .
 
10
The following summary statistics were obtained from the coded data:
Sz = 104   Szz = 1.8
c Work out the mean and standard deviation of the wingspans of the giant ibis. (5 marks)

Challenge

A biologist recorded the heights, x cm, of 20 plant seedlings.

She calculated the mean and standard deviation of her results:
​ ¯​ = 3.1 
x  cm   σ = 1.4 cm
The biologist subsequently discovered she had written down one
value incorrectly. She replaced a value of 2.3 cm with a value of
3.2 cm.
Calculate the new mean and standard deviation of her data.

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 Measures of location and spread

Summary of key points

 1 The mode or modal class is the value or class that occurs most often.

 2 The median is the middle value when the data values are put in order.
Sx
​ ¯​ = ​ ___
 3 The mean can be calculated using the formula x  n   ​  .
Sxf
¯​ = ​ ____ ​ ​ .
 4 For data given in a frequency table, the mean can be calculated using the formula ​ x 
S f
 5 To find the lower quartile for discrete data, divide n by 4. If this is a whole number, the lower
quartile is halfway between this data point and the one above. If it is not a whole number,
round up and pick this data point.
 6 To find the upper quartile for discrete data, find _​ 34 ​of n. If this is a whole number, the upper
quartile is halfway between this data point and the one above. If it is not a whole number,
round up and pick this data point.

 7 The range is the difference between the largest and smallest values in the data set.

 8 The interquartile range (IQR) is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower
quartile, Q3 − Q1.
 9 The interpercentile range is the difference between the values for two given percentiles.

 − ​(___  )​ = ​     ​ where Sxx = S(x − x 

S(x − x ​ ¯​)  2 ____
Sx2 Sx 2 ___ Sxx (Sx)2
10 Variance = ​ ________
n   ​
 
 = ​
  n   ​
   
​ n    
​ n ¯
​
   
​
) 2 = Sx2 − _____
​
  n   ​ 

11 The standard deviation is the square root of the variance:

_________

√  √ 
___________ ____

​  n   ​ − ​(___
​  n   ​)  ​  ​   √ 
2
​ ¯)​  2
S(x − x  Sx2 Sx Sxx
σ = ​ ________
​  n    = ​ ____
​  
  = ​ ___
​  n   ​  

12 You can use these versions of the formulae for variance and standard deviation for grouped
data that is presented in a frequency table:

√  √ 
_________ _____________

( S f ) ( S f )
2
S f  (x −  ​¯​)  2
x  S fx
S fx2 S f  (x −
2 S fx  ​¯​)  2
x 
S fx 2
σ2 = _________
​  ​= _____
   
  ​      ​   ​ ​    σ = ​ _________
​− ​ ____ ​      = ​ _____
​  
  ​    ​− ​ ____
   ​   ​ ​  ​ 
S f S f S f S f
where f   is the frequency for each group and S f  is the total frequency.

x−a
13 If data is coded using the formula y = _____
​     ​
 
b
​ ¯​ − a
x 
​ ¯​ = ​ _____
• the mean of the coded data is given by y     
​
 
b
σx
​   ​ ​  where σx is the standard
• the standard deviation of the coded data is given by σy = ___
b
deviation of the original data.

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 3 Representations
of data
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Identify outliers in data sets → pages 41–43
● Draw and interpret box plots → pages 43–45
● Draw and interpret cumulative frequency diagrams → pages 46–48
● Draw and interpret histograms → pages 48–52
● Compare two data sets → pages 53–54

Prior knowledge check

1 The table shows the number of siblings for
50 year 12 students:
Number of siblings Frequency
0 5
1 8
2 24
3 10
4 3
a Draw a bar chart to show the data.
b Draw a pie chart to show the data.
← GCSE Mathematics

2 Work out the interquartile range for this set

of data: Visual representations can help
3, 5, 8, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 18, 20, 21, 24 to illustrate the key features of
← Section 2.3 a data set without the need for
complicated calculations. Graphs
3 Work out the mean and standard deviation and charts appear all the time in
for this set of data: newspapers and magazines, often
17, 19, 20, 25, 28, 31, 32, 32, 35, 37, 38 stylised to suit the nature of the
← Sections 2.1, 2.4 article.

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 Representations of data

3.1 Outliers
An outlier is an extreme value that lies outside the overall pattern of the data.
There are a number of different ways of calculating outliers, depending on the nature of the data and
the calculations that you are asked to carry out.
■ A common definition of an outlier is any value that is: Notation Q1 and Q3 are
● either greater than Q3 + k(Q3 − Q1) the first and third quartiles.
● or less than Q1 − k(Q3 − Q1)
In the exam, you will be told which method to use to identify
outliers in data sets, including the value of k.

Example 1
The blood glucose of 30 females is recorded. The results, in mmol/litre, are shown below:
1.7, 2.2, 2.3, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 3.1, 3.2, 3.6, 3.7, 3.7, 3.7, 3.8, 3.8, 3.8,
3.8, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 5.0, 5.1
An outlier is an observation that falls either 1.5 × interquartile range above the upper quartile or
1.5 × interquartile range below the lower quartile.
a Find the quartiles. b Find any outliers.

30
a Q1: ___ = 7.5 pick the 8th term = 3.2 Work out n ÷ 4 and round up. ← Section 2.2
4
3(30)
Q3: ______ = 22.5 pick the 23rd term = 4.0 Work out 3n ÷ 4 and round up. ← Section 2.2
4
30
Q2: ___ = 15 pick the 15.5th term = 3.8 Work out n ÷ 2 and go halfway to the next term.
2
← Section 2.1
b Interquartile range = 4.0 − 3.2 = 0.8
Outliers are values less than
Use the definition of an outlier given in the
3.2 − 1.5 × 0.8 = 2
question.
and greater than 4.0 + 1.5 × 0.8 = 5.2
Therefore 1.7 is the only outlier.
1.7 < 2 so it is an outlier.

Example 2
The lengths, in cm, of 12 giant African land snails are given below:
17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 20, 20, 20, 21, 23, 24, 32
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation, given that
Notation Σx is the sum of
Σx = 252 and Σx2 = 5468.
the data and Σx2 is the sum
b An outlier is an observation which lies ±2 standard of the square of each value.
deviations from the mean. Identify any outliers for this data.

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 Chapter 3

Σx 252 Use the summary statistics given to work out the

a Mean = ___
​  n   ​ = _____
​     ​= 21 cm
 
12 mean and standard deviation quickly.
Σx2 5468
Variance = ​ ____
n    ​ ¯​  2 = ______
​ − x  ​  ​− 212
   
 
12
= 14.666…
_________
 ​√ 14.666…  
Standard deviation = ​
= 3.83 (3 s.f.)
Use the definition of an outlier given in the
b Mean − 2 × standard deviation
question.
= 21 − 2 × 3.83 = 13.34
Mean + 2 × standard deviation
= 21 + 2 × 3.83 = 28.66 Watch
out Different questions might use
different definitions of outliers. Read the
32 cm is an outlier.
question carefully before finding any outliers.

Sometimes outliers are legitimate values which could still be correct. For example, there really could
be a giant African land snail 32 cm long.
However, there are occasions when an outlier should be removed from the data since it is clearly an
error and it would be misleading to keep it in. These data values are known as anomalies.
■ The process of removing anomalies from a data
set is known as cleaning the data. Watch
out Be careful not to remove
data values just because they do not
Anomalies can be the result of experimental or recording fit the pattern of the data. You must
error, or could be data values which are not relevant to justify why a value is being removed.
the investigation.
Here is an example where there is a clear anomaly:
Ages of people at a birthday party: 12, 17, 21, 33, 34, 37, 42, 62, 165
​ ¯​ = 47   σ = 44.02   ​​ x 
x  ¯​ + 2σ = 135.04
The data value recorded as 165 is significantly Notation
You can write 165 ≫ 135.04 where
​ ¯​ + 2σ, so it can be considered an
higher than x  ≫ is used to denote ‘much greater than’.
outlier. An age of 165 is impossible, so this value Similarly you can use ≪ to denote ‘much less
must be an error. You can clean the data by than’.
removing this value before carrying out any
analysis.

Exercise 3A

1 Some data is collected. Q1 = 46 and Q3 = 68.

A value greater than Q3 + 1.5 × (Q3 − Q1) or smaller than Q1 − 1.5 × (Q3 − Q1) is defined as an
outlier.
Work out whether the following are outliers using this rule:
a 7 b 88 c 105

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 Representations of data

2 The masses of male and female turtles are given in grams. For males, the lower quartile was
400 g and the upper quartile was 580 g. For females, the lower quartile was 260 g and the upper
quartile was 340 g.
An outlier is an observation that falls either 1 × (interquartile range) above the upper quartile or
1 × (interquartile range) below the lower quartile.
Hint
The definition of an outlier
a Which of these male turtle masses would be outliers?
here is different from that in
g  260 
400  g  550 
g  640 
g question 1. You will be told which
b Which of these female turtle masses would be outliers? rule to use in the exam.
g  300 
170  g  340 
g  440 
g
c What is the largest mass a male turtle can be without being an outlier?

3 The masses of arctic foxes are found and the mean mass was 6.1 kg. The variance was 4.2.
An outlier is an observation which lies ±2 standard deviations from the mean.
a Which of these arctic fox masses are outliers?
kg   10.1 
2.4  kg   3.7 
kg   11.5 
kg
b What are the smallest and largest masses that an arctic fox can be without being an outlier?

E 4 The ages of nine people at a children’s birthday party are recorded. Σx = 92 and Σx2 = 1428.
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the ages.  (3 marks)
An outlier is an observation which lies ±2 standard deviations from the mean.
One of the ages is recorded as 30.
b State, with a reason, whether this is an outlier.  (2 marks)
c Suggest a reason why this age could be a legitimate data value.  (1 mark)
d Given that all nine people were children, clean Problem-solving
the data and recalculate the mean and standard
After you clean the data you will need to
deviation.  (3 marks)
find the new values for n, Σx and Σx2.

3.2 Box plots

A box plot can be drawn to represent important features of the data. It shows the quartiles, maximum
and minimum values and any outliers.
A box plot looks like this: Lower Median Upper
quartile quartile
Highest value that is not
Lowest value that is not an
an outlier, or the boundary
outlier, or the boundary for
for outliers
outliers

Outlier
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 marks

Two sets of data can be compared using box plots.

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 Chapter 3

Example 3
a Draw a box plot for the data on blood glucose levels of females from Example 1.
The blood glucose level of 30 males is recorded. The results, in mmol/litre, are summarised below:
Lower quartile = 3.6
Upper quartile = 4.7
Median = 4.0
Lowest value = 1.4
Highest value = 5.2
An outlier is an observation that falls either 1.5 × interquartile range above the upper quartile or
1.5 × interquartile range below the lower quartile.
b Given that there is only one outlier for the males, draw a box plot for this data on the same
diagram as the one for females.
c Compare the blood glucose levels for males and females.

a The quartiles and outliers were found in

Example 1.  ← page 41
Females
The outlier is marked with a cross. The lowest
value which is not an outlier is 2.2.

Always use a scale and label it. Remember to give

your box plot a title.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Blood glucose level (mmol/litre) y

Online
x

b Outliers are values less than Explore box plots and

3.6 − 1.5 × 1.1 = 1.95 outliers using technology.
and values greater than
4.7 + 1.5 × 1.1 = 6.35
There is 1 outlier, which is 1.4.
The end of the whisker is plotted at the outlier
boundary (in this case 1.95) as we do not know
Males the actual figure.

Females Problem-solving
When drawing two box plots, use the same scale
so they can be compared. Remember to give each
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
a title and label the axis.
Blood glucose level (mmol/litre)
c The median blood glucose for females is lower
than the median blood glucose for males. When comparing data you should compare a
The interquartile range (the width of the measure of location and a measure of spread.
You should also write your interpretation in the
box) and range for blood glucose are
context of the question.
smaller for the females.

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Exercise 3B
1 A group of students did a test. The summary data is shown in the table.
Lowest value Lower quartile Median Upper quartile Highest value
5 21 28 36 58

Given that there were no outliers, draw a box plot to illustrate this data.

2 Here is a box plot of marks in an examination.  Marks in an examination

a Write down the upper and lower quartiles.
b Write down the median.
c Work out the interquartile range.
d Work out the range. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Mark

P 3 The masses of male and female turtles are 

Females
given in grams. Their masses are summarised
in the box plots.
a Compare and contrast the masses of the Males

male and female turtles.

b A turtle was found to have a mass of 330 grams.
State whether it is likely to be a male or a 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
female. Give a reason for your answer. Mass (g)

c Write down the size of the largest female turtle.

E 4 Data for the maximum daily gust (in knots) in Camborne in September 1987 is taken from the
large data set:
13  17  19  20  21
21  22  23  24  25
25  25  26  26  26
27  29  30  30  30
33  35  38  46  78   © Crown Copyright Met Office
a Calculate Q1, Q2 and Q3. (3 marks)
An outlier is defined as a value which lies either 1.5 × the interquartile range above the upper
quartile or 1.5 × the interquartile range below the lower quartile.
b Show that 46 and 78 are outliers. (1 mark)
c Draw a box plot for this data. (3 marks)

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 Chapter 3

3.3 Cumulative frequency

If you are given data in a grouped frequency table, you are not able to find the exact values of the
median and quartiles. You can draw a cumulative frequency diagram and use it to help find
estimates for the median, quartiles and percentiles.

Example 4

The table shows the heights, in metres, of 80 giraffes.  Height, h (m) Frequency
a Draw a cumulative frequency diagram. 4.6 < h , 4.8  4
b Estimate the median height of the giraffes. 4.8 < h , 5.0  7
c Estimate the lower quartile and the 90th percentile. 5.0 < h , 5.2 15
d Draw a box plot to represent this data. 5.2 < h , 5.4 33
5.4 < h , 5.6 17
5.6 < h , 5.8  4
a Add a column to the table to show the
cumulative frequency:
Cumulative
Height, h (m) Frequency
frequency
4.6 < h , 4.8 4 4 4 + 7 = 11
4.8 < h , 5.0 7 11
5.0 < h , 5.2 15 26 11 + 15 = 26
5.2 < h , 5.4 33 59
5.4 < h , 5.6 17 76 This represents the number of data values that
5.6 < h , 5.8 4 80 are in the range 4.6 < h , 5.4.

80 The lowest possible value for the height is 4.6 m

so plot (4.6, 0).
Cumulative frequency

70
60
50 Plot each point using the upper class boundary for
40 x and the cumulative frequency for y: coordinates
30 (4.8, 4), (5.0, 11), (5.2, 26), (5.4, 59), (5.6, 76) and
(5.8, 80). Join the points with a smooth curve.
20
10
0 For part b, draw a line across from 40 on the
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 cumulative frequency axis and then down to the
Height, h (m) height axis.
b The median is the 40th data point.
An estimate for the median is 5.3 m. For part c, draw lines to estimate the lower
quartile and the 90th percentile.
c The lower quartile is the 20th data point.
The 90th percentile is the 72nd data point.
The data is continuous so you do not add 1.
An estimate for the lower quartile is 5.15 m.
 ← Section 2.2
An estimate for the 90th percentile is
5.52 m.

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 Representations of data

d Height of giraffes

The minimum possible data value is 4.6 and the

maximum possible data value is 5.8. The median
and lower quartile are taken from parts b and c.
The upper quartile is at 5.4.
4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Height, h (m)

Exercise 3C
1 The table shows the masses, in kilograms,  Mass, m (kg) Frequency
of 120 Coulter pine cones. 1.0 < m , 1.2  7
a Draw a cumulative frequency diagram for this data. 1.2 < m , 1.4 18
b Estimate the median mass. 1.4 < m , 1.6 34
c Find the interquartile range and the 10th to 90th 1.6 < m , 1.8 41
interpercentile range. 1.8 < m , 2.0 15
d Draw a box plot to show this data. 2.0 < m , 2.2  5

2 The table shows the lengths, in cm, of 70 earthworms.  Length, l (cm) Frequency
a Draw a cumulative frequency diagram for this data. 6.0 < l , 6.5  3
b Estimate the median and quartiles. 6.5 < l , 7.0 13
c Estimate how many earthworms are 7.0 < l , 7.5 14
i  longer than 8.2 cm   ii  shorter than 7.3 cm. 7.5 < l , 8.0 26
d Draw a box plot to show this data. 8.0 < l , 8.5 10
8.5 < l , 9.0  4

P 3 The table shows the times taken by 80 men  Frequency Frequency

and 80 women to complete a crossword puzzle. Time, t (min)
(men) (women)
a Draw cumulative frequency diagrams for 5<t,6  2  3
both sets of data on the same axes. 6<t,7 14 15
b Which gender had the lower median time? 7<t,8 17 21
8<t,9 40 35
c Which gender had the bigger spread of
times? 9 < t , 10  7  6

d The qualifying time for the next round Problem-solving

of a national competition is 7.5 minutes.
To compare spread you could use the interquartile
Estimate the numbers of men and women
range or the 10th to 90th percentile range.
who qualified for the competition.

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 Chapter 3

4 A vet measures the masses, in kg, of male and  Frequency Frequency

Mass, w (kg)
female domestic shorthair cats. Her results (male) (female)
are given in the table. 2.5 < w , 3.0  1  5
a Draw cumulative frequency diagrams for 3.0 < w , 3.5 12 17
both sets of data on the same axes. 3.5 < w , 4.0 20 32
b Which gender has the greater spread of 4.0 < w , 4.5 27 12
masses? 4.5 < w , 5.0  7  4
A female domestic shorthair cat is considered 5.0 < w , 5.5  3  0
underweight if its mass is below 3.2 kg.
A male domestic shorthair cat is considered underweight if its mass is below 3.8 kg.
c Which gender has fewer underweight cats?

3.4 Histograms
Grouped continuous data can be represented in a histogram.
Generally, a histogram gives a good picture of how the data is distributed. It enables you to see a
rough location, the general shape and how spread out the data is.
In a histogram, the area of the bar is proportional to the frequency in each class. This allows you to
use a histogram to represent grouped data with unequal class intervals.
■ On a histogram, to calculate the
height of each bar (the frequency 90
density) use the formula 80
70
area of bar = k × frequency.
Frequency density

60
k = 1 is the easiest value to
50
use when drawing a histogram.
40
If k = 1, then 30
frequency
frequency density = ___________
​    ​  20
class width 10
■ Joining the middle of the top of 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
each bar in a histogram forms a Length
frequency polygon.

Example 5
A random sample of 200 students was asked how long it took them to complete their homework
the previous night. The time was recorded and summarised in the table below.
Time, t (minutes) 25 < t , 30 30 < t , 35 35 < t , 40 40 < t , 50 50 < t , 80
Frequency 55 39 68 32 6

a Draw a histogram and a frequency polygon to represent the data.

b Estimate how many students took between 36 and 45 minutes to complete their homework.

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 Representations of data

a Time, t Class Frequency

Frequency
(minutes) width density
25 < t , 30 55 5 11 Frequency density = __
​ 55
5  ​= 11
30 < t , 35 39 5 7.8
35 < t , 40 68 5 13.6
Class width = 30 − 25 = 5
40 < t , 50 32 10 3.2
50 < t , 80 6 30 0.2

14

12
Frequency density

10

8 To draw the frequency polygon, join

the middle of the top of each bar of
6
the histogram.

0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Time, t (min)
36 45 To estimate the number of students
who spent between 36 and 45
b Shaded area = (40 − 36) × 13.6 + (45 − 40) × 3.2
minutes, you need to find the area
= 70.4 students
between 36 and 45.

Example 6
A random sample of daily mean temperatures (T, °C) was taken from the large data set for Hurn
in 2015. The temperatures were summarised in a grouped frequency table and represented by a
histogram.
a Give a reason to support the use of a histogram to represent this data.
b Write down the underlying feature associated with each of the bars in a histogram.
On the histogram the rectangle representing the 16 < T , 18 class was 3.2 cm high and 2 cm wide.
The frequency for this class was 8.
c Show that each day is represented by an area of 0.8 cm2.
d Given that the total area under the histogram was 48 cm2, find the total number of days in the
sample.

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 Chapter 3

a Temperature is continuous and the data

were given in a grouped frequency table.
b The area of the bar is proportional to the
frequency.
c Area of bar = 3.2 × 2 = 6.4 An area of 6.4 cm2 represents a frequency of 8.
6.4 ÷ 8 = 0.8 cm2
d There were 60 days in the sample. Total number of days × area for one day
= total area under histogram

Exercise 3D
1 The data shows the mass, in pounds, of 50 adult  Mass, m (pounds) Frequency
puffer fish. 10 < m , 15  4
a Draw a histogram for this data. 15 < m , 20 12
b On the same set of axes, draw a frequency polygon. 20 < m , 25 23
25 < m , 30  8
30 < m , 35  3

P 2 Some students take part in an 

obstacle race. The time it took
each student to complete the 16
race was noted. The results are
shown in the histogram. 14

a Give a reason to justify the

12
use of a histogram to
represent this data.
Frequency density

10
The number of students who
took between 60 and 70 seconds
8
is 90.
b Find the number of students 6
who took between 40 and
60 seconds. 4
c Find the number of students
who took 80 seconds or less. 2
d Calculate the total number
of students who took part 0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
in the race.
Time (seconds)

Watch
out Frequency density × class
width is always proportional to frequency
in a histogram, but not necessarily equal
to frequency.

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 Representations of data

P 3 A Fun Day committee at a local sports 

centre organised a throwing the
cricket ball competition. The distance 10
thrown by every competitor was
recorded. The histogram shows the 8

Frequency density
data. The number of competitors
who threw less than 20  m was 40. 6
a Why is a histogram a suitable
diagram to represent this data? 4

b How many people entered the

2
competition?
c Estimate how many people threw
0
between 30 and 40 metres. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
d How many people threw between 45 and 65 metres? Distance (metres)

e Estimate how many people threw less than 25 metres.

P 4 A farmer found the masses of a random 

sample of lambs. The masses were
summarised in a grouped frequency
table and represented by a histogram.
The frequency for the class 28 < m , 32
was 32.
a Show that 25 small squares on the
Frequency density

histogram represents 8 lambs.

b Find the frequency of the
24 < m , 26 class.
c How many lambs did the farmer
weigh in total?
d Estimate the number of lambs that
had masses between 25 and 29 kg.

0
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Mass, m

Problem-solving
You can use area to solve histogram
problems where no vertical scale is
given. You could also use the information
given in the question to work out a
suitable scale for the vertical axis.

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E/p 5 The partially completed histogram 

shows the time, in minutes, that
4
passengers were delayed at an airport.

Frequency density
a i Copy and complete the table. 3
Time, t (min) Frequency
 0 < t , 20 4 2
20 < t , 30
30 < t , 35 15 1
35 < t , 40 25
40 < t , 50 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
50 < t , 70 Time, t (minutes)

ii Copy and complete the histogram.  (4 marks)

b Estimate the number of passengers that were delayed for between 25 and 38 minutes. (2 marks)

E/p 6 The variable y was measured to the nearest whole number. 60 observations were taken and are
recorded in the table below.
y 10–12 13–14 15–17 18–25
Frequency 6 24 18 12

a Write down the class boundaries for the 13–14 class.  (1 mark)
A histogram was drawn and the bar representing the 13–14 class had a width of 4 cm and a
height of 6 cm.
Problem-solving
For the bar representing the 15–17 class, find:
Remember that area is proportional to frequency.
b i  the width (1 mark)
ii  the height. (2 marks)

E/p 7 From the large data set, the daily mean temperature  Daily mean Frequency
for Leeming during May 2015 is summarised in the table. temperature, t (°C)
A histogram was drawn. The 8 < t , 10 group was  4 < t ,   8 4
represented by a bar of width 1 cm and a height of 8 cm.  8 < t , 10 8
a Find the width and height of the bar representing the 10 < t , 11 6
11 < t , 12 group. (2 marks) 11 < t , 12 7
12 < t , 15 5
b Use your calculator to estimate the mean and
15 < t , 16 1
standard deviation of temperatures in Leeming
in May 2015. (3 marks)  © Crown Copyright Met Office

c Use linear interpolation to find an estimate for the lower quartile of temperatures.  (2 marks)
d Estimate the number of days in May 2015 on which the temperature was higher than
the mean plus one standard deviation.  (2 marks)

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3.5 Comparing data

■ When comparing data sets you can comment on:
●  a measure of location    ●  a measure of spread

You can compare data using the mean and standard Watch out
Do not use the median
deviation or using the median and interquartile range. with the standard deviation or the
If the data set contains extreme values, then the median mean with the interquartile range.
and interquartile range are more appropriate statistics to use.

Example 7
From the large data set, the daily mean temperature during August 2015 is recorded at Heathrow
and Leeming.
For Heathrow, Σx = 562.0 and Σx2 = 10 301.2.
a Calculate the mean and standard deviation for Heathrow.
For Leeming, the mean temperature was 15.6 °C with a standard deviation of 2.01 °C.
b Compare the data for the two locations using the information given.

a Mean = 562.0 ÷ 31 = 18.12… = 18.1 °C Σx

​ ¯​ = ​ ___
Use x  n    ​ . There are 31 days in August so n = 31.
Standard deviation

√ 
____________________

− ​(______
31 )
2
10 301.2 562.0
= ​ ________
​        ​  ​  ​ ​  ​  = 1.906…
   
  Use your calculator to do this calculation in one
31 step. Round your final answer to 3 significant
= 1.91 °C (3 s.f.)
figures.
b The mean daily temperature in Leeming is
lower than in Heathrow and the spread of
Compare the mean and standard deviation as a
temperatures is greater than in Heathrow.
measure of location and a measure of spread.

Exercise 3E Speeds of cars on motorways

P 1 The box plots show the distribution of speeds Motorway A

of cars on two motorways.
Compare the distributions of the speeds on Motorway B
the two motorways.

55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Speed (mph)

P 2 Two classes of primary school children complete  n Σx Σx2

a puzzle. Summary statistics for the times, Class 2B 20 650 22 000
in minutes, the children took are shown in the table.
Class 2F 22 598 19 100
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the
times and compare the distributions.

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 Chapter 3

P 3 The cumulative frequency diagram 

shows the distribution of heights of 90
80 boys and 80 girls in a basketball club. 80

Cumulative frequency
70
Compare the heights of boys and girls
60
in the club.
50
40
30
20 girls boys
10
0
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Height (cm)

E 4 A sample of the daily maximum relative humidity is taken from the large data set for Leuchars
and for Camborne during 2015. The data is given in the table.
Leuchars 100 98 100 100 100 100 100 100 94 100 91 100 100 89 100
Camborne 92 95 99 96 100 100 90 98 81 99 100 99 91 98 100
 © Crown Copyright Met Office
a Find the median and quartiles for both samples.  (4 marks)
b Compare the two samples.  (2 marks)

Large data set

You will need access to the large data set and spreadsheet software to
answer this question. Look at the data on daily mean windspeed in Hurn
in 1987 and in 2015.
Hint
You can use the MODE
1 For each year, calculate:
function in a spreadsheet to
a the mean   b the mode   c  the standard deviation. find the modal value from a
2 Compare the daily mean windspeeds in Hurn in 1987 and 2015. range of cells.

Mixed exercise 3

1 Jason and Perdita decided to go on a touring holiday on the continent for the whole of July.
They recorded the distance they travelled, in kilometres, each day:
155, 164, 168, 169, 173, 175, 177, 178, 178, 178, 179, 179, 179, 184, 184, 185,
185, 188, 192, 193, 194, 195, 195, 196, 204, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, 226
a Find Q1, Q2 and Q3
Outliers are values that lie outside Q1 − 1.5(Q3 − Q1) and Q3 + 1.5(Q3 − Q1).
b Find any outliers.
c Draw a box plot of this data.

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P 2 Fell runners from the Esk Club and the Irt Club were keen to see which club had the faster
runners overall. They decided that all the members from both clubs would take part in a fell run.
The time each runner took to complete the run was recorded.
The results are summarised in the box plot.

Esk

Irt

25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Time (min)

a Write down the time by which 50% of the Esk Club runners had completed the run.
b Write down the time by which 75% of the Irt Club runners had completed the run.
c Explain what is meant by the cross (×) on the Esk Club box plot.
d Compare and contrast these two box plots.
e What conclusions can you draw from this information about which club has the faster
runners?
f Give one advantage and one disadvantage of comparing distributions using box plots.

P 3 The table shows the lengths, in cm, of 60 honey badgers.  Length, x (cm) Frequency
a Draw a cumulative frequency diagram for this data. 50 < x , 55  2
b Find the median length of a honey badger. 55 < x , 60  7
c Find the interquartile range. 60 < x , 65 15
65 < x , 70 31
70 < x , 75  5

This diagram shows the distribution of lengths 

of European badgers.
60
d Compare the distributions of lengths of
honey badgers and European badgers.
50
Cumulative frequency

e Comment on the suitability of using

cumulative frequency diagrams to 40
compare these distributions.
30

20

10

0
50 60 70 80
Length, x (cm)

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 Chapter 3

P 4 The histogram shows the time taken by a group of 58 girls

5.5
to run a measured distance.
5
a Work out the number of girls who took longer than 4.5
56 seconds. 4

Frequency density
b Estimate the number of girls who took between 3.5
52 and 55 seconds. 3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
E/p 5 The table gives the distances travelled to school, 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64
in km, of the population of children in a particular Time (seconds)
region of the United Kingdom.
Distance, d (km) 0<d,1 1<d,2 2<d,3 3<d,5 5 < d , 10 10 < d
Number 2565 1784 1170 756 630 135

A histogram of this data was drawn with distance along the horizontal axis. A bar of horizontal
width 1.5 cm and height 5.7 cm represented the 0  –1 km group.
Find the widths and heights, in cm, to one decimal place, of the bars representing the following
groups:
a 2 < d , 3 b 5 < d , 10  (5 marks)

6 The labelling on bags of garden compost indicates  Mass, m (kg) Frequency

that the bags have a mass of 20 kg. 14.6 < m , 14.8  1
The masses of a random sample of 50 bags are 14.8 < m , 18.0  0
summarised in the table opposite.
18.0 < m , 18.5  5
a On graph paper, draw a histogram of this data. 18.5 < m , 20.0  6
b Estimate the mean and standard deviation of the 20.0 < m , 20.2 22
mass of a bag of compost. 20.2 < m , 20.4 15
[You may use Σfy = 988.85, Σfy2 = 19 602.84] 20.4 < m , 21.0  1
c Using linear interpolation, estimate the median.

7 The number of bags of potato crisps sold per day in a bar was recorded over a two-week period.
The results are shown below.
20   15   10   30   33   40   5   11   13   20   25   42   31   17
a Calculate the mean of this data.
b Find the median and the quartiles of this data.
An outlier is an observation that falls either 1.5 × (interquartile range) above the upper quartile
or 1.5 × (interquartile range) below the lower quartile.
c Determine whether or not any items of data are outliers.
d On graph paper draw a box plot to represent this data. Show your scale clearly.

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 Representations of data

E 8 From the large data set, the daily maximum gust (knots)  Daily maximum
is measured at Hurn throughout May and June 2015. Frequency
gust, g (knots)
The data is summarised in the table. 10 < g , 15  3
A histogram is drawn to represent this data. The bar 15 < g , 18  9
representing the 10 < g , 15 class is 2.5 cm wide and 18 < g , 20  9
1.8 cm high. 20 < g , 25 20
a Give a reason to support the use of a histogram 25 < g , 30  9
to represent this data. (1 mark) 30 < g , 50  7
b Calculate the width and height of the bar  © Crown Copyright Met Office
representing the 18 < g , 20 class.  (3 marks)
c Use your calculator to estimate the mean and standard deviation of the maximum gusts.
 (3 marks)
d Use linear interpolation to find an estimate for the number of days the maximum gust was
within one standard deviation of the mean.  (4 marks)

E 9 From the large data set, data was  Min Max Median Σx Σx2
gathered in September 1987 and 1987 7.0 17.0 11.85 356.1 4408.9
in September 2015 for the 2015 10.1 14.1 12.0 364.1 4450.2
mean daily temperature in
Leuchars. Summary statistics are given in the table.
a Calculate the mean of the mean daily temperatures in each of the two years. (2 marks)
b In 2015, the standard deviation was 1.02. Compare the mean daily temperatures in
the two years.  (2 marks)
c A recorded temperature is considered ‘normal’ for the time of year if it is within one standard
deviation of the mean. Estimate for how many days in September 2015 a ‘normal’ mean daily
temperature was recorded. State one assumption you have made in making the
estimate.  (3 marks)

Challenge
The table shows the lengths of the films in a film festival, to the
nearest minute.

Length (min) Frequency

70–89  4
90–99 17
100–109 20
110–139  9
140–179  2
A histogram is drawn to represent the data, and the bar representing the
90–99 class is 3 cm higher than the bar representing the 70–89 class.
Find the height of the bar representing the 110–139 class.

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 Chapter 3

Summary of key points

1 A common definition of an outlier is any value that is:
• either greater than Q3 + k(Q3 − Q1)
• or less than Q1 − k(Q3 − Q1)
2 The process of removing anomalies from a data set is known as cleaning the data.
3 On a histogram, to calculate the height of each bar (the frequency density) use the formula
area of bar = k × frequency.
4 Joining the middle of the top of each bar in a histogram forms a frequency polygon.
5 When comparing data sets you can comment on:
• a measure of location
• a measure of spread

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 Correlation

Objectives
4
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Draw and interpret scatter diagrams for bivariate data → pages 60−61
● Interpret correlation and understand that it does not
imply causation  → pages 61−62

● Interpret the coefficients of a regression line equation for

bivariate data  → pages 63−64

● Understand when you can use a regression line to make

predictions  → pages 64−66

Prior knowledge check

1 The table shows the scores out of 10 on a maths
test and on a physics test for 7 students.
Maths 6 7 7 8 9 9 10
Physics 9 7 6 7 5 4 5
Show this information on a scatter diagram.
 ← GCSE Mathematics

2 A straight line has equation y = 0.34 − 3.21x.

Climate scientists have demonstrated
Write down
a strong correlation between
a the gradient of the line greenhouse gas emissions and rising
b the y-intercept of the line atmospheric temperatures.
 ← GCSE Mathematics → Mixed exercise Q2

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 Chapter 4

4.1 Correlation
■ Bivariate data is data which has pairs of values for two variables.
You can represent bivariate data on a scatter diagram. This scatter diagram shows the results from
an experiment on how breath rate affects pulse rate:

100 Each cross represents a data point. This subject

had a breath rate of 32 breaths per minute and a
pulse rate of 89 beats per minute.
Pulse beats
per minute

80

The researcher could control this variable. It is

60
called the independent or explanatory variable.
It is usually plotted on the horizontal axis.
40
15 20 25 30 35
The researcher measured this variable. It is
Breaths per minute
called the dependent or response variable. It is
usually plotted on the vertical axis.
The two different variables in a set of bivariate
data are often related.
■ Correlation describes the nature of the linear relationship between two variables.
y y y y y

O x O x O x O x O x
Strong negative Weak negative No (or zero) Weak positive Strong positive
correlation correlation linear correlation correlation correlation

For negatively correlated variables, when one variable increases

the other decreases. Watch
out You should only
use correlation to describe data
For positively correlated variables, when one variable increases,
that shows a linear relationship.
the other also increases.
Variables with no linear
correlation could still show a
non-linear relationship.

Example 1

In the study of a city, the population density, in people/hectare, and the distance from the city
centre, in km, was investigated by picking a number of sample areas with the following results.
Area A B C D E F G H I J
Distance (km) 0.6 3.8 2.4 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.8 3.4 4.0 0.9
Population density
50 22 14 20 33 47 25 8 16 38
(people/hectare)

a Draw a scatter diagram to represent this data.

b Describe the correlation between distance and population density.
c Interpret your answer to part b.

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 Correlation

a Scatter diagram of population

density and distance from centre

60 There are ten data points, so check that there are

Population density
(people/hectare)

50 ten crosses on your scatter diagram.

40 Make sure that you include units with your axis
30 labels.
20
10 Describe the strength of the correlation as well as
0 whether it is negative or positive.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance from centre (km)
b There is weak negative correlation. Problem-solving
c As distance from the centre increases, the Make sure you interpret results in the context of
population density decreases. the question.

Two variables have a causal relationship if a change in one variable causes a change in the other. Just
because two variables show correlation it does not necessarily mean that they have a causal relationship.
■ When two variables are correlated, you need to consider the context of the question and use
your common sense to determine whether they have a causal relationship.
Hourly pay at age 25
Example 2 p
20
Hideko was interested to see if there was a relationship between 18
16
what people earn and the age at which they left education or
Hourly pay (£)
14
training. She asked 14 friends to fill in an anonymous questionnaire 12
and recorded her results in a scatter diagram. 10
8
a Describe the type of correlation shown. 6
4
Hideko says that her data supports the conclusion that more 2
education causes people to earn a lower hourly rate of pay. 0
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 a
b Give one reason why Hideko’s conclusion might not be valid. Age at which education or
training ended
a Weak negative correlation.
b Respondents who left education later would have
You could also say that Hideko’s conclusion
significantly less work experience than those who
is not valid because she used a small,
left education earlier. This could be the cause of opportunistic sample. ← Section 1.1
the reduced income shown in her results.

Exercise 4A
1 Some research was done into the effectiveness of a weight-reducing
Loss in weight

drug. Seven people recorded their weight loss and this was compared
with the length of time for which they had been treated. A scatter
diagram was drawn to represent this data.
a Describe the type of correlation shown by the scatter diagram.
Length of treatment
b Interpret the correlation in context.

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 Chapter 4

2 The average temperature and rainfall were collected for a

Average rainfall (mm)

number of cities around the world. 250

The scatter diagram shows this information. 200

150
a Describe the correlation between average temperature
100
and average rainfall.
50
b Comment on the claim that hotter cities have less rainfall. 0
10 15 20 25 30 35
Average temperature (°C)

3 Eight students were asked to estimate the mass of a bag of sweets in grams. First they were
asked to estimate the mass without touching the bag and then they were told to pick the bag up
and estimate the mass again. The results are shown in the table below.
Student A B C D E F G H
Estimate of mass not touching bag (g) 25 18 32 27 21 35 28 30
Estimate of mass holding bag (g) 16 11 20 17 15 26 22 20
a Draw a scatter diagram to represent this data.
b Describe and interpret the correlation between the two variables.

4 Donal was interested to see whether there was a relationship between the value of a house and
the speed of its internet connection, as measured by the time taken to download a 100 megabyte
file. The table shows his results.
Time taken (s) 5.2 5.5 5.8 6.0 6.8 8.3 9.3 13 13.6 16.0
House value (£1000s) 300 310 270 200 230 205 208 235 175 180
a Draw a scatter diagram to represent this data.
b Describe the type of correlation shown.
Donal says that his data shows that a slow internet connection reduces the value of a house.
c Give one reason why Donal’s conclusion may not be valid.

E 5 The table shows the daily total rainfall, r mm, and daily total hours of sunshine, s, in Leuchars
for a random sample of 11 days in August 1987, from the large data set.
r 0 6.8 0.9 4.8 0 21.7 1.7 4.9 0.1 2.2 0.1
s 8.4 4.9 10.2 4.5 3.3 3.9 5.4 1.8 9.7 1 4.6
 © Crown Copyright Met Office
The median and quartiles for the rainfall data are:  Q1 = 0.1   Q2 = 1.7   Q3 = 4.85
An outlier is defined as a value which lies either 1.5 × the interquartile range above the upper
quartile or 1.5 × the interquartile range below the lower quartile.
a Show that r = 21.7 is an outlier.  (1 mark)
b Give a reason why you might:
i   include  ii   exclude this day’s readings. (2 marks)
c Exclude this day’s readings and draw a scatter diagram to represent the data for the
remaining ten days. (3 marks)
d Describe the correlation between rainfall and hours of sunshine.  (1 mark)
e Do you think there is a causal relationship between the amount of rain and the
hours of sunshine on a particular day? Explain your reasoning.  (1 mark)

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 Correlation

4.2 Linear regression

When a scatter diagram shows correlation, you can draw a
Notation
The least squares
line of best fit. This is a linear model that approximates
regression line is usually just
the relationship between the variables. One type of line of best
called the regression line.
fit that is useful in statistics is a least squares regression line.
This is the straight line that minimises the sum of the squares
of the distances of each data point from the line.
There are 4 data points on this scatter diagram.
y
(x3, y3) The regression line of y on x is the straight line that
d3 minimises the value of d12 + d22 + d32 + d 42. In general,
(x1, y1)
d4 if each data point is a distance di from the line, the
d1 (x4, y4) regression line minimises the value of Sdi2.
d2
(x2, y2) The point (x2, y2) is a vertical distance d2 from the line.

O x

■ The regression line of y on x is written in the  Watch out

The order of the
form y = a + bx. variables is important. The regression
You can use a calculator to find the values of the coefficients line of y on x will be different from
a and b for a given set of bivariate data. You will not be the regression line of x on y.
required to do this in your exam.
■ The coefficient b tells you the change in y for each unit change in x.
● If the data is positively correlated, b will be positive.
● If the data is negatively correlated, b will be negative.

Example 3

From the large data set, the daily mean windspeed, w knots, and the daily maximum gust, g knots,
were recorded for the first 15 days in May in Camborne in 2015.
w 14 13 13 9 18 18 7 15 10 14 11 9 8 10 7
g 33 37 29 23 43 38 17 30 28 29 29 23 21 28 20
© Crown Copyright Met Office
The data was plotted on a scatter diagram:
a Describe the correlation between daily mean windspeed and
Daily maximum gust,

50 daily maximum gust.

40
g (knots)

The equation of the regression line of g on w for these 15 days is

30
g = 7.23 + 1.82w.
20
10 b Give an interpretation of the value of the gradient of this
0
regression line.
0 5 10 15 20
Daily mean windspeed,
c Justify the use of a linear regression line in this instance.
w (knots)

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 Chapter 4

a There is a strong positive correlation Online

x

Explore the regression

between daily mean windspeed and daily line and analysis using technology.
maximum gust.

b If the daily mean windspeed increases by Make sure your interpretation refers to both the
10 knots the daily maximum gust increases context and your numerical value of the gradient.
Try to phrase your answer as a complete, clear
by approximately 18 knots.
sentence.

c The correlation suggests that there is a Problem-solving

linear relationship between g and w so a
A regression line is a valid model when the
linear regression line is a suitable model.
data shows linear correlation. The stronger the
correlation, the more accurately the regression
line will model the data.

If you know a value of the independent variable from a bivariate data set, you can use the regression
line to make a prediction or estimate of the corresponding value of the dependent variable.
■ You should only use the regression line to make Notation
This is called interpolation.
predictions for values of the dependent variable Making a prediction based on a value
that are within the range of the given data. outside the range of the given data is
called extrapolation, and gives a much
less reliable estimate.
Example 4

The head circumference, y cm, and gestation period, x weeks, for a random sample of eight
newborn babies at a clinic were recorded.
Gestation period (x weeks) 36 40 33 37 40 39 35 38
Head circumference (   y cm) 30.0 35.0 29.8 32.5 33.2 32.1 30.9 33.6

The scatter graph shows the results. 

circumference (cm)

36
The equation of the regression line of y on x is y = 8.91 + 0.624x. 34
Head

The regression equation is used to estimate the head circumference 32

of a baby born at 39 weeks and a baby born at 30 weeks. 30
a Comment on the reliability of these estimates. 28
30 32 34 36 38 40 42
A nurse wants to estimate the gestation period for a baby born Gestation period (weeks)
with a head circumference of 31.6 cm.
b Explain why the regression equation given above is not suitable for this estimate.

a The prediction for 39 weeks is within the You could also comment on the sample.
range of the data (interpolation) so is more The sample was randomly chosen which would
likely to be accurate. improve the accuracy of the predictions, but
The prediction for 30 weeks is outside the the sample size is small which would reduce the
accuracy of the predictions.
range of the data (extrapolation) so is less
likely to be accurate.

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 Correlation

b The independent (explanatory) variable in Watch

out You should only make predictions for
this model is the gestation period, x. You the dependent variable. If you needed to predict a
should not use this model to predict a value of x for a given value of y you would need to
value of x for a given value of y. use the regression line of x on y.

Exercise 4B

1 An accountant monitors the number of items produced per month by a company together with
the total production costs. The table shows this data.
Number of items, n (1000s) 21 39 48 24 72 75 15 35 62 81 12 56
Production costs, p (£1000s) 40 58 67 45 89 96 37 53 83 102 35 75

a Draw a scatter diagram to represent this data.

The equation of the regression line of p on n is p = 21.0 + 0.98n.
b Draw the regression line on your scatter diagram.
c Interpret the meaning of the figures 21.0 and 0.98.
The company expects to produce 74 000 items in June, and 95 000 items in July.
d Comment on the suitability of this regression line equation to predict the production costs in
each of these months.

2 The relationship between the number of coats of paint applied Coats of Protection
to a boat and the resulting weather resistance was tested in a paint (x) (years) (  y)
laboratory. The data collected is shown in the table. 1  4.4
a Draw a scatter diagram to represent this data. 2  5.9
The equation of the regression line is y = 2.93 + 1.45x. 3  7.1
Helen says that a gradient of 1.45 means that if 10 coats of paint 4  8.8
are applied the protection will last 14.5 years. 5 10.2
b Comment on Helen’s statement.

3 The table shows the ages of some chickens and the number of eggs that they laid in a month.
Age of chicken, a (months) 18 32 44 60 71 79 99 109 118 140
Number of eggs laid in a month, n 16 18 13 7 12 7 11 13 6 9

a Draw a scatter diagram to show this information.

Robin calculates the regression line of n on a as n = 16.1 + 0.063a.
b Without further calculation, explain why Robin’s regression equation is incorrect.

4 Aisha collected data on the numbers of bedrooms, x, and the values, y (£1000s), of the houses in
her village. She calculates the regression equation of y on x to be y = 190 + 50x.
She states that the value of the constant in her regression equation means that a house with no
bedrooms in her village would be worth £190 000. Explain why this is not a reasonable
statement.

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 Chapter 4

E 5 The table shows the daily maximum relative humidity, h (%), and the daily mean visibility, v
decametres (Dm), in Heathrow for the first two weeks in September 2015, from the large data set.
h 94 95 92 80 97 94 93 90 87 95 93 92 91 98
v 2600 2900 3900 4300 2800 2400 2700 3500 3000 2200 2200 3300 2800 2200
© Crown Copyright Met Office
The equation of the regression line of v on h is v = 12 700 − 106h
a Give an interpretation of the value of the gradient of the regression line.  (1 mark)
b Use your knowledge of the large data set to explain whether there is likely to be a
causal relationship between humidity and visibility. (2 marks)
c Give reasons why it would not be reliable to use this regression equation to predict:
i the mean visibility on a day with 100% humidity  (2 marks)
ii the humidity on a day with visibility of 3000 dm.  (2 marks)
d State two ways in which better use could be made of the large data set to produce a
model describing the relationship between humidity and visibility.  (2 marks)

Mixed exercise 4

1 A survey of British towns recorded the number of serious road accidents in a week (x) in each
town, together with the number of fast food restaurants (   y). The data showed a strong positive
correlation. Katie states that this shows that building more fast food restaurants in her town will
cause more serious road accidents. Explain whether the data supports Katie’s statement.

2 The following table shows the mean CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, c (ppm), and the
increase in average temperature compared to the 30-year period 1951–1980, t (°C).
Year 2015 2013 2011 2009 2007 2005 2003 2001 1999 1997 1995 1994
c (ppm) 401 397 392 387 384 381 376 371 368 363 361 357
t (°C) 0.86 0.65 0.59 0.64 0.65 0.68 0.61 0.54 0.41 0.47 0.45 0.24
Source: Earth System Research Laboratory (CO2 data); GISS Surface Temperature Analysis, NASA (temperature data)
a Draw a scatter diagram to represent this data.
b Describe the correlation between c and t.
c Interpret your answer to part b.

E 3 The table below shows the packing times for a particular employee for a random sample of
orders in a mail order company.
Number of items (n) 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 11 13
Time (t min) 11 14 16 16 19 21 23 25 24 27 28 30 35 42

A scatter diagram was drawn to represent the data. 

50
a Describe the correlation between number of items packed
Time, t (min)

40
and time taken. (1 mark) 30
The equation of the regression line of t on n is t = 6.3 + 2.64n. 20
b Give an interpretation of the value 2.64. (1 mark) 10
0
0 5 10 15
Number of times (n)

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 Correlation

E 4 Energy consumption is claimed to be a good predictor of Gross National Product.

An economist recorded the energy consumption (x) and the Gross National Product (   y) for eight
countries. The data is shown in the table.
Energy consumption (x) 3.4 7.7 12.0 75 58 67 113 131
Gross National Product (   y) 55 240 390 1100 1390 1330 1400 1900

The equation of the regression line of y on x is y = 225 + 12.9x.

The economist uses this regression equation to estimate the energy consumption of a country
with a Gross National Product of 3500.
Give two reasons why this may not be a valid estimate.  (2 marks)

E 5 The table shows average monthly temperature, t (°C), and the number of pairs of gloves,
g, a shop sells each month.
t (°C) 6 6 50 10 13 16 18 19 16 12 9 7
g 81 58 50 42 19 21 4 2 20 33 58 65

The following statistics were calculated for the data on temperature:

mean = 15.2, standard deviation = 11.4
An outlier is an observation which lies ±2 standard deviations from the mean.
a Show that t = 50 is an outlier.  (1 mark)
b Give a reason whether or not this outlier should be omitted from the data.  (1 mark)
The equation of the regression line of t on g for the remaining data is t = 18.4 – 0.18g.
c Give an interpretation of the value −0.18 in this regression equation.  (1 mark)

E 6 James placed different masses (m) on a spring and measured the resulting length of the spring (s)
in centimetres. The smallest mass was 20 g and the largest mass was 100 g.
He found the equation of the regression line of s on m to be s = 44 + 0.2m.
a Interpret the values 44 and 0.2 in this context.  (2 marks)
b Explain why it would not be sensible to use the regression equation to work out:
i  the value of s when m = 150   ii  the value of m when s = 60.  (2 marks)

E 7 A student is investigating the relationship Chocolate brand x (% cocoa) y (pence)

between the price (   y pence) of 100 g of A 10  35
chocolate and the percentage (x%) of B 20  55
cocoa solids in the chocolate. C 30  40
The data obtained is shown in the table. D 35 100
E 40  60
a Draw a scatter diagram to represent
F 50  90
this data.  (2 marks)
G 60 110
The equation of the regression line of H 70 130
y on x is y = 17.0 + 1.54x.
b Draw the regression line on your diagram.  (2 marks)
The student believes that one brand of chocolate is overpriced and uses the regression line to
suggest a fair price for this brand.
c Suggest, with a reason, which brand is overpriced. (1 mark)
d Comment on the validity of the student’s method for suggesting a fair price.  (1 mark)

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 Chapter 4

Large data set

You will need access to the large data set and spreadsheet software to answer
these questions.
1 Investigate the relationship between daily mean windspeed, w, and daily
maximum gust, g, in Leeming in 2015.
a Draw a scatter diagram of w against g for the entire data set for
Leeming in 2015.
b Describe the correlation shown.
c Comment on whether there is likely to be a causal relationship between
mean windspeed and maximum gust.
Hint
You can use the
The equation of the regression line of g on w is given by g = 4.97 + 2.15w.
d Use the equation of the regression line to predict the maximum gust on SLOPE and INTERCEPT
a day when the mean windspeed is: functions in some
i 0.5 knots   ii 5 knots   iii  12 knots   iv  40 knots. spreadsheets to find
e Comment on the accuracy of each prediction in part d. the values of a and b in
f Calculate the equation of the regression line of w on g, and use it to a regression equation.
predict the mean windspeed on a day when the maximum gust was
30 knots.
2 Use a similar approach to investigate the daily total sunshine and daily
mean total cloud cover in Heathrow in 1987.
a Use a regression model to suggest values for the missing total sunshine
data in the first half of May.
b Do you think there is a causal relationship between these two variables?
Give a reason for your answer.

Summary of key points

1 Bivariate data is data which has pairs of values for two variables.
2 Correlation describes the nature of the linear relationship between two variables.
3 When two variables are correlated, you need to consider the context of the question and use
your common sense to determine whether they have a causal relationship.
4 The regression line of y on x is written in the form y = a + bx.
5 The coefficient b tells you the change in y for each unit change in x.
• If the data is positively correlated, b will be positive.
• If the data is negatively correlated, b will be negative.
6 You should only use the regression line to make predictions for values of the dependent
variable that are within the range of the given data.

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 Probability
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Calculate probabilities for single events
● Draw and interpret Venn diagrams
→ pages 70–72
→ pages 72–75
5
● Understand mutually exclusive and independent
events, and determine whether two events are
independent → pages 75–78
● Use and understand tree diagrams → pages 78–80

Prior knowledge check

1 A bag contains three red balls, four yellow
balls and two blue balls. A ball is chosen
at random from the bag. Write down the
probability that the ball is:
a blue b yellow
c not red d green.
 ← GCSE Mathematics

2 Three coins are flipped. Write down all the

possible outcomes.  ← GCSE Mathematics
3 Poppy rolls a dice. She keeps rolling until
she rolls a 6. Work out the probability that
Poppy rolls the dice:
Sports teams use past performance to
a exactly three times
estimate probabilities and plan strategies.
In softball and baseball, a player’s batting b fewer than three times
average is an estimate of the probability that c more than three times.
they will make a hit.  → Mixed exercise Q2  ← GCSE Mathematics

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 Chapter 5

5.1 Calculating probabilities

If you want to predict the chance of something happening, you use probability.
An experiment is a repeatable process that gives rise to a number of outcomes.
An event is a collection of one or more outcomes.
A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes.
Where outcomes are equally likely the probability of an event is the number of outcomes in the
event divided by the total number of possible outcomes.
All events have probability between 0 (impossible) and 1 (certain). Probabilities are usually written as
fractions or decimals.

Example 1

Two fair spinners each have four sectors numbered 1 to 4. The two spinners are spun together and
the sum of the numbers indicated on each spinner is recorded.
Find the probability of the spinners indicating
a sum of: Draw a sample space diagram showing all
possible outcomes.
a exactly 5 b more than 5.

There are 4 × 4 = 16 points. Each of these points

4 5 6 7 8 is equally likely as the spinners are fair.
Spinner 2

3 4 5 6 7
There are 4 outcomes for part a.
2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5
There are four 5s and 16 outcomes altogether.
O 1
2 3 4
Spinner 1 P(  ) is short for ‘probability of’. The answer P(5)
4 1 can also be written as 0.25.
a P(5) = ___
​    ​ = __
​    ​
16 4
6 3 There are six sums more than 5 for this part
b P(more than 5) = ​ ___  ​ = __
​   ​ (shaded blue). They form the top right corner of
16 8
the diagram.
The answer can also be written as 0.375.

Example 2

The table shows the times taken, in minutes, for a group of students to complete a number puzzle.
Time, t (min) 5<t<7 7<t<9 9 < t < 11 11 < t < 13 13 < t < 15
Frequency 6 13 12 5 4

A student is chosen at random. Find the probability that they finished the number puzzle:
a in under 9 minutes b in over 10.5 minutes.

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 Probability

19 There are 40 students overall.

a P(finished in under 9 minutes) = ___
​     
​
40 6 + 13 = 19 finished in under 9 minutes.
b 3 + 5 + 4 = 12
12 3 Problem-solving
P(finished in over 10.5 minutes) = ___ ​=
​      ___
​    ​ 
40 10
Use interpolation: 10.5 minutes lies _​ 34 ​of the way
through the 9 < t < 11 class, so ​ _14 ​of 12 is 3.
Your answer is an estimate because you don’t
know the exact number of students who took
longer than 10.5 seconds.

Exercise 5A
1 Two coins are tossed. Find the probability of both coins showing the same outcome.

2 Two six-sided dice are thrown and their product, X, is recorded.

a Draw a sample space diagram showing all the possible outcomes of this experiment.
b Find the probability of each event:
i  X = 24    ii  X < 5    iii  X is even.

P 3 The masses of 140 adult Bullmastiffs are recorded in a table.  Mass, m (kg) Frequency
One dog is chosen at random. 45 < m < 48 17
a Find the probability that the dog has a mass of 54 kg 48 < m < 51 25
or more. 51 < m < 54 42
b Find the probability that the dog has a mass between 54 < m < 57 33
48 kg and 57 kg. 57 < m < 60 21
The probability that a Rottweiler chosen at random has 60 < m < 63  2
a mass under 53 kg is 0.54.
c Is it more or less likely that a Bullmastiff chosen at random has a Hint

mass under 53 kg? State one assumption that you have made in Use interpolation.
making your decision.

P 4 The lengths, in cm, of 240 koalas are recorded  Length, l Frequency Frequency
in a table. (cm) (male) (female)
One koala is chosen at random. 65 < l < 70  4 14
a Find the probability that the koala is female. 70 < l < 75 20 15
b Find the probability that the koala is less than 75 < l < 80 24 32
80 cm long. 80 < l < 85 47 27
c Find the probability that the koala is a male 85 < l < 90 31 26
between 75 cm and 85 cm long.
Koalas under 72 cm long are called juvenile.
d Estimate the probability that a koala chosen at random is juvenile. State one assumption you
have made in making your estimate.

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 Chapter 5

E/p 5 The histogram shows the distribution of 50

Frequency density
masses, in kg, of 70 adult cats. 40
a Find the probability that a cat chosen 30
at random has a mass more than 5 kg. 20
(2 marks) 10

b Estimate the probability that a cat 0

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
chosen at random has a mass less Mass (kg)
than 6.5 kg. (3 marks)
Challenge
Samira picks one card at random from group A and A B
one card at random from group B.
2 7 5 4 x
She records the product, Y, of the two cards as the
result of her experiment. Given that x is an integer and that P(Y is even) = P(Y > 20),
find the possible values of x.

5.2 Venn diagrams

■ A Venn diagram can be used to represent events graphically. Frequencies or probabilities
can be placed in the regions of the Venn diagram.
S
Venn diagrams are named after the English mathematician
John Venn (1834–1923).
A rectangle represents the sample space, S, and it contains
closed curves that represent events.
For events A and B in a sample space S:
1 The event A and B 2 The event A or B 3 The event not A
S S S
A B A B A B

This event is also called the This event is also called the This event is also called the
intersection of A and B. It union of A and B. complement of A. It represents
represents the event that both It represents the event that the event that A does not occur.
A and B occur. either A or B, or both, occur.
P(not A) = 1 − P(A)
You can write numbers of outcomes (frequencies) or the probability of the events in a Venn diagram
to help solve problems.

Example 3
In a class of 30 students, 7 are in the choir, 5 are in the school band and 2 are in the choir and the
band. A student is chosen at random from the class.
a Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
b Find the probability that:
i  the student is not in the band    ii  the student is not in the choir or the band.

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 Probability

a S
B C

3 2 5
Put the number in both the choir and the band in
the intersection of B and C.
20
This region represents the events in the sample
b i A student not in the band is not B.
space that are not in C or B:
25 5
P(not B) = ___ ​=
​     ​ __ ​ 30 − (3 + 2 + 5) = 20.
30 6
ii P(student is not in the choir or the band)
There are 5 + 20 = 25 outcomes not in B, out of
20 __ 2
= ___ ​= ​   ​
​     30 equally likely outcomes.
30 3

20 outcomes are in neither event.

Example 4

A vet surveys 100 of her clients. She finds that:

25 own dogs 15 own dogs and cats
11 own dogs and fish 53 own cats
10 own cats and fish
7 own dogs, cats and fish Problem-solving
40 own fish You can use a Venn diagram with probabilities
to solve this problem, but it could also be
A client is chosen at random.
solved using the number of outcomes. There are
Find the probability that the client:
7 clients who own all three pets. Start with 0.07
a owns dogs only in the intersection of all three events.
b does not own fish
c does not own dogs, cats or fish.

S
D C
Work outwards to the intersections.
0.15 – 0.07 = 0.08
0.06 0.08 0.35
0.07 Each of ‘dogs only’, ‘cats only’ and ‘fish only’ can
0.04 0.03 be worked out by further subtractions:
0.53 − (0.08 + 0.07 + 0.03) = 0.35 for ‘cats only’
0.26
F As the probability of the whole sample space is 1,
0.11 the final area is 1 − (0.26 + 0.04 + 0.07 + 0.03 +
0.06 + 0.08 + 0.35) = 0.11
a P(owns dogs only) = 0.06
b P(does not own fish) = 1 − 0.4 = 0.6 This is the value on the Venn diagram outside D,
c P(does not own dogs, cats or fish) = 0.11 C and F.

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 Chapter 5

Exercise 5B
1 There are 25 students in a certain tutor group at Philips College. There are 16 students in the tutor
group studying German, 14 studying French and 6 students studying both French and German.
a Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
b Find the probability that a randomly chosen student in the tutor group:
i studies French ii studies French and German
iii studies French but not German iv does not study French or German.

2 There are 125 diners in a restaurant who were surveyed to find out if they had ordered garlic
bread, beer or cheesecake:
15 diners had ordered all three items 20 had ordered beer and cheesecake
43 diners had ordered garlic bread 26 had ordered garlic bread and cheesecake
40 diners had ordered beer 25 had ordered garlic bread and beer
44 diners had ordered cheesecake
a Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
A diner is chosen at random. Find the probability that the diner ordered:
b i all three items ii beer but not cheesecake and not garlic bread
iii garlic bread and beer but not cheesecake iv none of these items.

3 A group of 275 people at a music festival were asked if they play guitar, piano or drums:
one person plays all three instruments 15 people play piano only
65 people play guitar and piano 20 people play guitar only
10 people play piano and drums 35 people play drums only
30 people play guitar and drums
a Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
b A festival goer is chosen at random from the group.
Find the probability that the person chosen:
i plays the piano ii plays at least two of guitar, piano and drums
iii plays exactly one of the instruments iv plays none of the instruments.

P 4 The probability that a child in a school has blue eyes is 0.27 and the probability that they have
blonde hair is 0.35. The probability that the child will have blonde hair or blue eyes or both is
0.45. A child is chosen at random from the school. Find the probability that the child has:
a blonde hair and blue eyes
b blonde hair but not blue eyes Hint
Draw a Venn diagram
to help you.
c neither feature.

E/p 5 A patient going in to a doctor’s waiting room reads Hiya magazine with probability 0.6 and
Dakor magazine with probability 0.4. The probability that the patient reads either one or both of
the magazines is 0.7. Find the probability that the patient reads:
a both magazines  (2 marks)
b Hiya magazine only.  (2 marks)

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 Probability

E/p 6 The Venn diagram shows the probabilities of members of a  B S

A C
sports club taking part in various activities.
A represents the event that the member takes part in archery. 0.35 x 0.1 0.2 y
B represents the event that the member takes part in
badminton.
0.05
C represents the event that the member takes part in croquet.
Given that P(B) = 0.45:
a find x (1 mark)
b find y. (2 marks)
S
E/p 7 The Venn diagram shows the probabilities that students at  M P H
a sixth-form college study certain subjects.
M represents the event that the student studies mathematics. 0.32 p q 0.07 0.13

P represents the event that the student studies physics.

H represents the event that the student studies history. 0.1

Given that P(M ) = P(P), find the values of p and q.  (4 marks)

Challenge
The Venn diagram shows the probabilities of a group of children liking
three types of sweet.

A C

0.15 r
p 0.05
q

B
0.2

Given that P(B) = 2P(A) and that P(not C   ) = 0.83, find the values of
p, q and r.

5.3 Mutually exclusive and independent events

When events have no outcomes in common they are called mutually exclusive.
In a Venn diagram, the closed curves do not overlap and you can  S
use a simple addition rule to work out combined probabilities: A B

■ For mutually exclusive events, P(A or B  ) = P(A) + P(B  ).

When one event has no effect on another, they are independent.
Therefore if A and B are independent, the probability of A
happening is the same whether or not B happens.
■ For independent events, P(A and B  ) = P(A) × P(B  ).
You can use this multiplication rule to determine whether events are independent.

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 Chapter 5

Example 5

Events A and B are mutually exclusive and P(A) = 0.2 and P(B) = 0.4.
Find: a P(A or B) b P(A but not B) c P(neither A nor B)

a B A and B are mutually exclusive so the closed

A curves do not intersect.
0.4
0.2
0.4 Use the simple addition rule.

P(A or B) =
 P(A) + P(B)
Everything in A is ‘not B’.
= 0.2 + 0.4 = 0.6
b P(A but not B) = P(A) = 0.2
This is everything outside of both circles:
c P(neither A nor B) = 0.4 1 − P(A or B  ).

Example 6

Events A and B are independent and P(A) = _​ 3 ​ and P(B) = _​ 5 ​. 

1 1

Find P(A and B).

1 1 1 A and B are independent so you can use the

P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) = __
​    ​× __
​    ​= ___
​    ​ 
3 5 15 multiplication rule for independent events.

Example 7
B S
The Venn diagram shows the number of students in a A C
particular class who watch any of three popular TV programmes.
a Find the probability that a student chosen at random 3 4 5 10 7
watches B or C or both.
b Determine whether watching A and watching B are 1
statistically independent.

a 4 + 5 + 10 + 7 = 26
26 ___ 13
P(watches B or C or both) = ___ ​    ​= ​    
​
30 15
3 + 4 ___ 7
b P(A) = ​ ______
  
​ = ​    ​  Take the probabilities from the Venn diagram.
30 30
4 + 5 + 10 ___ 19
P(B) = ___________
  
​    = ​    ​ 
​ 
30 30
4 2 Multiply the two probabilities and check whether
P(A and B) = ___​    ​ = ​ ___  ​  they give the same answer as P(A and B).
30 15
7 19 133
P(A) × P(B) = ​ ___  ​ × ___
​    ​ = _____
​   
  
​
30 30 900 Problem-solving
So P(A and B) ≠ P(A) × P(B) Show your calculations and then write down a
Therefore watching A and watching B are conclusion stating whether or not the events are
not independent. independent.

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 Probability

Exercise 5C

1 Events A and B are mutually exclusive. P(A) = 0.2 and P(B) = 0.5.
a Draw a Venn diagram to represent these two events.
b Find P(A or B).
c Find P(neither A nor B).

2 Two fair dice are rolled and the result on each die is recorded. Show that the events ‘the sum of
the scores on the dice is 4’ and ‘both dice land on the same number’ are not mutually exclusive.

3 P(A) = 0.5 and P(B) = 0.3. Given that events A and B are independent, find P(A and B).

4 P(A) = 0.15 and P(A and B) = 0.045. Given that events A and B are independent, find P(B).

5 The Venn diagram shows the number of children in  F S

B T
a play group that like playing with bricks (B),
action figures (F   ) or trains (T ). 3 1 4 6 2
a State, with a reason, which two types of toy are
mutually exclusive.
5
b Determine whether the events ‘plays with bricks’
and ‘plays with action figures’ are independent.

E 6 The Venn diagram shows the probabilities that a group  A B

of students like pasta (A) or pizza (B).
a Write down the value of x.  (1 mark) 0.4 x 0.3
b Determine whether the events ‘like pasta’ and
‘like pizza’ are independent.  (3 marks) 0.05

P 7 S and T are two events such that P(S   ) = 0.3, P(T ) = 0.4 and P(S but not T ) = 0.18.
a Show that S and T are independent.
b Find:
i P(S and T )    ii P(neither S nor T ).

E/p 8 W and X are two events such that P(W ) = 0.5, P(W and not X ) = 0.25 and
P(neither W nor X ) = 0.3. State, with a reason, whether W and X are independent events.
 (3 marks)

E/p 9 The Venn diagram shows the probabilities of members of 

a social club taking part in charitable activities. A R
0.25
A represents taking part in an archery competition. 0.2
R represents taking part in a raffle. x
F represents taking part in a fun run. y
0.1
The probability that a member takes part in the archery F
competition or the raffle is 0.6.
a Find the value of x and the value of y.  (2 marks)
b Show that events R and F are not independent.  (3 marks)

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 Chapter 5

P 10 Given that A and B are independent, find the two possible 

A B
values for p and q.
0.42 p 0.11

Challenge
A and B are independent events in a sample space S. Given that A and
B are independent, prove that:
a A and ‘not B’ are independent
b ‘not A’ and ‘not B’ are independent.

5.4 Tree diagrams

■ A tree diagram can be used to show the outcomes of two (or more) events happening in
succession.

Example 8

A bag contains seven green beads and five blue beads. A bead is taken from the bag at random and
not replaced. A second bead is then taken from the bag.
Find the probability that:
a both beads are green
b the beads are different colours.

a 6 Draw a tree diagram to show the events.

11 Green
7 Green There are now only 6 green beads and 11 beads
12 in total.
5 Blue
11
7
11 Green
5
12 Blue
4 Blue
11
7 6 7
P(green and green) = ___
​    ​ × __
​   ​ = ___
​    ​  Multiply along the branch of the tree diagram.
12 11 22
b P(different colours)
Multiply along each branch and add the two
= P(green then blue) + P(blue then green)
probabilities.
7 5 5 7 35
= ​ ___  ​ × __
​   ​ + ___
​    ​ × __
​   ​ = ___
​    
​
12 11 12 11 66

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 Probability

Exercise 5D
Bead 1 Bead 2
1 A bag contains three red beads and five blue beads.
……… Red
A bead is chosen at random from the bag, the colour
is recorded and the bead is replaced. A second bead ………
Red
is chosen and the colour recorded. Blue
………
a Copy and complete this tree diagram to show 
……… Red
the outcomes of the experiment.
……… Blue
b Find the probability that both beads are blue.
c Find the probability that the second bead is blue. Blue
………

2 A box contains nine cards numbered 1 to 9. A card is drawn at random and not replaced.
It is noted whether the number is odd or even. A second card is drawn and it is also noted
whether this number is odd or even.
a Draw a tree diagram to represent this experiment. Hint
The first card is not replaced.
b Find the probability that both cards are even.
c Find the probability that one card is odd and the other card is even.

3 The probability that Charlie takes the bus to school is 0.4. If he doesn’t take the bus, he walks.
The probability that Charlie is late to school if he takes the bus is 0.2. The probability he is late
to school if he walks is 0.3.
a Draw a tree diagram to represent this information.
b Find the probability that Charlie is late to school.

E 4 Mr Dixon plays golf. The probability that he scores par or under on the first hole is 0.7.
If he scores par or under on the first hole, the probability he scores par or under on the second
hole is 0.8. If he doesn’t score par or under on the first hole, the probability that he scores par or
under on the second hole is 0.4.
a Draw a tree diagram to represent this information.  (3 marks)
b State whether the events ‘scores par or under on the first hole’ and ‘scores par or
under par on the second hole’ are independent.  (1 mark)
c Find the probability that Mr Dixon scores par or under on only one hole.  (3 marks)

E/p 5 A biased coin is tossed three times and it is recorded whether it falls heads or tails.
P(heads) = _​ 3 ​ 
1

a Draw a tree diagram to represent this experiment. (3 marks)

b Find the probability that the coin lands on heads all three times. (1 mark)
c Find the probability that the coin lands on heads only once. (2 marks)
The whole experiment is repeated for a second trial.
d Find the probability of obtaining either 3 heads or 3 tails in both trials. (3 marks)

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 Chapter 5

E/p 6 A bag contains 13 tokens, 4 coloured blue, 3 coloured red and 6 coloured yellow. Two tokens are
drawn from the bag without replacement.
a Find the probability that both tokens are yellow.  (2 marks)
A third token is drawn from the bag.
b Write down the probability that the third token is yellow, given that the first two
are yellow.  (1 mark)
c Find the probability that all three tokens are different colours.  (4 marks)

Mixed exercise 5

E/p 1 There are 15 coloured beads in a bag; seven beads are red, three are blue and five are green.
Three beads are selected at random from the bag and replaced. Find the probability that:
a the first and second beads chosen are red and the third bead is blue or green  (3 marks)
b one red, one blue and one green bead are chosen.  (3 marks)

2 A baseball player has a batting average of 0.341. This means her probability of making a hit
when she bats is 0.341. She bats three times in one game. Estimate the probability that:
a she makes three hits
b she makes no hits
c she makes at least one hit.

P 3 The scores of 250 students in a test are recorded Score, s Frequency Frequency
in a table. (male) (female)
One student is chosen at random. 20 < s < 25  7  8
a Find the probability that the student is female. 25 < s < 30 15 13
b Find the probability that the student scored 30 < s < 35 18 19
less than 35. 35 < s < 40 25 30
c Find the probability that the student is a male 40 < s < 45 30 26
and scored between 25 and 34. 45 < s < 50 27 32
In order to pass the test, students must score 37 or more.
d Estimate the probability that a student chosen at random passes the test. State one
assumption you have made in making your estimate.

E/p 4 The histogram shows the distribution of masses, 

in kg, of 50 newborn babies. 60
Frequency density

50
a Find the probability that a baby
40
chosen at random has a mass 30
greater than 3 kg.  (2 marks) 20
b Estimate the probability that a 10
baby chosen at random has a 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
mass less than 3.75 kg.  (3 marks) Mass (kg)

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 Probability

E  5 A study was made of a group of 150 children to determine which of three cartoons they watch
on television. The following results were obtained:
35 watch Toontime 14 watch Porky and Skellingtons
54 watch Porky 12 watch Toontime and Skellingtons
62 watch Skellingtons   4 watch Toontime, Porky and Skellingtons
  9 watch Toontime and Porky
a Draw a Venn diagram to represent this data.  (4 marks)
b Find the probability that a randomly selected child from the study watches:
i none of the three cartoons (2 marks)
ii no more than one of the cartoons.  (2 marks)

 6 The events A and B are such that P(A) = ​ _3 ​ and P(B) = _​ 4 ​  . P(A or B or both) = _​ 2 ​  .
1 1 1
P
a Represent these probabilities on a Venn diagram.
b Show that A and B are independent.

E  7 The Venn diagram shows the number of students who like  C F S

either cricket (C ), football (F ) or swimming (S   ).
a Which two sports are mutually exclusive?  (1 mark) 8 13 4 5 7
b Determine whether the events ‘likes cricket’
and ‘likes football’ are independent.  (3 marks) 1

E/p  8 For events J and K, P(J or K or both) = 0.5, P(K but not J ) = 0.2 and P(J but not K   ) = 0.25.
a Draw a Venn diagram to represent events J and K and the sample space S.  (3 marks)
b Determine whether events J and K are independent.  (3 marks)

E  9 A survey of a group of students revealed that 85% have a mobile phone, 60% have an MP3
player and 5% have neither phone nor MP3 player.
a Find the proportion of students who have both gadgets.  (2 marks)
b Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.  (3 marks)
c A student is chosen at random. Find the probability that they only own a mobile
phone.  (2 marks)
d Are the events ‘own a mobile phone’ and ‘own an MP3 player’ independent?
Justify your answer.  (3 marks)

E/p 10 The Venn diagram shows the probabilities that a group of 

A B
children like cake (A) or crisps (B ).
Determine whether the events ‘like cake’ and 0.3 x 0.4
‘like crisps’ are independent.  (3 marks)
0.15

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 Chapter 5

E/p 11 A computer game has three levels and one of the objectives of every level is to collect a
diamond. The probability that Becca collects a diamond on the first level is _​ 5 ​  , the second level
4

is _​ 3  ​and the third level is _​ 2  ​ . The events are independent.

2 1

a Draw a tree diagram to represent Becca collecting diamonds on the three levels
of the game.  (4 marks)
b Find the probability that Becca:
i collects all three diamonds  (2 marks)
ii collects only one diamond.  (3 marks)
c Find the probability that she collects at least two diamonds each time she plays. (3 marks)

P 12 In a factory, machines A, B and C produce electronic components. Machine A produces 16%

of the components, machine B produces 50% of the components and machine C produces
the rest. Some of the components are defective. Machine A produces 4%, machine B 3% and
machine C 7% defective components.
a Draw a tree diagram to represent this information.
b Find the probability that a randomly selected component is:
i produced by machine B and is defective ii defective.

Challenge
The members of a cycling club are married couples. For any married
couple in the club, the probability that the husband is retired is 0.7 and
the probability that the wife is retired 0.4. Given that the wife is retired,
the probability that the husband is retired is 0.8.
Two married couples are chosen at random.
Find the probability that only one of the two husbands and only one of
the two wives is retired.

Summary of key points

1 A Venn diagram can be used to represent events graphically. Frequencies or probabilities
can be placed in the regions of the Venn diagram.
2 For mutually exclusive events, P(A or B ) = P(A) + P(B ).
3 For independent events, P(A and B ) = P(A) × P(B ).
4 A tree diagram can be used to show the outcomes of two (or more) events happening
in succession.

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 Statistical
distributions
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
6
● Understand and use simple discrete probability distributions
including the discrete uniform distribution → pages 84–88
● Understand the binomial distribution as a model and comment on
appropriateness → page 88
● Calculate individual probabilities for the binomial distribution
 → pages 89–91
● Calculate cumulative probabilities for the binomial distribution
 → pages 91–94

Prior knowledge check

1 Three coins are flipped. Calculate the
probability that:
a all the coins land on tails
b all the coins land on heads
c exactly one of the coins lands on tails
d at least two coins land on heads.
 ← Chapter 5
2 Two fair dice are rolled. Calculate the
probability that the sum of the scores on
You can use probability to model real-life the dice is:
events. If an archer fires a set of arrows at
a five b even
a target, the number of bullseyes can be
modelled using a binomial distribution. c odd d a multiple of 3
 → Mixed exercise Q15 e a prime number. ← Chapter 5

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 Chapter 6

6.1 Probability distributions

A random variable is a variable whose value Notation
Random variables are written using
depends on the outcome of a random event.
upper case letters, for example X or Y.
• The range of values that a random variable
The particular values the random variable can
can take is called its sample space.
take are written using equivalent lower case
• A variable can take any of a range of specific letters, for example x or y.
values.
The probability that the random variable X takes
• The variable is discrete if it can only take a particular value x is written as P(X = x).
certain numerical values.
• The variable is random if the outcome is not known until the experiment is carried out.
■ A probability distribution fully describes the probability of any outcome in the sample space.
The probability distribution for a discrete random variable can be described in a number of different
ways. For example, take the random variable X = ‘score when a fair dice is rolled’. It can be described:
• as a probability mass function: P(X = x) = _​ 16 ​, x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

• using a table: x 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(X = x) ​ _16 ​ ​ _16 ​ ​ _16 ​ ​ _16 ​ ​ _16 ​ ​ _16 ​

• using a diagram: P(X = x)

1
6

1 2 3 4 5 6 x
All of these representations show the probability that the random variable takes any given value in its
sample space.
When all of the probabilities are the same, as in this example, the distribution is known as a discrete
uniform distribution.

Example 1

Three fair coins are tossed.

a Write down all the possible outcomes when the three coins are tossed.
A random variable, X, is defined as the number of heads when the three coins are tossed.
b Write the probability distribution of X as:
i  a table ii  a probability mass function.
These are the outcomes of the experiment.
a HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT
X is the number of heads, so the sample space of
b i No. of heads, x 0 1 2 3 X is {0, 1, 2, 3}.
P(X = x) ​ __
1
8  ​ 
__
3
​ 8 ​  __
3
​ 8 ​  __1
​ 8  ​ 

{  
These are the values of the random variable.
ii ​__ ​ 81  ​    x = 0, 3
P(X = x) = __​​ 38 ​    x = 1, 2 These are the values the random variable can take.
0 otherwise

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 Statistical distributions

■ The sum of the probabilities of all outcomes of an event add up to 1. For a random variable X,
you can write ∑P(X = x) = 1 for all x.

Example 2

A biased four-sided dice with faces numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4 is rolled. The number on the bottom-
most face is modelled as a random variable X.
k
Given that P(X = x) = __​ x ​ :
a Find the value of k.
b Give the probability distribution of X in table form.
c Find the probability that:
i  X > 2   ii 1 < X < 4   iii  X > 4

a The probability distribution will be:

x 1 2 3 4
k k k k
P(X = x) ​ __  ​ __ ​    ​ __
​    ​ __
​    ​
1 2 3 4
k k __ k k Since this is a probability distribution,
​ __  ​+ __
​    ​+ ​    ​+ __​    ​= 1
1 2 3 4 ΣP(X = x) = 1
k​​(1 + __
2 3 4)
1 1 1
​    ​+ __
​    ​+ __ ​    ​ ​= 1

k​​(______________ )​ 
12 + 6 + 4 + 3
  
​    ​= 1
12
12
k = ___​     ​  Problem-solving
25
Write an equation and solve it to find the value
b The probability distribution is: of k. Then substitute this value of k into
k
x 1 2 3 4 P(X = x) = ​ __
x ​for each x to find the probabilities.
12
___ 6 4 3
P(X = x) ​     ​  ​ ___  ​  ___
​    ​  ___
​    ​ 
25 25 25 25
Consider all the values of x that satisfy this
c i X > 2 is the same as getting 3 or 4 so
condition. Add the probabilities to find P(X > 2).
4 3 7
P(X > 2) = ​ ___  ​ + ​ ___  ​ = ​ ___  ​ 
25 25 25
ii 1 < X < 4 is the same as getting 2 or 3
6 4 10 __ 2
P(1 < X < 4) = ​ ___  ​ + ​ ___  ​ = ___
​    ​ = ​   ​
25 25 25 5 Watch
out This random variable only models
iii There are no elements in the sample the behaviour of the dice. The outcomes from
space that satisfy X > 4 so experiments in real life will never exactly fit the
model, but the model provides a useful way of
P(X > 4) = 0
analysing possible outcomes.

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 Chapter 6

Example 3
R
This spinner is spun until it lands on red or has been spun four times in total. R
B
Find the probability distribution of the random variable S, the number of B
times the spinner is spun. B

Problem-solving
Read the definition of the random variable
P(S = 1) is the probability that the spinner carefully. Here it is the number of spins.
lands on red the first time:
2 2 3
P(S = 1) = ​ __ ​ On any given spin, P(Red) = ​ __ ​and P(Blue) = ​ __ ​.
5 5
5
If the spinner lands on red on the second
spin it must land on blue on the first spin:
3 2 ___ 6 Each spin is an independent event so
P(S = 2) = ​ __ ​× __
​   ​= ​    ​ 
5 5 25 P(Blue then red) = P(Blue) × P(Red)
Likewise for landing on red on the third spin:
3 3 __ 2 18
P(S = 3) = ​ __ ​× __
​   ​× ​   ​= ____
​    ​  B, B, R is the only outcome for which S = 3.
5 5 5 125
The experiment stops after 4 spins so:

P(S = 4) = 1 − ​(__
5 25 125 ) 125
2 6 18 27 The sample space of S is {1, 2, 3, 4}.
​   ​+ ___
​    ​ + ____ ​= ____
​    ​  ​     ​ 
So P(S = 4) = 1 − P(S = 1, 2 or 3).

x 1 2 3 4
You have found P(S = s) for all values in the sample
2 6 18 27
P(S = s) ​ __ ​ ​ ___  ​  ____
​    ​ ____
​     ​  space, so you have found the complete probability
5 25 125 125
distribution. You can summarise it in a table.

Exercise 6A
1 Write down whether or not each of the following is a discrete random variable.
Give a reason for your answer.
a The height, X cm, of a seedling chosen randomly from a group of plants.
b The number of times, R, a six is rolled when a fair dice is rolled 100 times.
c The number of days, W, in a given week.

2 A fair dice is thrown four times and the number of times it falls with a 6 on the top, Y, is noted.
Write down the sample space of Y.

3 A bag contains two discs with the number 2 on them and two discs with the number 3 on them.
A disc is drawn at random from the bag and the number noted. The disc is returned to the bag.
A second disc is then drawn from the bag and the number noted.
a Write down all the possible outcomes of this experiment.
The discrete random variable X is defined as the sum of the two numbers.
b Write down the probability distribution of X as:
i a table    ii  a probability mass function.

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 4 A discrete random variable X has the x 1 2 3 4

probability distribution shown in the table.
​ _3 ​  _1
​ _4 ​ 
1 1
P(X = x) ​ 3 ​  k
Find the value of k.

E/p  5 The random variable X has a probability function

P(X = x) = kx  x = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Show that k = ​ __
1
10  ​  .  (2 marks)

E/p  6 The random variable X has a probability function

P(X = x) =
k(x − 1)
kx
{ x = 1, 3
x = 2, 4
where k is a constant.
a Find the value of k.  (2 marks)
b Find P(X > 1).  (2 marks)

P  7 The discrete random variable X has a probability function

{
0.1 x = −2, −1
P(X = x) = β x = 0, 1
0.2 x=2
a Find the value of β.
b Construct a table giving the probability distribution of X.
c Find P(−1 < X , 2).

P  8 A discrete random variable has a probability x 0 1 2

distribution shown in the table. _1 _1
P(X = x) ​ 4 ​ − a a ​ 2 ​ + a
Find the value of a.

P  9 The random variable X can take any integer value from 1 to 50. Given that X has a discrete
uniform distribution, find:
a P(X = 1)
b P(X > 28)
c P(13 , X , 42)

E 10 A discrete random variable X has the x 0 1 2 3

probability distribution shown in this table. _1 _1 _1
​ _8 ​ 
1
P(X = x) ​ 8 ​  ​ 4 ​  ​ 2 ​ 
Find:
a P(1 , X < 3) (1 mark)
b P(X , 2) (1 mark)
c P(X . 3) (1 mark)

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 Chapter 6

E/p 11 A biased coin is tossed until a head appears or it is tossed four times.
2
If P(Head) = __
​   ​ :
3
a Write down the probability distribution of S, the number of tosses, in table form. (4 marks)
b Find P(S . 2). (1 mark)

P 12 A fair five-sided spinner is spun. 

R
Given that the spinner is spun five times, write down, in table form, Y
R
the probability distributions of the following random variables: B
B
a X, the number of times red appears
b Y, the number of times yellow appears.
The spinner is now spun until it lands on blue, or until it has been spun five times.
The random variable Z is defined as the number of spins in this experiment.
c Find the probability distribution of Z.

E/p 13 Marie says that a random variable X has a probability distribution defined by the following
probability mass function:
2
P(X = x) = __​  2   ​ ,  x = 2, 3, 4
x
a Explain how you know that Marie’s function does not describe a probability
distribution.  (2 marks)
k
b Given that the correct probability mass function is in the form P(X = x) = __
​  2   ​ ,  x = 2, 3, 4
x
where k is a constant, find the exact value of k.  (2 marks)

Hint
X and Y are
Challenge
independent so the
The independent random variables X and Y have probability distributions value taken by one
1 1 does not affect the
P(X = x) = __
​   ​ ,  x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8   P(Y = y) = __
​ y ​ ,  y = 2, 3, 6
8 probabilities for the
Find P(X . Y ). other.

6.2 The binomial distribution

When you are carrying out a number of trials in an experiment or survey, you can define a random
variable X to represent the number of successful trials.
■ You can model X with a binomial distribution, B(n, p), if:
● there are a fixed number of trials, n
● there are two possible outcomes (success and failure) Hint
If P(Success) = p and
there are only two outcomes
● there is a fixed probability of success, p
then P(Failure) = 1 − p.
● the trials are independent of each other

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■ If a random variable X has the binomial distribution Notation

You write X ~ B(n, p)
B(n, p) then its probability mass function is given by

P(X = r) = (​ ​r​ )p
n
​ r(1 − p)n − r
n!
​(​r ​)​= ​ ________
Links

n    ​ 
n is sometimes called the index and p is sometimes called r!(n – r)!
the parameter. It is sometimes written as nCr
or nCr. It represents the number
You can use your calculator to work out binomial probabilities.
of ways of selecting r successful
You can either use the rule given above, together with the nCr
outcomes from n trials.
function, or use the binomial probability distribution function
 ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 8
directly.

Example 4

The random variable X ∼ B​(​ 12, _​ 6 ​)  ​. Find:

1

a P(X = 2) b P(X = 9) c P(X < 1)

​    )​ ​  ​(​   )​ ​  ​= _____

a P(X = 2) = ​(​  )​ ​(__ ​ ​    )​ ​  ​(__
( ​   )​ ​  ​
12 1 __
2
5 10 12! __ 1 2 5
10
Use the formula with n = 12, p = ​_ 16 ​and x = 2.
​     ​  
2  6 6 2!10! 6 6
= 0.296 09…
= 0.296 (3 s.f.)

​    )​ ​  ​(​   )​ ​  ​

b P(X = 9) = ​(​  )​ ​(__
9 3
12 1 __ 5
Use the formula with n = 12, p = ​_ 16 ​and x = 9.
9  6 6
= 0.000 012 63…
= 0.000 012 6 (3 s.f.)

c P(X < 1) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) A binomial distribution can take any value from
0 up to n inclusive. So there are two possible
= (​ __
​   )​ ​  ​+ (​ ​ )​  ​(__
1  6 ) ( 6 )
12 1 11
5 12 1 __ 5
​    ​ ​ ​ ​   ​ ​  ​ outcomes that satisfy the inequality: X = 0 and
6
X = 1.
= 0.112 156… + 0.269 17…
= 0.381 33…
Online
Use the nCr function on your
= 0.381 (3 s.f.)
calculator to work out binomial
probabilities.

Example 5

The probability that a randomly chosen member of a reading group is left-handed is 0.15.
A random sample of 20 members of the group is taken.
a Suggest a suitable model for the random variable X, the number of members in the sample who
are left-handed. Justify your choice.
b Use your model to calculate the probability that:
i exactly 7 of the members in the sample are left-handed
ii fewer than two of the members in the sample are left-handed.

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 Chapter 6

a The random variable can take two values,

left-handed or right-handed.
A binomial model is a suitable choice. State the
There are a fixed number of trials, 20, and
assumptions that are necessary for the binomial
a fixed probability of success: 0.15.
model, and make sure that you specify the values
Assuming each member in the sample is of n and p.
independent, a suitable model is
X ∼ B(20, 0.15)
Online
Work this out directly using
b i P(X = 7) = (​ ​ ) ​ ​× (0.15)7(0.85)13
20
7  the binomial probability distribution
function on your calculator and entering
= 0.016 01…
x = 7, n = 20 and p = 0.15.
= 0.0160 (3 s.f.)
ii P(X < 2) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1)
= 0.038 75… + 0.136 79… In this situation, ‘fewer than two’ means 0 or 1.
= 0.176 (3 s.f.)

Exercise 6B
1 The random variable X ∼ B​(​ 8, _​ 3 ​)  ​. Find:
1

a P(X = 2) b P(X = 5) c P(X < 1)

2 The random variable T ∼ B​(​ 15, _​ 3 )​ ​. Find:

2

a P(T = 5) b P(T = 10) c P(3 < T < 4)

3 A student suggests using a binomial distribution to model the following situations.

Give a description of the random variable, state any assumptions that must be made and give
possible values for n and p.
a A sample of 20 bolts from a large batch is checked for defects. The production process should
produce 1% of defective bolts.
b Some traffic lights have three phases: stop 48% of the time, wait or get ready 4% of the
time, and go 48% of the time. Assuming that you only cross a traffic light when it is in the
go position, model the number of times that you have to wait or stop on a journey passing
through 6 sets of traffic lights.
c When Stephanie plays tennis with Timothy, on average one in eight of her serves is an ‘ace’.
How many ‘aces’ does Stephanie serve in the next 30 serves against Timothy?

4 State which of the following can be modelled with a binomial distribution and which cannot.
Give reasons for your answers.
a Given that 15% of people have blood that is Rhesus negative (Rh−), model the number of
pupils in a statistics class of 14 who are Rh−.
b You are given a fair coin and told to keep tossing it until you obtain 4 heads in succession.
Model the number of tosses you need.
c A certain car manufacturer produces 12% of new cars in the colour red, 8% in blue, 15% in
white and the rest in other colours. You make a note of the colour of the first 15 new cars of
this make. Model the number of red cars you observe.

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 Statistical distributions

P 5 A balloon manufacturer claims that 95% of his balloons will not burst when blown up.
If you have 20 of these balloons to blow up for a birthday party:
a What is the probability that none of them burst when blown up?
b Find the probability that exactly 2 balloons burst.

E/p 6 The probability of a switch being faulty is 0.08. A random sample of 10 switches is taken from
the production line.
a Define a suitable distribution to model the number of faulty switches in this sample,
and justify your choice.  (2 marks)
b Find the probability that the sample contains 4 faulty switches.  (2 marks)

E/p 7 A particular genetic marker is present in 4% of the population.

a State any assumptions that are required to model the number of people with this
genetic marker in a sample of size n as a binomial distribution.  (2 marks)
b Using this model, find the probability of exactly 6 people having this marker in a
sample of size 50.  (2 marks)

E/p 8 A dice is biased so that the probability of it landing on a six is 0.3. Hannah rolls the dice
15 times.
a State any assumptions that are required to model the number of sixes as a binomial
distribution. State the distribution.  (2 marks)
b Find the probability that Hannah rolls exactly 4 sixes.  (2 marks)
c Find the probability that she rolls two or fewer sixes.  (3 marks)

6.3 Cumulative probabilities

A cumulative probability function for a random variable X tells you the sum of all the individual
probabilities up to and including the given value of x in the calculation for P(X < x).
For the binomial distribution X ∼ B(n, p) there are tables in the formula book giving P(X < x) for
various values of n and p.
An extract from the tables is shown below:
p= 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
n = 5, x = 0 0.7738 0.5905 0.4437 0.3277 0.2373 0.1681
1 0.9774 0.9185 0.8352 0.7373 0.6328 0.5282 For the binomial distribution X ∼ B(5, 0.3),
2 0.9988 0.9914 0.9734 0.9421 0.8965 0.8369 this tells you that P(X < 2) = 0.8369 to
3 1.0000 0.9995 0.9978 0.9933 0.9844 0.9692 4 d.p.
4 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9990 0.9976
n = 6, x = 0 0.7351 0.5314 0.3771 0.2621 0.1780 0.1176

You can also use the binomial cumulative probability function on your calculator to find P(X < x) for
any values of x, n and p.

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 Chapter 6

Example 6

The random variable X ∼ B(20, 0.4). Find:

a P(X < 7) b P(X , 6) c P(X > 15)

Use n = 20, p = 0.5 and x = 7. You can use tables

a P(X < 7) = 0.4159
or your calculator.

b P(X , 6) =
 P(X < 5) Online
Use the binomial cumulative
= 0.1256 distribution function on your calculator.
You want to find P(X < 7), not P(X = 7). On some
calculators, this is labelled ‘Binomial CD’.
c P(X > 15) =
 1 − P(X < 14)
= 1 − 0.9984
X can only take whole number values,
= 0.0016
so P(X < 6) = P(X < 5).

When questions are set in context there are different forms of words that can be used to ask for
probabilities. The correct interpretation of these phrases is critical, especially when dealing with
cumulative probabilities. The table below gives some examples.

Phrase Means Calculation

… greater than 5 … X.5 1 − P(X < 5)
… no more than 3 … X<3 P(X < 3)
… at least 7 … X>7 1 − P(X < 6)
… fewer than 10 … X , 10 P(X < 9)
… at most 8 … X<8 P(X < 8)

Example 7

A spinner is designed so that the probability it lands on red is 0.3. Jane has 12 spins. Find the
probability that Jane obtains:
a no more than 2 reds
b at least 5 reds.
Jane decides to use this spinner for a class competition. She wants the probability of winning a
prize to be < 0.05. Each member of the class will have 12 spins and the number of reds will be
recorded.
c Find how many reds are needed to win a prize.

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Let X = the number of reds in 12 spins. ‘no more than 2’ means X < 2.
X ∼ B(12, 0.3)
a P(X < 2) = 0.2528 ‘at least 5’ means X > 5.

b P(X > 5) =
 1 − P(X < 4)
= 1 − 0.7237 Form a probability statement to represent the
= 0.2763 condition for winning a prize.

c Let r = the smallest number of reds Problem-solving

needed to win a prize.
Require: P(X > r) , 0.05 When you are looking for the first probability
that is greater or less than a given threshold, it is
From tables: sometimes quicker to look on the tables rather
P(X < 5) = 0.8822 than use your calculator.
P(X < 6) = 0.9614
P(X < 7) = 0.9905 Since x = 6 gives the first value > 0.95, use this
probability and find r = 7.
 (X < 6) = 0.9614 implies that
So: P
P(X > 7) = 1 − 0.9614
Always make sure that your final answer is related
= 0.0386 , 0.05 back to the context of the original question.

So 7 or more reds will win a prize. y

Online
x

Explore the cumulative

probabilities for the binomial
Exercise 6C distribution for this example using technology.

 1 The random variable X ∼ B(9, 0.2). Find:

a P(X < 4) b P(X , 3) c P(X > 2) d P(X = 1)

 2 The random variable X ∼ B(20, 0.35). Find:

a P(X < 10) b P(X . 6) Hint
P(2 < X < 7) = P(X < 7) − P(X < 1)
c P(X = 5) d P(2 < X < 7)

 3 The random variable X ∼ B(40, 0.47). Find: Watch

out For questions 3 and 4 the
a P(X , 20) b P(X . 16) values of n and p aren’t given in the
c P(11 < X < 15) d P(10 , X , 17) tables. Use the binomial cumulative
distribution function on your calculator.

 4 The random variable X ∼ B(37, 0.65). Find:

a P(X . 20) b P(X < 26)
c P(15 < X , 20) d P(X = 23)

P  5 Eight fair coins are tossed and the total number of heads showing is recorded.
Find the probability of:
a no heads b at least 2 heads c more heads than tails.

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 Chapter 6

P  6 For a particular type of plant 25% have blue flowers. A garden centre sells these plants in trays
of 15 plants of mixed colours. A tray is selected at random.
Find the probability that the number of plants with blue flowers in this tray is:
a exactly 4
b at most 3
c between 3 and 6 (inclusive).

E/p  7 The random variable X ∼ B(50, 0.40). Find:

a the largest value of k such that P(X < k) , 0.05 (1 mark)
b the smallest number r such that P(X . r) , 0.01.  (2 marks)

E/p  8 The random variable X ∼ B(40, 0.10). Find:

a the largest value of k such that P(X , k) , 0.02 (1 mark)
b the smallest number r such that P(X . r) , 0.01 (2 marks)
c P(k < X < r). (2 marks)

E/p  9 In a town, 30% of residents listen to the local radio.

Ten residents are chosen at random.
X = the number of these 10 residents that listen to the local radio.
a Suggest a suitable distribution for X and comment on any necessary assumptions. (2 marks)
b Find the probability that at least half of these 10 residents listen to local radio. (2 marks)
c Find the smallest value of s so that P(X > s) , 0.01. (2 marks)

E/p 10 A factory produces a component for the motor trade and 5% of the components are defective.
A quality control officer regularly inspects a random sample of 50 components. Find the
probability that the next sample contains:
a fewer than 2 defectives (1 mark)
b more than 5 defectives.  (2 marks)
The officer will stop production if the number of defectives in the sample is greater than a
certain value d. Given that the officer stops production less than 5% of the time:
c find the smallest value of d.  (2 marks)

Mixed exercise 6

E  1 The random variable X has probability function

x
P(X = x) = ​ ___   ​  x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
21
a Construct a table giving the probability distribution of X.
b Find P(2 , X < 5).

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 Statistical distributions

E  2 The discrete random variable X has x −2 −1 0 1 2 3

the probability distribution shown. P(X = x) 0.1 0.2 0.3 r 0.1 0.1

a Find r. (1 mark)

b Calculate P(−1 < x , 2).  (2 marks)

E/p  3 The random variable X has probability function

(3x − 1)
P(X = x) = ​ _______
   ​  x = 1, 2, 3, 4.
 
26
a Construct a table giving the probability distribution of X.  (2 marks)
b Find P(2 , X < 4).  (2 marks)

E  4 Sixteen counters are numbered 1 to 16 and placed in a bag. One counter is chosen at random
and the number, X, recorded.
a Write down one condition on selecting a counter if X is to be modelled as a discrete
uniform distribution.  (1 mark)
b Find:
i P(X = 5)  (1 mark)
ii P(X is prime)  (2 marks)
iii P(3 < X , 11)  (2 marks)

E/p  5 The random variable Y has probability function

y
P(Y = y) = __
​   ​    y = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
k
a Find the value of k.  (2 marks)
b Construct a table giving the probability distribution of Y.  (2 marks)
c Find P(Y . 3). (1 mark)

 6 Stuart rolls a biased dice four times. P(six) = _​ 4 ​.  The random variable T represents the number
1
E/p
of times he rolls a six.
a Construct a table giving the probability distribution of T.  (3 marks)
b Find P(T , 3).  (2 marks)
He rolls the dice again, this time recording the number of rolls required to roll a six.
He rolls the dice a maximum of five times. Let the random variable S stand for the number of
times he rolls the dice.
c Construct a table giving the probability distribution of S.  (3 marks)
d Find P(S . 2).  (2 marks)

E  7 The discrete random variable X ∼ B(30, 0.73). Find:

a P(X = 20)  (1 mark)
b P(X < 13)  (1 mark)
c P(11 , X < 25)  (2 marks)

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 8 A coin is biased so that the probability of a head is ​ _3 ​  .The coin is tossed repeatedly.
2
P
Find the probability that:
a the first tail will occur on the sixth toss
b in the first 8 tosses there will be exactly 2 tails.

P  9 Records kept in a hospital show that 3 out of every 10 patients who visit the accident and
emergency department have to wait more than half an hour. Find, to 3 decimal places, the
probability that of the first 12 patients who come to the accident and emergency department:
a none
b more than 2
will have to wait more than half an hour.

E/p 10 a State clearly the conditions under which it is appropriate to assume that a random
variable has a binomial distribution.  (2 marks)
A door-to-door canvasser tries to persuade people to have a certain type of double glazing
installed. The probability that his canvassing at a house is successful is 0.05.
b Find the probability that he will have at least 2 successes out of the first 10 houses
he canvasses.  (2 marks)
c Calculate the smallest number of houses he must canvass so that the probability
of his getting at least one success exceeds 0.99.  (4 marks)

P 11 A completely unprepared student is given a true/false-type test with 10 questions.

Assuming that the student answers all the questions at random:
a find the probability that the student gets all the answers correct.
It is decided that a pass will be awarded for 8 or more correct answers.
b Find the probability that the student passes the test.

P 12 A six-sided die is biased. When the die is thrown the number 5 is twice as likely to appear as
any other number. All the other faces are equally likely to appear. The die is thrown repeatedly.
Find the probability that:
a the first 5 will occur on the sixth throw
b in the first eight throws there will be exactly three 5s.

E/p 13 A manufacturer produces large quantities of plastic chairs. It is known from previous records
that 15% of these chairs are green. A random sample of 10 chairs is taken.
a Define a suitable distribution to model the number of green chairs in this sample.  (1 mark)
b Find the probability of at least 5 green chairs in this sample.  (3 marks)
c Find the probability of exactly 2 green chairs in this sample.  (3 marks)

E/p 14 A bag contains a large number of beads of which 45% are yellow. A random sample of
20 beads is taken from the bag. Use the binomial distribution to find the probability that the
sample contains:
a fewer than 12 yellow beads (2 marks)
b exactly 12 yellow beads.  (3 marks)

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 Statistical distributions

E/p 15 An archer hits the bullseye with probability 0.6. She shoots 20 arrows at a time.
a Find the probability that she hits the bullseye with at least 50% of her arrows.  (3 marks)
She shoots 12 sets of 20 arrows.
b Find the probability that she hits the bullseye with at least 50% of her arrows in
7 of the 12 sets of arrows.  (2 marks)
c Find the probability that she hits the bullseye with at least 50% of her arrows in
fewer than 6 sets of arrows.  (2 marks)

Challenge
A driving theory test has 50 questions. Each question has four answers,
of which only one is correct.
Annabelle is certain she got 32 answers correct, but she guessed the
remaining answers. She needs to get 43 correct answers to pass the test.
Find the probability that Annabelle passed the test.

Summary of key points

1 A probability distribution fully describes the probability of any outcome in the sample space.

2 The sum of the probabilities of all outcomes of an event add up to 1. For a random variable X,
you can write ΣP(X = x) = 1 for all x.

3 You can model X with a binomial distribution, B(n, p), if:

•  there are a fixed number of trials, n
•  there are two possible outcomes (success or failure)
•  there is a fixed probabillity of success, p
•  the trials are independent of each other.

4 If a random variable X has the binomial distribution B(n, p) then its probability mass function
is given by
n
P(X = r) = (​ ​r​ )​ pr(1 − p)n − r

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 7 Hypothesis testing
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Understand the language and concept of hypothesis
testing → pages 99–101
● Understand that a sample is used to make an inference
about a population → pages 99–101
● Find critical values of a binomial distribution using tables
 → pages 101–105
● Carry out a one-tailed test for the proportion of the binomial
distribution and interpret the results → pages 105–107
● Carry out a two-tailed test for the proportion of the binomial
distribution and interpret the results  → pages 107–109

Prior knowledge check

1 X ~ B(20, 0.4). Calculate:
a P(X = 5) b P(X = 10)
c P(X < 2) d P(X > 18) ← Chapter 6

2 Wanda rolls a fair dice eight times.

a Suggest a suitable model for the Polling organisations use small samples
random variable X, the number of to make inferences about a population.
times the dice lands on five. Hypothesis testing can help them assess the
b Calculate: accuracy of their predictions.
i P(X = 2)   ii P(X > 4) ← Chapter 6  → Exercise 7A Q6, Exercise 7C Q10

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7.1 Hypothesis testing

A hypothesis is a statement made about the value of a Links
In this chapter the population
population parameter. You can test a hypothesis about parameter you will be testing will
a population by carrying out an experiment or taking a be the probability, p, in a binomial
sample from the population. distribution B(n, p). ← Chapter 6
The result of the experiment or the statistic that is
calculated from the sample is called the test statistic.
In order to carry out the test, you need to form two hypotheses:
■ The null hypothesis, H0, is the hypothesis that you
Notation
In this chapter you should
assume to be correct.
always give H0 and H1 in terms of the
■ The alternative hypothesis, H1, tells you about the
population parameter p.
parameter if your assumption is shown to be wrong.

Example 1
John wants to see whether a coin is unbiased or whether it is biased towards coming down heads.
He tosses the coin 8 times and counts the number of times, X, that it lands head uppermost.
a Describe the test statistic.
b Write down a suitable null hypothesis.
c Write down a suitable alternative hypothesis.
The test statistic is calculated from the sample or
a The test statistic is X (the number of experiment.
heads in 8 tosses).

b If the coin is unbiased the probability of a You always write the null hypothesis in the form
coin landing heads is 0.5 so H0: p = …
H0: p = 0.5 is the null hypothesis.
If you were testing the coin for bias towards tails
c If the coin is biased towards coming down
your alternative hypothesis would be H1: p < 0.5.
heads then the probability of landing heads
If you were testing the coin for bias in either
will be greater than 0.5.
direction your alternative hypothesis would be
H1: p . 0.5 is the alternative hypothesis.
H1: p ≠ 0.5.

■ Hypothesis tests with alternative hypotheses in the form H1: p < … and H1: p > … are called
one-tailed tests.
■ Hypothesis tests with an alternative Hint
You can think of a two-tailed test such as
hypothesis in the form H1: p ≠ … are called H1: p ≠ 0.5 as two tests, H1: p > 0.5 or p < 0.5.
two-tailed tests.
To carry out a hypothesis test you assume the null hypothesis is true, then consider how likely the
observed value of the test statistic was to occur. If this likelihood is less than a given threshold, called
the significance level of the test, then you reject the null hypothesis.
Typically the significance level for a hypothesis test will be 10%, 5% or 1% but you will be told which
level to use in the question.

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Example 2
An election candidate believes she has the support of 40% of the residents in a particular town.
A researcher wants to test, at the 5% significance level, whether the candidate is over-estimating
her support. The researcher asks 20 people whether they support the candidate or not. 3 people say
that they do.
a Write down a suitable test statistic.
b Write down two suitable hypotheses.
c Explain the condition under which the null hypothesis would be rejected.

a The test statistic is the number of people This is a one-tailed test – the researcher wants
who say they support the candidate. to see if the candidate is over-estimating her
support – if she is then the actual proportion of
b H0: p = 0.4   H1: p < 0.4
residents who support her will be less than 40%.
c The null hypothesis will be rejected if the
probability of 3 or fewer people saying Watch
out You are testing to see whether
they support the candidate is less than the actual probability is less than 0.4, so you
5%, given that p = 0.4. would need to calculate the probability that the
observed value of the test statistic is 3 or fewer.

Exercise 7A

1 a Explain what you understand by a hypothesis test.

b Define a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis and state the symbols used for each.
c Define a test statistic.

2 For each of these hypotheses, state whether the hypotheses given describe a one-tailed or a two-
tailed test:
a H0: p = 0.8, H1: p > 0.8 b H0: p = 0.6, H1: p ≠ 0.6 c H0: p = 0.2, H1: p < 0.2

3 Dmitri wants to see whether a dice is biased towards the value 6. Hint
If the dice is biased
He throws the dice 60 times and counts the number of sixes towards 6 then the probability
he gets. of landing on 6 will be greater
a Describe the test statistic. than _​ 6 1 ​.
b Write down a suitable null hypothesis to test this dice.
c Write down a suitable alternative hypothesis to test this dice.

P 4 Shell wants to test to see whether a coin is biased. She tosses the coin 100 times and counts the
number of times she gets a head. Shell says that her test statistic is the probability of the coin
landing on heads.
a Explain the mistake that Shell has made and state the correct test statistic for her test.
b Write down a suitable null hypothesis to test this coin.
c Write down a suitable alternative hypothesis to test this coin.

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P 5 In a manufacturing process the proportion ( p) of faulty articles has been found, from long
experience, to be 0.1.
A sample of 100 articles from a new manufacturing process is tested, and 8 are found to be
faulty.
The manufacturers wish to test at the 5% level of significance whether or not there has been a
reduction in the proportion of faulty articles.
a Suggest a suitable test statistic.
b Write down two suitable hypotheses.
c Explain the condition under which the null hypothesis is rejected.

P 6 Polls show that 55% of voters support a particular political candidate. A newspaper releases
information showing that the candidate avoided paying taxes the previous year. Following
the release of the information, a polling company asked 20 people whether they support the
candidate. 7 people said that they did. The polling company wants to test at the 2% level of
significance whether the level of support for the candidate has reduced.
a Write down a suitable test statistic.
b Write down two suitable hypotheses.
c Explain the condition under which the null hypothesis would be accepted.

7.2 Finding critical values

When you carry out a hypothesis test, you need to be able to calculate the probability of the test
statistic taking particular values given that the null hypothesis is true.
In this chapter you will assume that the test statistic can be modelled by a binomial distribution.
You will use this to calculate probabilities and find critical regions.
■ A critical region is a region of the probability distribution which, if the test statistic falls
within it, would cause you to reject the null hypothesis.
A test statistic is modelled as B(10, p) and a hypothesis test at the 5% significance level uses
H0: p = 0.4, H1: p > 0.4. Assuming H0 to be true, X has the following distribution: X ~ B(10, 0.4):
0.3 P(X = 10) = 0.0001, P(X = 9) = 0.0016 and
P(X = 8) = 0.0106. Hence P(X > 8) = 0.0123. This is
Probability

0.2 less than the significance level of 5%.

A test statistic of 10, 9 or 8 would lead to the null
0.1 hypothesis being rejected.

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 P(X = 7) = 0.0425. Adding this probability to
X P(X > 8) takes the probability over 0.05 so a
Acceptance Critical test statistic of 7 or less would lead to the null
region region hypothesis being accepted.

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■ The critical value is the first value to fall inside of the critical region.
In this example, the critical value is 8 and the critical region is 8, 9 or 10. 7 falls in the acceptance
region, the region where we accept the null hypothesis.
The critical value and hence the critical region can be determined from binomial distribution tables,
or by finding cumulative binomial probabilities using your calculator.
In the n = 10 table, the critical region is found by looking for a probability such that P(X > x) , 0.05.

p= 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

n = 10, x = 0 0.1074 0.0563 0.0282 0.0135 0.0060 0.0025 0.0010

1 0.3758 0.2440 0.1493 0.0860 0.0464 0.0233 0.0107
2 0.6778 0.5256 0.3828 0.2616 0.1673 0.0996 0.0547
3 0.8791 0.7759 0.6496 0.5138 0.3823 0.2660 0.1719
4 0.9672 0.9219 0.8497 0.7515 0.6331 0.5044 0.3770 P(X < 6) = 0.9452 so
5 0.9936 0.9803 0.9527 0.9051 0.8338 0.7384 0.6230 P(X > 7) = 0.0548 (>  0.05)
6 0.9991 0.9965 0.9894 0.9740 0.9452 0.8980 0.8281
7 0.9999 0.9996 0.9984 0.9952 0.9877 0.9726 0.9453 P(X < 7) = 0.9877 so
8 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9995 0.9983 0.9955 0.9893 P(X > 8) = 0.0132 (<  0.05)
9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9990

This shows that x = 7 is not extreme enough to lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis but that
x = 8 is. Hence x = 8 is the critical value and x > 8 is the critical region.
The probability of the test statistic falling within the critical region, given that H0 is true is 0.0132 or
1.32%. This is sometimes called the actual significance level of the test.
■ The actual significance level of a 
Watch
out The threshold probability for your test (1%, 5%,
hypothesis test is the probability
10%) is often referred to as the level of significance for your
of incorrectly rejecting the null
test. This might be different from the actual significance
hypothesis.
level, which is the probability that your test statistic would
fall within the critical region even if H0 is true.
Example 3
A single observation is taken from a binomial distribution B(6, p). The observation is used to test
H0: p = 0.35 against H1: p > 0.35.
a Using a 5% level of significance, find the critical region for this test.
b State the actual significance level of this test.

a Assume H0 is true then X ~ B(6, 0.35) Use tables or your calculator to find the first
P(X > 4) = 1 – P(X < 3) = 1 – 0.8826 value of x for which P(X > x) , 0.05.
= 0.1174
P(X > 5) = 1 – P(X < 4) = 1 – 0.9777
= 0.0223 P(X > 4) . 0.05 but P(X > 5) , 0.05 so 5 is the
critical value.
The critical region is 5 or 6.

Online
Find the critical region using
your calculator.

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 Hypothesis testing

b The actual significance level is the

probability of incorrectly rejecting the null
hypothesis:
P(reject null hypothesis) = P(X > 5) This is the same as the probability that X falls
= 0.0223 within the critical region.
= 2.23%

■ For a two-tailed test there are two critical regions: one at each end of the distribution.

Example 4
A random variable X has binomial distribution B(40, p). A single observation is used to test
H0: p = 0.25 against H1: p ≠ 0.25.
a Using the 2% level of significance, find the critical region of this test. The probability in each tail
should be as close as possible to 0.01.
b Write down the actual significance level of the test.

a Assume H0 is true then X ~ B(40, 0.25)

Consider the lower tail:
P(X < 4) = 0.0160
P(X < 3) = 0.0047 P(X < 3) is closest to 0.01 so 3 is the critical value
Consider the upper tail: for this tail.
P(X > 19) = 1 – P(X < 18) = 1 – 0.9983
= 0.0017
P(X > 18) = 1 – P(X < 17) = 1 – 0.9884 Watch
out Read the question carefully. Even
= 0.0116 though P(X > 18) is greater than 0.01 it is still the
The critical regions are 0 < X < 3 and closest value to 0.01. The critical value for this tail
is 18.
18 < X < 40.

b The actual significance level is 0.0047 + y

Online
x

0.0116 = 0.0163 = 1.63% Use technology to explore

the locations of the critical values for
each tail in this example.
Exercise 7B

1 Explain what you understand by the following terms:

a critical value b critical region c acceptance region.

2 A test statistic has a distribution B(10, p). Given that H0: p = 0.2, H1: p > 0.2, find the critical
region for the test using a 5% significance level.

3 A random variable has a distribution B(20, p). A single observation is used to test H0: p = 0.15
against H1: p < 0.15. Using a 5% level of significance, find the critical region of this test.

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E 4 A random variable has distribution B(20, p). A single observation is used to test H0: p = 0.4
against H1: p ≠ 0.4.
a Using the 5% level of significance, find the critical region of this test.  (3 marks)
b Write down the actual significance level of the test. (1 mark)

5 A test statistic has a distribution B(20, p). Watch

out These probabilities are not
Given that H0: p = 0.18, H1: p < 0.18, find the found in statistical tables. You can use your
critical region for the test using a 1% level of calculator to find cumulative probabilities
significance. for B(n, p) with any values of n and p.

E/p 6 A random variable has distribution B(10, p). A single observation is used to test H0: p = 0.22
against H1: p ≠ 0.22.
a Using a 1% level of significance, find the critical region of this test. The probability in each tail
should be as close as possible to 0.005.  (3 marks)
b Write down the actual significance level of the test.  (2 marks)

E/p 7 A mechanical component fails, on average, 3 times out of every 10. An engineer designs a new
system of manufacture that he believes reduces the likelihood of failure. He tests a sample of
20 components made using his new system.
a Describe the test statistic.  (1 mark)
b State suitable null and alternative hypotheses.  (2 marks)
c Using a 5% level of significance, find the critical region for a test to check his belief,
ensuring the probability is as close as possible to 0.05.  (3 marks)
d Write down the actual significance level of the test.  (1 mark)

E/p 8 Seedlings come in trays of 36. On average, 12 seedlings survive to be planted on. A gardener
decides to use a new fertiliser on the seedlings which she believes will improve the number
that survive.
a Describe the test statistic and state suitable null and alternative hypotheses.  (3 marks)
b Using a 10% level of significance, find the critical region for a test to check her belief.
 (3 marks)
c State the probability of incorrectly rejecting H0 using this critical region.  (1 mark)

E/p 9 A restaurant owner notices that her customers typically choose lasagne one fifth of the time. She
changes the recipe and believes this will change the proportion of customers choosing lasagne.
a Suggest a model and state suitable null and alternative hypotheses.  (3 marks)
She takes a random sample of 25 customers.
b Find, at the 5% level of significance, the critical region for a test to check her belief.  (4 marks)
c State the probability of incorrectly rejecting H0.  (1 mark)

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Challenge
A test statistic has binomial distribution B(50, p). Given that:
H0: p = 0.7, H1: p ≠ 0.7:
a find the critical region for the test statistic such that the probability
in each tail is close as possible to 5%.
Chloe takes two observations of the test statistic and finds that they
both fall inside the critical region. Chloe decides to reject H0.
b Find the probability that Chloe has incorrectly rejected H0.

7.3 One-tailed tests

If you have to carry out a one-tailed hypothesis test you need to:
● Formulate a model for the test statistic
● Identify suitable null and alternative hypotheses
● Calculate the probability of the test statistic taking the observed value (or higher/lower), assuming
the null hypothesis is true
● Compare this to the significance level
● Write a conclusion in the context of the question
Alternatively, you can find the critical region and see whether the observed value of the test statistic
lies inside it.

Example 5
The standard treatment for a particular disease has a _​ 5 ​ probability of success. A certain doctor has
2

undertaken research in this area and has produced a new drug which has been successful with 11
out of 20 patients. The doctor claims that the new drug represents an improvement on the standard
treatment.
Test, at the 5% significance level, the claim made by the doctor.
Define your test statistic, X, and parameter, p.
X is the number of patients in the trial for
whom the drug was successful.
Write down the model for your test statistic, and
p is the probability of success for each patient. your hypotheses. The doctor claims the drug
X ~ B(20, p) represents an improvement so the alternative
H0: p = 0.4  H1: p > 0.4 hypothesis is p > 0.4.

Method 1: Assume the null hypothesis is true, and calculate

Assume H0 is true, so X ~ B(20, 0.4) the probability of 11 or more successful treatments.
P(X > 11) = 1 − P(X < 10)
= 1 − 0.8725 Use the cumulative binomial tables or your
= 0.1275 calculator to find P(X < 10).
= 12.75%
12.75% > 5% so there is not enough Compare the probability to the significance level
of your test.
evidence to reject H0.
The new drug is no better than the old one.
Make sure you write a conclusion in context.

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Method 2:
P(X > 13) = 1 − P(X < 12) = 0.021
Work out the critical region and see if 11 lies
P(X > 12) = 1 − P(X < 11) = 0.0565
within it.
The critical region is 13 or more.
Since 11 does not lie in the critical region, we
accept H0.
There is no evidence that the new drug is Unless you are specifically instructed as to which
better than the old one. method to use, you can use the one you prefer.

Exercise 7C

1 A single observation, x, is taken from a binomial distribution B(10, p) and a value of 5 is obtained.
Use this observation to test H0: p = 0.25 against H1: p > 0.25 using a 5% significance level.

2 A random variable has distribution X ~ B(10, p). A single observation of x = 1 is taken from this
distribution. Test, at the 5% significance level, H0: p = 0.4 against H1: p < 0.4.

3 A single observation, x, is taken from a binomial distribution B(20, p) and a value of 10 is

obtained. Use this observation to test H0: p = 0.3 against H1: p > 0.3 using a 5% significance level.

4 A random variable has distribution X ~ B(20, p). A single observation of x = 3 is taken from this
distribution. Test, at the 1% significance level, H0: p = 0.45 against H1: p < 0.45.

5 A single observation, x, is taken from a binomial distribution B(20, p) and a value of 2 is

obtained. Use this observation to test H0: p = 0.28 against H1: p < 0.28 using a 5% significance
level.

6 A random variable has distribution X ~ B(8, p). A single observation of x = 7 is taken from this
distribution. Test, at the 5% significance level, H0: p = 0.32 against H1: p > 0.32.

P 7 A dice used in playing a board game is suspected of not giving the number 6 often enough.
During a particular game it was rolled 12 times and only one 6 appeared. Does this represent
significant evidence, at the 5% level of significance, that the probability of a 6 on this dice is less
than ​ _6  ​ ?
1

P 8 The success rate of the standard treatment for patients suffering from a particular skin disease is
claimed to be 68%.
a In a sample of n patients, X is the number for which the treatment is successful.
Write down a suitable distribution to model X. Give reasons for your choice of model.
A random sample of 10 patients receives the standard treatment and in only 3 cases was the
treatment successful. It is thought that the standard treatment was not as effective as it is claimed.
b Test the claim at the 5% level of significance.

E/p 9 A plant germination method is successful on average 4 times out of every 10. A horticulturist
develops a new technique which she believes will improve the number of plants that successfully
germinate. She takes a random sample of 20 seeds and attempts to germinate them.

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 Hypothesis testing

a Using a 5% level of significance, find the Problem-solving

critical region for a test to check her belief.
In this question you are told to find the
 (4 marks)
critical region in part a. You will save time by
b Of her sample of 20 plants, the horticulturalist using your critical region to answer part b.
finds that 14 have germinated. Comment on this
observation in light of the critical region.  (2 marks)

E/p 10 A polling organisation claims that the support for a particular candidate is 35%. It is revealed
that the candidate will pledge to support local charities if elected. The polling organisation
think that the level of support will go up as a result. It takes a new poll of 50 voters.
a Describe the test statistic and state suitable null and alternative hypotheses.  (2 marks)
b Using a 5% level of significance, find the critical region for a test to check the belief.
 (4 marks)
c In the new poll, 28 people are found to support the candidate. Comment on this observation
in light of the critical region.  (2 marks)

7.4 Two-tailed tests

A one-tailed test is used to test when it is claimed that the probability has either gone up, or gone
down. A two-tailed test is used when it is thought that the probability has changed in either direction.
■ For a two-tailed test, halve the significance level at the end you are testing.
You need to know which tail of the distribution you are testing. If the test statistic is X ~ B(n, p) then
the expected outcome is np. If the observed value, x, is lower than this then consider P(X < x). If the
observed value is higher than the expected value, then consider P(X > x). In your exam it will usually
be obvious which tail you should test.

Example 6
Over a long period of time it has been found that in Enrico’s restaurant the ratio of non‑vegetarian
to vegetarian meals is 2 to 1. In Manuel’s restaurant in a random sample of 10 people ordering
meals, 1 ordered a vegetarian meal. Using a 5% level of significance, test whether or not the
proportion of people eating vegetarian meals in Manuel’s restaurant is different to that in
Enrico’s restaurant.

The proportion of people eating vegetarian Problem-solving

meals at Enrico’s is ​ __
1
3  ​.  You can use the same techniques to hypothesis-
X is the number of people in the sample at test for the proportion of a population that have
Manuel’s who order vegetarian meals. a given characteristic. You could equivalently
p is the probability that a randomly chosen define the test parameter as the proportion of
diners at Manuel’s that order a vegetarian meal.
person at Manuel’s orders a vegetarian meal.
H0 : p = ​ __
1 __1
  H1 : p ≠ ​ 3  ​ 
3  ​ 
Hypotheses. The test will be two-tailed as we are
Significance level 5%
testing if they are different.
If H0 is true X ~ B(10, ​ __
1
3  ​) 

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 Chapter 7

Method 1: The expected value would be 10 × _​ 13 ​= 3.333…

P(X < 1) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) The observed value, 1, is less than this so
= (​​ 3 ​ )​  ​+ 10​​(__
​ 23 ​ )​  ​(__
​ 3   ​)​
10 9 1
__
2 consider P(X < 1).

= 0.017 34… + 0.086 70…
You can calculate the probabilities long-hand, like
= 0.104 (3 s.f.)
this, or use your calculator with p = 0.3333.
0.104 > 0.025
There is insufficient evidence to reject H0.
We use 0.025 because the test is two-tailed.
There is no evidence that proportion of
vegetarian meals at Manuel’s restaurant is Conclusion and what it means in context.
different to Enrico’s.

Method 2:
Let c1 and c2 be the two critical values.
The probability in each critical region should be
P(X < c1) < 0.025 and P(x > c2) < 0.025
less than 0.05 ÷ 2 = 0.025.
For the lower tail:
P(X < 0) = 0.017 341… , 0.025
P(X < 1) = 0.104 04… . 0.025 Use the cumulative binomial function on your
calculator, with n = 10 and p = 0.3333.
So c1 = 0
For the upper tail:
P(X > 6) = 1 – P(X < 5)
= 0.076 56… . 0.025
P(X > 7) = 1 – P(X < 6) Write down a value on either side of the
= 0.019 66… , 0.025 boundary to show that you have determined the
correct critical values.
So c2 = 7
The observed value of 1 does not lie in the
critical region so H0 is not rejected. There Remember to write a conclusion in the context of
is no evidence that the proportion of people the question.
eating vegetarian meals has changed.

Exercise 7D

 1 A single observation, x, is taken from a binomial distribution B(30, p) and a value of

10 is obtained. Use this observation to test H0: p = 0.5 against H1: p ≠ 0.5 using a 5%
significance level.

 2 A random variable has distribution X ~ B(25, p). A single observation of x = 10 is taken from
this distribution. Test, at the 10% significance level, H0: p = 0.3 against H1: p ≠ 0.3.

 3 A single observation, x, is taken from a binomial distribution B(10, p) and a value of

9 is obtained. Use this observation to test H0: p = 0.75 against H1: p ≠ 0.75 using a 5%
significance level.

 4 A random variable has distribution X ~ B(20, p). A single observation of x = 1 is taken from
this distribution. Test, at the 1% significance level, H0: p = 0.6 against H1: p ≠ 0.6.

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 Hypothesis testing

P  5 A random variable has distribution Watch out

Although the observed value of 4
X ~ B(50, p). A single observation of appears to be small, the expected value of X is
x = 4 is taken from this distribution. actually 50 × 0.02 = 1. You need to consider the
Test, at the 2% significance level, upper tail of the distribution: P(X > 4).
H0: p = 0.02 against H1: p ≠ 0.02.

P  6 A coin is tossed 20 times, and lands on heads 6 times. Use a two-tailed test with a 5% significance
level to determine whether there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the coin is biased.

E/p  7 The national proportion of people experiencing complications after having a particular
operation in hospitals is 20%. A hospital decides to take a sample of size 20 from their records.
a Find critical regions, at the 5% level of significance, to test whether or not their proportion
of complications differs from the national proportion. The probability in each tail should be
as close to 2.5% as possible.  (5 marks)
b State the actual significance level of the test.  (1 mark)
The hospital finds that 8 of their 20 patients experienced complications.
c Comment on this finding in light of your critical regions.  (2 marks)

E/p  8 A machine makes glass bowls and it is observed that one in ten of the bowls have hairline
cracks in them. The production process is modified and a sample of 20 bowls is taken. 1 of
the bowls is cracked. Test, at the 10% level of significance, the hypothesis that the proportion
of cracked bowls has changed as a result of the change in the production process. State your
hypotheses clearly.  (7 marks)

E/p  9 Over a period of time, Agnetha has discovered that the carrots that she grows have a 25%
chance of being longer than 7 cm. She tries a new type of fertiliser. In a random sample of
30 carrots, 13 are longer than 7 cm. Agnetha claims that the new fertiliser has changed the
probability of a carrot being longer than 7 cm. Test Agnetha’s claim at the 5% significance level.
State your hypotheses clearly.  (7 marks)

E/p 10 A standard blood test is able to diagnose a particular disease with probability 0.96.
A manufacturer suggests that a cheaper test will have the same probability of success.
It conducts a clinical trial on 75 patients. The new test correctly diagnoses 63 of these patients.
Test the manufacturer’s claim at the 10% level, stating your hypotheses clearly.  (7 marks)

Mixed exercise 7

E/p  1 Mai commutes to work five days a week on a train. She does two journeys a day.
Over a long period of time she finds that the train is late 20% of the time.
A new company takes over the train service Mai uses. Mai thinks that the service will be late
more often. In the first week of the new service the train is late 3 times.
You may assume that the number of times the train is late in a week has a binomial distribution.
Test, at the 5% level of significance, whether or not there is evidence that there is an increase in
the number of times the train is late. State your hypothesis clearly.  (7 marks)

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 Chapter 7

E/p 2 A marketing company claims that Chestly cheddar cheese tastes better than Cumnauld
cheddar cheese.
Five people chosen at random as they entered a supermarket were asked to say which they
preferred. Four people preferred Chestly cheddar cheese.
Test, at the 5% level of significance, whether or not the manufacturer’s claim is true.
State your hypothesis clearly.  (7 marks)

E/p 3 Historical information finds that nationally 30% of cars fail a brake test.
a Give a reason to support the use of a binomial distribution as a suitable model for the
number of cars failing a brake test.  (1 mark)
b Find the probability that, of 5 cars taking the test, all of them pass the brake test.  (2 marks)
A garage decides to conduct a survey of their cars. A randomly selected sample of 10 of their
cars is tested. Two of them fail the test.
c Test, at the 5% level of significance, whether or not there is evidence to support the
suggestion that cars in this garage fail less than the national average.  (7 marks)

E/p 4 The proportion of defective articles in a certain manufacturing process has been found from
long experience to be 0.1.
A random sample of 50 articles was taken in order to monitor the production. The number of
defective articles was recorded.
a Using a 5% level of significance, find the critical regions for a two-tailed test of the
hypothesis that 1 in 10 articles has a defect. The probability in each tail should be as near
2.5% as possible.  (4 marks)
b State the actual significance level of the above test.  (2 marks)
Another sample of 20 articles was taken at a later date. Four articles were found to be
defective.
c Test, at the 10% significance level, whether or not there is evidence that the proportion of
defective articles has increased. State your hypothesis clearly.  (5 marks)

E/p 5 It is claimed that 50% of women use Oriels powder. In a random survey of 20 women, 12 said
they did not use Oriels powder.
Test, at the 5% significance level, whether or not there is evidence that the proportion of women
using Oriels powder is 0.5. State your hypothesis carefully.  (6 marks)

E/p 6 The manager of a superstore thinks that the probability of a person buying a certain make of
computer is only 0.2.
To test whether this hypothesis is true the manager decides to record the make of computer
bought by a random sample of 50 people who bought a computer.
a Find the critical region that would enable the manager to test whether or not there is
evidence that the probability is different from 0.2. The probability of each tail should be as
close to 2.5% as possible.  (4 marks)
b Write down the significance level of this test.  (2 marks)
15 people buy that certain make.
c Comment on this observation in light of your critical region.  (2 marks)

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 Hypothesis testing

E/p  7 a Explain what is meant by:

i  a hypothesis test   ii  a critical value   iii  an acceptance region. (3 marks)
Johan believes the probability of him being late to school is 0.2. To test this claim he counts the
number of times he is late in a random sample of 20 days.
b Find the critical region for a two-tailed test, at the 10% level of significance, of whether the
probability he is late for school differs from 0.2.  (5 marks)
c State the actual significance level of the test.  (1 mark)
Johan discovers he is late for school in 7 out of the 20 days.
d Comment on whether Johan should accept or reject his claim that the probability he is late
for school is 0.2.  (2 marks)

E/p  8 From the large data set, the likelihood of a day with either zero or trace amounts of rain in
Hurn in June 1987 was 0.5.
Poppy believes that the likelihood of a rain-free day in 2015 has increased.
In June 2015 in Hurn, 21 days were observed as having zero or trace amounts of rain.
Using a 5% significance level, test whether or not there is evidence to support Poppy’s claim.
 (6 marks)

E/p  9 A single observation x is to be taken from a binomial distribution B(30, p). This observation is
used to test H0: p = 0.35 against H1: p ≠ 0.35.
a Using a 5% level of significance, find the critical region for this test. The probability of
rejecting either tail should be as close as possible to 2.5%.  (3 marks)
b State the actual significance level of this test.  (2 marks)
The actual value of X obtained is 4.
c State a conclusion that can be drawn based on this value giving a reason for your answer.
 (2 marks)

E/p 10 A pharmaceutical company claims that 85% of patients suffering from a chronic rash recover
when treated with a new ointment.
A random sample of 20 patients with this rash is taken from hospital records.
a Write down a suitable distribution to model the number of patients in this sample who
recover when treated with the new ointment.  (2 marks)
b Given that the claim is correct, find the probability that the ointment will be successful for
exactly 16 patients.  (2 marks)
The hospital believes that the claim is incorrect and the percentage who will recover is lower.
From the records an administrator took a random sample of 30 patients who had been
prescribed the ointment. She found that 20 had recovered.
c Stating your hypotheses clearly, test, at the 5% level of significance, the hospital’s belief.
 (6 marks)

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 Chapter 7

Large data set

You will need access to the large data set and spreadsheet software to answer
these questions.
1 The proportion of days with a recorded daily mean temperature greater
than 15 °C in Leuchars between May 1987 and October 1987 was found to
be 0.163 (3 s.f.).
A meteorologist wants to use a randomly chosen sample of 10 days to
determine whether the probability of observing a daily mean temperature
greater than 15 °C has increased significantly between 1987 and 2015.
a Using a significance level of 5%, determine the critical region for this
test.
b Select a sample of 10 days from the 2015 data for Leuchars, and count
the number of days with a mean temperature of greater than 15 °C.
c Use your observation and your critical region to make a conclusion.

2 From the large data set, in Beijing in 1987, 23% of the days from May to
October had a daily mean air temperature greater than 25 °C. Using a
sample of size 10 from the data for daily mean air temperature in Beijing in
2015, test, at the 5% significance level, whether the proportion of days with
a mean air temperature greater than 25 °C increased between 1987 and
2015.

Summary of key points

1 The null hypothesis, H0, is the hypothesis that you assume to be correct.

2 The alternative hypothesis, H1, tells us about the parameter if your assumption is shown to be
wrong.

3 Hypothesis tests with alternative hypotheses in the form H1: p < … and H1: p > … are called
one-tailed tests.

4 Hypothesis tests with an alternative hypothesis in the form H1: p ≠ … are called two-tailed
tests.

5 A critical region is a region of the probability distribution which, if the test statistic falls within
it, would cause you to reject the null hypothesis.

6 The critical value is the first value to fall inside of the critical region.

7 The actual significance level of a hypothesis test is the probability of incorrectly rejecting the
null hypothesis.

8 For a two-tailed test the critical region is split at either end of the distribution.

9 For a two-tailed test, halve the significance level at each end you are testing.

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 E
Review exercise

1 A researcher is hired by a cleaning

1
c State, with reasons, whether your answer
company to survey the opinions of in part b supports Joanna’s conclusion.
employees on a proposed pension scheme. (2)
The company employs 55 managers and ← Sections 1.3, 1.5, 2.1
495 cleaners.
a Explain what is meant by a census and E 3 Summarised below are the distances, to the
give one disadvantage of using it in this nearest mile, travelled to work by a random
context. (2) sample of 120 commuters.

To collect data the researcher decides to Distance, x miles Number of commuters

give a questionnaire to the first 50 cleaners 0 < x < 10 10
to leave at the end of the day. 10 < x < 20 19
20 < x < 30 43
b State the sampling method used by the
30 < x < 40 25
researcher. (1)
40 < x < 50 8
c Give 2 reasons why this method is likely 50 < x < 60 6
to produce biased results. (2) 60 < x < 70 5
d Explain briefly how the researcher could 70 < x < 80 3
select a sample of 50 employees using: 80 < x < 90 1
i a systematic sample a For this distribution, use linear
ii a stratified sample. (2) interpolation to estimate its median. (3)
← Sections 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 The midpoint of each class was
represented by x and its corresponding
E/p 2 Data on the daily maximum relative
frequency f giving
humidity in Camborne during 1987 is
Σfx = 3610 and Σfx2 = 141 600
gathered from the large data set. The daily
maximum relative humidity, h, on the first b Estimate the mean and standard
five days in May is given below: deviation of this distribution. (2)
← Sections 2.1, 2.4
Day 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
h 100 91 77 83 86 E/p 4 From the large data set, the daily total
a Explain what is meant by opportunity sunshine, s, in Leeming during June 1987 is
sampling and describe one limitation of recorded.
the method in this context. (2) The data is coded using x = 10s + 1 and
b Calculate an estimate for the mean daily the following summary statistics are obtained.
maximum relative humidity for these n = 30 Σx = 947 Sxx = 33 065.37
five days. (1) Find the mean and standard deviation of
Joanna concludes that it is not likely to be the daily total sunshine. (4)
misty in Camborne in May. ← Section 2.5

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 Review exercise 1

E 5 Children from schools A and B took part b Find the probability that a person
in a fun run for charity. The times, to the chosen at random took longer than 20
nearest minute, taken by the children from minutes to swim 500 m. (3)
school A are summarised below. c Find an estimate of the mean time
School A taken. (2)
d Find an estimate for the standard
deviation of t. (3)
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (minutes) e Find an estimate for the median of t. (2)
←Sections 2.1, 2.4, 3.4
a i Write down the time by which 75%
of the children in school A had E/p 7 An ornithologist is collecting data on the
completed the run. lengths, in cm, of snowy owls. She displays
ii State the name given to this value. (2) the information in a histogram as shown
b Explain what you understand by the two below.
crosses ( ) on Figure 1. (2)
For school B the least time taken by any
of the children was 25 minutes and the
Frequency density
longest time was 55 minutes. The three
quartiles were 30, 37 and 50 respectively.
c On graph paper, draw a box plot to
represent the data from school B. (3)
d Compare and contrast these two box
plots. (2)
←Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.5

E/p 6 The histogram below shows the times taken, t, 60 65 70 75 80

Length (cm)
in minutes, by a group of people to swim 500 m.
Histogram of times Given that there are 26 owls in the 65 to
67 cm class, estimate the probability that
Frequency density

6
5 an owl, chosen at random is between 63
4 and 73 cm long. (4)
3
← Section 3.4
2
1 E/p 8 The daily maximum temperature is
0
0 5 10 14 18 20 25 30 40 recorded in a UK city during May 2015.
Time, t (minutes) t f
a Copy and complete the frequency table 10 < t < 13 1
and histogram for t. (4) 13 < t < 16 7
16 < t < 19 13
t f
19 < t < 22 10
 5 < t < 10 10
a Use linear interpolation to find
10 < t < 14 16
an estimate for the 20% to 80%
14 < t < 18 24
interpercentile range. (3)
18 < t < 25
b Draw a cumulative frequency diagram
25 < t < 40 to display this data. (3)

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 Review exercise 1

c Use your diagram to estimate the 20% to An outlier is an observation which lies
80% interpercentile range and compare ±2 standard deviations from the mean.
your answer to part a. Which estimate is a Show that t = 45 is an outlier. (1)
likely to be more accurate? (3)
b Give a reason whether or not this outlier
d Estimate the number of days in May 2015 should be omitted from the data. (1)
where the daily maximum temperature in
this city is greater than 15 °C. (2) This value is omitted from the data, and
the equation of the regression line of c on
←Sections 2.3, 3.3
t for the remaining data is calculated as
E 9 A manufacturer stores drums of chemicals. c = 2.81t − 13.3.
During storage, evaporation take place. A c Give an interpretation of the value of
random sample of 10 drums was taken and the 2.81 in this regression equation. (1)
time in storage, x weeks, and the evaporation d State, with a reason, why using the
loss, y ml, are shown in the table below. regression line to estimate the number
x 3 5 6 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 of ice creams sold when the average
y 36 50 53 61 69 79 82 90 88 96 monthly temperature is 2 °C would not
be appropriate. (2)
a On graph paper, draw a scatter diagram
← Sections 3.1, 4.2
to represent these data. (3)
b Give a reason to support fitting a E 11 A bag contains nine blue balls and three
regression model of the form y = a + bx red balls. A ball is selected at random from
to these data. (1) the bag and its colour is recorded. The ball
The equation of the regression line of y on is not replaced. A second ball is selected at
x is y = 29.02 + 3.9x. random and its colour is recorded.
c Give an interpretation of the value a Draw a tree diagram to represent the
of the gradient in the equation of the information (3)
regression line. (1) Find the probability that:
The manufacturer uses this model to predict b the second ball selected is red (1)
the amount of evaporation that would take c the balls are different colours. (3)
place after 19 weeks and after 35 weeks.
← Section 5.4
d Comment, with a reason, on the
reliability of each of these predictions. E/p 12 For events A and B, P(A but not B) = 0.32,
 (2) P(B but not A) = 0.11 and P(A or B) = 0.65.
← Sections 4.2 a Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the
E/p 10 The table shows average monthly complete sample space for the events
temperature, t (°C) and the number of ice A and B. (3)
creams, c, in 100s, a riverside snack barge b Write down the value of P(A) and the
sells each month. value of P(B). (2)
c Determine whether or not A and B are
t 7 8 10 45 14 17 20 21 15 13 9 5
independent. (2)
c 4 7 13 27 30 35 42 41 36 24 9 3
← Sections 5.2, 5.3
The following statistics were calculated
for the data on temperature: mean = 15.3, E 13 A company assembles drills using
standard deviation = 10.2 (both correct to components from two sources. Goodbuy
3 s.f.) supplies 85% of the components and

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 Review exercise 1

Amart supplies the rest. It is known c Find the probability that exactly 6 of
that 3% of the components supplied by these bags contain more than 3 faulty
Goodbuy are faulty and 6% of those bolts.(3)
supplied by Amart are faulty. ← Sections 6.2, 6.3
a Represent this information on a tree
diagram. (2) E 17 The random variable X has probability
An assembled drill is selected at random. function
(2x − 1)
b Find the probability that it is not P(X = x) = ​ _______
   ​  x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
 
36
faulty. (3)
a Construct a table giving the probability
← Section 5.4 distribution of X. (3)

E/p 14 The Venn diagram shows the number of Find

children who like Comics (C   ), Books (B) b P(2 < X < 5) (2)
or Television (T    ). ← Section 6.1

C B T E/p 18 A fair five-sided spinner has sectors

numbered from 1 to 5. The spinner is spun
8 13 4 5 7
and the number showing, X, is recorded.
a State the distribution of X. (1)
1
The spinner is spun four times and the
a Which two hobbies are mutually number of spins taken to get an odd
exclusive? (1) number, Y, is recorded.
b Determine whether the events b Write down, in table form, the
‘likes comics’ and ‘likes books’ are probability distribution of Y. (3)
independent. (3) c Find P(Y > 2). (2)
← Sections 5.2, 5.3 ← Section 6.1

E/p 15 A fair coin is tossed 4 times. E 19 The random variable X ~ B(15, 0.32). Find:
Find the probability that: a P(X = 7) b P(X < 4)
a an equal number of heads and tails c P(X < 8) d P(X > 6) (4)
occur (3)
← Section 6.3
b all the outcomes are the same (2)
c the first tail occurs on the third throw. E/p 20 A single observation is taken from a test
 (2) statistic X ~ B(40, p). Given that
← Section 6.1 H0: p = 0.3 and H1: p ≠ 0.3,
a Find the critical region for the test
E/p 16 The probability of a bolt being faulty is using a 2.5% significance level. (The
0.3. Find the probability that in a random probability in each tail should be as
sample of 20 bolts there are: close as possible to 1.25 %) (4)
a exactly 2 faulty bolts (2) b State the probability of incorrectly
b more that 3 faulty bolts. (2) rejecting the null hypothesis using this
These bolts are sold in bags of 20. John test. (1)
buys 10 bags. ← Section 7.2

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 Review exercise 1

E/p 21 A drugs company claims that 75% of a Write down suitable hypotheses for her
patients suffering from depression recover test. (1)
when treated with a new drug. b Using a 5% significance level, find the
A random sample of 10 patients with critical region for her test. (4)
depression is taken from a doctor’s c Write down the actual significance level
records. of the test. (1)
a Write down a suitable distribution to
Dhriti finds that 18 out of the 40
model the number of patients in this
tomatoes have a diameter greater than
sample who recover when treated with
4 cm.
the new drug. (1)
d Comment on Dhriti’s observed value
Given that the claim is correct, in light of your answer to part b. (2)
b find the probability that the treatment ← Sections 7.2, 7.3
will be successful for exactly 6 patients.
 (2)
Challenge
The doctor believes that the claim is
incorrect and the percentage who will 1 The Venn diagram shows the number of sports
recover is lower. From her records she club members liking three different sports.
took a random sample of 20 patients who B
A C
had been treated with the new drug. She
found that 13 had recovered.
y 1 x 7 z
c Stating your hypotheses clearly, test,
at the 5% level of significance, the
doctor’s belief. (7) 18

d From a sample of size 20, find the Given that there are 50 members in total,
greatest number of patients who need P(C) = 3P(A) and P(not B) = 0.76, find the
to recover from the test in part c to be values of x, y and z.  ← Section 5.2
significant at the 1% level. (3) 2 A test statistic has binomial distribution B(30, p).
← Sections 6.3, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 Given that H0: p = 0.65, H1: p < 0.65,
a find the critical region for the test statistic
E/p 22 Dhriti grows tomatoes. Over a period such that the probability is as close as
of time, she has found that there is a possible to 10%.
probability 0.3 of a ripe tomato having a William takes two observations of the test
diameter greater than 4 cm. Dhriti wants statistic and finds that they both fall inside the
to test whether a new fertiliser increases critical region. William decides to reject H0.
the size of her tomatoes. She takes a b Find the probability that William has
sample of 40 ripe tomatoes that have incorrectly rejected H0. ← Sections 7.2, 7.3

been treated with the new fertiliser.

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 8 Modelling in
mechanics
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Understand how the concept of a mathematical model
applies to mechanics → pages 119–120

● Understand and be able to apply some of the common

assumptions used in mechanical models  → pages 120–122
● Know SI units for quantities and derived quantities used in
mechanics → pages 122–124

● Know the difference between scalar and vector quantities

 → pages 125–127

Prior knowledge check

Give your answers correct to 3 s.f. where
appropriate.
1 Solve these equations:
a 5x2 − 21x + 4 = 0 b 6x2 + 5x = 21
c 3x2 − 5x − 4 = 0 d 8x2 − 18 = 0
 ← GCSE Mathematics

2 Find the value of x and y in these right-angled

triangles.
a 9 b
y
54°
x x
y 5

12
 ← GCSE Mathematics

3 Convert:
a 30 km h−1 to cm s−1 b 5 g cm−3 to kg m−3
Mathematical models can be used to
 ← GCSE Mathematics
find solutions to real-world problems in
4 Write in standard form: many everyday situations. If you model a
a 7 650 000 b 0.003 806 firework as a particle you can ignore the
 ← GCSE Mathematics effects of wind and air resistance.

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 Modelling in mechanics

8.1 Constructing a model

Mechanics deals with motion and the action of forces on objects. Mathematical models can be
constructed to simulate real-life situations, but in many cases it is necessary to simplify the problem
by making assumptions so that it can be described using equations or graphs in order to solve it.
The solution to a mathematical model needs to be interpreted in the context of the original problem.
It is possible your model may need to be refined and your assumptions reconsidered.
This flow chart summarises the mathematical modelling process.

Set up mathematical model Is your

Real-world Solve and answer Report
● What are your assumptions?
problem interpret reasonable? yes solution
● What are the variables?

Reconsider no
assumptions

Example 1
The motion of a basketball as it leaves a player’s hand and passes through the net can be modelled
using the equation h = 2 + 1.1x − 0.1x2, where h m is the height of the basketball above the ground
and x m is the horizontal distance travelled.
a Find the height of the basketball:  i  when it is released  ii  at a horizontal distance of 0.5 m.
b Use the model to predict the height of the basketball when it is at a horizontal distance of 15 m
from the player.
c Comment on the validity of this prediction.
When the basketball is released at the start
a i x = 0: h = 2 + 0 + 0 of the motion x = 0. Substitute x = 0 into the
Height = 2 m equation for h.
ii x = 0.5: h = 2 + 1.1 × 0.5 − 0.1 × (0.5)2
Substitute x = 0.5 into the equation for h.
Height = 2.525 m
b x = 15: h = 2 + 1.1 × 15 − 0.1 × (15)2 Substitute x = 15 into the equation for h.
Height = −4 m
c Height cannot be negative so the model h represents the height of the basketball above
is not valid when x = 15 m. the ground, so it is only valid if h > 0.

Exercise 8A
1 The motion of a golf ball after it is struck by a golfer can be modelled using the equation
h = 0.36x − 0.003x2, where h m is the height of the golf ball above the ground and x m is the
horizontal distance travelled.
a Find the height of the golf ball when it is: 
i struck ii at a horizontal distance of 100 m.
b Use the model to predict the height of the golf ball when it is 200 m from the golfer.
c Comment on the validity of this prediction.

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 Chapter 8

2 A stone is thrown into the sea from the top of a cliff. The height of the stone above sea level, h m
at time t s after it is thrown can be modelled by the equation h = −5t2 + 15t + 90.
a Write down the height of the cliff above sea level.
b Find the height of the stone:
i when t = 3 ii when t = 5.
c Use the model to predict the height of the stone after 20 seconds.
d Comment on the validity of this prediction.

P 3 The motion of a basketball as it leaves a player’s hand and passes through the net is modelled
using the equation h = 2 + 1.1x − 0.1x2, where h m is the height of the basketball above the
ground and x m is the horizontal distance travelled.
a Find the two values of x for which the basketball is exactly 4 m above the ground.
This model is valid for 0 < x < k, where k m is the horizontal distance of the net from the player.
Given that the height of the net is 3 m:
b Find the value of k.
c Explain why the model is not valid for x . k.

P 4 A car accelerates from rest to 60 mph in 10 seconds. A quadratic Problem-solving

equation of the form d = kt2 can be used to model the distance
Use the information given
travelled, d metres in time t seconds.
to work out the value of k.
a Given that when t = 1 second the distance travelled by the car is
13.2 metres, use the model to find the distance travelled when the car reaches 60 mph.
b Write down the range of values of t for which the model is valid.

P 5 The model for the motion of a golf ball given in question 1 is only valid when h is positive.
Find the range of values of x for which the model is valid.

P 6 The model for the height of the stone above sea level given in question 2 is only valid from the
time the stone is thrown until the time it enters the sea. Find the range of values of t for which
the model is valid.

8.2 Modelling assumptions

Modelling assumptions can simplify a problem Watch out

and allow you to analyse a real-life situation
Modelling assumptions can affect the validity of a
using known mathematical techniques. model. For example, when modelling the landing
You need to understand the significance of of a commercial flight, it would not be appropriate
different modelling assumptions and how to ignore the effects of wind and air resistance.
they affect the calculations in a particular problem.

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 Modelling in mechanics

These are some common models and modelling assumptions that you need to know.
Model Modelling assumptions
Particle – Dimensions of the object are ● mass of the object is concentrated at a single point
negligible. ● rotational forces and air resistance can be ignored
Rod – All dimensions but one are ● mass is concentrated along a line
negligible, like a pole or a beam. ● no thickness
● rigid (does not bend or buckle)

Lamina – Object with area but negligible ● mass is distributed across a flat surface
thickness, like a sheet of paper.
Uniform body – Mass is distributed ● mass of the object is concentrated at a single point at the
evenly. geometrical centre of the body – the centre of mass
Light object – Mass of the object is small ● treat object as having zero mass
compared to other masses, like a string or ● tension the same at both ends of a light string
a pulley.
Inextensible string – A string that does ● acceleration is the same in objects connected by a taut
not stretch under load. inextensible string
Smooth surface ● assume that there is no friction between the surface and any
object on it
Rough surface – If a surface is not ● objects in contact with the surface experience a frictional force
smooth, it is rough. if they are moving or are acted on by a force
Wire – Rigid thin length of metal. ● treated as one-dimensional
Smooth and light pulley – all pulleys you ● pulley has no mass
consider will be smooth and light. ● tension is the same on either side of the pulley
Bead – Particle with a hole in it for ● moves freely along a wire or string
threading on a wire or string. ● tension is the same on either side of the bead
Peg – A support from which a body can be ● dimensionless and fixed
suspended or rested. ● can be rough or smooth as specified in question
Air resistance – Resistance experienced ● usually modelled as being negligible
as an object moves through the air.
Gravity – Force of ● assume that all objects with mass are attracted towards the
attraction between all Earth
objects. Acceleration due g = 9.8 m s–2 ● Earth’s gravity is uniform and acts vertically downwards
to gravity is denoted by g. ● g is constant and is taken as 9.8 m s−2, unless otherwise stated
in the question

Example 2
A mass is attached to a length of string which is fixed to the ceiling.
The mass is drawn to one side with the string taut and allowed to swing.
State the effect of the following assumptions on any calculations made using this model:
a The string is light and inextensible. b The mass is modelled as a particle.

a Ignore the mass of the string and any stretching effect

caused by the mass.
b Ignore the rotational effect of any external forces that
are acting on it, and the effects of air resistance.

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 Chapter 8

Exercise 8B
1 A football is kicked by the goalkeeper from one end of the football pitch.
State the effect of the following assumptions on any calculations made using this model:
a The football is modelled as a particle. b Air resistance is negligible.

2 An ice puck is hit and slides across the ice.

State the effect of the following assumptions on any calculations made using this model:
a The ice puck is modelled as a particle. b The ice is smooth.

3 A parachute jumper wants to model her descent from an aeroplane to the ground. She models
herself and her parachute as particles connected by a light inextensible string. Explain why this
may not be a suitable modelling assumption for this situation.

4 A fishing rod manufacturer constructs a mathematical model to predict the behaviour of a

particular fishing rod. The fishing rod is modelled as a light rod.
a Describe the effects of this modelling assumption.
b Comment on its validity in this situation.

5 Make a list of the assumptions you might make to create simple models of the following:
a The motion of a golf ball after it is hit
b The motion of a child on a sledge going down a snow-covered hill
c The motion of two objects of different masses connected by a string that
passes over a pulley
d The motion of a suitcase on wheels being pulled along a path by its handle.

8.3 Quantities and units

The International System of Units, (abbreviated SI from the French, Système international d’unités) is
the modern form of the metric system. These base SI units are most commonly used in mechanics.
Quantity Unit Symbol Watch
out
Mass kilogram kg A common misconception is that kilograms
Length/displacement metre m measure weight not mass. However, weight is a
force which is measured in newtons (N).
Time seconds s

These derived units are compound units built from the base units.
Quantity Unit Symbol
Speed/velocity metres per second m s−1
Acceleration metres per second per second m s−2
Weight/force newton N (= kg m s−2)

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 Modelling in mechanics

You will encounter a variety of forces in mechanics. R Normal reaction exerted

These force diagrams show some of the most on the book by the table.
common forces.
● The weight (or gravitational force) of an object
acts vertically downwards. Force exerted on the
● The normal reaction is the force which acts perpendicular table by the book.
W Both forces have the
to a surface when an object is in contact with the surface.
same magnitude.
In this example the normal reaction is due to the weight of
the book resting on the surface of the table.
● The friction is a force ● If an object is being pulled ● If an object is being pushed along
which opposes the along by a string, the force using a light rod, the force acting
motion between two acting on the object is called on the object is called the thrust
rough surfaces. the tension in the string. or compression in the rod.
Direction
Direction
Direction Tension
Tension
Tension
of motion
ofofmotion
motion in string string Thrust
ininstring Thrust
Thrust
or oror
compression
compression
compression
Frictional
Frictional
Frictional in rod
ininrod
rod
forceforce
force

● Buoyancy is the upward force on a body that ● Air resistance opposes motion. In this
allows it to float or rise when submerged in a example the weight of the parachutist acts
liquid. In this example buoyancy vertically downwards and the air resistance
acts to keep the boat afloat in the water. acts vertically upwards.
Buoyancy Air resistance

Weight
Weight

Example 3
The SI unit of length is the metre and
Write the following quantities in SI units. 1 km = 1000 m.
a 4 km b 0.32 grams c 5.1 × 106 km h−1
The SI unit of weight is the kg and 1 kg = 1000 g.
a 4 km = 4 × 1000 = 4000 m The answer is given in standard form.

b 0.32 g = 0.32 ÷ 1000 = 3.2 × 10−4 kg The SI unit of speed is m s−1. Convert from km h−1
c 5.1 × 106 km h−1 =
 5.1 × 106 × 1000 to m h−1 by multiplying by 100.
= 5.1 × 109 m h−1
Convert from m h−1 to m s−1 by dividing by 60 × 60.
5.1 × 109 ÷ (60 × 60) = 1.42 × 106 m s−1
The answer is given in standard form to 3 s.f.

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 Chapter 8

A
Example 4
The force diagram shows an aircraft in flight.
Write down the names of the four forces
shown on the diagram.
D B

Also known as ‘lift’, this is the upward force that

A upward thrust
keeps the aircraft up in the air.
B forward thrust

C weight Also known as ‘thrust’, this is the force that

propels the aircraft forward.
D air resistance
This is the gravitational force acting downwards
on the aircraft.

Exercise 8C Also known as ‘drag’, this is the force that acts in

the opposite direction to the forward thrust.
1 Convert to SI units:
a 65 km h−1 b 15 g cm−2 c 30 cm per minute
d 24 g m−3 e 4.5 × 10−2 g cm−3 f 6.3 × 10−3 kg cm−2

2 Write down the names of the forces shown in each of these diagrams.
a A box being pushed along rough ground b A man swimming through the water
A direction A
of motion

B D B

D C

C
c A toy duck being pulled along by a string d A man sliding down a hill on a sledge
A

D A
C

θ B
C

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 Modelling in mechanics

8.4 Working with vectors

■ A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction.
These are examples of vector quantities.
Quantity Description Unit
Displacement distance in a particular direction metre (m)
Velocity rate of change of displacement metres per second (m s−1)
Acceleration rate of change of velocity metres per second per second (m s−2)
Force/weight described by magnitude, direction and point of newton (N)
application

■ A scalar quantity has magnitude only.

These are examples of scalar quantities.
Quantity Description Unit
Distance measure of length metre (m)
Speed measure of how quickly a body moves metres per second (m s−1)
Time measure of ongoing events taking place second (s)
Mass measure of the quantity of matter contained in an object kilogram (kg)

Scalar quantities are always positive. When considering motion in a straight line (1-dimensional
motion), vector quantities can be positive or negative.

Example 5
Fully describe the motion of the following a b c d
particles: Velocity +ve +ve –ve –ve

Acceleration +ve –ve –ve +ve

a The particle is moving to the right and its Positive direction

speed is increasing.
b The particle is moving to the right and its
When the direction of the acceleration opposes the
speed is decreasing. direction of motion, the particle is slowing down.
c The particle is moving to the left and its This is also called deceleration or retardation.
speed is increasing.
d The particle is moving to the left and its
speed is decreasing.
y

You can describe vectors using i, j notation, where i and j (0, 1)

are the unit vectors in the positive x and y directions.
j

Links
When a vector is given in i–j notation you can: O (1, 0) x
i
● use Pythagoras’ theorem to find its magnitude
● use trigonometry to work out its direction
 ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 11

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 Chapter 8

■ Distance is the magnitude of the displacement vector.

■ Speed is the magnitude of the velocity vector.

Example 6

The velocity of a particle is given by v = 3i +5j m s−1. Find:

a the speed of the particle
b the angle the direction of motion of the particle makes with the unit vector i.
________ ___
a Speed = |v| = ​√ 32 + 52 ​ 
= √​  34 ​  The speed of the particle is the magnitude of the
= 5.83 m s −1 vector v. This is written as |v|.
______

b Angle made with i = θ In general, if v = ai + bj then |v| = √​  a2 + b2 ​ 

3i + 5j
tan θ = ​ __
3 ​ so θ = 59
5 o
5j Draw a diagram. The direction of v can be found
θ using trigonometry.

3i

Example 7
A man walks from A to B and then from B to C. B
6i + 4j
His displacement from A to B is 6i + 4j m.
His displacement from B to C is 5i − 12j m. A
5i – 12j
a What is the magnitude of the displacement from A to C   ?
b What is the total distance the man has walked in getting from A to C   ?

⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a ​ AC ​​ = ​  ​ + ​ BC ​​ 
AB ​ This is the triangle law for vector addition. Write
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
(​ ​4)​  ​+ (​ ​ −12 
)​ ​= (​ ​ −8  )​ ​
6 5  11   ​  ​ and BC ​
​  ​ in column vector form and add the i
​  ​ =
AC ​ AB ​
⟶
⟶ __________ components and the j components to find |​AC ​​  ​| .
|​​ AC ​​|  = √​  11
  2 + (−8)2 ​ ⟶
Use Pythagoras to work out the magnitude of AC ​ ​  ​. 
= 13.6 km
⟶ ⟶
b Total distance = |​​ AB ​​|  + |​​ BC ​​|  Note that the distance from A to C is not the
⟶ ________
|​​ AB ​​|  = ​√ 62 + 42  ​= 7.21 km same as the total distance travelled which is
⟶ ___________
⟶ ⟶
|​​ BC ​​|  = ​√ 5
  2 + (−12)2 ​= 13 km ​  ​| + |​BC ​
|​AB ​ ​  ​| .
total distance = 7.21 + 13 = 20.21 km
Online
Check your answers by entering
the vectors directly into your calculator.

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 Modelling in mechanics

Exercise 8D

1 A man walks from his home along a straight road to a shop with a speed of 2.1 m s−1 and walks
home again at a speed of 1.8 m s−1.
He then jogs along a straight road from his home to the park with a speed of 2.7 m s−1 and
returns home at a speed of 2.5 m s−1.
The park, the man’s home and the shop all lie on a straight line, as shown in the diagram.
Positive
direction
750 m 500 m

Park Home Shop

Taking the positive direction as shown in the diagram, state the man’s:
a velocity on the journey from his home to the shop
b displacement from his home when he reaches the shop
c velocity on the journey from the shop to his home
d velocity on the journey from his home to the park
e displacement from his home when he reaches the park
f velocity on the journey from the park to his home.

2 The velocity of a car is given by v = 12i − 10j m s−1. Find:

a the speed of the car
b the angle the direction of motion of the car makes with the
unit vector i.

3 The acceleration of a motorbike is given by a = 3i − 4j m s−2. Find:

a the magnitude of the acceleration
Problem-solving
b the angle the direction of the acceleration
vector makes with the unit vector j. Draw a sketch to help you find the direction.
j acts in the positive y-direction, so the angle
between j and the vector 3i − 4j will be obtuse.

4 A girl cycles from A to B and then from B to C. C

The displacement from A to B is 10i + 3j km. –7i + 12j

The displacement from B to C is −7i +12j km.
a Find the magnitude of the displacement from A to C. B
b Find the total distance the girl has cycled in getting from A to C.
⟶ A 10i + 3j
​  ​ makes with the unit vector i.
c Work out the angle AC ​

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 Chapter 8

Mixed exercise 8

P  1 The motion of a cricket ball after it is hit until it lands on Hint

The path of the cricket ball
the cricket pitch can be modelled using the equation
is modelled as a quadratic curve.
h = ​ __
1
10   ​ (24x − 3x ), where h m is the vertical height of the
2
Draw a sketch for the model and
ball above the cricket pitch and x m is the horizontal use the symmetry of the curve.
distance from where it was hit. Find:
a the vertical height of the ball when it is at a horizontal distance of 2 m from where it was hit
b the two horizontal distances for which the height of the ball was 2.1 m.
Given that the model is valid from when the ball is hit to when it lands on the cricket pitch:
c find the values of x for which the model is valid
d work out the maximum height of the cricket ball.

P  2 A diver dives from a diving board into a swimming pool

with a depth of 4.5 m. The height of the diver above the
water, h m, can be modelled using h = 10 − 0.58x2 for
0 < x < 5, where x m is the horizontal distance from
the end of the diving board.
a Find the height of the diver when x = 2 m.
b Find the horizontal distance from the end of the diving board to the point where the diver
enters the water.
In this model the diver is modelled as particle.
c Describe the effects of this modelling assumption.
d Comment on the validity of this modelling assumption for the motion of the diver after she
enters the water.

 3 Make a list of the assumptions you might make to create simple models of the following:
a The motion of a man skiing down a snow-covered slope.
b The motion of a yo-yo on a string.
In each case, describe the effects of the modelling assumptions.

 4 Convert to SI units:
a 2.5 km per minute b 0.6 kg cm−2 c 1.2 × 103 g cm−3

 5 A man throws a bowling ball in a bowling alley.

a Make a list of the assumptions you might make to create a simple model of the motion of
the bowling ball.
b Taking the direction that the ball travels in as the positive direction, state with a reason
whether each of the following are likely to be positive or negative:
i the velocity ii the acceleration.

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 Modelling in mechanics

 6 A train engine pulling a truck starts at station A then travels in a straight line to station B.
It then moves back from station B to station A and on to station C as shown in the diagram.
Positive Hint
The sign of something
direction
means whether it is positive
or negative.
Station C Station A Station B

What is the sign of the velocity and displacement on the journey from:
a station A to station B b station B to station A c station A to station C?

 7 The acceleration of a boat is given by a = −0.05i + 0.15j m s−2. Find:

a the magnitude of the acceleration
b the angle the direction of the acceleration vector makes with the unit vector i.

 8 The velocity of a toy car is given by v = 3.5i − 2.5j m s−1. Find:

a the speed of the toy car
b the angle the direction of motion of the toy car makes with the unit vector j.

 9 A plane flies from P to Q and then from Q to R. Q

The displacement from P to Q is 100i + 80j m.
50i – 30j
The displacement from Q to R is 50i − 30j m. 100i + 80j

a Find the magnitude of the displacement from P to R.

R
b Find the total distance the plane has travelled in getting
from P to R. P
⟶
​  ​ makes with the unit vector j.
c Find the angle the vector PQ ​

Summary of key points

1 Mathematical models can be constructed to simulate real-life situations.
2 Modelling assumptions can be used to simplify your calculations.
3 The base SI units most commonly used in  Quantity Unit Symbol
mechanics are:
Mass kilogram kg
Length/displacement metre m
Time second s

4 A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction.

5 A scalar quantity has magnitude only.
6 Distance is the magnitude of the displacement vector.
7 Speed is the magnitude of the velocity vector.

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 9 Constant acceleration
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Understand and interpret displacement–time graphs → pages 131–133
● Understand and interpret velocity–time graphs → pages 133–136

● Derive the constant acceleration formulae and use them to

solve problems  → pages 137–146

● Use the constant acceleration formulae to solve problems

involving vertical motion under gravity  → pages 146–152

Prior knowledge check

1 For each graph find:

i the gradient
ii the shaded area under the graph.
a y b y c y
21 25 9

5
O 7 x O 10 x O 56 x

2 A car travels for 45 minutes at an average

speed of 35 mph. Find the distance
travelled.

3 a Solve the simultaneous equations: A body falling freely under gravity

3x − 2y = 9 can be modelled as having constant
acceleration. You can use this to
x + 4y + 4 = 0
estimate the time it will take a cliff
b Solve 2x2 + 3x − 7 = 0. Give your answers diver to reach the water.
to 3 s.f.  → Exercise 9E Q1

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 Constant acceleration

9.1 Displacement–time graphs

You can represent the motion of an object on a displacement–time graph. Displacement is always
plotted on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis.
In these graphs s represents the displacement of an object from a given point in metres and t
represents the time taken in seconds.
s (m) s (m) s (m)

O t (s) O t (s) O t (s)

There is no change in the The displacement increases at a The displacement is increasing at
displacement over time and constant rate over time and the object a greater rate as time increases.
the object is stationary. is moving with constant velocity. The velocity is increasing and the
object is accelerating.
■ Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
• On a displacement–time graph the gradient represents the velocity.
• If the displacement–time graph is a straight line, then the velocity is constant.
displacement from starting point
■ Average velocity = ______________________________
   
​       ​
time taken
total distance travelled
■ Average speed = ______________________
  
​       ​
time taken

Example 1
A cyclist rides in a straight line for 20 minutes.  d (km)
6
She waits for half an hour, then returns in a A B
5
straight line to her starting point in 15 minutes. 4
This is a displacement–time graph for her journey. 3
a Work out the average velocity for each stage of 2
1
the journey in km h−1. 0
C
b Write down the average velocity for the whole journey. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 t (mins)
c Work out the average speed for the whole journey.

a Journey from O to A: time = 20 mins; displacement = 5 km To convert from km min−1 to km h−1
5 multiply by 60.
Average velocity = ​ ___   
​= 0.25 km min−1
20

0.25 × 60 = 15 km h−1 A horizontal line on the graph

Journey from A to B: no change in displacement indicates the cyclist is stationary.
so average velocity = 0
Journey from B to C: time = 15 mins; displacement = −5 km The cyclist starts with a displacement
−5 1 of 5 km and finishes with a
Average velocity = ___ ​= ​− ​ __  ​ km min−1
​   ​  displacement of 0 km, so the change
15 3
1
​− ​ __  ​× 60 = −20 km h−1 in displacement is –5 km, and velocity
3 will be negative.

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b The displacement for the whole journey is 0 so

At C the cyclist has returned to the
average velocity is 0.
starting point.
c Total time = 65 mins
Total distance travelled is 5 + 5 = 10 km The cyclist has travelled 5 km away
10 ___ 2 from the starting point and then
Average speed = ___ ​= ​     
​      ​ km min−1 5 km back to the starting point.
65 13
2
​ ___   
​× 60 = 9.2 km h−1 (2 s.f.)
13

Exercise 9A
1 This is a displacement–time graph for a car travelling
along a straight road. The journey is divided into 120

Displacement (km)
5 stages labelled A to E. 100
80 D
a Work out the average velocity for each stage of the journey. C
60 B
b State the average velocity for the whole journey. E
40
A
c Work out the average speed for the whole journey. 20
0

10 0
10 0
11 0
11 0
12 0
12 0
13 0
13 0
0
:3
:0
:3
:0
:3
:0
:3
:0
:3
09
Time

2 Khalid drives from his home to a hotel. He drives for 2​_​ 2 ​hours

1
P
at an average velocity of 60 km h−1. He then stops for lunch
Displacement (km)

before continuing to his hotel. The diagram shows a

displacement–time graph for Khalid’s journey.
a Work out the displacement of the hotel from Khalid’s home.
b Work out Khalid’s average velocity for his whole journey.
Problem-solving
0 1 2 3 4 5
You need to work out the Time (hours)
scale on the vertical axis.

P 3 Sarah left home at 10:00 and cycled north in

12
a straight line. The diagram shows a
Displacement (km)

displacement–time graph for her journey. 8

a Work out Sarah’s velocity between 10:00 and
4
11:00.
On her return journey, Sarah continued past her 0
home before returning. 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 Time

b Estimate the time that Sarah passed her home. –4

c Work out Sarah’s velocity for each of the last two

stages of her journey.
d Calculate Sarah’s average speed for her entire journey.

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 Constant acceleration

P 4 A ball is thrown vertically up in the air and falls to

the ground. This is a displacement–time graph for 2.5

Height (m)
the motion of the ball. 2
1.5
a Find the maximum height of the ball and the time
1
at which it reaches that height.
0.5
b Write down the velocity of the ball when it reaches
0
its highest point. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
c Describe the motion of the ball: Time (s)

i from the time it is thrown to the time it

Hint
To describe the motion you should
reaches its highest point
state the direction of travel of the ball and
ii after reaching its highest point.
whether it is accelerating or decelerating.

9.2 Velocity–time graphs

You can represent the motion of an object on a velocity–time graph. Velocity is always plotted on the
vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis.
In these graphs v represents the velocity of an object in metres per second and t represents the time
taken in seconds.
v (m s–1) v (m s–1) v (m s–1)

O t (s) O t (s) O t (s)

The velocity is zero and the object is The velocity is unchanging and The velocity is increasing at a constant
stationary. the object is moving with constant rate and the object is moving with
velocity. constant acceleration.

■ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

• In a velocity–time graph the gradient represents the
Notation
Negative acceleration
acceleration.
is sometimes described as
• If the velocity–time graph is a straight line, then the
deceleration or retardation.
acceleration is constant.
This velocity–time graph v (m s–1)
represents the motion of
an object travelling in a V Area under the graph = V × T
straight line at constant
velocity V m s−1 for time
For an object with constant velocity,
T seconds.
O T displacement = velocity × time
t (s)
■ The area between a velocity–time graph and the horizontal axis represents the distance
travelled.
• For motion in a straight line with positive velocity, the area under the velocity–time graph
up to a point t represents the displacement at time t.

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 Chapter 9

Example 2
The figure shows a velocity–time graph illustrating the v (m s–1)
motion of a cyclist moving along a straight road for a
period of 12  seconds. For the first 8  seconds, she moves 6
at a constant speed of 6  m  s–1. She then decelerates at
a constant rate, stopping after a further 4  seconds.
a Find the displacement from the starting point of
O 8 12 t (s)
the cyclist after this 12 second period.
b Work out the rate at which the cyclist decelerates.

a The displacement s after 12 s is given by Model the cyclist as a particle moving in a
the area under the graph. straight line.
s 5​ __1  ​ (a 1 b)h
2
1  ​ (8 1 12) 3 6 The displacement is represented  8
5​ __
2 by the area of the trapezium 6
5 10 3 6 5 60 with these sides.
12
The displacement of the cyclist after 12 s is You can use the formula for the
60  m. area of a trapezium to calculate this area.

b The acceleration is the gradient of the

slope. The gradient is given by 
26 difference in the v-coordinates
__________________________
a 5​ ___ ​ 
 5 21.5    
​ 
difference in the t-coordinates
 ​ 6
4
The deceleration is 1.5  m  s22.
8 12

Example 3
A particle moves along a straight line. The particle accelerates uniformly from rest to a velocity of
8 m s21 in T seconds. The particle then travels at a constant velocity of 8 m s21 for 5T seconds.
The particle then decelerates uniformly to rest in a further 40 s.
a Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion of the particle.
Given that the total displacement of the particle is 600 m:
b find the value of T.

a v (m s–1)
If the particle accelerates from rest and
8 decelerates to rest this means the initial and final
velocities are zero.

O T 5T 40 t (s) Online
x

Explore how the area of

the trapezium changes as the value
of T changes using technology.

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 Constant acceleration

b The area of the trapezium is:

s = __
​ 21  ​  (a + b)h The length of the shorter of the two parallel sides
__1
= ​ 2  ​  (5T + 6T + 40) × 8 is 5T. The length of the longer side is
T + 5T + 40 = 6T + 40.
= 4(11T + 40)
The displacement is 600 m.
Problem-solving
4(11T + 40) = 600
The displacement is equal to the area of the
44T + 160 = 600
trapezium. Write an equation and solve it to
600 − 160
T = ___________
  
​     ​= 10 find T.
44

Exercise 9B
1 The diagram shows the velocity–time graph of the  v (m s–1)
motion of an athlete running along a straight track. 9
For the first 4  s, he accelerates uniformly from rest to
a velocity of 9 m s−1.
This velocity is then maintained for a further 8 s. Find:
O 4 12 t (s)
a the rate at which the athlete accelerates
b the displacement from the starting point of the athlete after 12 s.

2 A car is moving along a straight road. When t = 0 s, the car passes a point A with velocity
10 m s−1 and this velocity is maintained until t = 30 s. The driver then applies the brakes and the
car decelerates uniformly, coming to rest at the point B when t = 42 s.
a Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion of the car.
b Find the distance from A to B.

E 3 The diagram shows the velocity–time graph of  v (m s–1)

the motion of a cyclist riding along a straight road. 8
She accelerates uniformly from rest to 8 m s−1 in 20 s.
She then travels at a constant velocity of 8 m s−1 for
40 s. She then decelerates uniformly to rest in 15 s.
Find: O 20 60 75 t (s)

a the acceleration of the cyclist in the first 20 s of motion  (2 marks)

b the deceleration of the cyclist in the last 15 s of motion  (2 marks)
c the displacement from the starting point of the cyclist after 75 s.  (2 marks)

E 4 A motorcyclist starts from rest at a point S on a straight race track. He moves with constant
acceleration for 15 s, reaching a velocity of 30 m s−1. He then travels at a constant velocity of
30 m s−1 for T seconds. Finally he decelerates at a constant rate coming to rest at a point F,
25 s after he begins to decelerate.
a Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion. (3 marks)
Given that the distance between S and F is 2.4  km:
b calculate the time the motorcyclist takes to travel from S to F. (3 marks)

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 Chapter 9

E 5 A train starts from a station X and moves with constant acceleration of 0.6 m s−2 for 20  s.
The velocity it has reached after 20  s is then maintained for T seconds. The train then decelerates
from this velocity to rest in a further 40  s, stopping at a station Y.
a Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion of the train. (3 marks)
Given that the distance between the stations is 4.2  km, find:
b the value of T (3 marks)
c the distance travelled by the train while it is moving with constant velocity. (2 marks)

E 6 A particle moves along a straight line. The particle accelerates from rest to a velocity of 10 m s−1
in 15  s. The particle then moves at a constant velocity of 10 m s−1 for a period of time. The
particle then decelerates uniformly to rest. The period of time for which the particle is travelling
at a constant velocity is 4 times the period of time for which it is decelerating.
a Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion of the particle. (3 marks)
Given that the displacement from the starting point of the particle after it comes to rest is 480  m
b find the total time for which the particle is moving. (3 marks)
–1
v (m s )
E 7 A particle moves 100  m in a straight line. 
The diagram is a sketch of a velocity–time
10
graph of the motion of the particle.
The particle starts with velocity u  m  s−1 u
and accelerates to a velocity of 10  m  s−1 in 3  s.
The velocity of 10  m  s−1 is maintained for 7  s O t (s)
3 10 12
and then the particle decelerates to rest in a
further 2  s. Find:
a the value of u (3 marks)
b the acceleration of the particle in the first 3  s of motion. (3 marks)

E 8 A motorcyclist M leaves a road junction at time t = 0  s. She accelerates from rest at a rate of
3  m  s−2 for 8  s and then maintains the velocity she has reached. A car C leaves the same road
junction as M at time t = 0  s. The car accelerates from rest to 30  m  s−1 in 20  s and then maintains
the velocity of 30  m  s−1. C passes M as they both pass a pedestrian.
a On the same diagram, sketch velocity–time graphs to illustrate the motion of
M and C. (3 marks)
b Find the distance of the pedestrian from the road junction. (3 marks)

Challenge

The graph shows the velocity of an object travelling  v (m s–1)

in a straight line during a 10-second time interval.
3
a After how long did the object change direction?
b Work out the total distance travelled by the object.
c Work out the displacement from the starting point
of the object after: O 2 3 6 8 10 t (s)
i 6 seconds   ii  10 seconds.
–2

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 Constant acceleration

9.3 Constant acceleration formulae 1

A standard set of letters is used for the motion of an object moving in a straight line with constant
acceleration.
u a v
• s is the displacement.
• u is the initial velocity. Initial Constant Velocity aer
velocity acceleration t seconds
• v is the final velocity.
• a is the acceleration. s
• t is the time. Initial position Position aer t seconds

You can use these letters to label a velocity–time graph representing the motion of a particle moving
in a straight line accelerating from velocity u at time 0 to velocity v at time t.
Velocity

v–u
v−u
Gradient of line = ​ _____ Shaded area = (​ _____
2 )
   ​  u+v
t u ​      ​ ​t
v−u
a = ​ _____
   
​ 
s = ​(_____
2 )
t u+v
​      ​ ​t   2
O Time
Rearranging v = u + at   1 t

• v = u + at 1 Hint
Formula 1 does not involve s and
• s = (​ _____
2 )
u+v formula 2 does not involve a.
​      ​ ​t 2

You need to know how to derive these formulae Links

These formulae can also be derived
from the velocity–time graph. using calculus.  → Chapter 11

Example 4
A cyclist is travelling along a straight road. She accelerates at a constant rate from a velocity of
4 m s21 to a velocity of 7.5 m s21 in 40 seconds. Find:
a the distance she travels in these 40 seconds
b her acceleration in these 40 seconds.

4 m s–1 7.5 m s–1 Start by drawing a diagram.

Model the cyclist as a particle.

s
u = 4, v = 7.5, t = 40, s = ?, a = ? Write down the values you know and the values
you need to find.

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 Chapter 9

a s = (​ _____
2 )
u+v
​     ​ ​t

= ​(________
2 )
4 + 7.5 You need a and you know v, u and t so you can
​      ​ ​× 40
 
use v = u + at.
= 230
Substitute the values you know into the formula.
The distance the cyclist travels is 230 m.
You can solve this equation to find a.
b v = u + at
7.5 = 4 + 40a You could rearrange the formula before you
substitute the values:
7.5 − 4
a = ________
​     ​= 0.0875
  v−u
a = _____
​     
​ 
40 t
The acceleration of the cyclist is
0.0875 m s−2. In real-life situations values for the acceleration
are often quite small.
Large accelerations feel unpleasant and may be
Example 5 dangerous.

A particle moves in a straight line from a point A to a point B with constant deceleration 1.5 m s22.
The velocity of the particle at A is 8 m s21 and the velocity of the particle at B is 2 m s21. Find:
a the time taken for the particle to move from A to B
b the distance from A to B.
After reaching B the particle continues to move along the straight line with constant deceleration
1.5 m s22. The particle is at the point C 6 seconds after passing through the point A. Find:
c the velocity of the particle at C
d the distance from A to C.

Positive direction Problem-solving

8 m s–1 2 m s–1 It’s always a good idea to draw a sketch showing
the positions of the particle. Mark the positive
direction on your sketch, and remember that
A B C when the particle is decelerating, your value of a
u = 8, v = 2, a = −1.5, t = ?, s = ? will be negative.
a v = u + at
2 = 8 − 1.5t
1.5t = 8 − 2
8−2
t = ______
​    =4
​ 
1.5
The time taken to move from A to B is 4 s.

b s = ​(_____
2 )
u+v You can use your answer from part a as the value
​     ​ ​t
of t.
= ​(______
2 )
8+2
​      ​ ​× 4 = 20
 

The distance from A to B is 20 m.

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 Constant acceleration

c u = 8, a = −15, t = 6, v = ?
v = u + at
= 8 + (−1.5) × 6
The velocity at C is negative. This means that the
= 8 − 9 = −1
particle is moving from right to left.
The velocity of the particle is 1 m s−1 in the
⟶
direction ​ BA ​​.  Remember that to specify a velocity it is
d s = ​(_____
2 )
u+v necessary to give speed and direction.
​     ​ ​t

= ​(________
2 )
8 + (−1) Make sure you use the correct sign when
​      ​ ​× 6
 
substituting a negative value into a formula.
The distance from A to C is 21 m.

Convert all your measurements into base SI units before substituting values into the formulae.

Example 6
A car moves from traffic lights along a straight road with constant acceleration. The car starts from
rest at the traffic lights and 30 seconds later the car passes a speed-trap where it is registered as
travelling at 45 km h21. Find:
a the acceleration of the car b the distance between the traffic lights and the speed-trap.
Convert into SI units, using:
1000
45 km h−1 = 45 × ​ ______  m s−1 = 12.5 m s−1
 ​   1 km = 1000 m
3600
1 hour = 60 × 60 s = 3600 s
0 m s–1 12.5 m s–1
Model the car as a particle and draw a diagram.
Lights Trap
u = 0, v = 12.5, t = 30, a = ?, s = ? The car starts from rest, so the initial velocity is
a v = u + at zero.

12.5 = 0 + 30a
12.5 ___ 5
a = _____
​   ​ = ​    ​ 
​ 
30 12
5
The acceleration of the car is ​ ___  ​  m s−2 This is an exact answer. If you want to give an
12 answer using decimals, you should round to three
b s = (​ _____
2 )
u+v
​     ​ ​t significant figures.

= ​(________ )​ ​× 30 = 187.5
0 + 12.5
​       
2
The distance between the traffic lights
and the speed-trap is 187.5 m.

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 Chapter 9

Exercise 9C
 1 A particle is moving in a straight line with constant acceleration 3  m  s−2. At time t = 0, the
velocity of the particle is 2  m  s−1. Find the velocity of the particle at time t = 6  s.

 2 A car is approaching traffic lights. The car is travelling with velocity 10  m  s−1. The driver applies
the brakes to the car and the car comes to rest with constant deceleration in 16  s. Modelling the
car as a particle, find the deceleration of the car.

 3 A car accelerates uniformly while travelling on a straight road. The car passes two signposts
360  m apart. The car takes 15  s to travel from one signpost to the other. When passing the
second signpost, it has velocity 28  m  s−1. Find the velocity of the car at the first signpost.

 4 A cyclist is moving along a straight road from A to B with constant acceleration 0.5  m  s−2.
Her velocity at A is 3  m  s−1 and it takes her 12 seconds to cycle from A to B. Find:
a her velocity at B
b the distance from A to B.

 5 A particle is moving along a straight line with constant acceleration from a point A to a point
B, where AB = 24  m. The particle takes 6  s to move from A to B and the velocity of the particle
at B is 5  m  s−1. Find:
a the velocity of the particle at A
b the acceleration of the particle.

 6 A particle moves in a straight line from a point A to a point B with constant deceleration
1.2  m  s−2. The particle takes 6  s to move from A to B. The speed of the particle at B is 2  m  s−1
and the direction of motion of the particle has not changed. Find:
a the speed of the particle at A
b the distance from A to B.

P  7 A train, travelling on a straight track, is slowing down with Hint

Convert the speeds into
constant deceleration 0.6  m  s−2. The train passes one signal −1
m s before substituting.
with speed 72  km  h−1 and a second signal 25 s later. Find:
a the velocity, in km  h−1, of the train as it passes the second signal
b the distance between the signals.

 8 A particle moves in a straight line from a point A to a point B with a constant deceleration of
4  m  s−2. At A the particle has velocity 32  m  s−1 and the particle comes to rest at B. Find:
a the time taken for the particle to travel from A to B
b the distance between A and B.

E  9 A skier travelling in a straight line up a hill experiences a constant deceleration. At the bottom
of the hill, the skier has a velocity of 16  m  s−1 and, after moving up the hill for 40  s, he comes to
rest. Find:
a the deceleration of the skier  (2 marks)
b the distance from the bottom of the hill to the point where the skier comes to rest.  (4 marks)

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 Constant acceleration

E 10 A particle is moving in a straight line with constant acceleration. The points A, B and C lie on
this line. The particle moves from A through B to C. The velocity of the particle at A is 2  m  s−1
and the velocity of the particle at B is 7  m  s−1. The particle takes 20  s to move from A to B.
a Find the acceleration of the particle. (2 marks)
The velocity of the particle is C is 11  m  s−1. Find:
b the time taken for the particle to move from B to C (2 marks)
c the distance between A and C. (3 marks)

E 11 A particle moves in a straight line from A to B with constant acceleration 1.5  m  s−2. It then
moves along the same straight line from B to C with a different acceleration. The velocity of the
particle at A is 1  m  s−1 and the velocity of the particle at C is 43  m  s−1. The particle takes 12  s to
move from A to B and 10  s to move from B to C. Find:
a the velocity of the particle at B (2 marks)
b the acceleration of the particle as it moves from B to C (2 marks)
c the distance from A to C. (3 marks)

E/p 12 A cyclist travels with constant acceleration x  m  s−2,

in a straight line, from rest to 5  m  s−1 in 20  s. She then Problem-solving
decelerates from 5  m  s−1 to rest with constant You could sketch a velocity–time
deceleration _​ 2  ​ x  m  s−2. Find:
1
graph of the cyclist’s motion and
a the value of x (2 marks) use the area under the graph to
find the total distance travelled.
b the total distance she travelled. (4 marks)

E/p 13 A particle is moving with constant acceleration in a straight line. It passes through three points,
A, B and C, with velocities 20  m  s−1, 30  m  s−1 and 45  m  s−1 respectively. The time taken to move
from A to B is t1 seconds and the time taken to move from B to C is t2 seconds.
t1 __ 2
a Show that ​ __
t2 ​= ​ 3 ​. (3 marks)
Given also that the total time taken for the particle to move from A to C is 50  s:
b find the distance between A and B. (5 marks)

Challenge
A particle moves in a straight line from A to B with constant acceleration.
The particle moves from A with velocity 3 m s−1. It reaches point B with
velocity 5 m s−1 t seconds later.
One second after the first particle leaves point A, a second particle also
starts to move in a straight line from A to B with constant acceleration.
Its velocity at point A is 4 m s−1 and it reaches point B with velocity Problem-solving
8 m s−1 at the same time as the first particle.
The time taken for the
Find:
second particle to travel
a the value of t from A to B is (t − 1)
b the distance between A and B. seconds.

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 Chapter 9

9.4 Constant acceleration formulae 2

You can use the formulae v = u + at and s = (​ _____

2 )
u+v
​      ​ ​t to work out three more formulae.

You can eliminate t from the formulae for constant acceleration.

v−u Rearrange the formula v = u + at to make t the
t = ​ _____
a   
 ​
subject.
s = (​ _____
2 )( a )
u + v _____v−u
Substitute this expression for t into s = (​ ​ _____
2 )
​      ​ ​ ​     
 ​ ​
u+v
   
 ​ ​t.

2as = v2 − u2

• v2 = u2 + 2as Multiply out the brackets and rearrange.

You can also eliminate v from the formulae for constant acceleration.

s = ​(_________ )​t Substitute v = u + at into s = (​ _____

2 )
u + u + at u+v
​      ​  ​     
 ​ ​t.
2
s = (​ ___ ​   ​ )​t
2u at
​   ​ + __
2 2
s = (​ u + __ ​   ​ at)​t
1 Multiply out the brackets and rearrange.
2
1
• s = ut + ​ __ ​ at2
2
Finally, you can eliminate u by substituting into this formula:
1 1
s = (v − at)t + __
​   ​ at2 Substitute u = v − at into s = ut + __
​   ​ at2.
2 2
1
• s = vt − __
​   ​ at2
2
■ You need to be able to use and to derive the five formulae for solving problems about
particles moving in a straight line with constant acceleration.

• v = u + at

• s = (​ _____
2 )
u+v Watch out
​     
 ​ ​t These five formulae
are sometimes referred to as the
• v2 = u2 + 2as kinematics formulae or suvat
formulae. They are given in the
1 formulae booklet.
• s = ut + ​ __ ​ at2
2
1
• s = vt − __
​   ​ at2
2

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 Constant acceleration

Example 7
A particle is moving along a straight line from A to B with_​ constant
__› acceleration 5  m  s−2.
The velocity of the particle at A is 3  m  s−1 in the direction AB​
​   . The velocity of the particle at B is
18  m  s in the same direction. Find the distance from A to B.
−1

Positive direction

3 m s–1 18 m s–1
Write down the values you know and the values
you need to find. This will help you choose the
A B correct formula.
a = 5, u = 3, v = 18, s = ?
t is not involved so choose the formula that does
v2 = u2 + 2as
not have t in it.
182 = 32 + 2 × 5 × s
324 = 9 + 10s Substitute in the values you are given and solve
324 − 9
________ the equation for s. This gives the distance you
s = ​     = 31.5
​ 
10 were asked to find.
AB = 31.5 m

Example 8
A particle is moving in a straight horizontal line with constant deceleration 4  m  s−2. At time
t = 0 the particle passes through a point O with speed 13  m  s−1 travelling towards a point A, where
OA = 20  m. Find:
a the times when the particle passes through A
b the value of t when the particle returns to O.

Positive direction The particle is decelerating so the value of a is

negative.
13 m s–1
You are told the values of a, u and s and asked to
O 20 m A find t. You are given no information about v and
are not asked to find it so you choose the formula
a a = −4, u = 13, s = 20, t = ?
without v.
1
s = ut + ​ __  ​ at2
2
1 Problem-solving
20 = 13t − __ ​    ​× 4t2
2 When you use s = ut + _​ 12 ​ at2 with an unknown
= 13t − 2t2 value of t you obtain a quadratic equation in t.
2t − 13t + 20 = 0
2
You can solve this equation by factorising, or
_______
(2t − 5)(t − 4) = 0 √
−b ± ​  b − 4ac  
2 ​
using the quadratic formula, x = ​ _____________
     ​ .
 
5 2a
t = __ ​   ​ , or t = 4
2
The particle moves through A twice, There are two answers. Both are correct.
2​__
​ 21   ​seconds and 4 seconds after moving The particle moves from O to A, goes beyond A
through O. and then turns round and returns to A.

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 Chapter 9

When the particle returns to O, its displacement

b The particle returns to O when s = 0.
(distance) from O is zero.
s = 0, u = 13, a = −4, t = ?
1
s = ut + ​ __  ​ at2
2
0 = 13t − 2t2
= t(13 − 2t)
The first solution (t = 0) represents the starting
13
t = 0, or t = ___
​   ​ 
​ position of the particle. The other solution (t = __
​ 13
2  ​)
2
tells you when the particle returns to O.
The particle returns to O 6.5 seconds
after it first passed through O.

Example 9
A particle P is moving on the x-axis with constant deceleration 2.5  m  s−2. At time t 5 0, the particle
P passes through the origin O, moving in the positive direction of x with speed 15  m  s−1. Find:
a the time between the instant when P first passes through O and the instant when it returns to O
b the total distance travelled by P during this time.

Positive direction Problem-solving

Before you start, draw a sketch so you can see
what is happening. The particle moves through
O with a positive velocity. As it is decelerating it
slows down and will eventually have zero velocity
x at a point A, which you don’t yet know. As the
O A
particle is still decelerating, its velocity becomes
a a = −2.5, u = 15, s = 0, t = ?
negative, so the particle changes direction and
1
s = ut + ​ __  ​ at2 returns to O.
2
1
0 = 15t − ​ __  ​× 2.5 × t2 When the particle returns to O, its displacement
2
(distance) from O is zero.
0 = 60t − 5t2
= 5t(12 − t) Multiply by 4 to get whole-number coefficients.
t = 0, t = 12
The particle P returns to O after 12 s.
At the furthest point from O, labelled A in the
b a = −2.5, u = 15, v = 0, s = ?
diagram, the particle changes direction. At that
v2 = u2 + 2as point, for an instant, the particle has zero velocity.
02 = 152 − 2 × 2.5 × s
5s = 152 = 225
225
s = _____
​     ​= 45
 
5
The distance OA = 45 m. In the 12 s the particle has been moving it has
The total distance travelled by P is travelled to A and back. The total distance
2 × 45 m = 90 m. travelled is twice the distance OA.

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 Constant acceleration

Exercise 9D
 1 A particle is moving in a straight line with constant acceleration 2.5  m  s−2. It passes a point A
with velocity 3  m  s−1 and later passes through a point B, where AB = 8  m. Find the velocity of
the particle as it passes through B.
 2 A car is accelerating at a constant rate along a straight horizontal road. Travelling at 8  m  s−1,
it passes a pillar box and 6  s later it passes a sign. The distance between the pillar box and the
sign is 60 m. Find the acceleration of the car.
 3 A cyclist travelling at 12  m  s−1 applies her brakes and comes to rest after travelling 36  m in
a straight line. Assuming that the brakes cause the cyclist to decelerate uniformly, find the
deceleration.
 4 A train is moving along a straight horizontal track with constant acceleration. The train passes
a signal with a velocity of 54  km  h−1 and a second signal with a velocity of 72  km  h−1.
The distance between the two signals is 500  m. Find, in m  s−2, the acceleration of the train.
 5 A particle moves along a straight line, with constant acceleration, from a point A to a point B
where AB = 48  m. At A the particle has velocity 4  m  s−1 and at B it has velocity 16  m  s−1. Find:
a the acceleration of the particle
b the time the particle takes to move from A to B.
 6 A particle moves along a straight line with constant acceleration 3  m  s−2. The particle moves
38  m in 4  s. Find:
a the initial velocity of the particle
b the final velocity of the particle.
 7 The driver of a car is travelling at 18  m  s−1 along a straight road when she sees an obstruction
ahead. She applies the brakes and the brakes cause the car to slow down to rest with a constant
deceleration of 3  m  s−2. Find:
a the distance travelled as the car decelerates
b the time it takes for the car to decelerate from 18  m  s−1 to rest.
 8 A stone is sliding across a frozen lake in a straight line. The initial speed of the stone is 12  m  s−1.
The friction between the stone and the ice causes the stone to slow down at a constant rate of
0.8  m  s−2. Find:
a the distance moved by the stone before coming to rest
b the speed of the stone at the instant when it has travelled half of this distance.
 9 A particle is moving along a straight line OA with constant acceleration 2.5  m  s−2. At time
t = 0, the particle passes through O with speed 8  m  s−1 and is moving in the direction OA.
The distance OA is 40  m. Find:
a the time taken for the particle to move from O to A
b the speed of the particle at A. Give your answers to one decimal place.
10 A particle travels with uniform deceleration 2  m  s−2 in a horizontal line. The points A and B lie
on the line and_​ __›AB = 32  m. At time t = 0, the particle passes through A with velocity 12  m  s in
−1

​   . Find:
the direction  AB​
a the values of t when the particle is at B
b the velocity of the particle for each of these values of t.

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 Chapter 9

E/p 11 A particle is moving along the x-axis with constant Problem-solving

deceleration 5  m  s−2. At time t = 0, the particle passes
The particle will pass through A
through the origin O with velocity 12  m  s−1 in the
twice. Use s = ut + _​ 12 ​ at2 to set up
positive direction. At time t seconds the particle and solve a quadratic equation.
passes through the point A with x-coordinate 8. Find:
a the values of t  (3 marks)
b the velocity of the particle as it passes through the point with x-coordinate −8.  (3 marks)

E 12 A particle P is moving on the x-axis with constant deceleration 4  m  s−2. At time t = 0, P passes
through the origin O with velocity 14  m  s−1 in the positive direction. The point A lies on the axis
and OA = 22.5  m. Find:
a the difference between the times when P passes through A  (4 marks)
b the total distance travelled by P during the interval between these times.  (3 marks)

E/p 13 A car is travelling along a straight horizontal road with constant acceleration. The car passes
over three consecutive points A, B and C where AB = 100  m and BC = 300  m. The speed of the
car at B is 14  m  s−1 and the speed of the car at C is 20  m  s−1. Find:
a the acceleration of the car  (3 marks)
b the time take for the car to travel from A to C.  (3 marks)

E/p 14 Two particles P and Q are moving along the same straight horizontal line with constant
accelerations 2  m  s−2 and 3.6  m  s−2 respectively. At time t = 0, P passes through a point A with
speed 4  m  s−1. One second later Q passes through A with speed 3  m  s−1, moving in the same
direction as P.
a Write down expressions for the displacements of P and Q from A, in terms of t, where
t seconds is the time after P has passed through A.  (2 marks)
b Find the value of t where the particles meet. Problem-solving
 (3 marks)
When P and Q meet, their
c Find the distance of A from the point where displacements from A are equal.
the particles meet.  (3 marks)

E/p 15 In an orienteering competition, a competitor moves in a straight line past three checkpoints,
P, Q and R, where PQ = 2.4 km and QR = 11.5 km. The competitor is modelled as a particle
moving with constant acceleration. She takes 1 hour to travel from P to Q and 1.5 hours to
travel from Q to R. Find:
a the acceleration of the competitor
b her speed at the instant she passes P. (7 marks)

9.5 Vertical motion under gravity

You can use the formulae for constant acceleration to model an object moving vertically under gravity.
■ The force of gravity causes all objects to accelerate towards the earth. If you ignore the
effects of air resistance, this acceleration is constant. It does not depend on the mass of the
object.

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 Constant acceleration

As the force of gravity does not depend on mass, this means 

that in a vacuum an apple and a feather would both accelerate
downwards at the same rate.
On earth, the acceleration due to gravity is represented by the
letter g and is approximately 9.8 m s−2.
g = 9.8 m s–2 g = 9.8 m s–2
The actual value of the acceleration can vary by very small
amounts in different places due to the changing radius of the earth and height above sea level.
■ An object moving vertically under Watch
out In mechanics questions you will always
gravity can be modelled as a use g = 9.8 m s−2 unless a question specifies otherwise.
particle with a constant downward However, if a different value of g is specified (e.g.
acceleration of g = 9.8 m s−2. g = 10 m s−2 or g = 9.81 m s−2) the degree of accuracy in
your answer should be chosen to be consistent with this
value.
When solving problems about vertical motion
you can choose the positive direction to be
Notation
The total time that an object is in
either upwards or downwards. Acceleration
motion from the time it is projected (thrown)
due to gravity is always downwards, so if the
upwards to the time it hits the ground is
positive direction is upwards then g = −9.8 m s−2. called the time of flight. The initial speed is
sometimes called the speed of projection.
Example 10
A book falls off the top shelf of a bookcase. The shelf is 1.4 m above a wooden floor. Find:
a the time the book takes to reach the floor, b the speed with which the book strikes the floor.

0 m s–1
Model the book as a particle moving in a straight
line with a constant acceleration of magnitude
9.8  m  s−2.
Positive
direction 1.4 m
As the book is moving downwards throughout
its motion, it is sensible to take the downwards
v m s–1 direction as positive.

a s = 1.4 You have taken the downwards direction as

a = +9.8 positive and gravity acts downwards. Here the
u = 0 acceleration is positive.
t = ?
s = ut + ​ __
1 2
2  ​  at
Assume the book has an initial speed of zero.
1.4 = 0 + __
​ 21  ​ × 9.8 × t2
Choose the formula without v.
1.4
t2 = ____
​     ​ = 0.2857…
4.9
__________ Solve the equation for t2 and use your calculator
t = √​  0.2857…   ​= 0.5345…
to find the positive square root.
The time taken for the book to reach the
floor is 0.53 s, to two significant figures. Give the answer to two significant figures to be
consistent with the degree of accuracy used for
the value of g.

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 Chapter 9

b s = 1.4
a = 9.8
u = 0
v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as Choose the formula without t.
= 02 + 2 × 9.8 × 1.4 = 27.44
______
= 5.238… ≈ 5.2
v = ​√ 27.44 ​ 
The book hits the floor with speed Use unrounded values in your calculations, but
5.2 m s−1, to two significant figures. give your final answer correct to two significant
figures.

Example 11
A ball is projected vertically upwards, from a point X which is 7  m above the ground, with speed 21  m  s−1.
Find: a the greatest height above the ground reached by the ball, b the time of flight of the ball.

Height reached Problem-solving

In this sketch the upward and downwards motion
have been sketched side by side. In reality they
would be on top of one another, but drawing
Positive them separately makes it easier to see what is
s
direction going on. Remember that X is 7 m above the
ground, so mark this height on your sketch.

X
7m

a u = 21 At its highest point, the ball is turning round. For

v = 0 an instant, it is neither going up nor down, so its
a = −9.8 speed is zero.
s = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
02 = 212 + 2 × (−9.8) × s = 441 − 19.6s
441 22.5 m is the distance the ball has moved above
s = _____
​     ​ 
= 22.5
19.6 X but X is 7  m above the ground. You must add
(22.5 + 7) m = 29.5 m on another 7  m to get the greatest height above
Greatest height is 30 m (2 s.f.) the ground reached by the ball.

b s = −7
The time of flight is the total time that the ball is
u = 21 in motion from the time that it is projected to the
a = −9.8 time that it stops moving. Here the ball will stop
t = ? when it hits the ground. The point where the ball
s = ut + ​ __
1 2
2   ​ at hits the ground is 7  m below the point from which
7 = 21t − 4.9t2
− it was projected so s 5 27.
4.9t2 − 21t − 7 = 0
Online
Use your calculator to check
solutions to quadratic equations quickly.

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 Constant acceleration

_________
−b ± ​√ (b − 4ac)  
2 ​ Rearrange the equation and use the quadratic
t = ​ _______________
     ​ 
2a formula.
_______________________
−(−21) ± ​√ ((−21)
    − 4 × 4.9 × (−7)) ​
2
= ________________________________
    
​        ​
2 × 4.9
______
21 ± ​√ 578.2 ​ ____________
____________ 21 ± 24.046
=   
​    ≈   
​  ​    ​ 
9.8 9.8
t ≈ 4.5965,
Take the positive answer and round to
or t ≈ −0.3108 two significant figures.
Time of flight is 4.6 s (2 s.f.)

Example 12
A particle is projected vertically upwards from a point O with speed u  m  s−1. The greatest height
reached by the particle is 62.5  m above O. Find: a the value of u, b the total time for which the
particle is 50  m or more above O.

The particle will pass through the point 50  m

above O twice: once on the way up and once on
the way down.
Positive
direction
62.5 m
50 m

u m s–1 O

a v = 0
s = 62.5
a = −9.8
u = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as There is no t, so you choose the formula without t.
02 = u2 + 2 × (−9.8) × 62.5
u2 = 1225
_____
√
In this part, you obtain an exact answer, so there
u = ​  1225 ​ 
= 35 m s−1
is no need for approximation.
b s = 50
u = 35
a = −9.8
Two values of t need to be found: one on the way
t = ?
up and one on the way down.
s = ut + ​ __
1 2
2   ​ at
50 = 35t − 4.9t2
Write the equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
4.9t2 − 35t + 50 = 0
_________ and use the quadratic formula.
−b ± ​√ (b2 − 4ac)  
​
t = ​ _______________
     ​ 
2a
____________________
35 ± √​  (35
    − 4 × 4.9 × 50) ​
2
= __________________________
   
​       ​
9.8

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 Chapter 9

_____
35 ± √​  245 ​  ______________
35 ± 15.6525
= ___________
  
​    ≈ ​   
​    ​
 
9.8 9.8
t ≈ 5.1686…, or t ≈ 1.9742… Between these two times the particle is always
more than 50  m above O. You find the total time
(5.1686…) − (1.9742…) ≈ 3.194
for which the particle is 50  m or more above O by
Particle is 50 m or more above O for 3.2 s finding the difference of these two values.
(2 s.f.)

Example 13
A ball A falls vertically from rest from the top of a tower 63  m high. At the same time as A begins
to fall, another ball B is projected vertically upwards from the bottom of the tower with speed
21  m  s−1. The balls collide. Find the distance of the point where the balls collide from the bottom of
the tower.

A Problem-solving
You must take special care with problems where
s1 objects are moving in different directions. Here
A is moving downwards and you will take the
63 m acceleration due to gravity as positive. However,
B is moving upwards so for B the acceleration
due to gravity is negative.
s2

21 m s–1
B
For A, the motion is downwards
u = 0
a = 9.8
s = ut + ​ __
1 2
2   ​ at
You cannot find s1 at this stage. You have to
s1 = 4.9t2
express it in terms of t.
For B, the motion is upwards
u = 21
As B is moving upwards, the acceleration due to
a = −9.8
gravity is negative.
s = ut + ​ __
1 2
2   ​ at
s2 = 21t − 4.9t2
You now have expressions for s1 and s2 in terms
The height of the tower is 63 m.
of t.
s1 + s2 = 63
4.9t2 + (21t − 4.9t2) = 63
21t = 63 Adding together the two distances gives the
height of the tower. You can write this as an
t = 3
equation in t.
s2 = 21t − 4.9t2
= 21 × 3 − 4.9 × 32 = 18.9
The balls collide 19 m from the bottom of the You have found t but you were asked for the
tower, to two significant figures. distance from the bottom of the tower. Substitute
your value for t into your equation for s2.

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 Constant acceleration

Exercise 9E
 1 A cliff diver jumps from a point 28 m above the surface of the water. Modelling the diver as a
particle moving freely under gravity with initial velocity 0, find:
a the time taken for the diver to hit the water
b the speed of the diver when he hits the water.

 2 A particle is projected vertically upwards with speed 20  m  s−1 from a point on the ground.
Find the time of flight of the particle.

 3 A ball is thrown vertically downward from the top of a tower with speed 18  m  s−1. It reaches the
ground in 1.6  s. Find the height of the tower.

 4 A pebble is catapulted vertically upwards with speed 24  m  s−1. Find:

a the greatest height above the point of projection reached by the pebble
b the time taken to reach this height.

 5 A ball is projected upwards from a point which is 4  m above the ground with speed 18  m  s−1. Find:
a the speed of the ball when it is 15  m above its point of projection
b the speed with which the ball hits the ground.

 6 A particle P is projected vertically downwards from a point 80  m above the ground with speed
4  m  s−1. Find:
a the speed with which P hits the ground
b the time P takes to reach the ground.

 7 A particle P is projected vertically upwards from a point X. Five seconds later P is moving
downwards with speed 10  m  s−1. Find:
a the speed of projection of P
b the greatest height above X attained by P during its motion.

 8 A ball is thrown vertically upwards with speed 21  m  s−1. It hits the ground 4.5  s later. Find the
height above the ground from which the ball was thrown.

 9 A stone is thrown vertically upward from a point which is 3  m above the ground, with speed
16  m  s−1. Find:
a the time of flight of the stone
b the total distance travelled by the stone.

P 10 A particle is projected vertically upwards with speed 24.5  m  s−1. Find the total time for which it
is 21  m or more above its point of projection.

E/p 11 A particle is projected vertically upwards from a point O Problem-solving

with speed u  m  s−1. Two seconds later it is still moving
Use v = u + at and substitute
upwards and its speed is _​ 3  ​ u  m  s−1. Find:
1
v = _​ 13 ​ u.
a the value of u  (3 marks)
b the time from the instant that the particle leaves O to the instant that it returns to O.  (4 marks)

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 Chapter 9

E/p 12 A ball A is thrown vertically downwards with speed 5  m  s−1 from the top of a tower block
46  m above the ground. At the same time as A is thrown downwards, another ball B is thrown
vertically upwards from the ground with speed 18  m  s−1. The balls collide. Find the distance of
the point where A and B collide from the point where A was thrown.  (5 marks)

E/p 13 A ball is released from rest at a point which is 10  m above a Problem-solving
wooden floor. Each time the ball strikes the floor, it rebounds
Consider each bounce as
with three-quarters of the speed with which it strikes the floor.
a separate motion.
Find the greatest height above the floor reached by the ball
a the first time it rebounds from the floor  (3 marks)
b the second time it rebounds from the floor.  (4 marks)

Challenge
1 A particle P is projected vertically upwards from a point O with speed 12  m  s−1. One second
after P has been projected from O, another particle Q is projected vertically upwards from
O with speed 20  m  s−1. Find: a the time between the instant that P is projected from O and
the instant when P and Q collide, b the distance of the point where P and Q collide from O.
2 A stone is dropped from the top of a building and two seconds later another stone is
thrown vertically downwards at a speed of 25  m  s−1. Both stones reach the ground at the
same time. Find the height of the building.

Mixed exercise 9

 1 A car accelerates in a straight line at a constant rate, starting from rest at a point A and
reaching a velocity of 45  km  h−1 in 20  s. This velocity is then maintained and the car passes a
point B 3 minutes after leaving A.
a Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion of the car.
b Find the displacement of the car from its starting point after 3 minutes.

 2 A particle is moving on an axis Ox. From time t = 0  s to time t = 32  s, the particle is travelling
with constant velocity 15  m  s−1. The particle then decelerates from 15 m  s−1 to rest in T seconds.
a Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion of the particle.
The total distance travelled by the particle is 570  m.
b Find the value of T.
c Sketch a displacement–time graph illustrating the motion of the particle.

P  3 The velocity–time graph represents the motion  Velocity

of a particle moving in a straight line accelerating v
from velocity u at time 0 to velocity v at time t.
v–u
a Use the graph to show that:
i  v = u + at   ii  s = (​ _____
2 )
u+v u
​     
 ​ ​t

b Hence show that: O t Time

_1 _1
i  v2 = u2 + 2as    ii  s = ut + 2
​   ​  at2    iii  s = vt − 2 ​   ​  at2

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 Constant acceleration

P  4 The diagram is a velocity–time graph representing  v (m s–1)

the motion of a cyclist along a straight road.
u
At time t 5 0  s, the cyclist is moving with velocity
u  m  s−1. The velocity is maintained until time
t 5 15  s, when she slows down with constant
deceleration, coming to rest when t 5 23  s. O t (s)
15 23
The total distance she travels in 23  s is 152  m.
Find the value of u.

 5 A car travelling on a straight road slows down with constant deceleration. The car passes
a road sign with velocity 40  km  h−1 and a post box with velocity of 24  km  h−1. The distance
between the road sign and the post box is 240  m. Find, in m  s−2, the deceleration of the car.

 6 A particle P is moving along the x-axis with constant deceleration 2.5  m  s−2. At time t = 0  s,
P passes through the origin with velocity 20  m  s−1 in the direction of x increasing.
At time t = 12  s, P is at the point A. Find:
a the distance OA b the total distance P travels in 12  s.

 7 A ball is thrown vertically downward from the top of a tower with speed 6  m  s−1. The ball
strikes the ground with speed 25  m  s−1. Find the time the ball takes to move from the top of the
tower to the ground.

 8 A child drops a ball from a point at the top of a cliff which is 82  m above the sea. The ball is
initially at rest. Find:
a the time taken for the ball to reach the sea b the speed with which the ball hits the sea.
c State one physical factor which has been ignored in making your calculation.
–1
v (m s )
P  9 A particle moves 451  m in a straight line. 
The diagram shows a speed–time graph 2u
illustrating the motion of the particle.
The particle starts at rest and accelerates u
at a constant rate for 8  s reaching a speed
of 2u  m  s−1. The particle then travels at a
constant speed for 12 seconds before O 8 20 26 t (s)
decelerating uniformly, reaching a speed of u  m  s at time t = 26  s. Find:
−1

a the value of u
b the distance moved by the particle while its speed is less than u  m  s−1.

E/p 10 A train is travelling with constant acceleration along a straight track. At time t = 0  s, the train
passes a point O travelling with velocity 18  m  s−1. At time t = 12  s, the train passes a point P
travelling with velocity 24  m  s−1. At time t = 20  s, the train passes a point Q. Find:
a the speed of the train at Q  (5 marks)
b the distance from P to Q. (2 marks)

E 11 A particle moves along a straight line, from a point X to a point Y, with constant acceleration.
The distance from X to Y is 104  m. The particle takes 8  s to move from X to Y and the speed of
the particle at Y is 18  m  s−1. Find:

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 Chapter 9

a the speed of the particle at X (3 marks)

b the acceleration of the particle. (2 marks)
The particle continues to move with the same acceleration until it reaches a point Z.
At Z the speed of the particle is three times the speed of the particle at X.
c Find the distance XZ. (4 marks)

E 12 A pebble is projected vertically upwards with speed 21  m  s−1 from a point 32  m above the
ground. Find:
a the speed with which the pebble strikes the ground (3 marks)
b the total time for which the pebble is more than 40  m above the ground. (4 marks)
c Sketch a velocity–time graph for the motion of the pebble from the instant it is projected
to the instant it hits the ground, showing the values of t at any points where the graph
intercepts the horizontal axis. (4 marks)

E 13 A car is moving along a straight road with uniform acceleration. The car passes a checkpoint A
with speed 12  m  s−1 and another checkpoint C with speed 32  m  s−1. The distance between A and
C is 1100  m.
a Find the time taken by the car to move from A to C. (2 marks)
b Given that B is the midpoint of AC, find the speed with which the car passes B. (2 marks)

E/p 14 A particle is projected vertically upwards with a speed of 30  m  s−1 from a point A.
The point B is h metres above A. The particle moves freely under gravity and is
above B for a time 2.4  s. Calculate the value of h. (5 marks)

E/p 15 Two cars A and B are moving in the same direction along a straight horizontal road. At time
t = 0, they are side by side, passing a point O on the road. Car A travels at a constant speed of
30  m  s−1. Car B passes O with a speed of 20  m  s−1, and has constant acceleration of 4  m  s−2. Find:
a the speed of B when it has travelled 78  m from O (2 marks)
b the distance from O of A when B is 78  m from O (3 marks)
c the time when B overtakes A. (4 marks)

E/p 16 A car is being driven on a straight stretch of motorway at a constant velocity of 34  m  s−1,
when it passes a velocity restriction sign S warning of road works ahead and requiring speeds
to be reduced to 22  m  s−1. The driver continues at her velocity for 2  s after passing S. She then
reduces her velocity to 22  m  s−1 with constant deceleration of 3  m  s−2, and continues at the lower
velocity.
a Draw a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion of the car after it passes S. (2 marks)
b Find the shortest distance before the road works that S should be placed on the
road to ensure that a car driven in this way has had its velocity reduced to 22  m  s−1
by the time it reaches the start of the road works. (4 marks)

E/p 17 A train starts from rest at station A and accelerates uniformly at 3x  m  s−2 until it reaches a
velocity of 30  m  s−1. For the next T seconds the train maintains this constant velocity. The train
then decelerates uniformly at x  m  s−2 until it comes to rest at a station B. The distance between
the stations is 6  km and the time taken from A to B is 5 minutes.

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 Constant acceleration

a Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate this journey. (2 marks)

40
b Show that ___
​ x ​ ​+ T = 300. (4 marks)

c Find the value of T and the value of x. (2 marks)

d Calculate the distance the train travels at constant velocity. (2 marks)
e Calculate the time taken from leaving A until reaching the point halfway between
the stations. (3 marks)

Challenge
A ball is projected vertically upwards with speed 10  m  s−1 from a point X,
which is 50  m above the ground. T seconds after the first ball is projected
upwards, a second ball is dropped from X. Initially the second ball is at
rest. The balls collide 25  m above the ground. Find the value of T.

Summary of key points

1 Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
On a displacement–time graph the gradient represents the velocity.
If the displacement–time graph is a straight line, then the velocity is constant.
displacement from starting point
2 Average velocity = ____________________________
​ 
         ​
time taken

total distance travelled

3 Average speed = ____________________
  
​       ​
time taken
4 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
In a velocity–time graph the gradient represents the acceleration.
If the velocity–time graph is a straight line, then the acceleration is constant.

5 The area between a velocity–time graph and the horizontal axis represents the distance travelled.
For motion in a straight line with positive velocity, the area under the velocity–time graph up
to a point t represents the displacement at time t.

6 You need to be able to use and to derive the five formulae for solving problems about particles
moving in a straight line with constant acceleration.
•  v = u + at      •  s = (​ ____
2 )
u+v
​     
 ​ ​t   •  v2 = u2 + 2as   •  s = ut + _​ 12 ​ at2     •  s = vt − _​ 12 ​ at2

7 The force of gravity causes all objects to accelerate towards the earth. If you ignore the
effects of air resistance, this acceleration is constant. It does not depend on the mass of the
object.

8 An object moving vertically in a straight line can be modelled as a particle with a constant
downward acceleration of g = 9.8 m s−2.

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 10 Objectives
Forces and
motion
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Draw force diagrams and calculate resultant forces  → pages 157–159
● Understand and use Newton’s first law  → pages 157–159
● Calculate resultant forces by adding vectors  → pages 160–162
● Understand and use Newton’s second law, F = ma → pages 162–166
● Apply Newton’s second law to vector forces and acceleration
 → pages 166–169
● Understand and use Newton’s third law  → pages 169–172
● Solve problems involving connected particles  → pages 169–177

Prior knowledge check

1 Calculate:
a (2i + j) + (3i – 4j) b (–i + 3j) – (3i – j)
 ← Section 8.4

2 The diagram shows a 

right-angled triangle.
Work out: 12 cm
a the length of the a
hypotenuse
15 cm
b the size of the angle a.
The weight of an
Give your answers correct to 1 d.p.  ← GCSE Mathematics
air–sea rescue crew
3 A car starts from rest and accelerates constantly at man is balanced by
1.5 m s–2. the tension in the
a Work out the velocity of the car after 12 seconds. cable. By modelling
After 12 seconds, the driver brakes, causing the car to the forces in this
decelerate at a constant rate of 1 m s–2. situation, you can
b Calculate the distance the car travels from the calculate how strong
instant the driver brakes until the car comes to rest. the cable needs to be.
 ← Chapter 9  → Exercise 10A Q5

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 Forces and motion

10.1 Force diagrams

A force diagram is a diagram showing all the forces acting on an object. Each force is shown as an
arrow pointing in the direction in which the force acts. Force diagrams are used to model problems
involving forces.

Example 1

A block of weight W is being pulled to the right by a force, P, across a rough horizontal plane.
Draw a force diagram to show all the forces acting on the block.

R is the normal reaction of the rough horizontal

R
plane on the block.  ← Section 8.3

F P P is the force pulling the block.

W F is the resistance due to friction between the

block and the plane.

W is the weight of the block.

When the forces acting upon an object are balanced, the object is said to be in equilibrium.
■ Newton’s first law of motion states that an object at Watch out
Constant velocity
rest will stay at rest and that an object moving with
means that neither the speed
constant velocity will continue to move with constant nor the direction is changing.
velocity unless an unbalanced force acts on the object.
When there is more than one force acting on an object you can resolve the forces in a certain direction
to find the resultant force in that direction. The direction you are resolving in becomes the positive
direction. You add forces acting in this direction and subtract forces acting in the opposite direction.
In your answers, you can use the letter R, together with an arrow, R(↑), to indicate the direction in
which you are resolving the forces.
In this section you will only resolve forces that are horizontal or vertical.
■ A resultant force acting on an object will cause the object to accelerate in the same direction
as the resultant force.

Example 2

The diagram shows the forces acting on a particle.  30 N

a Draw a force diagram to represent the resultant force.
b Describe the motion of the particle. 20 N 20 N

10 N

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 Chapter 10

a 20 N R(→): 20 − 20 = 0 so the horizontal forces are

balanced.
R(↑): 30 − 10 = 20 so the resultant force is 20 N
upwards.
b The particle is accelerating upwards.

Exercise 10A
 1 A box is at rest on a horizontal table. Draw a force diagram to show all the forces acting on the
box.

 2 A trapeze bar is suspended motionless from the ceiling by two ropes. Draw a force diagram to
show the forces acting on the ropes and the trapeze bar.

 3 Ignoring air resistance, draw a diagram to show the forces acting on an apple as it falls from a
tree.

 4 A car’s engine applies a force parallel to the surface of a horizontal road that causes the car to
move with constant velocity. Considering the resistance to motion, draw a diagram to show the
forces acting on the car.

 5 An air–sea rescue crew member is suspended motionless from a helicopter. Ignoring air
resistance, show all the forces acting on him.

P  6 A satellite orbits the Earth at constant speed. Problem-solving

State, with a reason, whether any resultant force
Consider the velocity of the
is acting on the satellite.
satellite as it orbits the Earth.

 7 A particle of weight 5 N sits at rest on a horizontal plane. State the value of the normal reaction
acting on the particle.

 8 Given that each of the particles is stationary, work out the value of P:
a P b 10 N c 10 N

P
30 N P 50 N
1.5 P

10 N 10 N 10 N

 9 A hoist lifts a platform vertically at constant velocity as shown in  T T

the diagram.
a Ignoring air resistance, work out the tension, T in each rope.
The tension in each rope is reduced by 50 N.
b Describe the resulting motion of the platform. 400 N

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 Forces and motion

10 The diagram shows a particle acted on by a set of forces.  5q N

Given that the particle is at rest, find the value of p and the value
of q.
50 N pN

3p N

(q + 10) N

P 11 Given that the particle in this diagram is moving with constant  v

velocity, v, find the values of P and Q. 3P – 2Q

Problem-solving
25 N 2P + Q
Set up two simultaneous
equations.
20 N

12 Each diagram shows the forces acting on a particle.

i Work out the size and direction of the resultant force.
ii Describe the motion of the particle.
a  40 N b  10 N

100 N 100 N 5N 25 N

10 N
20 N

13 A truck is moving along a horizontal level road. The truck’s engine provides a forward thrust of
10 000 N. The total resistance is modelled as a constant force of magnitude 1600 N.
a Modelling the truck as a particle, draw a force diagram to show the forces acting on the
truck.
b Calculate the resultant force acting on the truck.

P 14 A car is moving along a horizontal level road. The car’s engine provides a constant driving
force. The motion of the car is opposed by a constant resistance.
a Modelling the car as a particle, draw a force diagram to show the forces acting on the car.
b Given that the resultant force acting on the car is 4200 N in the direction of motion, and
that the magnitude of the driving force is eight times the magnitude of the resistance force,
calculate the magnitude of the resistance.
Problem-solving
Use algebra to describe the relationship
between the driving force and the
resistance.

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 Chapter 10

10.2 Forces as vectors

You can write forces as vectors using i–j notation or as column vectors.
■ You can find the resultant of two or more forces given as vectors by adding the vectors.
Links
If two forces (   pi + qj) N and (ri + sj) N are acting on a particle, the
resultant force will be ((   p + r)i + (q + s)j) N. ← Pure Year 1, Section 11.2

When a particle is in equilibrium the resultant vector force will be 0i + 0j.

Example 3

The forces 2i + 3j, 4i − j, −3i + 2j and ai + bj act on an object which is in equilibrium. Find the
values of a and b.
If an object is in equilibrium then the resultant
(2i + 3j) + (4i − j) + (−3i + 2j) + (ai + bj) = 0
force will be zero.
(2 + 4 − 3 + a)i + (3 − 1 + 2 + b)j = 0
⇒ 3 + a = 0 and 4 + b = 0 You can consider the i and j components
⇒ a = −3 and b = −4 separately because they are perpendicular.

Example 4

In this question i represents the unit vector due east, and j represents the unit vector due north.
A particle begins at rest at the origin. It is acted on by three forces (2i + j) N, (3i – 2j) N and
(–i + 4j) N.
a Find the resultant force in the form pi + q j.
b Work out the magnitude and bearing of the resultant force.
c Describe the motion of the particle.
Add together the i-components and the
a (2i + j) + (3i − 2j) + (−i + 4j) = 4i + 3j
j-components.
b
R
3j Notation
The unit vector i is usually taken to
θ be due east or the positive x-direction. The unit
4i vector j is usually taken to be due north or the
positive y-direction. Questions involving finding
R = (4i + 3j) N bearings will often specify this.
Therefore the magnitude
________ ___
of R is given by
|R| = ​√ 42 + 32 ​ 
= √​  25 ​ = 5 N
Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the magnitude
tan θ = ​ __
3
4 ​  of the resultant.
θ = 36.9° (1 d.p.)
Bearing = 90° − 36.9° = 053.1° opp
Use tan θ = ____
​   ​ ​
adj
c The particle accelerates in the direction of
the resultant force.
Bearings are measured clockwise from north so
subtract θ from 90°.

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 Forces and motion

Exercise 10B
 1 In each part of the question a particle is acted upon by the forces given. Work out the resultant
force acting on the particle.

b (​ ​ ​ )​ N and (​ ​  )​ ​ N

5 −3
​(​ ​ )​ N is the
a (−i + 3j) N and (4i − j) N Notation 5
3 −6
3

d (​ ​ ​ )​ N, (​ ​ ​ )​ N and (​ ​  )​ ​ N

−1 6 −2 same as (5i + 3j) N.
c (i + j) N, (5i − 3j) N and (−2i − j) N
4 0 −7

 2 An object is in equilibrium at O under the action of three forces F1, F2 and F3. Find F3 in these
cases.
a F1 = (2i + 7j) and F2 = (−3i + j) b F1 = (3i − 4j) and F2 = (2i + 3j)

 3 The forces ​(​ 2b​ )​ N, (​ ​  )​ ​ N and (​ ​   )​ ​ N act on an object which is in equilibrium.
a −2a 3
P
−b −4
Find the values of a and b.

 4 For each force find:

i  the magnitude of the force     ii  the angle the force makes with i
d (​ ​ ​ )​ N
−1
a (3i + 4j) N b (5i − j) N c (−2i + 3j) N
−1

 5 In this question, i represents the unit vector due east, and j represents the unit vector due north.
A particle is acted upon by forces of:
a (−2i + j) N, (5i + 2j) N and (−i − 4j) N b (−2i + j) N, (2i − 3j) N and (3i + 6j) N
Work out:
i the resultant vector
ii the magnitude of the resultant vector
iii the bearing of the resultant vector.

P  6 The forces (ai − bj) N, (bi + aj) N and Problem-solving

(−4i − 2j) N act on an object which is Use the i components and the j components to
in equilibrium. Find the values of set up and solve two simultaneous equations.
a and b.

P  7 The forces (2ai + 2bj) N, (−5bi + 3aj) N and (−11i − 7j) N act on an object which is in
equilibrium. Find the values of a and b.

 8 Three forces F1, F2 and F3 act on a particle. F1 = (−3i + 7j) N, F2 = (i − j) N and F3 = (   pi + qj) N.
a Given that this particle is in equilibrium, determine the value of p and the value of q.
The resultant of the forces F1 and F2 is R.
b Calculate, in N, the magnitude of R.
c Calculate, to the nearest degree, the angle between the line of action of R and the vector j.

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 Chapter 10

E/p  9 A particle is acted upon by two forces F1 and F2, given by F1 = (3i − 2j) N and F2 = (ai + 2aj) N,
where a is a positive constant.
a Find the angle between F2 and i.  (2 marks)
The resultant of F1 and F2 is R.
b Given that R is parallel to 13i + 10j, find the value of a.  (4 marks)

10 Three forces F1, F2 and F3 acting on a particle P are given by the vectors F1 = (​ ​  )​ ​ N,
−7
E
−4
F2 = (​ ​ ​ )​ N and F3 = (​ ​b​ )​ N, where a and b are constants.
4 a
2
Given that P is in equilibrium,
a find the value of a and the value of b.  (3 marks)
b The force F1 is now removed. The resultant of F2 and F3 is R. Find:
i the magnitude of R  (2 marks)
ii the angle, to the nearest degree, that the direction of R makes with the horizontal.
 (3 marks)

Challenge
An object is acted upon by a horizontal  aj N
force of 10i N and a vertical force aj N as
shown in the diagram. The resultant of the
two forces acts in the direction 60° to the
horizontal. Work out the value of a and the
magnitude of the resultant force. 10i N

10.3 Forces and acceleration

A non-zero resultant force that acts on a particle will cause the particle to accelerate in the direction
of the resultant force.
■ Newton’s second law of motion states that the force needed to accelerate a particle is equal
to the product of the mass of the particle and the acceleration produced: F = ma.
A force of 1 N will accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m s−2. If a force F N acts on a particle of mass
m kg causing it to accelerate at a m s−2, the equation of motion for the particle is F = ma.
Gravity is the force between any object and the Earth. The force due to gravity  m R(↓)
acting on an object is called the weight of the object, and it acts vertically W = mg
downwards. A body falling freely experiences an acceleration of g = 9.8 m s−2.
g
Using the relationship F = ma you can write the equation of motion for a body
W
of mass m kg with weight W N.
■ W = mg

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 Forces and motion

Example 5

Find the acceleration when a particle of mass 1.5 kg is acted on by a resultant force of 6 N.

F = ma
Substitute the values you know and solve the
6 = 1.5a
equation to find a.
a = 4
The acceleration is 4 m s−2.

Example 6

In each of these diagrams the body is accelerating as shown. Find the magnitudes of the unknown
forces X and Y.
a 2 m s–2 b 2 m s–2

Y Y
20 N

4N 2 kg X 80 N 4 kg X

4g N
2g N

R(→), means that you are finding the resultant

a R(→), X − 4 = 2 × 2 force in the horizontal direction, in the direction
X = 8 N of the arrow. The arrow is in the positive direction.

R(↑), Y − 2g = 2 × 0
Y = 2g This resultant force causes an acceleration of
2 m s−2. Use F = ma.
= 19.6 N

b R(←), 80 − X = 4 × 2 It is usually easier to take the positive direction as

X = 72 N the direction of the acceleration.

R(↑), Y − 20 − 4g = 4 × 0 There is no vertical acceleration, so a = 0.

Y = 20 + (4 × 9.8)
= 59.2 N (3 s.f.)

Example 7

A body of mass 5 kg is pulled along a rough horizontal table by a horizontal force of magnitude 20 N
against a constant friction force of magnitude 4 N. Given that the body is initially at rest, find:
a the acceleration of the body
b the distance travelled by the body in the first 4 seconds
c the magnitude of the normal reaction between the body and the table.

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 Chapter 10

a a m s–2

RN
Draw a diagram showing all the forces and the
acceleration.
4N 5 kg 20 N

5g N
Resolve horizontally, taking the positive direction
R(→), 20 − 4 = 5a as the direction of the acceleration, and write
16 down an equation of motion for the body.
a = ___ ​= 3.2
​   ​ 
5
The body accelerates at 3.2 m s−2.
1
b s = ut + __
​    ​  at2 Since the acceleration is constant.
2
1
s = (0 × 4) + ​ __  ​× 3.2 × 42 Substitute in the values.
2
= 25.6
The body moves a distance of 25.6 m. Resolve vertically. Since the body is moving
c R(↑), R − 5g = 5 × 0 = 0 horizontally a = 0, so the right-hand side of the
R = 5g = 5 × 9.8 = 49 N equation of motion is 0.
The normal reaction has magnitude 49 N.

Exercise 10C
 1 Find the acceleration when a particle of mass 400 kg is acted on by a resultant force of 120 N.

 2 Find the weight in newtons of a particle of mass 4 kg.

 3 An object moving on a rough surface experiences a constant frictional force of 30 N which
decelerates it at a rate of 1.2 m s−2. Find the mass of the object.

P  4 An astronaut weighs 735 N on the earth and 120 N on Problem-solving

the moon. Work out the value of acceleration due to Start by finding the mass
gravity on the moon. of the astronaut.

 5 In each scenario, the forces acting on the body cause it to accelerate as shown.
Find the magnitude of the unknown force.
a P b P 10 N

3 m s–2 2 kg 2 m s–2 4 kg

2g N 4g N

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 Forces and motion

 6 In each situation, the forces acting on the body cause it to accelerate as shown. In each case
find the mass of the body, m.
a 10 N b 20 N

m 2 m s–2 m
5 m s–2

mg N mg N

 7 In each situation, the forces acting on the body cause it to accelerate as shown with magnitude
a m s−2. In each case find the value of a.
a 8N b
100 N

a 2 kg a 8 kg

2g N 8g N

P  8 A force of 10 N acts upon a particle of mass 3 kg Problem-solving

causing it to accelerate at 2 m s−2 along a rough
Draw a force diagram showing all
horizontal plane. Calculate the value of the force
the forces acting on the particle.
due to friction.

E/p  9 A lift of mass 500 kg is lowered or raised by means of a metal cable attached to its top.
The lift contains passengers whose total mass is 300 kg. The lift starts from rest and accelerates
at a constant rate, reaching a speed of 3 m s−1 after moving a distance of 5 m. Find:
a the acceleration of the lift (3 marks) Hint (3 marks)
Use v2 = u 2 + 2as.
b the tension in the cable if the lift is moving vertically
downwards  (2 marks)
c the tension in the cable if the lift is moving vertically upwards.  (2 marks)

E 10 A trolley of mass 50 kg is pulled from rest in a straight line along a horizontal path by means of
a horizontal rope attached to its front end. The trolley accelerates at a constant rate and after
2 s its speed is 1 m s−1. As it moves, the trolley experiences a resistance to motion of magnitude
20 N. Find:
a the acceleration of the trolley  (3 marks)
b the tension in the rope.  (2 marks)

E/p 11 The engine of a van of mass 400 kg cuts out when it is moving along a straight horizontal road
with speed 16 m s−1. The van comes to rest without the brakes being applied.
In a model of the situation it is assumed that the van is subject to a resistive force which has
constant magnitude of 200 N.

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a Find how long it takes the van to stop.  (3 marks)

b Find how far the van travels before it stops.  (2 marks)
c Comment on the suitability of the modelling assumption.  (1 mark)

Challenge
A small stone of mass 400 g is projected vertically upwards from the bottom
of a pond full of water with speed 10 m s−1. As the stone moves through the
water it experiences a constant resistance of magnitude 3 N. Assuming that
the stone does not reach the surface of the pond, find:
a the greatest height above the bottom of the pond that the stone reaches
b the speed of the stone as it hits the bottom of the pond on its return
c the total time taken for the stone to return to its initial position on the
bottom of the pond.

10.4 Motion in 2 dimensions

■ You can use F = ma to solve problems involving vector forces acting on particles.

Notation
In this version of the equation of motion, F and a are vectors. You
can write acceleration as a 2D vector in the form (   pi + qj) m s−2 or ​(​q​ )​ m s−2.
p

Example 8

In this question i represents the unit vector due east, and j represents the unit vector due north.
A resultant force of (3i + 8j) N acts upon a particle of mass 0.5 kg.
a Find the acceleration of the particle in the form (   pi + qj) m s−2.
b Find the magnitude and bearing of the acceleration of the particle.

a F = ma Write the vector equation of motion.

(3i + 8j) = 0.5 × a
a = (6i + 16j) m s−2 To divide (3i + 8j) by 0.5, you divide each
b component by 0.5.

a Draw a diagram to represent the acceleration

16j
vector.
θ
6i
________ ___
 ​√ 62 + 162 ​ 
|a| = = 2​√​  73 ​  
N Use Pythagoras’ theorem to work out the
= 17.1 m s−2 (1 d.p.) magnitude of the acceleration vector.
16
tan θ = ___ ​so θ = 69.4° (1 d.p.)
​   ​ 
6
So the bearing of the acceleration is
Remember bearings are always measured
90° − 69.4° = 020.6°
clockwise from north.

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Example 9

Forces F1 = (2i + 4j) N, F2 = (−5i + 4j) N, and F3 = (6i − 5j) N act on a particle of mass 3 kg.
Find the acceleration of the particle.

Resultant force
= F1 + F2 + F3 Add the vectors to find the resultant force.
= (2i + 4j) + (−5i + 4j) + (6i − 5j)
= 3i + 3j
3i + 3j = 3a  ⇒  a = (i + j) m s−2 Use F = ma.

Example 10

A boat is modelled as a particle of mass 60 kg being acted on by three forces:

N    F2 = (
F1 = (​ ​ ​ )​  ​ ​ ​ )​ 
N    F3 = (​ ​ ​ )​ N
80 10p −75
50 20q 100

Given that the boat is accelerating at a rate of (​ ​ 

−1.5)
0.8
 
​ ​ m s−2, find the values of p and q.

Resultant force
= F1 + F2 + F3

= (​ ​ )​ ​+ (
​ ​  ​) ​ + (​ ​ )​ ​
80 10p  −75
50 20q 100

= ​(  
150 + 20q)
5 + 10p Find the resultant force acting on the boat in
​  ​​ ​ N
terms of p and q.
F = ma
Use F = ma. Remember that you need to multiply
(150 + 20q)
​= (​ ​ 
−90)
​​ ​ = 60 × (​ ​  ​) 
5 + 10p 0.8  48
​   
​  ​ 
​ each component in the acceleration by 60.
−1.5

So 5 + 10p = 48  ⇒  p = 4.3 Solve separate equations for each component to

and 150 + 20q = −90  ⇒  q = −12 find the values of p and q.

Exercise 10D
In all the questions in this exercise i represents the unit vector due east, and j represents the unit
vector due north.
 1 A resultant force of (i + 4j) N acts upon a particle of mass 2 kg.
a Find the acceleration of the particle in the form (   pi + qj) m s−2.
b Find the magnitude and bearing of the acceleration of the particle.

 2 A resultant force of (4i + 3j) N acts on a particle of mass m kg causing it to accelerate at
(20i + 15j) m s−2. Work out the mass of the particle.

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 3 A particle of mass 3 kg is acted on by a force F. Given that the particle accelerates at
(7i − 3j) m s−2:
a find an expression for F in the form (   pi + qj) N
b find the magnitude and bearing of F.

 4 Two forces, F1 and F2, act on a particle of mass m. Find the acceleration of the particle, a m s−2,
given that:
a F1 = (2i + 7j) N, F2 = (−3i + j) N, m = 0.25 kg Notation
You are asked to find
b F1 = (3i − 4j) N, F2 = (2i + 3j) N, m = 6 kg the acceleration as a vector, a. You
c F1 = (−40i − 20j) N, F2 = (25i + 10j) N, m = 15 kg can give your answer as a column
vector or using i–j notation.
d F1 = 4j N, F2 = (−2i + 5j) N, m = 1.5 kg

 5 A particle of mass 8 kg is at rest. It is acted on by three forces, F1 = (​ ​   )​ ​ N, F2 = (​ ​   )​ ​ N and
3 2
−1 −5
F3 = (​ ​ )​  ​ N.
−1
0
a Find the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of Hint Use s = ut + _​ 12 ​ at2 with
the particle, a m s−2.
s = 20 and u = 0.
b Find the time taken for the particle to travel a distance of 20 m.

E/p  6 Two forces, (2i + 3j)  N and (   pi + qj) N, act on a particle P. Problem-solving
The resultant of the two forces is R. Given that R acts in You can write R in the form
a direction which is parallel to the vector (−i + 4j), show that (−ki + 4kj) N for some
4p + q + 11 = 0. (4 marks) constant k.

E  7 A particle of mass 4 kg starts from rest and is acted upon by a force R of (6i + bj) N. R acts on
a bearing of 045º.
a Find the value of b.  (1 mark)
b Calculate the magnitude of R.  (2 marks)
c Work out the magnitude of the acceleration of the particle.  (2 marks)
d Find the total distance travelled by the particle during the first 5 seconds of its
motion.  (3 marks)

P  8 Three forces, F1, F2 and F3 act on a particle. F1 = (−3i + 7j) N, F2 = (i − j) N and F3 = (   pi + qj) N.
a Given that this particle is in equilibrium, determine the value of p and the value of q.
Force F2 is removed.
b Given that in the first 10 seconds of its motion the particle travels a distance of 12 m, find
the exact mass of the particle in kg.

P  9 A particle of mass m kg is acted upon by forces of (5i + 6j) N, (2i − 2j) N and (−i − 4j) N causing
it to accelerate at 7 m s−2. Work out the mass of the particle. Give your answer correct to 2 d.p.

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10 Two forces, ​(​ ​ )​ N and (​ ​q​ )​ N, act on a particle P of mass m kg. The resultant of the two forces is R.
2 p
E/p
5
a Given that R acts in a direction which is parallel to the vector (​ ​   )​ ​, show that
1
−2
2p + q + 9 = 0.  (4 marks)
b Given__
also that p = 1 and that P moves with an acceleration of magnitude
√
15​​  5  ​ m s−2, find the value of m.  (7 marks)

Challenge
A particle of mass 0.5 kg is acted on by two forces:
F1 = −4i 
N    F2 = (ki + 2kj) N
where k is a positive constant.
___
Given that the particle is accelerating at a rate of 8​​√ 17 ​  m s−2, find the
value of k.

10.5 Connected particles

If a system involves the motion of more than one particle, the particles may be considered separately.
However, if all parts of the system are moving in the same straight line, then you can also treat the
whole system as a single particle.
■ You can solve problems involving connected Watch out
Particles need to remain in
particles by considering the particles
contact, or be connected by an inextensible rod
separately or, if they are moving in the or string to be considered as a single particle.
same straight line, as a single particle.

Example 11

Two particles, P and Q, of masses 5 kg and 3 kg respectively, are connected by a light inextensible
string. Particle P is pulled by a horizontal force of magnitude 40 N along a rough horizontal plane.
Particle P experiences a frictional force of 10 N and particle Q experiences a frictional force of 6 N.
a Find the acceleration of the particles.
b Find the tension in the string.
c Explain how the modelling assumptions that the string is light and inextensible have been used.

a Problem-solving
a
R1 R2 In part a, by considering the system
as a single particle you eliminate the
Q P need to find the tension in the string.
T T 40 N
3 kg 5 kg Otherwise you would need to set up
two simultaneous equations involving a
6N 10 N
and T.
3g N 5g N In part b the particles need to be
considered separately to find the
For the whole system: R(→): 40 − 10 − 6 = 8a
tension in the string.
8a = 24
a = 3 m s−2

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b For P: R(→): 40 − T − 10 = 5 × 3 You could also have chosen particle Q

T = 15 N to find the tension. Check to see that it
gives the same answer.
c Inextensible ⇒ acceleration of masses is the same.
light ⇒ tension is the same throughout the
length of the string and the mass of
the string is negligible.

■ Newton’s third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Newton’s third law means that when two bodies A and B are in contact, if body A exerts a force on
body B, then body B exerts a force on body A that is equal in magnitude and acts in the opposite
direction.

Example 12

A light scale-pan is attached to a vertical light inextensible string. 

The scale-pan carries two masses A and B. The mass of A is 400 g
and the mass of B is 600 g. A rests on top of B, as shown in the diagram.
The scale-pan is raised vertically, using the string, with
acceleration 0.5 m s−2.
a Find the tension in the string.
A
b Find the force exerted on mass B by mass A.
400 g
c Find the force exerted on mass B by the scale-pan.
600 g
B

You can use this since all parts of the system are
a For the whole system:
moving in the same straight line.
R(↑):  T − 0.4g − 0.6g = (0.4 + 0.6)a

So, T − g = 1 × 0.5 Note that you must convert 400 g to 0.4 kg and
T = 10.3 N 600 g to 0.6 kg.
The tension in the string is 10 N (2 s.f.)
a = 0.5
b R

Simplify.
A 0.4 kg 0.5 m s–2

0.4 g N
Find the force exerted on A by B and then use
For A only: Newton’s 3rd law to say that the force exerted on
R(↑):  R − 0.4g = 0.4 × 0.5 B by A will have the same magnitude but is in
R = 4.12 N the opposite direction.
So the force exerted on B by A is
4.1 N (2 s.f.) downwards. You have used g = 9.8 m s−2 so give your final
answer correct to two significant figures.

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c T Problem-solving
It’s easier to find the force exerted on the scale-
pan by B and then use Newton’s 3rd law to say
0.5 m s–2 that the force exerted on B by the scale-pan
has the same magnitude but is in the opposite
direction.
S
For scale-pan only:
The scale-pan is light, i.e. its mass is 0.
R(↑)  T − S =
 0 × 0.5
=0
So, T = S = 10.3 N From part a.
So, the force exerted on B by the scale-
pan is 10 N (2 s.f.) upwards. Use Newton’s 3rd law.

Exercise 10E
1 Two particles P and Q of masses 8 kg and 2 kg respectively, are connected by a light inextensible
string. The particles are on a smooth horizontal plane. A horizontal force of magnitude F is
applied to P in a direction away from Q and when the string is taut the particles move with
acceleration 0.4 m s−2.
a Find the value of F.
b Find the tension in the string.
c Explain how the modelling assumptions that the string is light and inextensible are used.

2 Two particles P and Q of masses 20 kg and m kg are connected by a light inextensible rod.
The particles lie on a smooth horizontal plane. A horizontal force of 60 N is applied to Q in a
direction towards P, causing the particles to move with acceleration 2 m s−2.
a Find the mass, m, of Q. Hint
For part b consider
b Find the thrust in the rod. P on its own.

3 Two particles P and Q of masses 7 kg and 8 kg are connected by a light inextensible string.
The particles are on a smooth horizontal plane. A horizontal force of 30 N is applied to Q in a
direction away from P. When the string is taut the particles move with acceleration, a m s−2.
a Find the acceleration, a, of the system.
b Find the tension in the string.

4 Two boxes A and B of masses 110 kg and 190 kg sit on the floor of a lift of mass 1700 kg. Box A
rests on top of box B. The lift is supported by a light inextensible cable and is descending with
constant acceleration 1.8 m s−2.
a Find the tension in the cable.
b Find the force exerted by box B
i  on box A    ii  on the floor of the lift.

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P 5 A lorry of mass m kg is towing a trailer of mass 3m kg along a straight horizontal road.
The lorry and trailer are connected by a light inextensible tow-bar. The lorry exerts a driving
force of 50 000 N causing the lorry and trailer to accelerate at 5 m s−2. The lorry and trailer
experience resistances of 4000 N and 10 000 N respectively.
a Find the mass of the lorry and hence the mass of the trailer.
b Find the tension in the tow-bar.
c Explain how the modelling assumptions that the tow-bar is light and inextensible affect your
calculations.

E 6 Two particles A and B of masses 10 kg and 5 kg respectively are connected by a light inextensible
string. Particle B hangs directly below particle A. A force of 180 N is applied vertically upwards
causing the particles to accelerate.
a Find the magnitude of the acceleration.  (3 marks)
b Find the tension in the string.  (2 marks)

E/p 7 Two particles A and B of masses 6 kg and m kg respectively are connected by a light inextensible
string. Particle B hangs directly below particle A. A force of 118 N is applied vertically upwards
causing the particles to accelerate at 2 m s−2.
a Find the mass, m, of particle B.  (3 marks)
b Find the tension in the string.  (2 marks)

E/p 8 A train engine of mass 6400 kg is pulling a carriage of mass 1600 kg along a straight horizontal
railway track. The engine is connected to the carriage by a shunt which is parallel to the direction
of motion of the coupling. The shunt is modelled as a light rod. The engine provides a constant
driving force of 12 000 N. The resistances to the motion of the engine and the carriage are
modelled as constant forces of magnitude R N and 2000 N respectively.
Given that the acceleration of the engine and the carriage is 0.5 m s−2:
a find the value of R  (3 marks)
b show that the tension in the shunt is 2800 N.  (2 marks)

E 9 A car of mass 900 kg pulls a trailer of mass 300 kg along a straight horizontal road using a light
tow-bar which is parallel to the road. The horizontal resistances to motion of the car and the
trailer have magnitudes 200 N and 100 N respectively. The engine of the car produces a constant
horizontal driving force on the car of magnitude 1200 N.
a Show that the acceleration of the car and trailer is 0.75 m s−2.  (2 marks)
b Find the magnitude of the tension in the tow-bar.  (3 marks)
The car is moving along the road when the driver sees a set of traffic lights have turned red.
He reduces the force produced by the engine to zero and applies the brakes. The brakes produce
a force on the car of magnitude F newtons and the car and trailer decelerate.
c Given that the resistances to motion are unchanged and the magnitude of the thrust in the
towbar is 100 N, find the value of F.  (7 marks)

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10.6 Pulleys
In this section you will see how to model systems of Watch out
You cannot treat a
connected particles involving pulleys. The problems you
system involving a pulley as a single
answer will assume that particles are connected by a light, particle. This is because the particles
inextensible string, which passes over a smooth pulley. are moving in different directions.
This means that the tension in the string will be the same
on both sides of the pulley. The parts of the string each
side of the pulley will be either horizontal or vertical.

Example 13

Particles P and Q, of masses 2m and 3m, are attached to the ends of a light inextensible string.
The string passes over a small smooth fixed pulley and the masses hang with the string taut.
The system is released from rest.
a i Write down an equation of motion for P.
ii Write down an equation of motion for Q.
b Find the acceleration of each mass.
c Find the tension in the string.
d Find the force exerted on the pulley by the string.
e Find the distance moved by Q in the first 4 s, assuming that P does not reach the pulley.
f State how you have used the fact that the pulley is smooth in your calculations.

a Problem-solving
F
Resolve vertically for both P and Q. This will
give you simultaneous equations involving the
tension T and the acceleration a which can then
T T be solved.
T
T a
a Draw a diagram showing all the forces acting on
3m Q
P 2m each mass and the pulley, and the acceleration.

3mg N
2mg N
Now resolve for each mass separately, in the
i For P, R(↑):    T − 2mg = 2ma (1) direction of its acceleration.
ii For Q, R(↓): 3mg − T = 3ma (2)
b Adding equations (1) and (2): Add the equations to eliminate T.
3mg − T + T − 2mg = 3ma + 2ma
mg = 5ma Simplifying.
​ __
1
5   ​  g = a
The acceleration of each mass is ​__
 51  ​   g. You could also give your final answer as 2.0 m s−2
(2 s.f.).

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c From (1): T − 2mg = 2m × __

​ 51  ​   g Substitute for a.
12mg
T = _____
​     ​ N
5 Collect terms.
12mg
The tension in the string is _____
​     ​ N.
5
d The force exerted on the
pulley by the string is 2T N
24mg
downwards or ______
​      ​ N.
5
T T

e u = 0, a = ​ __
1
5  ​   g, t = 4, s = ?
Since a is a constant we can use any of the
s = ut + ​ __
1
2  ​   at
2
formulae for constant acceleration.
= 0 + __
​ 21  ​ × 1.96 × 42
= 15.68 m
= 15.7 m (3 s.f.)
Q moves through a distance of 15.7 m (3 s.f.)
f The tension in the string is the same at P
as at Q.

Example 14

Two particles A and B of masses 0.4 kg and 0.8  kg respectively are connected by a light inextensible
string. Particle A lies on a rough horizontal table 4.5 m from a small smooth pulley which is fixed
at the edge of the table. The string passes over the pulley and B hangs freely, with the string taut,
0.5 m above horizontal ground. A frictional force of magnitude 0.08g opposes the motion of
particle A. The system is released from rest. Find:
a the acceleration of the system
b the time taken for B to reach the ground
c the total distance travelled by A before it first comes to rest.

a R

T T
Problem-solving
A
0.08g Draw a diagram showing all the forces and the
T accelerations. The pulley is smooth so the tension
0.4g N T in the string is the same on each side of the
a pulley.
B
a

0.8g N

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For A only:  R(→), T − 0.08g = 0.4a (1) Write equations of motion for each of A and B
For B only:  R(↓), 0.8g − T = 0.8a (2) separately.
Add (1) and (2):
0.8g − T + T − 0.08g = 0.8a + 0.4a
To eliminate the T terms.
0.72g = 1.2a
0.6g = a
The acceleration of the system is 0.6g You could also give your answer as 5.9 m s−2 (2 s.f.).
b u = 0, s = 0.5,
a Use an unrounded value of the acceleration.
B a = 5.88, t = ?
s = ut + ​ __
1
2  ​   at
2

0.5 = 0 + ​ __
1 The acceleration is constant.
0.5 m 2  ​ × 5.88
× t2
t = 0.41 (2 s.f.)
The time taken for B to hit the ground is
0.41 s (2 s.f.)

c Find the speed of B when it hits the

Use an unrounded value for t.
ground.
u = 0, a = 5.88, t = 0.412 39, v = ?

√ 
v = u + at ___
3g
vB = 0 + 5.88 × 0.412 39 = 2.424 87 m s−1. Using surds, vB = ​ ___
​   ​ ​  
5
Speed of A on the table is 2.424 87 m s−1.
Once B hits the ground the string will go Since the string is inextensible.
slack and A will begin to decelerate as it
slides against the friction on the table.
From (1): −0.08g = 0.4a' Put T = 0 in equation (1) as string is now slack.
a' = −0.2g
uA = 2.424 87, v = 0, a' = −0.2g, s = ? This is the new acceleration of A along the table.
v2 = u2 + 2as
O2 = 2.424 872 − 0.4gs
s = 1.5 m (2 s.f.)
A slides a further 1.5 m along the table
before it comes to rest.
∴T
 otal distance moved by A is
0.5 + 1.5 = 2.0 m (2 s.f.)

Exercise 10F

P 1 Two particles A and B of masses 4 kg and 3 kg respectively are connected by a light inextensible
string which passes over a small smooth fixed pulley. The particles are released from rest with the
string taut.
a Find the tension in the string.

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When A has travelled a distance of 2 m it strikes the ground and immediately comes to rest.
b Find the speed of A when it hits the ground.
Problem-solving
c Assuming that B does not hit the pulley, find the
After A hits the ground B behaves like
greatest height that B reaches above its initial
a particle moving freely under gravity.
position.

E/p 2 Two particles P and Q have masses km and 3m respectively, 

where k < 3. The particles are connected by a light inextensible
string which passes over a smooth light fixed pulley. The system
is held at rest with the string taut, the hanging parts of the string
vertical and with P and Q at the same height above a horizontal
plane, as shown in the diagram. The system is released from rest.
After release, Q descends with acceleration _​ 3 ​   g.
1
P (km) Q (3m)
a Calculate the tension in the string as Q descends.  (3 marks)
b Show that k = 1.5  (3 marks)
c State how you have used the information that the pulley is smooth.  (1 mark)
After descending for 1.8 s, the particle Q reaches the plane. It is immediately brought to rest
by the impact with the plane. The initial distance between P and the pulley is such that, in the
subsequent motion, P does not reach the pulley.
d Show that the greatest height, in metres, reached by P above the plane is 1.26 g.  (7 marks)

E/p 3 Two particles A and B have masses m kg and 3 kg respectively, 
where m > 3. The particles are connected by a light inextensible
string which passes over a smooth, fixed pulley. Initially A is
2.5 m above horizontal ground. The particles are released from
rest with the string taut and the hanging parts of the string
vertical, as shown in the figure. After A has been descending A (m kg) B (3 kg)
for 1.25 s, it strikes the ground. Particle A reaches the ground
before B has reached the pulley. 2.5 m

a Show that the acceleration of B as it ascends is

3.2 m s−2.  (3 marks)
b Find the tension in the string as A descends.  (3 marks)
c Show that m = __
65
​ 11 ​   . (4 marks)
d State how you have used the information that the string is inextensible.  (1 mark)
When A strikes the ground it does not rebound and the string becomes slack. Particle B then
moves freely under gravity, without reaching the pulley, until the string becomes taut again.
e Find the time between the instant when A strikes the ground and the instant when the string
becomes taut again.  (6 marks)

4 Two particles A and B of masses 5 kg and 3 kg respectively are connected by a light inextensible
string. Particle A lies on a rough horizontal table and the string passes over a small smooth
pulley which is fixed at the edge of the table. Particle B hangs freely. The friction between A and
the table is 24.5 N. The system is released from rest. Find:

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 Forces and motion

a the acceleration of the system

b the tension in the string
c the magnitude of the force exerted on the pulley by the string.

E 5 A box P of mass 2.5 kg rests on a rough  P (2.5 kg)

horizontal table and is attached to one end of
a light inextensible string. The string passes
over a small smooth pulley fixed at the edge
of the table. The other end of the string is
attached to a sphere Q of mass 1.5 kg which
hangs freely below the pulley. The magnitude Q (1.5 kg)
of the frictional force between P and the table
is k N. The system is released from rest with
the string taut. After release, Q descends a distance of 0.8 m in 0.75 s.
a Modelling P and Q as particles:
i calculate the acceleration of Q  (3 marks)
ii show that the tension in the string is 10.4 N (to 3 s.f.)  (4 marks)
iii find the value of k.  (3 marks)
b State how in your calculations you have used the information that the string is
inextensible.  (1 mark)

Mixed exercise 10

 1 A motorcycle of mass 200 kg is moving along a level road. The motorcycle’s engine provides
a forward thrust of 1000 N. The total resistance is modelled as a constant force of magnitude
600 N.
a Modelling the motorcycle as a particle, draw a force diagram to show the forces acting on the
motorcycle.
b Calculate the acceleration of the motorcycle.

 2 A man of mass 86 kg is standing in a lift which is moving upwards with constant acceleration
2 m s−2. Find the magnitude and direction of the force that the man is exerting on the floor of
the lift.

P  3 A car of mass 800  kg is travelling along a straight horizontal road. A constant retarding force
of F  N reduces the speed of the car from 18 m s−1 to 12 m s−1 in 2.4 s. Calculate:
a the value of F b the distance moved by the car in these 2.4 s.

E  4 A block of mass 0.8 kg is pushed along a rough horizontal floor by a constant horizontal force
of magnitude 7 N. The speed of the block increases from 2 m s−1 to 4 m s−1 in a distance of
4.8 m. Calculate:
a the magnitude of the acceleration of the block (3 marks)
b the magnitude of the frictional force between the block and the floor. (3 marks)

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 Chapter 10

P  5 A car of mass 1200 kg is moving along a level road. The car’s engine provides a constant
driving force. The motion of the car is opposed by a constant resistance.
Given that car is accelerating at 2 m s−2, and that the magnitude of the driving force is three
times the magnitude of the resistance force, show that the magnitude of the driving force is
3600 N.

 6 Forces of (3i + 2j) N and (4i − j) N act on a particle of mass 0.25 kg. Find the acceleration of
the particle.

 7 Forces of (​ ​   )​ ​ N, (​ ​   )​ ​ N and (​ ​ −2b 

)​ ​ N act on a particle of mass 2 kg causing it to accelerate
2 3 a
P
−1 −1
at (​ ​ ​ )​ m s−2. Find the values of a and b.
3
2

 8 A sled of mass 2 kg is initially at rest on a horizontal plane. It is acted upon by a force of
(2i + 4j) N for 3 seconds. Giving your answers in surd form,
a find the magnitude of acceleration
b find the distance travelled in the 3 seconds.

P  9 In this question i and j represent the unit vectors east and north respectively.
The forces (3ai + 4bj) N, (5bi + 2aj) N and (−15i − 18j) N act on a particle of mass 2 kg which is
in equilibrium.
a Find the values of a and b.
b The force (−15i − 18j) N is removed. Work out:
i the magnitude and direction of the resulting acceleration of the particle
ii the distance travelled by the particle in the first 3 seconds of its motion.

E/p 10 A car is towing a trailer along a straight horizontal road by means of a horizontal tow-rope.
The mass of the car is 1400 kg. The mass of the trailer is 700 kg. The car and the trailer are
modelled as particles and the tow-rope as a light inextensible string. The resistances to motion
of the car and the trailer are assumed to be constant and of magnitude 630 N and 280 N
respectively. The driving force on the car, due to its engine, is 2380 N. Find:
a the acceleration of the car  (3 marks)
b the tension in the tow-rope.  (3 marks)
When the car and trailer are moving at 12 m s−1, the tow-rope breaks. Assuming that the driving
force on the car and the resistances to motion are unchanged:
c find the distance moved by the car in the first 4 s after the tow-rope breaks.  (6 marks)
d State how you have used the modelling assumption that the tow-rope is
inextensible.  (1 mark)

E/p 11 A train of mass 2500 kg pushes a carriage of mass 1100 kg along a straight horizontal track.
The engine is connected to the carriage by a shunt which is parallel to the direction of motion
of the coupling. The horizontal resistances to motion of the train and the carriage have
magnitudes R N and 500 N respectively. The engine of the train produces a constant horizontal
driving force of magnitude 8000 N that causes the train and carriage to accelerate at 1.75 m s−2.

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 Forces and motion

a Show that the resistance to motion R acting on the train is 1200 N. (2 marks)
b Find the magnitude of the compression in the shunt.  (3 marks)
The train must stop at the next station so the driver reduces the force produced by the engine
to zero and applies the brakes. The brakes produce a force on the train of magnitude 2000 N
causing the engine and carriage to decelerate.
c Given that the resistances to motion are unchanged, find the magnitude of the thrust in the
shunt. Give your answer correct to 3 s.f.  (7 marks)

P 12 Particles P and Q of masses 2m kg and m kg respectively are attached to the ends of a light
inextensible string which passes over a smooth fixed pulley. They both hang at a distance of 2 m
above horizontal ground. The system is released from rest.
a Find the magnitude of the acceleration of the system.
b Find the speed of P as it hits the ground.
Given that particle Q does not reach the pulley:
c find the greatest height that Q reaches above the ground.
d State how you have used in your calculation:
i  the fact that the string is inextensible  ii  the fact that the pulley is smooth.

E/p 13 Two particles have masses 3 kg and m kg, where m < 3. They are
attached to the ends of a light inextensible string. The string passes
over a smooth fixed pulley. The particles are held in position with
the string taut and the hanging parts of the string vertical, as shown.
The particles are then released from rest. The initial acceleration of
each particle has magnitude ​ _7  ​  g. Find:
3
3 kg m kg
a the tension in the string immediately after the particles are released  (3 marks)
b the value of m.  (3 marks)

E/p 14 A block of wood A of mass 0.5 kg rests on a  A (0.5 kg)

rough horizontal table and is attached to one P
end of a light inextensible string. The string
passes over a small smooth pulley P fixed at
the edge of the table. The other end of the
string is attached to a ball B of mass 0.8 kg
B (0.8 kg)
which hangs freely below the pulley, as shown
in the figure. The resistance to motion of A
from the rough table has a constant magnitude
F N. The system is released from rest with the string taut. After release, B descends a distance
of 0.4 m in 0.5 s. Modelling A and B as particles, calculate:
a the acceleration of B  (3 marks)
b the tension in the string  (4 marks)
c the value of F.  (3 marks)
d State how in your calculations you have used the information that the string is
inextensible.  (1 mark)

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 Chapter 10

E/p 15 Two particles P and Q have masses 0.5 kg and 0.4 kg respectively. 
The particles are attached to the ends of a light inextensible string.
The string passes over a small smooth pulley which is fixed above
a horizontal floor. Both particles are held, with the string taut,
at a height of 2 m above the floor, as shown. The particles are
released from rest and in the subsequent motion Q does not P Q
reach the pulley.
a i Write down an equation of motion for P. (2 marks) 2m
ii Write down an equation of motion for Q. (2 marks)
b Find the tension in the string immediately after the
particles are released.  (2 marks)
c Find the acceleration of A immediately after the particles are released.  (2 marks)
When the particles have been moving for 0.2 s, the string breaks.
d Find the further time that elapses until Q hits the floor.  (9 marks)

Challenge
In this question i and j are the unit vectors east and north respectively.
Two boats start from rest at different points on the south bank of a river. The current in the river provides a
constant force of magnitude 3i N on both boats.
The motor on boat A provides a thrust of (−7i + 2j) N and the motor on boat B provides a thrust of (ki + j) N.
Given that the boats are accelerating in perpendicular directions, find the value of k.

Summary of key points

1 Newton’s first law of motion states that an object at rest will stay at rest and that an
object moving with constant velocity will continue to move with constant velocity unless an
unbalanced force acts on the object.
2 A resultant force acting on an object will cause the object to accelerate in the same
direction as the resultant force.
3 You can find the resultant of two or more forces given as vectors by adding the vectors.
4 Newton’s second law of motion states that the force needed to accelerate a particle is equal
to the product of the mass of the particle and the acceleration produced: F = ma.
5 W = mg
6 You can use F = ma to solve problems involving vector forces acting on particles.
7 You can solve problems involving connected particles by considering the particles separately
or, if they are moving in the same straight line, as a single particle.
8 Newton’s third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

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 Variable acceleration
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
11
● Understand that displacement, velocity and acceleration
may be given as functions of time → pages 181–184
● Use differentiation to solve kinematics problems → pages 185–186
● Use calculus to solve problems involving maxima and
minima → pages 186–188
● Use integration to solve kinematics problems → pages 188–191
● Use calculus to derive constant acceleration formulae → pages 191–193

Prior knowledge check

dy
1 Find ​ ___ ​given:
dx
__ 6
a y = 3x2 − 5x + 6 b y = 2​√​  x  ​+ __
​  2  ​− 1
x
 ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 12

2 Find the coordinates of the turning points on the

curve with equation:
a y = 3x2 − 9x + 2 b y = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 5
 ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 12

3 Find f(x) given:

a f9(x) = 5x + 8, f(0) = 1
A space rocket experiences b f9(x) = 3x2 − 2x + 5, f(0) = 7
variable acceleration during  ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 13
launch. The rate of change of
4 Find the area bounded by the x-axis and:
velocity increases to enable the
rocket to escape the gravitational a the line y = 2x − 1, x = 2 and x = 5
pull of the Earth. b the curve y = 6x − 2 − x2, x = 1 and x = 3
 → Mixed exercise Q13  ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 13

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 Chapter 11

11.1 Functions of time

If acceleration of a moving particle is variable, it changes with time Links
Acceleration is the
and can be expressed as a function of time.
gradient of a velocity–time
In the same way, velocity and displacement can also be expressed graph. ← Section 9.2
as functions of time.
These velocity–time graphs represent the motion of a particle travelling in a straight line. They show
examples of increasing and decreasing acceleration.
Increasing acceleration Decreasing acceleration
Velocity Velocity

Time      Time

The rate of increase of velocity The rate of increase of velocity

is increasing with time and the is decreasing with time and the
gradient of the curve is increasing. gradient of the curve is decreasing.

Example 1

A body moves in a straight line, such that its displacement, s metres, from a point O at time
t seconds is given by s = 2t3 − 3t for t > 0. Find:
a s when t = 2 b the time taken for the particle to return to O.

a s =
 2 × 23 − 3 × 2 Substitute t = 2 into the equation for s.
= 16 − 6 = 10 metres
b 2t3 − 3t = 0 When the particle returns to the starting point,
the displacement is equal to zero.
t(2t2 − 3) = 0    either t = 0 or 2t2 = 3

√ 
__
3 3
⇒ t2 = __
​   ​so t = ±  ​ __
​   ​ seconds
2 2
√ 
__

√ 
__
3 3
Time taken to return to O = ​ __ ​   ​ seconds Answer is +  ​ __
​   ​ as equation is only valid for t > 0.
2 2

Example 2

A toy train travels along a straight track, leaving the start of the track at time t = 0. It then returns
to the start of the track. The distance, s metres, from the start of the track at time t seconds is
modelled by:
s = 4t2 − t3, where 0 < t < 4
Explain the restriction 0 < t < 4.

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 Variable acceleration

s is distance from start of track so s > 0. Use the initial conditions given.
So 4t2 − t3 > 0
t2(4 − t) > 0 Distance is a scalar quantity and must be > 0.
t2 > 0 for all t, and (4 − t) < 0 for all t > 4,
so t2(4 − t) is only non-negative for t < 4 The restriction t > 0 is due to the motion
beginning at t = 0, not due to the function.
Motion begins at t = 0 hence t > 0
Hence 0 < t < 4 Problem-solving
You could also sketch the graph of s = 4t2 − t3 to
Example 3 show the values of t for which the model is valid.

A body moves in a straight line such that its velocity, v m s−1, at time t seconds is given by:
v = 2t2 − 16t + 24, for t > 0
Find:
a the initial velocity b the values of t when the body is instantaneously at rest
c the value of t when the velocity is 64 m s−1 d the greatest speed of the body in the interval 0 < t < 5.

a v = 0 − 0 + 24 The initial velocity means the velocity at t = 0.

v = 24 m s−1
b 2t2 − 16t + 24 = 0 The body is at rest when v = 0, so solve the
quadratic equation when v = 0.
t2 − 8t + 12 = 0
(t − 6)(t − 2) = 0
Body at rest when t = 2 seconds and
t = 6 seconds
c 2t2 − 16t + 24 = 64
Rearrange the quadratic equation to make it
2t2 − 16t − 40 = 0
equal to zero and factorise.
t2 − 8t − 20 = 0
(t − 10)(t + 2) = 0
Either t = 10 or t = −2
The equation for velocity is valid for t > 0,
Velocity = 64 m s−1 when t = 10 seconds
so t = −2 is not a valid solution.
d v

24 Sketch a velocity–time graph for the motion

of the body. You can use the symmetry of the
quadratic curve to determine the position of the
turning point. ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 2

Watch
out You need to find the greatest speed.
O 2 6 t This could occur when the velocity is positive or
negative, so find the range of values taken by v in
(4, – 8) the interval 0 < t < 5.
When t = 4, v = 2(4)2 − 16(4) + 24 = −8 y

So in 0 < t < 5 range of v is −8 < v < 24 Online

x

Explore the solution using

Greatest speed is 24 m s−1 technology.

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 Chapter 11

Exercise 11A
1 A body moves in a straight line such that its displacement, s metres, at time t seconds is given by
s = 9t − t3. Find:
a s when t = 1 b the values of t when s = 0.

2 A particle P moves on the x-axis. At time t seconds the displacement s metres is given by
s = 5t2 − t3. Find:
Hint
The third second is the
a the change in displacement between t = 2 and t = 4
time between t = 2 and t = 3.
b the change in displacement in the third second.

3 A particle moves in a straight line such that its velocity, v m s−1, at time t seconds is given by
v = 3 + 5t − t2 for t > 0. Find:
a the velocity of the particle when t = 1
b the greatest speed of the particle in the interval 0 < t < 4
c the velocity of the particle when t = 7 and describe the direction of motion of the particle at
this time.

4 At time t = 0, a toy car is at point P. It moves in a straight line from point P and then returns
to P. Its distance from P, s m, at time t seconds can be modelled by s = _​ 5 ​   (4t − t2). Find:
1

a the maximum displacement b the time taken for the toy car to return to P
c the total distance travelled d the values of t for which the model is valid.

5 A body moves in a straight line such that its velocity, v m s−1, at time t seconds is given by
v = 3t2 − 10t + 8, for t > 0. Find:
a the initial velocity
b the values of t when the body is instantaneously at rest
c the values of t when the velocity is 5 m s−1
d the greatest speed of the body in the interval 0 < t < 2.

E 6 A particle P moves on the x-axis. At time t seconds the velocity of P is v m s−1 in the direction of
x increasing, where v = 8t − 2t2. When t = 0, P is at the origin O. Find:
a the time taken for the particle to come to instantaneous rest  (2 marks)
b the greatest speed of the particle in the interval 0 < t < 4.  (3 marks)

E 7 At time t = 0, a particle moves in a straight horizontal line from a point O, then returns to the
starting point. The distance, s metres, from the point O at time t seconds is given by:
s = 3t2 − t3, 0 < t < T
Given that the model is valid when s > 0, find the value of T. Explain your answer.  (3 marks)

E 8 A particle P moves on the x-axis. At time t seconds the velocity of P is v m s−1 in the direction of
x increasing, where:
v = _​ 5 ​  (3t2 − 10t + 3),   x > 0
1

a Find the values of t when P is instantaneously at rest.  (3 marks)

b Determine the greatest speed of P in the interval 0 < t < 3.  (4 marks)

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 Variable acceleration

11.2 Using differentiation

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
■ If the displacement, s, is expressed as a function of t, Links
The gradient of a
ds displacement–time graph represents
then the velocity, v, can be expressed as v = ___
​    ​
dt the velocity. ← Section 9.1

In the same way, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

■ If the velocity, v, is expressed as a function Links
The gradient of a velocity–time graph
of t, then the acceleration, a, can be represents the acceleration. ← Section 9.2
dv d2s
expressed as a = ___​     ​= ___
​     ​ d2s
​ ___2  ​is the second derivative (or second-order
dt dt2 dt
derivative) of s with respect to t.
 ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 12
Example 4

A particle P is moving on the x-axis. At time t seconds, the displacement x metres from O is given
by x = t 4 − 32t + 12. Find:
a the velocity of P when t = 3
b the value of t for which P is instantaneously at rest
c the acceleration of P when t = 1.5.

a x = t4 − 32t + 12 You find the velocity by differentiating the

dx displacement.
v = ​ ___ ​ ​ = 4t3 − 32
dt
When t = 3,
To find the velocity when t = 3, you substitute
v = 4 × 33 − 32 = 76 t = 3 into the expression.
The velocity of P when t = 3 is 76 m s−1 in
the direction of x increasing.
The particle is at rest when v = 0. You substitute
b v = 4t3 − 32 = 0 v = 0 into your expression for v and solve the
32 resulting equation to find t.
t3 = ___ ​= 8
​   ​ 
 
4
t=2
c v = 4t3 − 32
dv You find the acceleration by differentiating the
a = ___
​    ​ = 12t2
dt velocity.
When t = 1.5,
a = 12 × 1.52 = 27
The acceleration of P when t = 1.5 is 27 m s−2.

Exercise 11B
1 Find an expression for i the velocity and ii the acceleration of a particle given that the
displacement is given by:
1 2 1 3t 4 − 2t3 + 5
a s = 4t 4 − __
​ t ​ ​ b x = ​ __ ​  t3 + __
​  2  ​ c s = (3t2 − 1)(2t + 5) d x = ​ ___________
   ​
 
3 t 2t

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 Chapter 11

2 A particle is moving in a straight line. At time t seconds, its displacement, x m, from a fixed point
O on the line is given by x = 2t3 − 8t. Find:
a the velocity of the particle when t = 3 b the acceleration of the particle when t = 2.

P 3 A particle P is moving on the x-axis. At time t seconds (where t > 0) , the velocity of P is v m s−1
in the direction of x increasing, where v = 12 − t − t2.
Find the acceleration of P when P is instantaneously at rest.

P 4 A particle is moving in a straight line. At time t seconds, its displacement, x m, from a fixed point
O on the line is given by x = 4t3 − 39t2 + 120t.
Find the distance between the two points where P is instantaneously at rest.
E/p 5 A particle P moves in a straight line. At time t seconds the acceleration of P is a m s−2 and the
velocity v m s−1 is given by v = kt − 3t2, where k is a constant.
The initial acceleration of P is 4 m s−2.
a Find the value of k.  (3 marks)
b Using the value of k found in part a, find the acceleration when P is instantaneously at rest.
 (3 marks)
E/p 6 The print head on a printer moves such that its displacement s cm from the side of the printer at
time t seconds is given by:
_1
​ 4 ​  (4t3 − 15t2 + 12t + 30), 0 < t < 3
Find the distance between the points when the print head is instantaneously at rest,
in cm to 1 decimal place.  (6 marks)

11.3 Maxima and minima problems

You can use calculus to determine maximum and minimum values of displacement, velocity and
acceleration.

Example 5

A child is playing with a yo-yo. The yo-yo leaves the child’s hand at time t = 0 and travels vertically
in a straight line before returning to the child’s hand. The distance, s m, of the yo-yo from the
child’s hand after time t seconds is given by:
s = 0.6t + 0.4t2 − 0.2t3, 0 < t < 3
a Justify the restriction 0 < t < 3.
b Find the maximum distance of the yo-yo from the child’s hand, correct to 3 s.f.

a s = __1 __1
5​  ​  t  (3 + 2t − t ) = 5​  ​  t (3 − t)(1 + t)
2

s is a cubic function with a negative coefficient

O t of t3, and roots at t = −1, t = 0 and t = 3.
3
 ← Pure Year 1, Section 4.1

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 Variable acceleration

s = 0 at t = 0 and t = 3
s is positive for all values of t between 0 Comment on the value of s at the limits of the
and 3. range and the behaviour of s within the range.
s < 0 for t > 3. Since s is a distance the
model is not valid for t > 3. You know from your answer to part a that the
ds maximum value of s must occur at the turning
b ___
​     ​ = 0.6 + 0.8t − 0.6t2 point. To find the turning point differentiate and
dt
ds ds
​ ___   ​ = 0 set ___
​    ​= 0.  ← Pure Year 1, Section 12.9
dt dt
0.6 + 0.8t − 0.6t2 = 0
3t2 − 4t − 3 = 0 Multiply each term by −5 to obtain an equation
___ with a positive t2 term and integer coefficients.
4 ± √​  52  
​
t = ________
​      ​= 1.8685… or −0.5351…
  This makes your working easier.
6
s=0 .6(1.8685…) + 0.4(1.8685…)2
Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation
− 0.2(1.8685…)3
and take the positive value of t.
= 1.2129… = 1.21 m (3 s.f.)

Substitute this value of t back into the original

equation to find the corresponding value of s.
Remember to use unrounded values in your
calculation, and check that your answer makes
Exercise 11C sense in the context of the question.

1 A particle P moves in a straight line such that its distance, s m,  s

from a fixed point O at time t is given by:
s = 0.4t3 − 0.3t2 − 1.8t + 5, 0 < t < 3
The diagram shows the displacement–time graph of the motion of P.
a Determine the time at which P is moving with minimum velocity.
b Find the displacement of P from O at this time.
O 3 t
c Find the velocity of P at this time.

P 2 A body starts at rest and moves in a straight line. At time t seconds the displacement of the body
from its starting point, s m, is given by:
s = 4t3 − t4, 0 < t < 4.
a Show that the body returns to its starting position at t = 4. Hint
Write s = t3(4 − t) and
b Explain why s is always non-negative. consider the sign of each
c Find the maximum displacement of the body from its factor in the range 0 < t < 4.
starting point.

3 At time t = 0 a particle P leaves the origin O and moves along the x-axis. At time t seconds the
velocity of P is v m s−1, where:
v = t2(6 − t)2, t > 0
a Sketch a velocity–time graph for the motion of P.
b Find the maximum value of v and the time at which it occurs.

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P 4 A particle P moves along the x-axis. Its velocity, v m s−1 in the positive x-direction, at time
t seconds is given by:
v = 2t2 − 3t + 5, t > 0
a Show that P never comes to rest.
b Find the minimum velocity of P.

E/p 5 A particle P starts at the origin O at time t = 0 and moves along the x-axis. At time t seconds the
distance of the particle, s m, from the origin is given by:
9t2
s = ​ ___   ​− t3, 0 < t < 4.5
2
a Sketch a displacement–time graph for the motion of P.  (2 marks)
b Hence justify the restriction 0 < t < 4.5.  (2 marks)
c Find the maximum distance of the particle from O.  (5 marks)
d Find the magnitude of the acceleration of the particle at this point.  (3 marks)

E/p 6 A train moves in a straight line along a 4 km test track. The motion of the train is modelled as a
particle travelling in a straight line, and the distance, s m, of the train from the start of the track
after time t seconds is given by s = 3.6t + 1.76t2 − 0.02t3, 0 < t < 90. Show that the train never
reaches the end of the track.  (7 marks)

11.4 Using integration

Integration is the reverse process to differentiation. Links
The area under a velocity–time graph
You can integrate acceleration with respect to time
represents the displacement. ← Section 9.2
to find velocity, and you can integrate velocity with
respect to time to find displacement.
■ displacement = s = ∫v dt
ds
Differentiate ​ ___ ​= velocity = v = ∫a dt Integrate
dt
dv d2s
​ ___   ​= ___
​    ​ = acceleration = a
dt dt2

Example 6

A particle is moving on the x-axis. At time t = 0, the particle is at the point where x = 5.
The velocity of the particle at time t seconds (where t > 0) is (6t − t2) m s−1. Find:
a an expression for the displacement of the particle from O at time t seconds
b the distance of the particle from its starting point when t = 6.

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 Variable acceleration

a x = ∫v dt
You integrate the velocity to find the
t3
= 3t2 − ​ __  ​+ c, where c is a constant of displacement. You must remember to add the
3
integration. constant of integration.← Pure Year 1, Section 13.1
When t = 0, x = 5
03 This information enables you to find the value of
5 = 3 × 02 − ___ ​+ c = c ⇒ c = 5
​   ​ 
3 the constant of integration.
The displacement of the particle from O  ← Pure Year 1, Section 13.3

after t seconds is ​(3t2 − ​ __  ​+ 5)​ m.

t3
3
b Using the result in a, when t = 6 This calculation shows you that, when t = 6,
63 the particle is 41 m from O. When the particle
x = 3 × 62 − ___ ​+ 5 = 41
​   ​ 
3 started, it was 5 m from O. So the distance from
The distance from the starting point is its starting point is (41 − 5) m.
(41 − 5) m = 36 m.

Example 7

A particle travels in a straight line. After t seconds its velocity, v m s−1, is given by v = 5 − 3t2, t > 0.
Find the distance travelled by the particle in the third second of its motion.

v Watch
out Before using definite integration to
find the distance travelled, check that v doesn’t
2 3 change sign in the interval you are considering.
O t A sketch of the velocity–time graph can help.

v = 5 – 3t2
The distance travelled is the area under the
3
s= ∫2 (5 − 3t2)dt velocity–time graph. Use definite integration to
find it.  ← Pure Year 1, Section 13.4
s = [5t − t3]23 =
 (15 − 27) − (10 − 8)
= −12 − 2 = −14
The velocity is negative between t = 2 and t = 3
Distance travelled = 14 metres
so the displacement will be negative. You are
asked to find the distance travelled so give the
positive numerical value of the displacement.

Exercise 11D

 1 A particle is moving in a straight line. Given that s = 0 when t = 0, find an expression for the
displacement of the particle if the velocity is given by:
_
3t2
a v = 3t2 − 1 b v = 2t3 − ___
​     ​ c v = 2​√​  t ​ + 4t2
2

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 Chapter 11

 2 A particle is moving in a straight line. Given that v = 0 when t = 0, find an expression for the
velocity of the particle if the acceleration is given by:
t2
a a = 8t − 2t2 b a = 6 + __
​   ​ ​
3

 3 A particle P is moving on the x-axis. At time t seconds, the velocity of P is (8 + 2t − 3t2) m s−1 in

the direction of x increasing. At time t = 0, P is at the point where x = 4. Find the distance of P
from O when t = 1.

 4 A particle P is moving on the x-axis. At time t seconds, the acceleration of P is (16 − 2t) m s−2
in the direction of x increasing. The velocity of P at time t seconds is v m s−1. When t = 0, v = 6
and when t = 3, x = 75. Find:
a v in terms of t b the value of x when t = 0.

P  5 A particle is moving in a straight line. At time t seconds, its velocity, v m s−1, is given by
v = 6t2 − 51t + 90. When t = 0 the displacement is 0. Find the distance between the two points
where P is instantaneously at rest.

P  6 At time t seconds, where t > 0, the velocity v m s−1 of a particle moving in a straight line is given
by v = 12 + t − 6t2. When t = 0, P is at a point O on the line. Find the distance of P from O
when v = 0.

P  7 A particle P is moving on the x-axis. At time t seconds, Problem-solving

the velocity of P is (4t − t2) m s−1 in the direction of x
You will need to consider the
increasing. At time t = 0, P is at the origin O. Find:
motion when v is positive
a the value of x at the instant when t > 0 and P is at rest and negative separately.
b the total distance moved by P in the interval 0 < t < 5.

P  8 A particle P is moving on the x-axis. At time t seconds, the velocity of P is (6t2 − 26t + 15) m s−1
in the direction of x increasing. At time t = 0, P is at the origin O. In the subsequent motion P
passes through O twice. Find the two non-zero values of t when P passes through O.

P  9 A particle P moves along the x-axis. At time t seconds (where t > 0) the velocity of P is
(3t2 − 12t + 5) m s−1 in the direction of x increasing. When t = 0, P is at the origin O. Find:
a the values of t when P is again at O
b the distance travelled by P in the interval 2 < t < 3.

P 10 A particle P moves on the x-axis. The acceleration of P at time t seconds, t > 0,

is (4t − 3) m s−2 in the positive x-direction. When t = 0, the velocity of P is 4 m s−1 in the
positive x-direction. When t = T (T ≠ 0), the velocity of P is 4 m s−1 in the positive x-direction.
Find the value of T.  (6 marks)

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 Variable acceleration

E 11 A particle P travels in a straight line such that its acceleration at time t seconds is (t − 3) m s−2.
The velocity of P at time t seconds is v m s−1. When t = 0, v = 4. Find:
a v in terms of t  (4 marks)
b the values of t when P is instantaneously at rest  (3 marks)
c the distance between the two points at which P is instantaneously at rest. (4 marks)

E/p 12 A particle travels in a straight line such that its Problem-solving

acceleration, a m s−2, at time t seconds is given by
You need to use integration to find
a = 6t + 2. When t = 2 seconds, the displacement, s,
expressions for the velocity and
is 10 metres and when t = 3 seconds the displacement
displacement then substitute in
is 38 metres. Find: the given values. Use simultaneous
a the displacement when t = 4 seconds (6 marks) equations to find the values of the
b the velocity when t = 4 seconds. (2 marks) constants of integration.

Challenge
The motion of a robotic arm moving along a straight track is modelled
using the equations:
t2 t t2
v = ​ __ ​ ​+ 2, 0 < t < k and v = 10 + __
​   ​ − ​ ___  ​  , k < t < 10
2 3 12
The diagram shows a sketch of the velocity–time graph of the motion of
the arm.
v

0 10 t

Work out the total distance travelled by the robotic arm.

11.5 Constant acceleration formulae

You can use calculus to derive the formulae for motion with constant acceleration.

Example 8

A particle moves in a straight line with constant acceleration, a m s−2. Given that its initial velocity
is u m s−1 and its initial displacement is 0 m, prove that:
a its velocity, v m s−1 at time t s is given by v = u + at
b its displacement, s m, at time t is given by s = ut + _​ 2 ​  at2
1

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 Chapter 11

a v = ∫a dt
= at + c
When t = 0, v = u,
Use the initial condition you are given for the
so u = a × 0 + c = c
velocity to work out the value of c.
So v = u + at

b s = ∫v dt
= ∫(u + at) dt Use the equation for velocity you have just proved.
__1
= ut + 2 ​   ​  at2 +c
Use the initial condition you are given for the
When t = 0, s = 0
displacement to work out the value of c.
so 0 = u × 0 + __1
2​   ​× a × 0 + c
2

c=0 Watch
The out suvat equations can only be
So s = ut + __1 2
2​  ​   at used when the acceleration is constant.

Exercise 11E

P 1 A particle moves on the x-axis with constant acceleration a m s−2. The particle has initial
velocity 0 and initial displacement x m. After time t seconds the particle has velocity v m s−1 and
displacement s m.
Prove that s = _​ 2 ​   at2 + x.
1

2 A particle moves in a straight line with constant acceleration 5 m s−2.

a Given that its initial velocity is 12 m s−1, use calculus to show that its velocity at time t s is given
by v = 12 + 5t.
b Given that the initial displacement of the particle is 7 m, show that s = 12t + 2.5t2 + 7.

P 3 A particle moves in a straight line from a point O. At time t seconds, its displacement, s m,
from P is given by s = ut + _​ 2 ​   at2 where u and a are constants. Prove that the particle moves with
1

constant acceleration a.

4 Which of these equations for displacement describe constant acceleration? Explain your answers.
t2 2
A  s = 2t2 − t3   B s = 4t + 7   C s = __ ​   ​ ​   D s = 3t − __
​  2  ​   E s = 6
4 t
E/p 5 A particle moves in a straight line with constant acceleration. The initial velocity of the particle
is 5 m s−1 and after 2 seconds it is moving with velocity 13 m s−1.
a Find the acceleration of the particle.  (3 marks)
b Without making use of the kinematics
Watch
out An exam question might
formulae, show that the displacement,
specify that you cannot use certain formulae
s m, of the particle from its starting
or techniques. In this case you need to use
position is given by: calculus to find the answer to part b.
s = pt2 + qt + r, t > 0
where p, q and r are constants to be found.  (5 marks)

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 Variable acceleration

E/p 6 A train travels along a straight track, passing point A at time t = 0 and passing point B
40 seconds later. Its distance from A at time t seconds is given by:
s = 25t − 0.2t2, 0 < t < 40
a Find the distance AB.  (1 mark)
b Show that the train travels with constant acceleration.  (3 marks)
A bird passes point B at time t = 0 at an initial velocity towards A of 7 m s . It flies in a straight
−1

line towards point A with constant acceleration 0.6 m s−2.

c Find the distance from A at which the bird is directly above the train.  (6 marks)

Mixed exercise 11

 1 A particle P moves in a horizontal straight line. At time t seconds (where t > 0) the velocity
v m s−1 of P is given by v = 15 − 3t. Find:
a the value of t when P is instantaneously at rest
b the distance travelled by P between the time when t = 0 and the time when P is
instantaneously at rest.

 2 A particle P moves along the x-axis so that, at time t seconds, the displacement of P from O is
x metres and the velocity of P is v m s−1, where:
v = 6t + _​ 2 ​   t3
1

a Find the acceleration of P when t = 4.

b Given also that x = −5 when t = 0, find the distance OP when t = 4.

P  3 A particle P is moving along a straight line. At time t = 0, the particle is at a point A and is
moving with velocity 8 m s−1 towards a point B on the line, where AB = 30 m. At time t seconds
⟶
​  ​. 
(where t > 0), the acceleration of P is (2 − 2t) m s−2 in the direction AB ​
a Find an expression, in terms of t, for the displacement of P from A at time t seconds.
b Show that P does not reach B.
c Find the value of t when P returns to A, giving your answer to 3 significant figures.
d Find the total distance travelled by P in the interval between the two instants when it passes
through A.

E  4 A particle starts from rest at a point O and moves along a straight line OP with an acceleration,
a, after t seconds given by a = (8 − 2t2) m s−2.
Find:
a the greatest speed of the particle in the direction OP  (5 marks)
b the distance covered by the particle in the first two seconds of its motion.  (4 marks)

E/p  5 A particle P passes through a point O and moves in a straight line. The displacement, s metres,
of P from O, t seconds after passing through O is given by:
s = −t3 + 11t2 − 24t
a Find an expression for the velocity, v m s−1, of P at time t seconds.  (2 marks)
b Calculate the values of t at which P is instantaneously at rest.  (3 marks)

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 Chapter 11

c Find the value of t at which the acceleration is zero.  (2 marks)

d Sketch a velocity–time graph to illustrate the motion of P in the interval 0 < t < 6, showing
on your sketch the coordinates of the points at which the graph crosses the axes.  (3 marks)
e Calculate the values of t in the interval 0 < t < 6 between which the speed of P is greater
than 16 m s−1.  (6 marks)

E  6 A body moves in a straight line. Its velocity, v m s−1, at time t seconds is given by v = 3t2 − 11t + 10.
Find:
a the values of t when the body is instantaneously at rest  (3 marks)
b the acceleration of the body when t = 4  (3 marks)
c the total distance travelled by the body in the interval 0 < t < 4.  (4 marks)

E  7 A particle moves along the positive x-axis. At time t = 0 the particle passes through the origin
with velocity 6 m s−1. The acceleration, a m s−2, of the particle at time t seconds is given by
a = 2t3 − 8t for t > 0. Find:
a the velocity of the particle at time t seconds  (3 marks)
b the displacement of the particle from the origin at time t seconds  (2 marks)
c the values of t at which the particle is instantaneously at rest.  (3 marks)

E  8 A remote control drone hovers such that its vertical height, s m,  s
above ground level at time t seconds is given by the equation:
t4 − 12t3 + 28t2 + 400
x = __________________
  
​    ​ ,  0 < t < 8
 
50
The diagram shows a sketch of a displacement–time graph of the
drone’s motion.
Determine the maximum and minimum height of the drone. 0 8 t
 (7 marks)

E/p  9 A rocket sled is used to test a parachute braking mechanism for a space capsule.
At the moment the parachute is deployed, the sled is 1.5 km from its launch site and is
travelling away from it at a speed of 800 m s−1. The sled comes to rest 25 seconds after the
parachute is deployed.
The rocket sled is modelled as a particle moving in a straight horizontal line with constant
acceleration. At a time t seconds after the parachute is deployed, its distance, s m, from the
launch site is given by:
s = a + bt + ct2, 0 < t < 25
Find the values of a, b and c in this model.  (6 marks)

E 10 A particle P moves along the x-axis. It passes through the origin O at time t = 0 with speed
7 m s−1 in the direction of x increasing.
At time t seconds the acceleration of P in the direction of x increasing is (20 − 6t) m s−2.
a Show that the velocity v m s−1 of P at time t seconds is given by:
v = 7 + 20t − 3t2 (3 marks)

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 Variable acceleration

b Show that v = 0 when t = 7 and find the greatest speed of P in the interval
0 < t < 7.  (4 marks)
c Find the distance travelled by P in the interval 0 < t < 7.  (4 marks)

E/p 11 A particle P moves along a straight line. Initially, P is at rest at a point O on the line. At time
t seconds (where t > 0) the acceleration of P is proportional to (7 − t 2) and the displacement of
P from O is s metres. When t = 3, the velocity of P is 6 m s−1.
Show that s = __
1
​ 24  ​   t2(42 − t2).  (7 marks)

E/p 12 A mouse leaves its hole and makes a short journey along a straight wall before returning to its
hole. The mouse is modelled as a particle moving in a straight line. The distance of the mouse,
s m, from its hole at time t minutes is given by:
s = t 4 −10t3 + 25t2, 0 < t < 5
a Explain the restriction 0 < t < 5.  (3 marks)
b Find the greatest distance of the mouse from its hole.  (6 marks)

P 13 At a time t seconds after launch, the space shuttle can be modelled as a particle moving in a
straight line with acceleration, a m s−2, given by the equation:
a = (6.77 × 10−7)t3 − (3.98 × 10−4)t2 + 0.105t + 0.859,  124 < t < 446
a Suggest two reasons why the space shuttle might experience variable acceleration during its
launch phase.
Given that the velocity of the space shuttle at time t = 124 is 974 m s−1:
b find an expression for the velocity v m s−1 of the space shuttle at time t. Give your coefficients
to 3 significant figures.
c Hence find the velocity of the space shuttle at time t = 446, correct to 3 s.f.
From t = 446, the space shuttle maintains a constant acceleration of 28.6 m s−2 until it reaches
its escape velocity of 7.85 km s−1. It then cuts its main engines.
d Calculate the time at which the space shuttle cuts its main engines.

Challenge
1 A particle starts at rest and moves in a straight line. At time t seconds
after the beginning of its motion, the acceleration of the particle,
a m s−2, is given by:
a = 3t2 − 18t + 20, t > 0
Find the distance travelled by the particle in the first 5 seconds of its
motion.

2 A particle travels in a straight line with an acceleration, a m s−2, given

by a = 6t + 2.
The particle travels 50 metres in the fourth second. Find the velocity
of the particle when t = 5 seconds.

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 Chapter 11

Summary of key points

1 If the displacement, s, is expressed as a function of t, then the velocity, v, can be expressed as
ds
v = ___
​    ​
dt
2 If the velocity, v, is expressed as a function of t, then the acceleration, a, can be expressed as
dv d2s
a = ___
​    ​= ​ ___2  ​
dt dt

3 displacement = s = ∫v dt
ds
Differentiate ___
​    ​= velocity = v = ∫a dt Integrate
dt
dv d2s
​ ___  ​= ​ ___2  ​= acceleration = a
dt dt

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 E
Review exercise

1 v (m s–1) E/p
2
3 An electric train starts from rest at a
station A and moves along a straight level
5
track. The train accelerates uniformly
at 0.4 m s−2 to a speed of 16 m s−1. The
speed is then maintained for a distance of
2
2000 m. Finally the train retards uniformly
for 20 s before coming to rest at a station
O 3 7 t (s) B. For this journey from A to B,
The figure shows the velocity–time graph a find the total time taken(5)
of a cyclist moving on a straight road over b find the distance from A to B (5)
a 7 s period. The sections of the graph c sketch the displacement–time graph,
from t = 0 to t = 3, and from t = 3 to t = 7, showing clearly the shape of the graph
are straight lines, The section from t = 3 to for each stage of the journey. (3)
t = 7 is parallel to the t-axis. ← Sections 9.1, 9.3
State what can be deduced about the
motion of the cyclist from the fact that: E 4 A small ball is projected vertically upwards
a the graph from t = 0 to t = 3 is a straight from a point A. The greatest height
line (1) reached by the ball is 40 m above A.
b the graph from t = 3 to t = 7 is parallel Calculate:
to the t-axis.(1) a the speed of projection (3)
c Find the distance travelled by the cyclist b the time between the instant that the
during this 7 s period. (4) ball is projected and the instant it
← Section 9.2 returns to A. (3)
← Sections 9.4, 9.5
E 2 A train stops at two stations 7.5 km apart.
Between the stations it takes 75 s to accelerate E/p 5 A ball is projected vertically upwards and
uniformly to a speed 24 m s−1, then travels takes 3 seconds to reach its highest point.
at this speed for a time T seconds before At time t seconds, the ball is 39.2 m above
decelerating uniformly for the final 0.6 km. its point of projection. Find the possible
a Draw a velocity–time graph to illustrate values of t. (5)
this journey. (3) ← Sections 9.4, 9.5

Hence, or otherwise, find: E/p 6 A light object is acted qN

b the deceleration of the train during the upon by a horizontal
final 0.6 km (3) force of p N and
c the value of T (5) a vertical force of
d the total time for the journey. (4) q N as shown in the
pN
← Sections 9.2, 9.3 diagram.

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 Review exercise 2

The resultant of the

___
two forces has The ground is soft and the ball sinks 2.5 cm
a magnitude of √​  40 N
​ which acts in
  into the ground before coming to rest.
the direction of 30° to the horizontal. The mass of the ball is 0.6 kg. The ground
Calculate the value of p and the value of q. is assumed to exert a constant resistive
← Sections 8.4, 10.1, 10.2 force of magnitude F newtons.
E 7 A car of mass 750 kg, moving along a c Find, to three significant figures, the
level straight road, has its speed reduced value of F. (4)
from 25 m s−1 to 15 m s−1 by brakes which d Sketch a velocity–time graph for the
produce a constant retarding force of entire motion of the ball, showing the
2250 N. Calculate the distance travelled by values of t at any points where the graph
the car as its speed is reduced from 25 m s−2 intercepts the horizontal axis. (4)
to 15 m s−1. (5) e State one physical factor which could be
← Sections 9.3, 10.3 taken into account to make the model
used in this question more realistic. (1)
E 8 An engine of mass 25 tonnes pulls a truck
← Sections 8.1, 8.2, 9.5, 10.3, 10.4
of mass 10 tonnes along a railway line.
The resistances to the motion of the engine E 10 A particle A, of mass 0.8 kg, resting on a
and the truck are modelled as constant
smooth horizontal table, is connected to
and of magnitude 50 N per tonne. When
a particle B, of mass 0.6 kg, which is 1 m
the train is travelling horizontally, the
from the ground, by a light inextensible
tractive force exerted by the engine is
string passing over a small smooth pulley
26 kN. Modelling the engine and the truck
at the edge of the table. The particle A
as particles and the coupling between the
is more than 1 m from the edge of the
engine and the truck as a light horizontal
table. The system is released from rest
rod calculate:
with the horizontal part of the string
a the acceleration of the engine and the perpendicular to the edge of the table, the
truck (4) hanging parts vertical and the string taut.
b the tension in the coupling. (3) Calculate:
c State how in your calculations you have a the acceleration of A (5)
used the information that
b the tension in the string (1)
i the engine and the truck are particles
ii the coupling is a light horizontal rod. c the speed of B when it hits the
 (2) ground (3)
← Sections 8.1, 8.2, 10.3, 10.5 d the time taken for B to reach the
ground. (3)
E/p 9 A ball is projected vertically upwards with
e The string in this question is described
a speed u m s−1 from a point A, which is
as being ‘light’.
1.5 m above the ground. The ball moves
i Write down what you understand by
freely under gravity until it reaches the
this description.
ground. The greatest height attained by the
ball is 25.6 m above A. ii State how you have used the fact
that the string is light in your answer
a Show that u = 22.4. (3)
to parts a and b.(2)
The ball reaches the ground T seconds ← Sections 8.1, 8.2, 9.5, 10.4, 10.6
after it has been projected from A.
b Find, to three significant figures, the E/p 11 Two particles P and Q have mass 0.6 kg
value of T.(3) and 0.2 kg respectively. The particles

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 Review exercise 2

are attached to the ends of a light 1650 N, calcluate the greatest possible
inextensible string. The string passes deceleration of the car.(3)
over a small smooth pulley which is fixed ← Sections 10.1, 10.3, 10.5
above a horizontal floor. Both particles
are held, with the string taut, at a height E 13 A boy sits on a box in a lift. The mass of
of 1 m above the floor. The particles are
the boy is 45 kg, the mass of the box is
released from rest and in the subsequent
20 kg and the mass of the lift is 1050 kg.
motion Q does not reach the pulley.
The lift is being raised vertically by a
vertical cable which is attached to the top
of the lift. The lift is moving upwards
and has constant deceleration of 2 m s−2.
By modelling the cable as being light and
inextensible, find:
P Q
a the tension in the cable (3)
1m 1m b the magnitude of the force exerted on
the box by the boy (3)
c the magnitude of the force exerted on
a Find the tension in the string the box by the lift. (3)
immediately after the particles are
← Sections 8.1, 8.2, 10.1, 10.4, 10.5
released. (6)
b Find the acceleration of P immediately
E/p 14 Two forces F1 = (2i + 3j) N and
after the particles are released. (2)
F2 = (λi + μj) N, where λ and μ are
When the particles have been moving for scalars, act on a particle. The resultant of
0.4 s, the string breaks. the two forces is R, where R is parallel to
c  Find the further time that elapses the vector i + 2j.
until P hits the floor. (9) a Find, to the nearest degree, the acute
d State how in your calculations you angle between the line of action of R
have used the information that the and the vector i. (2)
string is inextensible. (1) b Show that 2λ − μ + 1 = 0. (5)
← Sections 9.5, 10.4, 10.6
Given that the direction of F2 is parallel
to j,
E 12 A trailer of mass 600 kg is attached
c find, to three significant figures the
to a car of mass 900 kg by means of a
magnitude of R. (4)
light inextensible tow-bar. The car tows
← Sections 8.4, 10.2
the trailer along a horizontal road. The
resistances to motion of the car and
trailer are 300 N and 150 N respectively. E/p 15 A force R acts on a particle, where
a Given that the acceleration of the car R = (7i + 16j) N.
and trailer is 0.4 m s−2, calculate: Calculate:
i the tractive force exerted by the a the magnitude of R, giving your
engine of the car answers to one decimal place (2)
ii the tension in the tow-bar. (6) b the angle between the line of action
b Given that the magnitude of the of R and i, giving your answer to the
force in the tow-bar must not exceed nearest degree. (2)

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 Review exercise 2

The force R is the resultant of two forces Challenge

P and Q. The line of action of P is parallel
1 A tram starts from rest at station A and
to the vector (i + 4j) and the line of action
accelerates uniformly for t1 seconds covering a
of Q is parallel to the vector (i + j).
distance of 1750 m. It then travels at a constant
c Determine the forces P and Q speed v m s−1 for t2 seconds covering a distance
expressing each in terms of i and j. (6) of 17 500 m. The tram then decelerates for t3
← Sections 8.4, 10.2 seconds and comes to rest at station B. Given
that the total time for the journey is 7 minutes
E/p 16 A particle P moves on the x-axis. At time and 3t1 = 4t3, find t1, t2 and t3 and the distance
t seconds, its acceleration is (5 − 2t) m s−2, between station A and station B.
measured in the direction of x increasing. ← Section 9.3
When t = 0, its velocity is 6 m s−1 measured
in the direction of x increasing. Find the 2 [In this question use g = 10 m s−2]
time when P is instantaneously at rest in One end of a light inextensible string is
the subsequent motion. (5) attached to a block A of mass 5 kg. The block A
← Sections 11.1, 11.4 is held at rest on a rough horizontal table. The
motion of the block is subject to a resistance
E/p 17 At time t = 0 a particle P leaves the origin of 2 N. The string lies parallel to the table and
O and moves along the x-axis. At time t passes over a smooth light pulley which is fixed
seconds the velocity of P is v m s−1, where at the top of the table. The other end of the
v = 6t − 2t2. Find: string is attached to a light scale pan which
carries two blocks B and C, with block B on top
a the maximum value of v (4)
of block C as shown. The mass of block B is 5 kg
b the time taken for P to return to O.  (5) and the mass of block C is 10 kg.
← Sections 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4
A
E/p 18 A particle P moves on the positive x-axis.
The velocity of P at time t seconds is
(3t2 − 8t + 5) m s−1. When t = 0, P is 12 m
from the origin O. Find:
a the values of t when P is B
instantaneously at rest (3) C
b the acceleration of P when t = 4 (3)
c the total distance travelled by P in the The scale pan hangs at rest and the system is
third second. (4) released from rest. By modelling the blocks as
← Sections 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4 particles, ignoring air resistance and assuming
the motion is uninterrupted, find:
E 19 A particle moves in a straight line and at
a the acceleration of the scale pan
time t seconds has velocity v m s−1, where
_3
b the tension in the string
v = 6t − 2​​t​ ​ 2 ​ ​, t > 0 c the magnitude of the force exerted on block
a Find an expression for the acceleration B by block C
of the particle at time t. (2) d the magnitude of the force exerted on the
pulley by the string.
When t = 0, the particle is at the origin.
e State how in your calculations you have
b Find an expression for the
used the information that the string is
displacement of the particle from the inextensible.
origin at time t. (4)
← Sections 10.5, 10.6
← Sections 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4

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 Exam-style practice
Mathematics
AS Level
Paper 2: Statistics and Mechanics
Time: 1 hour 15 minutes
You must have: Mathematical Formulae and Statistical Tables, Calculator

SECTION A: STATISTICS
1 The Venn diagram shows the probabilities that a randomly chosen member of a group of
monkeys likes bananas (B) or mangoes (M).

B M

0.2 y 0.3

0.35

a Find the value of y. (1)

b Determine whether the events ‘likes bananas’ and ‘likes mangoes’ are independent. (2)

2 Clare is investigating the daily mean temperature in the UK in September 2015. She takes
a sample of the first 10 days from September 2015 for Camborne from the large data set.
The results are shown below:
14.3  12.8  13.0  13.0  14.3  12.6  13.5  13.7  15.9  17.0
a State, with a reason, whether t is a discrete or continuous variable. (1)
Given that Σt = 140.1 and Σt = 1981.33,
2

b find the mean and standard deviation of the temperatures. (3)

The mean temperature on 11 September is recorded as 15.8 °C.
c State what effect adding this value to the data set would have on the mean temperature.(1)
d Suggest how Clare could make better use of the large data set for her study. (2)

3 A biased dice has a probability distribution as shown in the table below:

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(X = x) 0.1 0.2 0.15 p 0.1 0.25

a Find the value of p. (1)

b Find P(2 < X < 5). (1)
c The dice is rolled 10 times Find the probability that it lands on an odd number:
i exactly twice (2)
ii more than 6 times. (2)

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4 A factory makes plates using a production line process. On average, 3 out of every 10 plates
have flaws. A new production process is introduced designed to make the average number of
flaws less. A new sample of 20 plates is taken.
a Describe the test statistic and state suitable null and alternative hypotheses. (2)
b Using a 5% level of significance, find the critical region for a test to check the
belief that the process has improved. (3)
c State the actual significance level. (1)
In the new sample, only 1 plate has flaws.
d Conclude whether there is evidence that the process has improved. (1)

5 A scientist measures the amount of energy released by a chemical reaction, e Joules,

against the temperature, h °C.

300
e, energy, Joules

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
h, temperature, °C .
She found the equation of the regression line of e on h to be e = 20 + 3.1h.
a Give an interpretation of the value 3.1 in this model.(1)
b State, with a reason, whether it is sensible to estimate e when h = 200 °C. (1)
c State, with a reason, whether it is sensible to measure h when e = 150 Joules. (1)

6 A conservationist is collecting data on the heights of giraffe. She displays the data in a
histogram as shown.

100
90
80
Frequency density

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Height (m)

One giraffe is chosen at random. Estimate the probability that it is between 4.6 and
6.1 metres tall. (4)

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 Exam-style practice

SECTION B: MECHANICS
7 A car is towing a trailer along a straight horizontal road by means of a horizontal tow-rope.
The mass of the car is 1500 kg. The mass of the trailer is 700 kg. The car and the trailer are
modelled as particles and the tow-rope as a light inextensible string. The resistances to motion
of the car and the trailer are assumed to be constant and of magnitude 660 N and 320 N
respectively. The driving force on the car, due to its engine, is 2630 N.
Find:
a the acceleration of the car (3)
b the tension in the tow-rope. (3)
c State how you have used the modelling assumption that the tow-rope is inextensible. (1)

8 A particle P of mass 3 kg is moving under the action of forces

F1 = 3i − 6j N, F2 = 4i + 5j N and F3 = 2i − 2j N.
Find:
a the acceleration of P in the form pi + qj(3)
b angle the acceleration makes with i(2)
c the magnitude of the acceleration. (2)

9 A small ball is projected vertically upwards from a point P with speed u m s−1. After projection
the ball moves freely under gravity until it returns to P. The time between the instant that the
ball is projected and the instant that it returns to P is 5 seconds.
The ball is modelled as a particle moving freely under gravity.
Find:
a the value of u (3)
b the greatest height above P reached by the ball. (2)
At time t seconds, the ball is 15 m above P.
c Find the possible values of t. (4)

10 A particle, P, moves in a straight line through a fixed point O. The velocity of the particle,
v m s−1 at a time t seconds after passing through O is given by
v = 3 + 9t2 − 4t3, 0 < t < 2.
The diagram shows a velocity–time graph of the motion of P.
v

O T 2 t

Find the distance of P from O at time T seconds, when the particle is moving with
maximum velocity. (7)

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 Appendix

Binomial cumulative distribution function

The tabulated value is P(X < x), where X has a binomial distribution with index n and parameter p.
p5 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
n 5 5, x 5 0 0.7738 0.5905 0.4437 0.3277 0.2373 0.1681 0.1160 0.0778 0.0503 0.0312
1 0.9774 0.9185 0.8352 0.7373 0.6328 0.5282 0.4284 0.3370 0.2562 0.1875
2 0.9988 0.9914 0.9734 0.9421 0.8965 0.8369 0.7648 0.6826 0.5931 0.5000
3 1.0000 0.9995 0.9978 0.9933 0.9844 0.9692 0.9460 0.9130 0.8688 0.8125
4 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9990 0.9976 0.9947 0.9898 0.9815 0.9688
n  5  6, x  5  0 0.7351 0.5314 0.3771 0.2621 0.1780 0.1176 0.0754 0.0467 0.0277 0.0156
1 0.9672 0.8857 0.7765 0.6554 0.5339 0.4202 0.3191 0.2333 0.1636 0.1094
2 0.9978 0.9842 0.9527 0.9011 0.8306 0.7443 0.6471 0.5443 0.4415 0.3438
3 0.9999 0.9987 0.9941 0.9830 0.9624 0.9295 0.8826 0.8208 0.7447 0.6563
4 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996 0.9984 0.9954 0.9891 0.9777 0.9590 0.9308 0.8906
5 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9993 0.9982 0.9959 0.9917 0.9844
n  5  7, x  5  0 0.6983 0.4783 0.3206 0.2097 0.1335 0.0824 0.0490 0.0280 0.0152 0.0078
1 0.9556 0.8503 0.7166 0.5767 0.4449 0.3294 0.2338 0.1586 0.1024 0.0625
2 0.9962 0.9743 0.9262 0.8520 0.7564 0.6471 0.5323 0.4199 0.3164 0.2266
3 0.9998 0.9973 0.9879 0.9667 0.9294 0.8740 0.8002 0.7102 0.6083 0.5000
4 1.0000 0.9998 0.9988 0.9953 0.9871 0.9712 0.9444 0.9037 0.8471 0.7734
5 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996 0.9987 0.9962 0.9910 0.9812 0.9643 0.9375
6 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9994 0.9984 0.9963 0.9922
n  5  8, x  5  0 0.6634 0.4305 0.2725 0.1678 0.1001 0.0576 0.0319 0.0168 0.0084 0.0039
1 0.9428 0.8131 0.6572 0.5033 0.3671 0.2553 0.1691 0.1064 0.0632 0.0352
2 0.9942 0.9619 0.8948 0.7969 0.6785 0.5518 0.4278 0.3154 0.2201 0.1445
3 0.9996 0.9950 0.9786 0.9437 0.8862 0.8059 0.7064 0.5941 0.4770 0.3633
4 1.0000 0.9996 0.9971 0.9896 0.9727 0.9420 0.8939 0.8263 0.7396 0.6367
5 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9988 0.9958 0.9887 0.9747 0.9502 0.9115 0.8555
6 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996 0.9987 0.9964 0.9915 0.9819 0.9648
7 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9993 0.9983 0.9961
n  5  9, x  5  0 0.6302 0.3874 0.2316 0.1342 0.0751 0.0404 0.0207 0.0101 0.0046 0.0020
1 0.9288 0.7748 0.5995 0.4362 0.3003 0.1960 0.1211 0.0705 0.0385 0.0195
2 0.9916 0.9470 0.8591 0.7382 0.6007 0.4628 0.3373 0.2318 0.1495 0.0898
3 0.9994 0.9917 0.9661 0.9144 0.8343 0.7297 0.6089 0.4826 0.3614 0.2539
4 1.0000 0.9991 0.9944 0.9804 0.9511 0.9012 0.8283 0.7334 0.6214 0.5000
5 1.0000 0.9999 0.9994 0.9969 0.9900 0.9747 0.9464 0.9006 0.8342 0.7461
6 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9987 0.9957 0.9888 0.9750 0.9502 0.9102
7 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996 0.9986 0.9962 0.9909 0.9805
8 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9992 0.9980
n  5  10, x  5  0 0.5987 0.3487 0.1969 0.1074 0.0563 0.0282 0.0135 0.0060 0.0025 0.0010
1 0.9139 0.7361 0.5443 0.3758 0.2440 0.1493 0.0860 0.0464 0.0233 0.0107
2 0.9885 0.9298 0.8202 0.6778 0.5256 0.3828 0.2616 0.1673 0.0996 0.0547
3 0.9990 0.9872 0.9500 0.8791 0.7759 0.6496 0.5138 0.3823 0.2660 0.1719
4 0.9999 0.9984 0.9901 0.9672 0.9219 0.8497 0.7515 0.6331 0.5044 0.3770
5 1.0000 0.9999 0.9986 0.9936 0.9803 0.9527 0.9051 0.8338 0.7384 0.6230
6 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9991 0.9965 0.9894 0.9740 0.9452 0.8980 0.8281
7 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996 0.9984 0.9952 0.9877 0.9726 0.9453
8 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9995 0.9983 0.9955 0.9893
9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9990

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p  5 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
n  5  12, x  5  0 0.5404 0.2824 0.1422 0.0687 0.0317 0.0138 0.0057 0.0022 0.0008 0.0002
1 0.8816 0.6590 0.4435 0.2749 0.1584 0.0850 0.0424 0.0196 0.0083 0.0032
2 0.9804 0.8891 0.7358 0.5583 0.3907 0.2528 0.1513 0.0834 0.0421 0.0193
3 0.9978 0.9744 0.9078 0.7946 0.6488 0.4925 0.3467 0.2253 0.1345 0.0730
4 0.9998 0.9957 0.9761 0.9274 0.8424 0.7237 0.5833 0.4382 0.3044 0.1938
5 1.0000 0.9995 0.9954 0.9806 0.9456 0.8822 0.7873 0.6652 0.5269 0.3872
6 1.0000 0.9999 0.9993 0.9961 0.9857 0.9614 0.9154 0.8418 0.7393 0.6128
7 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9994 0.9972 0.9905 0.9745 0.9427 0.8883 0.8062
8 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996 0.9983 0.9944 0.9847 0.9644 0.9270
9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9992 0.9972 0.9921 0.9807
10 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9989 0.9968
11 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998
n  5  15, x  5  0 0.4633 0.2059 0.0874 0.0352 0.0134 0.0047 0.0016 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000
1 0.8290 0.5490 0.3186 0.1671 0.0802 0.0353 0.0142 0.0052 0.0017 0.0005
2 0.9638 0.8159 0.6042 0.3980 0.2361 0.1268 0.0617 0.0271 0.0107 0.0037
3 0.9945 0.9444 0.8227 0.6482 0.4613 0.2969 0.1727 0.0905 0.0424 0.0176
4 0.9994 0.9873 0.9383 0.8358 0.6865 0.5155 0.3519 0.2173 0.1204 0.0592
5 0.9999 0.9978 0.9832 0.9389 0.8516 0.7216 0.5643 0.4032 0.2608 0.1509
6 1.0000 0.9997 0.9964 0.9819 0.9434 0.8689 0.7548 0.6098 0.4522 0.3036
7 1.0000 1.0000 0.9994 0.9958 0.9827 0.9500 0.8868 0.7869 0.6535 0.5000
8 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9992 0.9958 0.9848 0.9578 0.9050 0.8182 0.6964
9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9992 0.9963 0.9876 0.9662 0.9231 0.8491
10 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9993 0.9972 0.9907 0.9745 0.9408
11 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9995 0.9981 0.9937 0.9824
12 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997 0.9989 0.9963
13 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9995
14 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
n  5  20, x  5  0 0.3585 0.1216 0.0388 0.0115 0.0032 0.0008 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.7358 0.3917 0.1756 0.0692 0.0243 0.0076 0.0021 0.0005 0.0001 0.0000
2 0.9245 0.6769 0.4049 0.2061 0.0913 0.0355 0.0121 0.0036 0.0009 0.0002
3 0.9841 0.8670 0.6477 0.4114 0.2252 0.1071 0.0444 0.0160 0.0049 0.0013
4 0.9974 0.9568 0.8298 0.6296 0.4148 0.2375 0.1182 0.0510 0.0189 0.0059
5 0.9997 0.9887 0.9327 0.8042 0.6172 0.4164 0.2454 0.1256 0.0553 0.0207
6 1.0000 0.9976 0.9781 0.9133 0.7858 0.6080 0.4166 0.2500 0.1299 0.0577
7 1.0000 0.9996 0.9941 0.9679 0.8982 0.7723 0.6010 0.4159 0.2520 0.1316
8 1.0000 0.9999 0.9987 0.9900 0.9591 0.8867 0.7624 0.5956 0.4143 0.2517
9 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9974 0.9861 0.9520 0.8782 0.7553 0.5914 0.4119
10 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9994 0.9961 0.9829 0.9468 0.8725 0.7507 0.5881
11 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9991 0.9949 0.9804 0.9435 0.8692 0.7483
12 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9987 0.9940 0.9790 0.9420 0.8684
13 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9985 0.9935 0.9786 0.9423
14 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9984 0.9936 0.9793
15 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9985 0.9941
16 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9987
17 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998
18 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

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p  5 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
n  5  25, x  5  0 0.2774 0.0718 0.0172 0.0038 0.0008 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.6424 0.2712 0.0931 0.0274 0.0070 0.0016 0.0003 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.8729 0.5371 0.2537 0.0982 0.0321 0.0090 0.0021 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000
3 0.9659 0.7636 0.4711 0.2340 0.0962 0.0332 0.0097 0.0024 0.0005 0.0001
4 0.9928 0.9020 0.6821 0.4207 0.2137 0.0905 0.0320 0.0095 0.0023 0.0005
5 0.9988 0.9666 0.8385 0.6167 0.3783 0.1935 0.0826 0.0294 0.0086 0.0020
6 0.9998 0.9905 0.9305 0.7800 0.5611 0.3407 0.1734 0.0736 0.0258 0.0073
7 1.0000 0.9977 0.9745 0.8909 0.7265 0.5118 0.3061 0.1536 0.0639 0.0216
8 1.0000 0.9995 0.9920 0.9532 0.8506 0.6769 0.4668 0.2735 0.1340 0.0539
9 1.0000 0.9999 0.9979 0.9827 0.9287 0.8106 0.6303 0.4246 0.2424 0.1148
10 1.0000 1.0000 0.9995 0.9944 0.9703 0.9022 0.7712 0.5858 0.3843 0.2122
11 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9985 0.9893 0.9558 0.8746 0.7323 0.5426 0.3450
12 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9996 0.9966 0.9825 0.9396 0.8462 0.6937 0.5000
13 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9991 0.9940 0.9745 0.9222 0.8173 0.6550
14 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9982 0.9907 0.9656 0.9040 0.7878
15 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9995 0.9971 0.9868 0.9560 0.8852
16 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9992 0.9957 0.9826 0.9461
17 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9988 0.9942 0.9784
18 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9984 0.9927
19 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996 0.9980
20 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9995
21 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
22 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
n  5  30, x  5  0 0.2146 0.0424 0.0076 0.0012 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.5535 0.1837 0.0480 0.0105 0.0020 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.8122 0.4114 0.1514 0.0442 0.0106 0.0021 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.9392 0.6474 0.3217 0.1227 0.0374 0.0093 0.0019 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.9844 0.8245 0.5245 0.2552 0.0979 0.0302 0.0075 0.0015 0.0002 0.0000
5 0.9967 0.9268 0.7106 0.4275 0.2026 0.0766 0.0233 0.0057 0.0011 0.0002
6 0.9994 0.9742 0.8474 0.6070 0.3481 0.1595 0.0586 0.0172 0.0040 0.0007
7 0.9999 0.9922 0.9302 0.7608 0.5143 0.2814 0.1238 0.0435 0.0121 0.0026
8 1.0000 0.9980 0.9722 0.8713 0.6736 0.4315 0.2247 0.0940 0.0312 0.0081
9 1.0000 0.9995 0.9903 0.9389 0.8034 0.5888 0.3575 0.1763 0.0694 0.0214
10 1.0000 0.9999 0.9971 0.9744 0.8943 0.7304 0.5078 0.2915 0.1350 0.0494
11 1.0000 1.0000 0.9992 0.9905 0.9493 0.8407 0.6548 0.4311 0.2327 0.1002
12 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9969 0.9784 0.9155 0.7802 0.5785 0.3592 0.1808
13 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9991 0.9918 0.9599 0.8737 0.7145 0.5025 0.2923
14 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9973 0.9831 0.9348 0.8246 0.6448 0.4278
15 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9992 0.9936 0.9699 0.9029 0.7691 0.5722
16 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9979 0.9876 0.9519 0.8644 0.7077
17 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9994 0.9955 0.9788 0.9286 0.8192
18 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9986 0.9917 0.9666 0.8998
19 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9996 0.9971 0.9862 0.9506
20 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9991 0.9950 0.9786
21 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9984 0.9919
22 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9996 0.9974
23 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9993
24 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998
25 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

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p  5 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
n  5  40, x  5  0 0.1285 0.0148 0.0015 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.3991 0.0805 0.0121 0.0015 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.6767 0.2228 0.0486 0.0079 0.0010 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.8619 0.4231 0.1302 0.0285 0.0047 0.0006 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.9520 0.6290 0.2633 0.0759 0.0160 0.0026 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
5 0.9861 0.7937 0.4325 0.1613 0.0433 0.0086 0.0013 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
6 0.9966 0.9005 0.6067 0.2859 0.0962 0.0238 0.0044 0.0006 0.0001 0.0000
7 0.9993 0.9581 0.7559 0.4371 0.1820 0.0553 0.0124 0.0021 0.0002 0.0000
8 0.9999 0.9845 0.8646 0.5931 0.2998 0.1110 0.0303 0.0061 0.0009 0.0001
9 1.0000 0.9949 0.9328 0.7318 0.4395 0.1959 0.0644 0.0156 0.0027 0.0003
10 1.0000 0.9985 0.9701 0.8392 0.5839 0.3087 0.1215 0.0352 0.0074 0.0011
11 1.0000 0.9996 0.9880 0.9125 0.7151 0.4406 0.2053 0.0709 0.0179 0.0032
12 1.0000 0.9999 0.9957 0.9568 0.8209 0.5772 0.3143 0.1285 0.0386 0.0083
13 1.0000 1.0000 0.9986 0.9806 0.8968 0.7032 0.4408 0.2112 0.0751 0.0192
14 1.0000 1.0000 0.9996 0.9921 0.9456 0.8074 0.5721 0.3174 0.1326 0.0403
15 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9971 0.9738 0.8849 0.6946 0.4402 0.2142 0.0769
16 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9990 0.9884 0.9367 0.7978 0.5681 0.3185 0.1341
17 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9953 0.9680 0.8761 0.6885 0.4391 0.2148
18 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9983 0.9852 0.9301 0.7911 0.5651 0.3179
19 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9994 0.9937 0.9637 0.8702 0.6844 0.4373
20 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9976 0.9827 0.9256 0.7870 0.5627
21 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9991 0.9925 0.9608 0.8669 0.6821
22 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9970 0.9811 0.9233 0.7852
23 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9989 0.9917 0.9595 0.8659
24 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9996 0.9966 0.9804 0.9231
25 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9988 0.9914 0.9597
26 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9996 0.9966 0.9808
27 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9988 0.9917
28 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9996 0.9968
29 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9989
30 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997
31 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
32 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

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p  5 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
n  5  50, x  5  0 0.0769 0.0052 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.2794 0.0338 0.0029 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.5405 0.1117 0.0142 0.0013 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.7604 0.2503 0.0460 0.0057 0.0005 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.8964 0.4312 0.1121 0.0185 0.0021 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
5 0.9622 0.6161 0.2194 0.0480 0.0070 0.0007 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
6 0.9882 0.7702 0.3613 0.1034 0.0194 0.0025 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
7 0.9968 0.8779 0.5188 0.1904 0.0453 0.0073 0.0008 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
8 0.9992 0.9421 0.6681 0.3073 0.0916 0.0183 0.0025 0.0002 0.0000 0.0000
9 0.9998 0.9755 0.7911 0.4437 0.1637 0.0402 0.0067 0.0008 0.0001 0.0000
10 1.0000 0.9906 0.8801 0.5836 0.2622 0.0789 0.0160 0.0022 0.0002 0.0000
11 1.0000 0.9968 0.9372 0.7107 0.3816 0.1390 0.0342 0.0057 0.0006 0.0000
12 1.0000 0.9990 0.9699 0.8139 0.5110 0.2229 0.0661 0.0133 0.0018 0.0002
13 1.0000 0.9997 0.9868 0.8894 0.6370 0.3279 0.1163 0.0280 0.0045 0.0005
14 1.0000 0.9999 0.9947 0.9393 0.7481 0.4468 0.1878 0.0540 0.0104 0.0013
15 1.0000 1.0000 0.9981 0.9692 0.8369 0.5692 0.2801 0.0955 0.0220 0.0033
16 1.0000 1.0000 0.9993 0.9856 0.9017 0.6839 0.3889 0.1561 0.0427 0.0077
17 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9937 0.9449 0.7822 0.5060 0.2369 0.0765 0.0164
18 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9975 0.9713 0.8594 0.6216 0.3356 0.1273 0.0325
19 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9991 0.9861 0.9152 0.7264 0.4465 0.1974 0.0595
20 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9937 0.9522 0.8139 0.5610 0.2862 0.1013
21 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9974 0.9749 0.8813 0.6701 0.3900 0.1611
22 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9990 0.9877 0.9290 0.7660 0.5019 0.2399
23 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9996 0.9944 0.9604 0.8438 0.6134 0.3359
24 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9976 0.9793 0.9022 0.7160 0.4439
25 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9991 0.9900 0.9427 0.8034 0.5561
26 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9955 0.9686 0.8721 0.6641
27 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9981 0.9840 0.9220 0.7601
28 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9993 0.9924 0.9556 0.8389
29 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9966 0.9765 0.8987
30 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9986 0.9884 0.9405
31 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9995 0.9947 0.9675
32 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9978 0.9836
33 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9991 0.9923
34 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9997 0.9967
35 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9987
36 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9995
37 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998
38 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

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 Answers

Answers
Prior knowledge 1 b The sample will have proportional representation of
 1 a Mean 5.89 (2 d.p.); Median 6; Mode 4; Range 10 the members who play the different sports.
b Mean 18.38 (2 d.p.); Median 18.5; Mode 20; Range 9 c Cricket: 10, Hockey: 12, Squash: 8
 2 ANY TWO FROM: Overlapping categories; No option for
> 4 hours; Question doesn’t specify a period of time. Exercise 1C
How much TV do you watch each day?  1 a i Divide the population into groups according to
0–1 hours 2–3 hours 4 hours or more given characteristics. The size of each group
 3 a 29 b 35 c 38 d 95 determines the proportion of the sample that
should have that characteristic. The interviewer
Exercise 1A assesses which group people fall into as part of
 1 a A census observes or measures every member of a the interview. Once a quota has been filled, no
population. more people in that group are interviewed.
b Advantage: will give a completely accurate result. ii Opportunity sampling consists of taking the
Disadvantage: ANY ONE FROM: time consuming, sample from the people who are available at
expensive. the time the study is carried out, e.g. the first 40
 2 a The testing process will destroy the harness, so a shoppers who are available to be interviewed.
census would destroy all the harnesses. b Quota sampling.
b 250 kg is the median load at which the harnesses  2 Similarities: The population is divided according
in the sample break. This means that half of the to the characteristics of the whole population (into
harnesses will break at a load less than 250 kg. strata for stratified sampling, and groups for quota
c Test a larger number of harnesses. sampling)
 3 a ANY ONE FROM: Differences: Stratified sampling uses random sampling
  It would be expensive. whereas quota sampling does not.
  It would be time consuming.  3 a Opportunity sampling
  It would be difficult. b Sample is likely to be biased towards people who
b A list of residents. c A resident. eat fish and chips on a Friday.
 4 a The testing process will destroy the microswitches, c Survey people at different times of day. Survey
so a census would destroy all the switches. people in other parts of the town, not outside the
b The mean is less than the stated average but one of fish and chip shop.
the switches lasted a significantly lower number of  4 a 5.4 hours
operations which suggests the median might be a b Opportunity sampling; unlikely to provide a
better average to take − not affected by outliers. The representative sample of the town as a whole
data supports the company claim. c Increase the number of people asked. Ask people at
c Test a larger number of microswitches. different times/in different locations.
 5 a All the mechanics in the garage.  5 a Quota sampling.
b Everyone’s views will be known. b ANY ONE FROM: no sampling frame required,
quick, easy, inexpensive, allows for comparison
Exercise 1B between male and female deer.
 1 a Year 1: 8, Year 2: 12, Year 3: 16 c Males are on average heavier and have a greater
b ANY ONE FROM: sample accurately reflects the spread.
population structure of the school; guarantees d Increase the sample size. Catch deer at random
proportional representation of different year groups times during the day.
in the sample.  6 a Student’s opportunity sample: For example, first
 2 a Patterns in the sample data might occur when five values
taking every 20th person. b 1.9, 2.0, 2.6, 2.3, 2.0
b A simple random sample using the alphabetical list c 1.96 m, 2.16 m
as the sampling frame. d Systematic sample − is random and likely to be
 3 a No: A systematic sample requires the first selected more representative. Opportunity sample might get
person to be chosen at random. all the small values, for example.
b Take a simple random sample using the list of
members as the sampling frame. Exercise 1D
 4 a Stratified sampling.
 1 a Quantitative b Qualitative
b Male Y12: 10, Male Y13: 7, Female Y12: 12,
c Quantitative d Quantitative
Female Y13: 11
e Qualitative
480
 5 k = ____
​   ​ 
​= 16  2 a Discrete b Continuous
30
Randomly select a number between 1 and 16. Starting c Discrete d Continuous
with the worker with this clocking-in number, select e Continuous f Continuous
the workers that have every 16th clocking-in number  3 a It is descriptive rather than numerical.
after this. b It is quantitative because it is numerical. It is
 6 a Any method in which every member of the discrete because its value must be an integer; you
population has an equal chance of being selected, cannot have fractions of a pupil.
e.g. lottery. Disadvantage: the sample may not c It is quantitative because it is numerical. It is
accurately reflect the proportions of members at the continuous because weight can take any value in a
club who play each sport. given range.

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 Answers

 4 a 1.4 kg and 1.5 kg b

1.35 kg iii 
c 0.1 kg 50

Exercise 1E 40
 1 a Leuchars

Frequency
b Perth 30
c ANY ONE FROM: Leeming, Heathrow, Beijing
d ANY ONE FROM: Leuchars, Hurn, Camborne,
20
Jacksonville, Perth
e ANY ONE FROM: Beijing, Jacksonville, Perth
 2 Continuous − it can take any value in the range 0 to 100 10
 3 a i 10.14 hours ii  7.6 hours
b i 9.5 hours ii  12.8 hours 0
c The mean of the daily total sunshine in Leeming 10 15 20 25 30
is higher than that in Heathrow. Leeming is north Daily mean temperature (°C)
of Heathrow, so these data do not support Supraj’s  2 Students’ own answer.
conclusion.
 4 0.14 mm, treat tr. as 0 in numerical calculations.
 5 a i Covers several months ii  Small sample size Mixed exercise 1
b Two consecutive days chosen all the time − not  1 a 9.6°C
random, possibly have similar weather. b Sampling frame: first 15 days in May 1987
c Number the days and choose a simple random Allocate each date a number from 1 to 15
sample. Use the random number function on calculator to
 6 a Perth is in the southern hemisphere so August is a generate 5 numbers between 1 and 15
winter month c Students’ own answers.
b The lowest temperatures in the UK are at coastal d 10.8°C
locations (Camborne and Leuchars). The highest  2 a i  Advantage: very accurate; disadvantage:
temperature is at an inland location (Beijing). There expensive (time consuming).
is some evidence to support this conclusion. ii Advantage: easier data collection (quick, cheap);
 7 Oktas measure the cloud coverage in eighths. The disadvantage: possible bias.
highest value is 8 which represents full cloud coverage. b Assign unique 3-digit identifiers 000, 001, ..., 499
 8 a She needs to select days at regular intervals in an to each member of the population. Work along rows
ordered list. Put the days into date order. Select of random number tables generating 3-digit numbers.
every sixth day (184 ÷ 30 = 6.13). If these correspond to an identifier then include the
b Some of the data values might not be available corresponding member in the sample; ignore repeats
(n/a). and numbers greater than 499. Repeat this process
until the sample contains 100 members.
Large data set  3 a i  Collection of individual items.
 1 a 1020 hPa ii  List of sampling units.
b 0.0 mm b i  List of registered owners from DVLC.
ii List of people visiting a doctor’s clinic in Oxford
c i  Temperature, t (°C) Frequency
in July 1996.
10 < t , 15  1  4 a Advantage − the results are the most representative
of the population since the structure of the sample
15 < t , 20 50
reflects the structure of the population.
20 < t , 25 10 Disadvantage − you need to know the structure of the
population before you can take a stratified sample.
25 < t , 30  1
b Advantage − quick and cheap.
ii  Disadvantage − can introduce bias (e.g. if the
10 sample, by chance, only includes very tall people in
an investigation into heights of students).
 5 a People not in office not represented.
Frequency density

8
b i  Get a list of the 300 workers at the factory.
300
____
​   ​  ​= 10 so choose one of the first ten workers
6 30
on the list at random and every subsequent 10th
worker on the list, e.g. if person 7 is chosen, then
4
the sample includes workers 7, 17, 27, ..., 297.
ii  The population contains 100 office workers
2 (​ _13 ​  of population) and 200 shop floor workers
(​ _23 ​  of population).
0 The sample should contain _​ 13 ​ × 30 = 10 office
10 15 20 25 30
Daily mean temperature (°C) workers and _​ 23 ​ × 30 = 20 shop floor workers.
The 10 office workers in the sample should be a
simple random sample of the 100 office workers.
The 20 shop floor workers should be a simple
random sample of the 200 shop floor workers.

210 Online
Full worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

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 Answers

iii Decide the categories e.g. age, gender, office/  3 a May: 23 355 m, June: 21 067 m
non office and set a quota for each in proportion b 22 230 m
to their numbers in the population. Interview   4 a 8 minutes b 10.2 minutes c 8.5 minutes
workers until quotas are full. d The median would be best. The mean is affected by
 6 a Allocate a number between 1 and 120 to each pupil. the extreme value 26.
Use random number tables, computer or calculator  5 a 2 b 1 c 1.47 d the median
to select 15 different numbers between 1 and 120  6 6.31 petals
(or equivalent).   7 1
Pupils corresponding to these numbers become the
sample.
b Allocate numbers 1–64 to girls and 65–120 to boys.
Exercise 2B
64  1 a £351 to £400 b £345 c £351 to £400
Select ____ ​     
​× 15 = 8 different random numbers  2 a 82.3 decibels
120
between 1 and 64 for girls. b The mean is an estimate as we don’t know the
Select 7 different random numbers between 65 and exact noise levels recorded.
120 for boys. Include the corresponding boys and  3 a 10 , t < 12
girls in the sample. b 11.4 °C
 7 a Stratified sampling. 4 Store B (mean 51 years) employs older workers than
b Uses naturally occurring (strata) groupings. The store A (mean 50 years).
results are more likely to represent the views of the
population since the sample reflects its structure.
Exercise 2C
 8 a Opportunity sampling.
 1 a 1020 hPa b Q1 = 1017 hPa, Q3 = 1024.5 hPa
b ANY ONE FROM: Easy to carry out, Inexpensive.
 2 Median 37, Q1 = 37, Q3 = 38
c Continuous − weight can take any value.
 3 1.08
d 76 kg
 4 a 432 kg b 389  kg c 480  kg
e 79.6 kg
d Three-quarters of the cows weigh 480 kg or less.
f The second conservationist is likely to have a more
 5 a 44.0 minutes b 48.8 minutes
reliable estimate as opportunity sampling is unlikely
c 90th percentile = 57.8 minutes so 10% of customers
to provide a representative sample.
have to wait longer 57.8 minutes, not 56 minutes as
g Select more springboks at each location.
stated by the firm.
 9 a Not random − the dates are selected at regular
 6 a 2.84 m. 80% of condors have a wingspan of less
intervals so it is a systematic sample.
than 2.84 m.
b Select the first date at random and then the same
b The 90th percentile is in the 3.0 < w class. There
date each month − systematic sample. Advantage:
is no upper boundary for this class, so it is not
each month covered; Disadvantage: may be
possible to estimate the 90th percentile.
patterns in the sample data. Select the six days
at random − simple random sample. Advantage:
avoids likelihood of patterns; Disadvantage: May Exercise 2D
not cover the full range of months.  1 a
71 b 24.6 c 193.1 mm d 7
c Continuous − rainfall can take any value.  2 a
£81.87 b 22
d 8.2 mm  3 a
6.2 minutes b 54
e This estimate is unlikely to be reliable as it does not  4 a
Median 11.5 °C, Q1 = 10.3 °C, Q3 = 12.7 °C,
include the winter months. IQR = 2.4 °C
Large data set b On average, the temperature was higher in June
a Student’s own answer. than in May (higher median). The temperature was
b Simple and quick to use. more variable in May than June (higher IQR).
c Student’s own answer. c 24 days
d The sampling frame is not random (it is in date order)
so systematic sampling could introduce bias. Could Exercise 2E
improve the estimate by using a random sample.  1 a 3 b 0.75 c 0.866
 2 3.11  kg
CHAPTER 2  3 a 178  cm b 59.9  cm2 c 7.74  cm
  4 Mean 5.44, standard deviation 2.35
Prior knowledge 2
 5 a Mean £10.22, standard deviation £1.35
1 a Qualitative b Quantitative
b 18
c Qualitative d Quantitative
 6 1.23 days
2 a Discrete b Continuous
 7 Mean 16.1 hours, standard deviation 4.69 hours
c Continuous d Discrete
One standard deviation below mean 11.41 hours.
e Continuous
41 parts tested (82%) lasted longer than one
3 Mean: 5.33, Median: 6, Mode: 6, Range: 4
standard deviation below the mean. According to the
manufacturers, this should be 45 parts (90%), so the
Exercise 2A claim is false.
 1 a 700  g b 600  g c 700  g  8 a Mean 8.1 kn, standard deviation 3.41 kn
d The mean will increase; the mode will remain b 12 days
unchanged; the median will decrease. c The windspeeds are equally distributed throughout
 2 a 42.7 the range.
b The mean will increase.

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 Answers

Exercise 2F  3 a 11.5 kg
 1 a 11, 9, 5, 8, 3, 7, 6 b 7 c 70 b Smallest 2.0 kg, largest 10.2 kg
 2 a 7, 10, 4, 10, 5, 11, 2, 3 b 6.5 c 48.5  4 a Mean 10.2, standard deviation 7.36
  3 365 b It is an outlier as it is more than 2 standard
  4 2.34 deviations above the mean.
  5 a 1.2 hours b 25.1 hours c 1.76 hours c e.g. It could be the age of a parent at the party.
  6 22.9 d Mean 7.75, standard deviation 2.44
  7 416 mm
m + 12
  8 a t = ​0 . 8(m + 12)​or t = ​ _______
  ​
  Exercise 3B
1.25   1 Marks in a test
b Mean 54, standard deviation 0.64
  9 Mean 1020 hPa, standard deviation 6.28 hPa

Mixed exercise 2
 1 69.2
 2 a 10, 12, 9, 2, 2.5, 9.5 b 7.5 c 607 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
 3 £18  720 Mark
  4 a Group A 63.4, group B 60.2  2 a 47, 32 b 38 c 15 d 64
b The method used for group A may be better.   3 a The male turtles have a higher median mass,
 5 a 21 to 25 hours b 21.6 hours a greater interquartile range and a greater total
c 20.6 hours d 20.8 hours range.
 6 37.5 b It is more likely to have been female. Very few of
  7 a 20.5 b 34.7 c 14.2 the male turtles had a mass this low, but more than
  8 a 13.1 a quarter of the female turtles had a mass of more
b Variance 102, standard deviation 10.1 minutes than this.
  9 a 98.75 mm b 104 mm c 5.58 mm d 4.47 mm c 500  g
10 a Mean 13.5, standard deviation 1.36   4 a Q1 = 22 knots, Q2 26 knots, Q3 = 30 knots
b 4.0 °C c 5 days b IQR = 8
11 a Mean 3.42, standard deviation 1.61 1.5 × IQR above Q3 = 42
b Mean 9.84 knots, standard deviation 3.22 knots 46 > 42 and 78 > 42, so 46 and 78 are outliers.
12  a Mean 15.8 cm, standard deviation 2.06 cm
b The mean wingspan will decrease. c 
Maximum daily gust in Camborne, September 1987
c Mean 57 cm, standard deviation 3 cm
Challenge
Mean 3.145 cm, standard deviation 1.39 cm

CHAPTER 3
Prior knowledge 3 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
 1 a  Maximum daily gust (knots)
30
25 Exercise 3C
Frequency

20 1 a
15 140
Cumulative frequency

10 120
5 100
0
0 1 2 3 4 80
Number of siblings
60
b  4 0 40
3 1 20
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
2
Mass, m (kg)
b < 1.6 kg
 2 11 c IQR < 0.3, 10th to 90th interpercentile
 3 Mean 28.5, standard deviation 7.02 range < 0.65

Exercise 3A
 1 a 7 is an outlier b 88 is not an outlier
c 105 is an outlier
 2 a No outliers b 170  g and 440  g
c 760  g

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 Answers

d Masses of Coulter pine cones 4 a

80 Key:
70 Male

Cumulative frequency
60 Female

50
40
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Mass, m (kg) 30
2 a 20
80 10
70 0
Cumulative frequency

60 2 3 4 5 6
Mass, w (kg)
50
b
Male c
Female
40
30 Exercise 3D
1
20
5

Frequency density
10
4
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 3
Length, l (cm) 2
b Median < 7.6, Q1 < 7.1, Q3 < 8 1
c i  < 8 ii  < 24 0
d Length of earthworms 10 15 20 25 30 35
Mass, m (pounds)
 2 a The quantity (time) is continuous.
b 150 c 369 d 699
  3 a The quantity (distance) is continuous.
b 310 c 75 d 95 e 65
4 a 32 lambs is represented by 100 small squares,
5 6 7 8 9 10 therefore 25 small squares represents 8 lambs.
Length, l (cm) b 32 c 168 d 88
5 a i  Time, t (min) Frequency
3 a
90 Key:  0 < t < 20  4
80 Men 20 < t < 30 10
Women
Cumulative frequency

70 30 < t < 35 15
60 35 < t < 40 25
50 40 < t < 50  7
40 50 < t < 70  6
30
ii 
20
5
Frequency density

10
4
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3
Time, t (mins) 2
b Women
c Men 1
d Men < 24, women < 28 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time, t (min)
b 35
6 a 12.5 and 14.5
b i 6 cm ii  3 cm
7 a Width 0.5 cm, height 14 cm
b Mean 10.4, standard deviation 2.4
c 9 °C d 4.7 days

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 Answers

Exercise 3E b < 66 cm
  1 The median speed is higher on motorway A than on c < 6.5 cm
motorway B. The spread of speeds for motorway B d The distributions have very similar medians and
is greater than the spread of speeds for motorway A quartiles. Maximum length of the European badgers
(comparing IQRs). is greater than the maximum length of the honey
  2 Class 2B: mean 32.5, standard deviation 6.6 badgers.
Class 2F: mean 27.2, standard deviation 11.4 e Do not have exact data values so cannot compare
The mean time for Class 2B is higher than the mean the median, quartiles or range accurately.
time for Class 2F. The standard deviation for Class 2F  4 a 26
is bigger than for Class 2B, showing that the times b 17
were more spread out.   5 a width = 1.5 cm, height = 2.6  cm
  3 The median height for boys (163 cm) is higher than the b width = 7.5 cm, height = 0.28  cm
median height for girls (158 cm). The spread of heights   6 a
for boys is greater than the spread of heights for girls 125
(comparing IQRs).
  4 a Leuchars: median 100, Q1 = 98, Q3 = 100
Camborne: median 98, Q1 = 92, Q3 = 100
b The median humidity in Leuchars is higher than 100
the median humidity in Camborne. The spread of
humidities for Camborne is greater than the spread

Frequency density
of humidities for Leuchars.
75
Large data set
  1 a 1987: 6.6 kn, 2015: 7.7 kn
b 1987: 4 kn, 2015: 7 kn
c 1987: 3.0 kn, 2015: 2.8 kn 50
  2 The mean windspeeds were higher in 2015 than in
1987. The spread of the speeds was greater in 1987
than in 2015 (higher standard deviation).
25

Mixed exercise 3
1 a Q1 5 178, Q2 5 185, Q3 5 196
b 226 0
c 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Distance travelled each day
Mass, m (kg)
b Mean 19.8  kg, standard deviation 0.963  kg
c 20.1  kg
  7 a 22.3
b Median 20; quartiles 13, 31
c No outliers.
d Bags of potato crisps sold each day
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
19
19
20
20
21
21
22
22
23

Distance (km)
  2 a 45 minutes b 60 minutes
c This represents an outlier.
d Irt has a higher median than Esk.
The interquartile ranges were about the same.
e Esk had the fastest runners.
f Advantages: easy to compare quartiles, median and 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
spread. Disadvantages: cannot compare mean or Number of bags of potato crisps sold
mode.  8 a The maximum gust is continuous data and the data
 3 a is given in a grouped frequency table.
70 b 1 cm wide and 13.5 cm tall
Cumulative frequency

c Mean 23.4, standard deviation 7.32

60
d 44 days
50 9 a 1987: 11.9 °C, 2015: 12.1 °C
40 b The mean temperature was slightly higher in
2015 than in 1987. The standard deviation of
30 temperatures was higher in 1987 (2.46 °C) than in
20 2015 showing that the temperatures were more
spread out.
10 c 15 days assuming that the temperatures are equally
0 distributed throughout the range.
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Challenge:
Length, x (cm) 0.6 cm

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 Answers

CHAPTER 4 b i There is no reason to believe that the data

collected by the Met Office is incorrect.
Prior knowledge 4 ii 21.7 is an outlier so may not be representative of
 1 the typical rainfall.
c
10
12
8
Physics

10
6 8

s (hours)
4 6

2 4
4 6 8 10 12
2
Maths
 2 a −3.21 0
b 0.34 4 6 8 0 2
r (mm)
Exercise 4A d Weak negative correlation.
1 a Positive correlation. e For example, there could be a causal relationship as
b The longer the treatment, the greater the loss of days with more rainfall will have more clouds, and
weight. therefore less sunshine.
2 a No correlation.
b The scatter graph does not support the statement Exercise 4B
that hotter cities have less rainfall.  1 a, b 
3 a
Production costs, p (£1000s) 120

30 100
Weight touching (g)

80
25
60

40
20
20
15 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Number of items, n (1000s)
10
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 c If the number of items produced per month is zero,
the production costs will be approximately £21 000.
Weight not touching (g) If the number of items per month increases by
b There is positive correlation. If a student guessed a 1000 items, the production costs increase by
greater weight before touching the bag, they were approximately £980.
more likely to guess a greater weight after touching d The prediction for 74 000 is within the range of the
it. data (interpolation) so is more likely to be accurate.
4 a The prediction for 95 000 is outside the range of the
data (extrapolation) so is less likely to be accurate.
House value (£1000s)

350  2 a
12
300
10
Protection (years)

250
8
200
6
150 4
5 10 15 20 0
Time taken (s) 2
b Weak negative correlation.
0
c For example, there may be a third variable 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
that influences both house value and internet Coats of paint
connection, such as distance from built up areas.
5 a Q3 + 1.5 × IQR = 4.85 + 7.125 = 11.975
21.7 > 11.975, therefore is an outlier.

215

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 Answers

b A gradient of 1.45 means that for every extra  4 (1) 3500 is outside the range of the data (extrapolation).
coat of paint, the protection will increase by 1.45 (2) The regression equation should only be used to
years, therefore if 10 coats of paint are applied, the predict a value of GNP (y) given energy consumption (x).
protection will be 14.5 years longer than if zero  5 a Mean + 2SD = 15.2 + 2 × 11.4 = 38; 50 > 38
coats of paint were applied. After 10 coats of paint, b The outlier should be omitted as it is very unlikely
the protection will last 2.93 + 14.5 = 17.43 years. that the average temperature was 50 °C.
 3 a c If the temperature increases by approximately 1 °C,
the number of pairs of gloves sold each month
Number of eggs, n

20
decreases by 1.8.
15  6 a 44 is the length in centimetres of the spring with no
mass attached. If a mass of 1 g is attached, the spring
10 would increase in length by approximately 0.2 cm.
b i Outside the range of the data (extrapolation)
5 ii The regression equation should only be used to
predict a value of s given m
0  7 a & b 
25 50 75 100 125 150
0
Age, a (months) 140
b The scatter diagram shows negative correlation, 120
therefore the gradient in the regression equation
100
should be negative.

y (pence)
 4 This is not sensible as there are unlikely to be any 80
houses with no bedrooms.
60
 5 a For each percent increase in daily maximum
relative humidity there is a decrease of 106 Dm in 40
daily mean visibility.
20
b High levels of relative humidity cause mist or fog
which will decrease visibility. Hence there is likely 0
to be a causal relationship. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
c i The prediction for 100% is outside the range x (% cocoa)
of the data (extrapolation) so is less likely to be
c Brand D is overpriced, since it is a long way above
accurate.
the line.
ii The regression equation should only be used to
d The regression equation should be used to predict a
predict a value for v given h.
value for y given x so the student’s method is valid.
d Data is only useful for analysing the first two
weeks of September. Random values throughout
Large data set
September should be used and analysis made of
 1 a
the whole month. The sample size could also be
increased across multiple months as data between 50
May and October is available.
Daily maximum gust (0100-2400) (kn)

45

Mixed exercise 4 40
 1 The data shows that the number of serious road
accidents in a week strongly correlates with the 35
number of fast food restaurants. However, it does not
30
show whether the relationship is causal. Both variables
could correlate with a third variable, e.g. the number 25
of roads coming into a town.
 2 a 20
1 15
0.8 10
t (°C)

0.6 5

0.4 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.2 Daily mean windspeed (0100-2400) (kn)
0 b Moderate positive correlation.
340 360 380 400 420 c The relationship is causal as the maximum gust is
c (ppm) related to the mean windspeed.
b Strong positive correlation. d i 6.05    ii 15.7    iii 30.8    iv 91.0
c As mean CO2 concentration in the atmosphere e Parts ii and iii are within the range of the data
increases, mean global temperatures also increase. (interpolation) so are more likely to be accurate.
 3 a Strong positive correlation. Parts i and iv are outside the range of the data
b If the number of items increases by 1, the time (extrapolation) so are less likely to be accurate.
taken increases by approximately 2.64 minutes. f w = 0.053 + 0.35g; 10.6 knots

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 Answers

 2 a Regression equation: s = 15.1 − 1.8c  2 a

G B
Estimated missing values: 1.8, 8.5, 6.3, 11.6, 3.0, 7.1,
12.2, 14.4, 9.5, 6.3, 2.0, 3.9, 7.2, 3.1, 3.7, 3.9, 0.9 10
7 10
b The relationship is causal because daily sunshine is
related to daily mean cloud cover. 15
11 5
CHAPTER 5 13 54
Prior knowledge 5 C
​ 2 ​ b
 1 a __ 4 ​ c
​ __ 2 ​ d
​ __ 0
9 9 3 b i  __ 3
​ 25   ​   
  ii ​__2
​ 25 ​   iii ​__
   
2
​ 25  ​   
  iv  ___54
​ 125  ​ 
 2 HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT
25  3 a i  G P
 3 a ​ ____
  ​ 
216
b ​ 11  ​
___
20 64 15
36
125
c ​ ____ ​
   1
216
29 9

Exercise 5A 35 102
​ 1 ​
  1 __
2
D
 2 a
Second roll
b i  ___89
​ 275   ii ​___
  ​    ​ 103
275
  iii  __
​   
   ​ 14
55
  ​   
  iv  ___
​ 102
275
​ 
  
1 2 3 4 5 6
 4 a 0.17
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 b 0.18
c 0.55
2 2 4 6 8 10 12
  5 a 0.3
First roll

3 3 6 9 12 15 18 b 0.3
 6 a 0.15
4 4 8 12 16 20 24
b 0.15
5 5 10 15 20 25 30  7 p = 0.13, q = 0.25
6 6 12 18 24 30 36
Challenge
1    3
b i ​ __ ​ 2 ​ iii 
__
​ ii  ​ __ ​ p = 0.115, q = 0.365, r = 0.12
18 9 4
2 ​
 3 a ​ __
5
b 5
​ __ ​
7
Exercise 5C
c Less likely; frequency uniformly distributed  1 a
A B
throughout the class.
19
 4 a ​ __ ​ 109  
___
  ​ b ​ 71   
___
​ c ​
40 240 240 0.2 0.5
​ 2   ​; distribution of lengths of koalas between 70 and
d __
15
75 cm is uniform. 0.3
​ 16  ​
 5 a __ b 0.7 c 0.3
35
 2 P(sum of 4) + P(same number) ≠ P(sum of 4 or same
​ 32  ​
__
b number), so the events are not mutually exclusive.
35
 3 0.15
Challenge:
 4 0.3
5, 7 or 9
 5 a Bricks and trains; their curves do not overlap.
b Not independent.
Exercise 5B  6 a 0.25 b Not independent
 1 a  7 a P(S and T) = 0.3 − 0.18 = 0.12
F G P(S) × P(T) = 0.3 × 0.4 = 0.12 = P(S and T)
So S and T are independent.
b i 0.12    ii 0.42
8 6 10  8 P(W) × P(X) = 0.5 × 0.45 = 0.225
P(W and X) = 0.25, so W and X are not independent.
 9 a x = 0.15, y = 0.3
1 b P(F and R) = 0.15 ≠ P(F) × P(R) = 0.45 × 0.4 = 0.18
__
​ 14
i    ​   
  ii ​__6
​ 25  ​   
  iii ​__8
​ 25
  ​   
  iv  __ 1
​ 25   ​ 
10 p = 0.14 and q = 0.33 or p = 0.33 and q = 0.14
25

Challenge
a Set P(A) = p and P(B) = q, then P(A and B) = pq
P(A and not B) = P(A) − P(A and B) = p − pq
P(not B) = 1 − q
⇒ P(A) × P(not B) = p(1 − q) = p − pq = P(A and not B)

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 Answers

b P(not A and not B) = 1 − P(A or B) Mixed exercise 5

= 1 − P(A) − P(B) + P(A and B)
= 1 − p − q + pq = (1 − p)(1 − q)  1 a ____
392
​ 3375  ​
  __
​ 14
b 75
  ​ 

But P(not A) = 1 − p and P(not B) = 1 − q, so  2 a 0.0397 b 0.286 c

0.714
P(not A and not B) = P(not A) × P(not B)
 3 a ___64
​ 125   
​
Exercise 5D ​ __
b 8
25
   ​
 1 a Bead 1 Bead 2 c ___33
​ 250   
​
3
8 Red
d ​ ___
74
  ​  
, using interpolation and assuming uniform
3 Red 125
8 5 Blue distribution of scores
8
 4 a __
​ 44
50
  ​
  ___
b 77
​ 100  ​ 
3
8 Red  5 a
5
8 Blue T P
5 Blue
8
18 5 35
b __
​ 25
64
_
​ 58 ​
  ​ c
4
 2 a 1 8 10
2 Odd
5 Odd
9 40 30
1 Even
2
S
5
8 Odd
4 b i  0.2 ii 
0.82
9 Even
 6 a
3 Even A B
8
b _ _
​ 59 ​
​ 16 ​ c
 3 a 0.2 Late b 0.26 1 1 1
4 12 6
Bus
0.4
0.8 On time 1
2
0.3 Late
0.6 Walk b P(A) = _​ 13 ​, P(B) = _
​ 14 ,​ P(A and B) = __ 1
​ 12   ​
0.7 On time P(A) × P(B) = P(A and B), so A and B are
independent.
 4 a 0.8 Par or under  7 a Cricket and swimming
Par or under b Not independent
0.7
0.2 Over par  8 a S
J K
0.4 Par or under
0.3 Over par
0.25 0.05 0.2
0.6 Over par
b Not independent c
0.26
 5 a 1 0.5
3 Heads
1 Heads b P(J) = 0.3, P(K) = 0.25, P(J and K) = 0.05
3 2 Tails P(J) × P(K) = 0.075 ≠ P(J and K), so J and K are not
3
Heads independent.
1
1 3 Heads  9 a 0.5
2
3 Tails b
3 S
2 Tails P M
3
1
3 Heads
0.35 0.5 0.1
2 1 Heads
3
3 2 Tails
3
Tails 1
3 Heads 0.05
2
3 Tails c 0.35
2 Tails d No. P(P) = 0.85 and P(M) = 0.6, so
3
P(P) × P(M) = 0.51 ≠ P(P and M)
b __ 1
​ 27 _
   ​ c __
​ 49 ​ d
​ 19 ​  10 Not independent
 6 a ​ __
5
26
__
   ​ b 4
​ 11 ___
   ​ c 36
​ 143    
​

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 Answers

11 a 1  7 a 0.3
2 D3
b
2 D2 x 22 21 0 1 2
3 1 D39 P(X = x) 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2
2
D1
1 c 0.7
4 2 D3  8 0.25
1
5 D29
3  9 a 0.02 b 0.46 c 0.56
1 D39 10 a 0.625 b 0.375 c 0
2
11 a
1 s 1 2 3 4
2 D3
P(S = s) ​ _23 ​ _
​ 2 ​ __
​ 2   ​ __
​ 1   ​
1 2 D2 9 27 27
3
5 1 D39
2 ​ _19 ​
b
D19
1 12 a
2 D3 x P(X = x)
1
3 D29 0 0.07776
1 D39
2 1 0.2592
i  __
b 4
​ 15 ​
    ii  __ 7
​ 30   ​ 
2 0.3456
c __
​ 11
15
  ​ 
3 0.2304
12 a 0.04 D 4 0.0768
A
5 0.01024
0.96 D9
0.16
b y P(X = y)
0.03 D
0.5 0 0.32768
B
0.97 D9 1 0.4096
2 0.2048
0.34 0.07 D
3 0.0512
C
D9 4 0.0064
0.93
b
i  0.015 ii  0.0452 5 0.00032

Challenge c z P(X = z)
0.2016
1 0.4
2 0.24
CHAPTER 6 3 0.144
Prior knowledge 6 4 0.0864
1 a __ __
​ 81 ​ b _ __
​ 38 ​ d
​ 81 ​ c ​ 12 ​
5 0.1296
2 a __4
​ 36 __
​ 18
   ​ b 36
__
​ 18
  ​ c 36
__
  ​ d 12
​ 36 __
​ 15
  ​ e 36
  ​
13 a The sum of the probabilities is not 1.
Exercise 6A b 2 __
​ 22
61
  ​ 

 1 a This is not a discrete random variable, since height

is continuous quantity. Challenge
b This is a discrete random variable, since it is always 0.625
a whole number and it can vary.
c This is not a discrete random variable, since the Exercise 6B
number of days in a given week is always 7.  1 a 0.273 b 0.0683 c 0.195
 2 0, 1, 2, 3, 4  2 a 0.00670 b 0.214 c 0.00178
 3 a (2, 2) (2, 3) (3, 2) (3, 3)  3 a X ~ B (20, 0.01), n 5 20, p 5 0.01
b i  Assume bolts being defective are independent of
x 4 5 6
each other.
P(X = x) 0.25 0.5 0.25 b X ~ B (6, 0.52), n 5 6, p 5 0.52
Assume the lights operate independently and the
{
ii ​     
0.25, x = 4, 6 time lights are on/off is constant.
P(X = x) =  ​      ​
0.5, x = 5   c X ~ B (30, ​ _18 ​ ), n 5 30, p 5​ _18 ​ 
__1
 4 ​ 12   ​ Assume serves are independent and probability of
 5 k 1 2k 1 3k 1 4k 5 1, an ace is constant.
 4 a X ~ B (14, 0.15) is OK if we assume the children in
so 10k 5 1, so k 5 __ 1
​ 10 ​.
   
the class being Rh2 is independent from child to
 6 a 0.125 b 0.875 child (so no siblings/twins).

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 Answers

b This is not binomial since the number of tosses is  5 a 15

not fixed. The probability of a head at each toss is b
y 1 2 3 4 5
constant ( p 5 0.5) but there is no value of n.
c Assuming the colours of the cars are independent P(X = y) ​ __
15
1
   ​ __
​ 2   ​
15
__
​ 3   ​
15
__
​ 4   ​
15
__
​ 5   ​
15
(which should be reasonable).
c __ 9
​ 15   ​or __
​ 35 ​ 
X 5 number of red cars out of 15
X ~ B (15, 0.12)  6 a
t 0 1 2 3 4
 5 a 0.358 b 0.189
 6 a The random variable can take two values, faulty or P(T = t) 0.316 0.422 0.211 0.0469 0.00391
not faulty.
There are a fixed number of trials, 10, and fixed b
0.949
probability of success: 0.08. c s 1 2 3 4 5
Assuming each member in the sample is
independent, a suitable model is X ~ B(10, 0.08) P(S = s) 0.25 0.188 0.141 0.105 0.316
b 0.00522 d 0.562
 7 a Assumptions: There is a fixed sample size, there are  7 a 0.114 b 0.0005799
only two outcomes for the genetic marker (i.e. fully c 0.9373
present or not present), there is a fixed probability  8 a 0.0439 or ___
32
  ​
​ 729   b 0.273
of people having the marker.  9 a 0.014 (3 d.p.) b 0.747 (3 d.p.)
b 0.0108 10 a 1 There are n independent trials.
 8 a The random variable can take two values, 6 or not 2 n is a fixed number.
6. There are a fixed number of trials (15) and a 3 The outcome of each trial is success or failure.
fixed probability of success (0.3), Each roll of the 4 The probability of success at each trial is constant.
dice is independent. A suitable distribution is 5 The outcome of any trial is independant of any
X ~ B(15, 0.3) other trial.
b 0.219 c 0.127 b 0.0861 c n 5 90
11 a 0.000977 b 0.0547
Exercise 6C 12 a 0.0531 b 0.243
13 a X ~ B (10, 0.15)
 1 a 0.9804 b 0.7382 c 0.5638 d 0.3020
b 0.0099 c 0.2759
 2 a 0.9468 b 0.5834 c 0.1272 d 0.5989 14 a 0.8692 b 0.0727
 3 a 0.5888 b 0.7662 c 0.1442 d 0.2302 15 a 0.8725 b 0.01027 c 0.0002407
 4 a 0.8882 b 0.7992 c 0.0599 d 0.1258
Challenge
 5 a 0.0039 b 0.9648 c 0.3633 0.001244
 6 a 0.2252 b 0.4613 c 0.7073
 7 a k 5 13 b r 5 28 CHAPTER 7
 8 a k 5 1 b r 5 9 c 0.9801
 9 a X ~ B (10, 0.30) Assumptions: The random variable Prior knowledge 7
can take two values (listen or don’t listen), there are 1 a 0.075 b 0.117
a fixed number of trials (10) and a fixed probability c 0.0036 d 0.00000504
of success (0.3), each member in the sample is 2 a X ~ B(8, _
​ 16 )​ b i 0.260 ii 0.0307
independent.
b 0.1503 c s58 Exercise 7A
10 a 0.2794 b 0.0378 c d55  1 a A hypothesis is a statement made about the value
of a population parameter. A hypothesis test uses a
sample or an experiment to determine whether or
Mixed exercise 6 not to reject the hypothesis.
 1 a x P(X = x) ​ __
b 12
21
​
   
b The null hypothesis (H0) is what we assume to be
1 __
​ 1  ​  correct and the alternative hypothesis (H1) tells us
21
about the parameter if our assumption is shown to
2 __
​ 2  ​ 
21 be wrong.
__ c The test statistic is used to test the hypothesis. It
3 ​ 3  ​ 
21 could be the result of the experiment or statistics
4 __
​ 4  ​  calculated from a sample.
21
__  2 a One-tailed test
5 ​ 5  ​ 
21 b Two-tailed test
6 __
​ 6  ​  c One-tailed test
21
 3 a The test statistic is N 2 the number of sixes.
 2 a 0.2 b
0.7 b H0: p 5​ _16 ​   c H1: p .​ _16 ​ 
 3 a
x 1 2 3 4  4 a Shell is describing what her experiment wants to
test rather than the test statistic. The test statistic is
P(X = x) 0.0769 0.1923 0.3077 0.4231 the proportion of times you get a head.
__ b H0: p 5​ _12 ​   c H1: p ≠​ _12 ​ 
​ 19  ​ 
b 26
 5 a A suitable test statistic is p 2 the proportion of
 4 a The probabilities must be the same.
faulty articles in a batch.
b i 0.0625 ii  0.375 iii  0.5

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 Answers

b H0: p 5 0.1, H1: p , 0.1  8 a Distribution B(n, 0.68).

c If the probability of the proportion being 0.08 or Fixed number of trials.
less is 5% or less the null hypothesis is rejected. Outcomes of trials are independent.
 6 a A suitable test statistic is p − the proportion of There are two outcomes success and failure.
people that support the candidate. The probability of success is constant.
b H0: p = 0.55, H1: p < 0.55 b P(X < 3) = 0.0155 < 0.05. There is sufficient
c If the probability of the proportion being __ 7
​ 20 ​is 2% or
    evidence to reject the null hypothesis so p < 0.68.
more, the null hypothesis is accepted The treatment is not as effective as claimed.
 9 a Critical region is X > 13
b 14 lies in the critical region, so we can reject the
Exercise 7B
null hypothesis. There is evidence that the new
 1 a The critical value is the first value to fall inside of
technique has improved the number of plants that
the critical region.
germinate.
b A critical region is a region of the probability
10 a The number of people who support the candidate.
distribution which, if the test statistic falls within it,
H0: p = 0.35, H1: p > 0.35
would cause you to reject the null hypothesis.
c The acceptance region is the area in which we b Critical region is X > 24
accept the null hypothesis. c 28 lies in the critical region, so we can reject
the null hypothesis. There is evidence that the
 2 The critical value is x 5 5 and the critical region is candidate’s level of popularity has increased.
X > 5 since P(X > 5) 5 0.0328 , 0.05.
 3 The critical value is x 5 0 and the critical region is
X 5 0. Exercise 7D
 4 a The critical region is X > 13 and X < 3.  1 P(X < 10) = (0.0494 . 0.025 (two-tailed)
b 0.037 = 3.7% There is insufficient evidence to reject H0 so there is no
 5 The critical value is x 5 0. The critical region is X 5 0. reason to doubt p 5 0.5
 6 a The critical region is X 5 0 and 7 < X < 10.  2 P(X > 10) = 0.189 > 0.05 (two tailed)
b 0.085 There is insufficient evidence to reject H0 so there is no
 7 a The number of times the sample fails. reason to doubt p = 0.3
b H0: p = 0.3, H1: p < 0.3
 3 (X > 9) = 0.244 > 0.025 (two-tailed)
c The critical value is x = 10 and the critical region is There is insufficient evidence to reject H0 so there is no
X > 10
reason to doubt p = 0.75
d 4.8%
 8 a The number of seedlings that survive.  4 P(X < 1) = 0.00000034 < 0.005 (two-tailed)
H0: p = _​ 13 ,​ H1: p > _
​ 13 ​ X = 1 lies within the critical region, so we can reject
b The critical value is x = 17 and the critical region is the null hypothesis.
X > 17  5 P(X > 4) = 0.0178 > 0.01 (two-tailed)
c 5.84% There is insufficient evidence to reject H0 so there is no
 9 a H0: p = 0.2, H1: p ≠ 0.2 reason to doubt p = 0.02
b The critical region is X < 1 and X > 10  6 P(X < 6) = 0.0577 > 0.025 (two-tailed)
c 4.47% X = 6 does not lie in the critical region, so there is no
reason to think that the coin is biased.
Challenge
a The critical region is X < 29 and X > 41  7 a Critical region X = 0 and X > 8
b Chance of one observation falling within critical b 4.36%
region = 8.8%. c H0: p = 0.2, H1: p ≠ 0.2
Chance of two observations falling within critical X = 8 is in the critical region. There is enough
region = 0.77%. evidence to reject H0. The hospital’s proportion of
complications differs from the national figure.
 8 Test statistic: the number of cracked bowls.
Exercise 7C H0: p = 0.1, H1: p ≠ 0.1
 1 0.0781 . 0.05 P(X < 1) = 0.3917 = 39.17%
There is insufficient evidence to reject H0. 39.17% > 5% (two-tailed) so there is not enough
 2 0.0464 , 0.05 evidence to reject H0. The proportion of cracked bowls
There is sufficient evidence to reject H0 so p , 0.04. has not changed.
 3 0.0480 , 0.05  9 Test statistic: the number of carrots longer than 7 cm
There is sufficient evidence to reject H0 so p . 0.30. H0: p = 0.25, H1: p ≠ 0.25
 4 0.0049 , 0.01 P(X > 13) = 1 − P(X < 12) = 0.0216 = 2.16%
There is sufficient evidence to reject H0 so p , 0.45. 2.16% < 2.5% (two-tailed) so there is enough evidence
 5 0.0526 . 0.05 to reject the null hypothesis. The probability of a carrot
There is insufficient evidence to reject H0 so there is no being longer than 7 cm has increased.
reason to doubt p 5 0.28. 10 Test statistic: the number of patients correctly
 6 0.0020 , 0.05 diagnosed.
There is sufficient evidence to reject H0 so p . 0.32. H0: p = 0.96, H1: p ≠ 0.96
 7 0.3813 . 0.05 P(X < 63) = 0.0000417 < 0.05 (two-tailed) so there is
There is insufficient evidence to reject H0 (not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis. The new
significant). test does not have the same probability of success as
There is no evidence that the probability is less than _​ 16 ​ . the old test.
There is no evidence that the dice is biased.

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 Answers

Mixed exercise 7 Review exercise 1

 1 H0: p = 0.2, H1: p > 0.2, P(X > 3) = 0.3222 . 0.05  1 a A census observes every member of a population.
There is insufficient evidence to reject H0. Disadvantage it would be time-consuming to get
There is no evidence that the trains are late more opinions from all the employees.
often. b Opportunity sampling
 2 H0: p = 0.5, H1: p > 0.5, P(X > 4) = 0.1875 . 0.05 c Only cleaners – no managers i.e. not all types.
There is insufficient evidence to reject H0. Not a random sample – 1st 50 may be in same
There is insufficient evidence that the manufacturer’s shift/group/share same views.
claim is true. d i Label employees (1–550) or obtain an ordered
 3 a Fixed number; independent trials; two outcomes list. Select first person using random numbers
(pass or fail); p constant for each car. (from 1–11). Then select every 11th person
b 0.16807 from the list e.g. If person 8 is selected then the
c 0.3828 . 0.05 sample is 8, 19, 30, 41, …
There is insufficient evidence to reject H0. ii Label managers (1–55) and cleaners (1–495).
There is no evidence that the garage fails fewer Use random numbers to select 5 managers and
than the national average. 45 cleaners.
 4 a Critical region X < 1 and X > 10.  2 a Opportunity sampling is using a sample that is
b 0.0583 available at the time the study is carried out. It is
c H0: p = 0.1, H1: p > 0.1, P(X > 4) = 0.133 . 0.1. unlikely to provide a representative sample of the
Accept H0. There is no evidence that the proportion weather in May.
of defective articles has increased. b 87.4
 5 H0: p = 0.5, H1: p ≠ 0.5, P(X < 8) = 0.252 . 0.025 (two- c Relative humidity above 95% gives rise to misty
tailed) conditions. 4 out of 5 observations are not misty
There is insufficient evidence to reject H0. days, so she may be right. However, 5 days is not a
There is no evidence that the claim is wrong. representative sample for the whole of May.
 6 a Critical region is X  4 and X  16  3 a Median 27.3 miles
b 0.0493 b Mean 30.1 miles, standard deviation 16.6 miles
c There is insufficient evidence to reject H0.  4 Mean 3.06 hours, standard deviation 3.32 hours
There is no evidence to suggest that the proportion  5 a i 37 minutes
of people buying that certain make of computer ii upper quartile, third quartile, 75 percentile
differs from 0.2. b Outliers – values that are much greater than or
 7 a i  The theory, methods, and practice of testing much less than the other values and need to be
a hypothesis by comparing it with the null treated with caution.
hypothesis. c
School B
ii  The critical value is the first value to fall inside
of the critical region.
iii  The acceptance region is the region where we
accept the null hypothesis.
b Critical region X = 0 and X > 8
c 4.36% 10 30 40 20 50 60
d As 7 does not lie in the critical region, H0 is not Time (minutes)
rejected. Therefore, the proportion of times that
Johan is late for school has not changed. d The children from school A generally took less time
 8 P(X > 21) = 0.021 < 0.05. Therefore there is sufficient than those from school B. The median for A is less
evidence to support Poppy’s claim that the likelihood of than the median for B. A has outliers, but B does
a rain-free day has increased. not. The interquartile range for A is less than the
 9 a Critical region X < 5 and X > 16 interquartile range for B. The total range for A is
b 5.34% greater than the total range for B.
c X = 4 is in the critical region so there is enough  6 a Missing frequencies: 35, 15; Missing frequency
evidence to reject H0. densities: 4, 6
b 0.4 c 18.9 minutes
10 a X ~ B(20, 0.85)
d 7.26 minutes e 18 minutes
b 0.1821
 7 0.82
c Test statistic is proportion of patients who recover.
 8 a 4.9
H0: p = 0.85, H1: p < 0.85
b
P(X < 20) = 0.00966
30
Cumulative frequency

0.00966 < 0.05 so there is enough evidence to reject

H0. The percentage of patients who recover after 25
treatment with the new ointment is lower than 85%.
20
Large data set 15
  1 a The critical region is X > 5
b Students’ answers 10
c Students’ answers 5
  2 Students’ answers
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Temperature (°C)

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 Answers

c Interpolation likely to be more accurate. 17 a x P(X = x)

d 25 days
 9 a 1 0.0278
Evaporation loss (y ml)

100 2 0.0833
80 3 0.1389
60 4 0.1944
40 5 0.2500
20 6 0.3056
0 b 0.5833
0 5 10 15 18 a P(X = x) = 0.2
Time (x weeks) b y 1 2 3 4
b The points lie close to a straight line.
c 3.90 ml of the chemicals evaporate each week. P(Y = y) 0.6 0.24 0.096 0.064
d The estimate for 19 weeks is reasonably reliable, c 0.16
since it is just outside the range of the data. 19 a 0.101 b 0.448 c 0.929 d 0.339
The estimate for 35 weeks is unreliable, since it is 20 a 0 < X < 5 and 19 < X < 40
far outside the range of the data. b 0.0234
10 a 15.3 + 2 × 10.2 = 35.7 so 45 is an outlier 21 a X < B(10, 0.75)
b A temperature of 45 °C is very high so it is likely where X is the random variable ‘number of patients
this value was recorded incorrectly. who recover when treated’.
c When the temperature increases by 1 °C, the b 0.146
number of ice creams sold per month increases by c H0: p = 0.75 H1: p < 0.75. 0.2142 > 0.05 so there is
2810. insufficient evidence to reject H0.
d Outside the range of the data (extrapolation) d 9
11 a 8 22 a H0: p = 0.3, H1: p > 0.3
11 Blue
b 18 < X < 40
9 Blue c 3.2%
12
3 Red d Reject the null hypothesis. Dhiriti’s claim is
11
supported.
9
11 Blue
3
12 Red Challenge
1 x = 4, y = 6, z = 14
2 Red
11 2 a X < 16 (probability = 0.1263)
b 0.25 c 0.409 b 0.0160
12 a
A B
CHAPTER 8
Prior knowledge 8
0.32 0.22 0.11  1 a x = 4 or x = _ x=_
​ 15 ​ b ​ 32 ​or x = ​− ​_
 73 ​
c x = 2.26 or x = −0.591 d x = ​±_
​ 32 ​
 2 a x = 10.3, y = 61.0° b x = 14.8, y = 8.7
0.35
 3 a 833 cm s−1 b 5000 kg m−3
b P(A) = 0.54, P(B) = 0.33  4 a 7.65 × 10 b
6
3.806 × 10−3
c They are not independent.
13 a 0.03 Faulty Exercise 8A
Goodbuy  1 a i h = 0 ii  h = 6 m
0.85
0.97 Not faulty b h = −48 m.
c Model is not valid when x = 200 as height would be
0.06 Faulty 48 m below ground level.
0.15  2 a 90 m b i h = 90 m   ii h = 40 m
Amart
c h = −1610 m
0.94 Not faulty d Model is not valid when t = 20 as height would be
b 0.9655 1610 m below sea level.
14 a C and T  3 a x = 2.30 m or 8.70 m b k = 10 m
b P(C and B) = 0.34; P(C   ) × P(B) = 0.32 so the events c When k = 10 seconds the ball passes through the
are not independent net so model not valid for k > 10
15 a 0.375  4 a 1320 m
b 0.125 b Model is valid for 0 < t < 10
c 0.125  5 0 < x < 120
16 a 0.0278  6 0 < t < 6
b 0.8929
c 0.0140

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 Answers

Exercise 8B Model the yo-yo as smooth – assume there is no

 1 a Ignore the rotational effect of any external friction between the yo-yo and the string.
forces that are acting on it, and the effects of air  4 a 41.7 m s−1
resistance. b 6000 kg m−2
b Ignore the frictional effects on the football due to air c 1.2 × 106 kg m−3
resistance.  5 a Model ball as a particle. Assume the floor is smooth.
 2 a Ignore the rotational effect of any external b i  Positive – the positive direction is defined as the
forces that are acting on it, and the effects of air direction in which the ball is travelling.
resistance. ii N
 egative – the ball will be slowing down.
b Ignore any friction between the ice puck and the ice  6 a Velocity is positive, displacement is positive
surface. b Velocity is negative, displacement is positive
 3 Parachute jumper and parachute should be considered c Velocity is negative, displacement is negative
together as one particle as they move together.  7 a 0.158 ms−2 b 108.4°
 4 a If modelled as a light rod, the fishing rod is  8 a 4.3 ms−1 b 125.5°
considered to have no thickness and is rigid.  9 a 158.1 m b 186.4 m c 51.3°
b If the fishing rod had no thickness and was rigid it
would be unsuitable for fishing.
 5 a Model golf ball as a particle, ignore the effects of air
resistance.
CHAPTER 9
b Model child on sledge as a particle, consider the hill Prior knowledge 9
as smooth.  1 a i 3 ii 73.5
c Model objects as particles, string as light and b i 2 ii 150
inextensible, pulley as smooth. c i −1.5 ii 26.25
d Model suitcase and handle as a particle, path as  2 26.25 miles
smooth, ignore friction.
 3 a x = 2, y = −1.5 b x = 1.27 or x = −2.77

Exercise 8C Exercise 9A
 1 a 18.1 m s−1 b 150 kg m−2 c 5 × 10−3 m s−1  1 a A 80 km h−1, B 40 km h−1, C 0 km h−1, D  km h−1,
d 0.024 kg m−3 e 45 kg m−3 f 63 kg m−2 E −66.7 km h−1
 2 a A: Normal reaction, B: Forward thrust, C: Weight, b 0 km h−1 c 50 km h−1
D: Friction.  2 a 187.5 km b 50 km h−1
b A: Buoyancy, B: Forward thrust, C: Weight, D: Water  3 a 12 km h−1 b 12:45
resistance or drag. c −10 km h−1, 3 km h−1 d 7.5 km h−1
c A: Normal reaction, B: Friction, C: Weight,
 4 a 2.5 m, 0.75 s
D: Tension.
b 0 m s−1
d A: Normal reaction, B: Weight, C: Friction.
c i The velocity of the ball is positive (upwards).
The ball is decelerating until it reaches 0 at the
highest point.
Exercise 8D ii The velocity of the ball is negative (downwards),
 1 a 2.1 m s−1 b 500 m c −1.8 m s−1 and the ball is accelerating.
d −2.7 m s−1 e −750 m f 2.5 m s−1
 2 a 15.6 m s−1 b 39.8°
 3 a 5 m s−2 b 143° Exercise 9B
 4 a 15.3 m b 24.3 m c 78.7°  1 a 2.25  m  s–2 b
90 m
 2 a v (m s–1)
Mixed exercise 8
10
 1 a 3.6 m b 1 m and 7 m
c 0 < x < 8 d 4.8 m
 2 a 7.68 m b 4.15 m
c Ignore the effects of air resistance on the diver and
rotational effects of external forces.
d Assumption not valid, diver experiences drag and
O 30 42 t (s)
buoyancy in the water.
 3 a Model the man on skis as a particle – ignore the b 360 m
rotational effect of any forces that are acting on the __8
 3 a 0.4  m  s–2 b ​ 15  ​   m  s–2 or 0.53  m  s–2 c
460 m
man as well as any effects due to air resistance.
Consider the snow-covered slope as smooth –  4 a v (m s–1)
assume there is no friction between the skis and the
snow-covered slope. 30
b Model the yo-yo as a particle – ignore the rotational
effect of any forces that are acting on the yo-yo as
well as any effects due to air resistance.
Consider the string as light and inextensible –
O 15 T 25 t (s)
ignore the weight of the string and assume it does
not stretch.
b
100  s

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 Answers

 5 a v (m s–1)  9 a 3.3  s (1 d.p.) b 16.2  m  s−1 (1 d.p.)

10 a t = 4 or t = 8 ___
​ ›
12 b t 5 4: 4  m  s−1___
in direction AB​
​   , t 5 8: 4  m  s−1
​ ›
in direction BA​ ​  . 
11 a t = 0.8 or t = 4
b 15.0  m  s−1 (3 s.f.)
12 a 2  s b 4  m
13 a 0.34  m  s−1 b 25.5  s (3 s.f.)
O 20 T 40 t (s) 14 a P: (4t 1 t 2)  m  Q: [3(t − 1) 1 1.8(t − 1)2]  m
b t 5 6 c 60  m
b T 5 320 c 3840  m 15 a 4.21 km h−2 b 0.295 km h−1
 6 a v (m s–1)
Exercise 9E
10  1 a 2.4 s b 23.4  m  s21
 2 4.1  s (2 s.f.)
 3 41  m (2 s.f.)
 4 a 29  m (2 s.f.) b 2.4 s (2 s.f.)
 5 a 5.5  m  s21 (2 s.f.) b 20  m  s21 (2 s.f.)
 6 a 40  m  s21 (2 s.f.) b 3.7  s (2 s.f.)
O 15 4T T t (s)  7 a 39  m  s21 b 78  m (2 s.f.)
b 60  s  8 4.7  m (2 s.f.)
 9 a 3.4  s (2 s.f.) b 29  m (2 s.f.)
 7 a u = ​ __
10
​ __
 ​  b 20
 ​  m  
  s–2 = 2.22 m s−2
3 9 10 2.8  s (2 s.f.)
 8 a v (m s–1) 11 a u = 29 (2 s.f.) b 6  s
C 12 30  m (2 s.f.)
30 13 a 5.6  m (2 s.f.) b 3.2  m (2 s.f.)
24
Challenge
M 1 a 1.4 s (2 s.f.) b
7.2 m (2 s.f.)
2 155 m (3 s.f.)

O
Mixed exercise 9
8 20 T t (s)
 1 a v (m s–1)
b
720  m

Challenge 12.5
a 6 s b 16.5 m
c i  10.5 m ii  4.5 m

Exercise 9C
 1 20  m  s–1
O 20 180 t (s)
 2 0.625  m  s–2
 3 20  m  s–1
b 2125  m
 4 a 9  m  s–1 b 72  m
 5 a 3  m  s–1 b ​ _13 ​   m s–2  2 a v (m s–1)
 6 a 9.2  m  s–1 b 33.6  m
 7 a 18 km h–1 b 312.5  m 15
 8 a 8  s b 128  m
 9 a 0.4  m  s–2 b 320  m
10 a 0.25  m  s–2 b 16  s c 234  m
11 a 19  m  s–1 b 2.4  m  s–2 c 430  m
12 a x 5 0.25 b 150  m O 32 32 + T t (s)
13 b 500  m
b T 5 12
Challenge c s (m)
a t = 3 b 12 m
570
Exercise 9D 480
 1 7  m  s−1
 2 _​ 23 ​  m  
  s−2
 3 2  m  s−2
 4 0.175  m  s−2
 5 a 2.5  m  s−2 b
4.8  s
 6 a 3.5  m  s−1 b
15.5  m  s−1
 7 a 54  m b 6  s O 32 44 t (s)
 8 a 90  m b 8.49  m  s−1 (3 s.f.)

225

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 Answers

 3 a i a = gradient of line. Using the formula for the CHAPTER 10

v−u
gradient of a line, a = _____
​      ​ , which can be
 
t Prior knowledge 10
rearranged to give v = u + at  1 a 5i − 3j b –4i + 4j
ii s = area under the graph. Using the formula for  2 a 19.2 cm b 38.7°
the area of a trapezium, ​s = (​ _____
2 )
u+v  3 a 18 m s–1 b
162 m
​      ​ ​t​
 

​ into ​s = ​(​ _____ Exercise 10A

2 )
v − u u + v
b i  Substitute t = _____ ​         
​ ​t​
 
a  1 R 2 T T
ii  Substitute v = u + at into ​s = (​ _____
2 )
u + v
​      ​ ​t​
 

Substitute u = v − at into ​s = (​ _____

2 )
u + v
iii  ​      ​ ​t​
 
 4 u 5 8
 5 0.165  m  s22 (3 d.p.)
 6 a 60  m b 100  m
 7 1.9 s
W
 8 a 4.1  s (2 s.f.) b 40  m  s21 (2 s.f.)
W
c air resistance
 9 a u 5 11 b 22  m  3 4 R 5 T
10 a 28  m  s21 b 208  m
11 a 8  m  s21 b 1.25  m  s22 c 204.8  m
12 a 33  m  s21 (2 s.f.) b 3.4  s (2 s.f.)
F P
c v (m s–1) W
21
W
W
 6 Although its speed is constant, the satellite is
O 2.1 5.5 t (s) continuously changing direction. This means that the
velocity changes. Therefore, there must be a resultant
force on the satellite.
 7 5 N
 8 a 10 N b 30 N c 20 N
–33
 9 a 200 N
13 a 50  s b 24.2  m  s21 (3 s.f.) b The platform accelerates towards the ground.
14 h 5 39 (2 s.f.) 10 p = 50, q = 40
15 a 32  m  s21 b 90  m c 5  s 11 P = 10 N, Q = 5 N
16 a v (m s–1) 12 a i 20 N ii  vertically upwards
b i 20 N ii  to the right
13 a R
34

22
1600 N 10 000 N

O 2 6 t (s)
W
b 180  m
b 8400 N
17 a v (m s–1)
14 a R

30
F 8F

W
O t1 T t2 300 t (s)
b
600 N

30 1 −30 30
b ​   ​ ​= 3x ⇒ t1 = __
___ ​   ​ , ____ ​ = −x ⇒ t2 = ___
​      ​   ​ ​ Exercise 10B
t1 x t2 x
​(​  ​ ​)​ N
2
10 30 40 1 a (3i + 2j) N b
So ​   ​ ​+ T + ​   ​ ​= 300 ⇒ ​   ​ ​+ T = 300
___ ___ ___ − 3
x x x
(​ ​ − 3​ ​)​ N
3
c T = 100, x = 0.2 d 3  km e 125  s c (4i − 3j) N d

Challenge 2 a i − 8j b –5i + j
1.2 s 3 a = 3, b = 4

226 Online
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 Answers

4 a i 5 N ii 
___ 53.1° c Light ⇒ tension is the same throughout the length
b i  √​  ___
26  ​     N ii  11.3° of the string and the mass of the string does not
c i ​√ __13   ​     N ii 123.7° need to be considered. Inextensible ⇒ acceleration
d i ​√ 2 ​  N ii  135°
__ of masses is the same.
 5 a i (2i − j) N ii  ​√ 5  ​ N iii  116.6°  2 a 10 kg b 40 N
b i (3i + 4j) N ii  5 N iii  36.9°  3 a 2 m s–2 b 14 N
 6 a = 3, b = 1  4 a 16 000 N
 7 a = 3, b = –1 ___ b i 880 N upwards
 8 a p = 2, q = –6 b ​√ 40   ​ N c 18°
ii 2400 N downwards
 9 a 63.4° b 3.5___
10 a a = 3, b = 2 b i √​  65   ​ N ii 30°  5 a 1800 kg and 5400 kg
b 37 000 N
Challenge c Light ⇒ tension is the same throughout the length
a = 17.3 (3 s.f.), magnitude of resultant force = 20 N of the tow-bar and the mass of the tow-bar does not
need to be considered. Inextensible ⇒ acceleration
of lorry and trailer is the same.
Exercise 10C  6 a 2.2 ms–2 b 60 N
 1 0.3 m s–2  7 a 4 kg b 47.2 N
 2 39.2 N  8 a 6000 N
 3 25 kg b For engine, F = ma = 3200 N
 4 1.6 m s–2 R(→) 12 000 − 6000 − T = 3200, T = 2800 N
 5 a 25.6 N b 41.2 N  9 a R(→) 1200 − 100 − 200 = 900 N
 6 a 2.1 kg (2 s.f.) b 1.7 kg (2 s.f.) F = ma, so a = 900 ÷ (300 + 900) = 0.75 m s–2
 7 a 5.8 m s–2 b 2.7 m s–2 b 325 N c 500 N
 8 4 N
 9 a 0.9 m s–2 b 7120 N c 8560 N
10 a 0.5 m s–2 b 45 N Exercise 10F
11 a 32 s b 256 m  1 a 33.6 N (3 s.f.)
c The resistive force is unlikely to be constant. b 2.37 m s–1 (3 s.f.)
c 2.29 m (3 s.f.)
Challenge  2 a 2mg N
a 2.9 m (2 s.f.) b 3.6 m s–1 (2 s.f.)   b For P: 2mg − kmg = ​ _13 k ​ mg
c 2.16 s (3 s.f.) So 2 − k = _ ​ 31 k
​ and k = 1.5
c Smooth ⇒ no friction so magnitude of acceleration
Exercise 10D is the same in objects connected by a taut
 1 a (0.5i + 2j) m s–2 inextensible string.
b 2.06 m s–2 (3 s.f.) on a bearing of 014° d While Q is descending, distance travelled by P = s1
(to the nearest degree). s = ut + _ ​ 12 ​at2 ⇒ s1 = __ ​ 16  ​ g × 1.82 = 0.54  g
 2 0.2 kg Speed of P at this time = v1
v2 = u2 + 2as ⇒ v12 = 02 + (​ 2 × __ ​   ​× 0.54  g)​= 0.36  g2
 3 a (21i − 9j) N g
b 22.8 N (3 s.f.) on a bearing of 113° 3
(to the nearest degree). After Q hits the ground, P travels freely under
 4 a (–4i + 32j) m s–2 b (​​ _65 i​ –   ​ _16 ​  j)  m s–2 gravity and travels a further distance s2.
c (–i _ 2
–   ​ 3 ​j)  m s d
–2
(​− _ ​ 43 i​ + 6j)  m s–2 v2 = u2 + 2as ⇒ 02 = 0.36  g2 − 2gs2 ⇒ s2 = 0.18  g
_______
√
 5 a ​  0.8125   ​ms on a bearing of 146°
–2 Total distance travelled = s1 + s2 = 0.54g + 0.18  g
(to the nearest degree). = 0.72  g m
b 6.66 s As particles started at same height P must be s1
 6 R = (−ki + 4kj) N metres above the plane at the start.
So 4k = 3 + q (1), −k = 2 + p (2) and −4k = 8 + 4p (3) Maximum height reached by P above the plane
Adding equations (1) and (3) gives 4p + q + 11 = 0 = 0.72  g + s1 = 0.72  g + 0.54  g = 1.26  g m
__
 7 a b = 6 b ​6 ​√ 2 ​  N  3 a s = ut + ​ _12 ​at2 so 2.5 = 0 + _
​ 12 ​× a × 1.252, a = 3.2 ms−2
__ __
3 ​√ 2  ​ –2 75 ​√ 2 ​  b 39 N
c ​ ____    ​ ______
​  m s d     ​    m
2 4 __ c For A, R(↓): mg − T = ma
25 ​√ 2 ​ 
______ T = m(9.8 − 3.2), T = 6.6m
 8 a p = 2, q = –6 b
​      ​    kg Substituting for T: 39 = 6.6m
6
 9 0.86 kg m = __ ​ 65  ​
  
11
10 a 5 + q = −2k (1), 2 + p = k (2) and 4 + 2p = 2k (3) d Same tension in string either side of the pulley.
Adding equations (1) and (3) gives 2p + q + 9 = 0 e __
​ 40  ​ s
49
b 0.2 kg
 4 a 0.613 m s–2 (3 s.f.)
Challenge b 27.6 N (3 s.f.)
k=8 c 39.0 N (3 s.f.)
 5 a i 2.84 m s−2 (3 s.f.)
ii 2.84(1.5) = 1.5g − T
Exercise 10E T = 1.5g − 4.26 = 10.4 N (3 s.f.)
 1 a 4 N iii 3.3 N
b 0.8 N b Same tension in string either side of the pulley.

227

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 Answers

Mixed exercise 10 Exercise 11B

1 2
 1 a 200g  1 a i ​v  =  16 ​t​ 3​ + ​ __2   ​​ ii ​a  =  48 ​t​ 2​ − ​ __3   ​​
​t​  ​ ​t​  ​
2 6
b i v ​   =  2 ​t​ 2​ − ​ __3   ​ ii  ​a  =  4t + ​ __4   ​​
​t​  ​ ​t​  ​
600 N 1000 N c i v = 18t2 + 30t − 2 ii 
a = 36t + 30
9​ t​ 2​ 5 5
d i v ​   =  ​ ____   ​ − 2t − ​ ____ 2  ​a  =  9t − 2 + ​ __3   ​​
 ​​ ii 
2 2 ​t​  ​ ​t​  ​
200g  2 a 46 m s−1 b 24 m s−2
b 2 m s–2  3 7 m s−2 in the direction of x decreasing.
 2 1000 N (2 s.f.) vertically downwards  4 6.75 m
 3 a 2000 N b 36 m  5 a k = 4 b a = −4 m s−2
 4 a 1.25 ms–2 b 6 N  6 1.7 cm
 5 Res(→) 3R − R = 1200 × 2 ⇒ R = 1200
Driving force = 3R = 3600 N
 6 (28i + 4j) m s–2 Exercise 11C
 7 a = 1, b = −3 __  1 a 0.25 s
__
9 ​√ 5 ​  b 4.54 m
 8 a √​  5 ​  m s–2 b ​ ____    ​    m
2 c v = −1.88 m s−1
 9 a a = –15, b = 12  2 a The body returns to its starting position 4 s after
b i  11.7 m s–2 (3 s.f.) on a bearing of 039.8° (3 s.f.) leaving it.
ii  52.7 m (3 s.f.) b Since t > 0, t3 is always positive.
10 a 0.7 ms–2 b 770 N c 58 m Since t < 4, 4 − t is always non-negative.
d Inextensible ⇒ tension the same throughout, and the c 27 m
acceleration of the car and the trailer is the same.  3 a
11 a R(→) 8000 − 500 − R = 3600 × 1.75, R = 1200 N Velocity–time graph for motion of P
b 2425 N c 630 N (2 s.f.)
Velocity, v

12 a ​ _13 ​g m s–2 b ​  ​ _23 ​m
3.6 m s–1 c
2
d i  Acceleration both masses equal.
ii  Same tension in string either side of the pulley.
13 a __​ 12
7
g
 ​
 
​  N b m = 1.2 0
0 Time, t 6
14 a 3.2 m s–2 b 5.3 N (2 s.f.) c F = 3.7 (2 s.f.)
d The information that the string is inextensible has b v = 81 m s when t = 3 s −1

been use in part c when the acceleration of A has  4 a Discriminant of 2t2 − 3t + 5 is <0, so no solutions
been taken to be equal to the acceleration of B. for v = 0
15 a i  0.5 g − T = 0.5a ii T − 0.4 g= 0.4a b 3.88 m s−1 (3 s.f.)
b ​ _49 ​g N c _
​ 19 ​ g m s–2 d 0.66 s (2 s.f.)  5 a Displacement–time graph for motion of P
Displacement, s

Challenge
k = ​−   _
​52 ​

CHAPTER 11 0
4.5
Time, t
Prior knowledge 11
b s is a distance so cannot be negative.
​x​ −​(​ 2 ​) ​​− 12
__
1

 1 a 6x − 5 b _________
​     ​  c 13.5 m d 9 m s−2
(x3)
ds
 2 a (1.5, −4.75) b (1, 9) and (3, 5) 6 Max distance is when ___
​   ​ ​= 3.6 + 3.52t + 0.06t2 = 0,
dt
5​x​ 2​
 3 a ​ ____
   x3 − x2 + 5x + 7
​  + 8x + 1​ b so t = 59.7 (3 s.f.)
2 ∴ Max distance = 2.23 km (3 s.f.), so the train never
 4 a 18 b ​11 ​_  13 ​
reaches the end of the track.

Exercise 11A Exercise 11D

 1 a 8 m b t = 0 and t = ±3 ​t​ 4​ ​t​ 3​ 4 _3 4 ​t​ 3​
 1 a s​ = ​t​ 3​ − t​ b s​ = ​ __ ​  − ​ __ ​ ​ c ​s = ​ __ ​ t​ ​ ​ 2 ​ ​ + ​ ____   
​
 
 2 a 4 m b 6 m 2 2 3 3
 3 a 7 m s−1 b 9.25 m s−1 2t
___
3
t
__
3
 2 a v = 4t2 − ​      ​   b v = 6t + ​   ​ ​
c −11 m s−1; body is travelling in opposite direction. 3 9
 4 a 0.8 m b 4 s  3 12 m
c 1.6 m d 0<t<4  4 a v = 6 + 16t − t2 b −6
 5 a 8 m s−1 b t = ​ _43 ​and t = 2  5 42.9 m (3 s.f.)
c _ 1
t = ​ 3 ​and t = 3 d 8 m s−1  6 12.375 m
 6 a 4 s b 8 m s−1  7 a 10​_​ 23 ​ b 13 m
 7 T = 3: returns to starting point and s = 0 when t = 0
 8 t = _ 3
​ 2 ​ and t = 5
and t = 3.
 8 a t = __ ​ 13  ​and t = 3 b ​ __
16
​ m s−1
   
 9 a t = 1 and t = 5 b
6 m
15

228 Online
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 Answers

10 T = 1.5 s  6 a t = _
​ 35 ​and t = 2 b
13 m s−2 c ​ ___
433
27
​  m
  
​t​ 2​
11 a ​v = __
​   ​  − 3t + 4​ b t = 2 and t = 4 c ​ _23 ​ m ​t​ 4​ ​t​ 5​ ___4​t​ 3​
2  7 a ​v = ​ __ ​  − 4​t​ 2​ + 6​ b s​ = ​ ___   ​ − ​      ​  + 6t​
12 a 86 m b 60 m s −1 2__ __
10 3
c t = ​√ 2  ​and t = √​  6  ​
Challenge  8 max = 8.64 m, min = 1.14 m
___
​ 200
   ​   m  9 a = 1500, b = 800, c = −16
3
10 a ​v = ​∫​ 20 − 6t dt​ = 20t − 3​t​ 2​ + c​
At t = 0, v = 7 so c = 7 and v = 7 + 20t − 3t2
Exercise 11E b The greatest speed is 40​_ 1
​ 3 ​   m s−1
 1 v = ∫adt = at + c c 196 m
a × 0 + c = 0 ⇒ c = 0 ⇒ v = at 11 v = ∫ k(7 − t2)dt ⇒ v = k​( ​   ​ )​+ c
t3
​ 7t − __
s = ∫v dt = ∫at dt = ​ __12 ​  at2 + k 3
t = 0, v = 0 [ c = 0; t = 3, v = 6 [ k = ​ __12  ​
​ 12 ​  a × 02 + k = x ⇒ k = x
__
7 t3
so s = ​__  12 ​  at2 + x
v = ​ __ ​ t − __ ​   ​ ​

∫
2 6
s = ∫ vdt =  ​​(__ ​   ​ )​dt = ___
 2 a a = 5, ​v = ​∫​ 5 dt = 5t + c​; when t = 0, u = 12 so 7 t3 7t2 ___ t4
​   ​ t − __ ​      ​ − ​      ​+ c
c = 12, v = 12 + 5t 2 6 4 24
5​t​ 2​ t = 0, s = 0 [ c = 0
b ​s = ∫12 + 5t dt = 12t + ​ ____   ​ + d​, when t = 0, 7t2 ___ t4 ___ 1 2
2 s = ___
​      ​ − ​      ​= ​      ​ t (42 − t2)
s = 7 so d = 7, s = 12t + 2.5t2 + 7 4 24 24
12 a Time cannot be negative so t > 0
ds dv
​ = ​ ___  ​ = u + at​; ​ ___  ​ = a​so constant acceleration a
 3 v at t = 5 s = 0 so mouse has returned to its hole.
dt dt
b 39.1 m
 4 A a = 4 − 6t, not constant
13 a Mass is not constant as fuel is used.
B a = 0. no acceleration
Gravity is not constant so weight not constant.
C a = __ ​ 12  ​, constant
Thrust may not be constant.
12
D a = ​− ​ ___  ​ ​not constant b v = (1.69 × 10−7) t4 − (1.33 × 10−4) t3 + 0.0525 t2
​t​ 4​ + 0.859 t + 274 m s−1
E v = 0, particle stationary
c v = 5990 m s−1
 5 a 4 m s−2 b p = 2, q = 5, r = 0
d 510 seconds (2 s.f.) after launch
 6 a 680 m
ds d2s
b ​   ​ ​= 25 − 0.4t ⇒ ____
___ ​  2 ​ 
​= −0.4 [ a is constant Challenge
dt dt   1 32.75 m
c 420 m from A   2 91 m s−1

Mixed exercise 11 Review exercise 2

 1 a t = 5  1 a Constant acceleration
b 37.5 m b Constant speed c 30.5 m
 2 a 30 m s−2  2 a v (m s–1)
b 75 m
​t​ 3​
 3 a Displacement = ​8t + ​t​ 2​ − ​ __  ​
3
b Max displacement when t = 4, s = 26​_ 2
​ 3 ​ m, which is 24
less than 30 m so P does not reach B.
c t = 6.62 s
d 53​_
​ 31 ​   m
 4 a __
​ 32
3
 ​ ​  m s−1 b ​ __
40
3
 ​ ​  m
 5 a (–3t2 + 22t − 24) m s–1 b t=_ ​ 34 ​and t = 6 O 75 t (s)
T t1
c t = __ ​ 11
3
 ​
 
​
d v (m s–1) b T = 250 d
0.48 m s−2 c 375 s
 3 a 185 s b 2480 m
c s (m)

2480
2320

O 113 6 t (s)

320

O 40 165 185 t (s)

–24
 4 a 28 m s−1 b 5.7 s (2 s.f.)
e 0 < t < 0.38, __
​ 10
3
  ​ < t < 4  5 t = 2 and t = 4

229

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 Answers

___ ___
 6 q = ​√ 10   ​and p = √​  30  
​
 7 66  __
​ 23  ​ m
Practice paper
 8 a 0.693 m s−2 (3 s.f.) b 7430 N (3 s.f.)  1 a 0.15
c i Rotational forces and air resistance can be b P(B) × P(M) = 0.1575 so the events are not
ignored. independent.
ii The tension is the same at both ends and its  2 a Continuous – measured variable can take any value
mass can be ignored. b 14.01, 1.36 (3 s.f.)
 9 a Ball will momentarily be at rest 25.6 m above A. c Increase – value higher than current mean
02 = u2 + 2 × 9.8 × 25.6, u = 22.4 d Clare could select random days in September.
b 4.64 (3 s.f.) c 6380 (3 s.f.) She could include data from other UK locations for
d September 2015.
v (m s–1)
 3 a 0.2
b 0.65
22.4 c i 0.1757   ii 0.0260
 4 a Test statistic is the number of plates that are flawed.
H0: p = 0.3, H1: p < 0.3
O 2.3 4.6 t (s) b 0, 1, 2 c 3.55%
d 1 falls into the critical region therefore there is
evidence to support the claim.
–22.7  5 a Increase in energy released for each degree of
temperature.
b Value of h is a long way from the range of the
e Consider air resistance due to motion under gravity. experimental data so it would not be sensible –
10 a 4.2 m s−2 b 3.4 N (2 s.f.) extrapolation.
c 2.9 m s−1 (2 s.f.) d 0.69 s (2 s.f.) c The regression line should only be used to predict a
e i String has negligible weight. value of e given h so it would not be sensible.
ii Tension in string is constant i.e. same at A and B.  6 0.87 (2 d.p.)
11 a 2.9 N (2 s.f.) b 4.9 m s−2 c 0.21 s (2 s.f.)  7 a 0.75 m s−2 b 845 N
d Same acceleration for P and Q. c Same acceleration for car and trailer
12 a i 1050 N ii 390 N  8 a a = 3i − j m s−2
b 2.5 m s−1 b 18.4°
___ below
13 a 8697 N b 351 N c 507 N c √
​  10   ​ m s−2
14 a 63 °  9 a 24.5 m s−1 b 30.625 m
b 2 + λ = k (1) and 3 + μ = 2k (2) 5 30
c ​   ​ s and ___
__ ​   ​ ​ s
2 × (1) = (2) so 4 + 2λ = 3 + μ so 2λ − μ + 1 = 0 7 7
c 4.47 (3 s.f.) 153
10 ​ ____ ​ 
​ m
15 a 17.5 (1 d.p.) 16
b 66°
c P = 3i + 12j
Q = 4i + 4j
16 6 s
17 a 4.5 m s−1 b 4.5 s
18 a t = 1 and t = __ ​ 53  ​ b 16 m s−2 c 4 m
19 a 6 − 3​​t​ ​ 2  ​ ​ ​ 45  ​ t​ ​ 2  ​ ​
__
1 __
5
b 3t2 − __

Challenge
 1 t1 = 62.2 s, t2 = 311.1 s, t3 = 46.7 s (3 s.f.)
Distance = 20.6 km (3 s.f.)
 2 a a = 7.4 m s−2 b 39 N
c 13 N d 55 N (2 s.f.)
e Acceleration is the same for objects connected by a
taut inextensible string.

230 Online
Full worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

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 Answers Index

Index
acceleration 125, 133, 185, cumulative frequency hypothesis testing 98–108 motion
188 diagrams 46–7 critical values 101–3 in 2 dimensions 166–7
constant 133, 137–50, histograms 48–50 one-tailed tests 99–100, connected particle 169–71,
191–2 outliers 41–2 105–6 173–5
forces and 162–4 data types 9–10 two-tailed tests 99, 103, equations of 162, 166
formulae for constant deceleration 125, 133, 138 107–8 laws of 157, 162, 170
142–3, 191–2 dependent variables 60, 64–5 multiplication rule 75–6
maximum and minimum differentiation 185, 188 i, j notation 125, 160 mutually exclusive events
values 186 discrete uniform distribution independent events 75–6 75–6
variable 181–9 84 independent variables 60, 64
as vector 166–7 discrete variables 9, 84 index 89 Newton’s laws of motion
acceptance region 102 dispersion, measures 28 integration 188–9 first 157
actual significance level displacement 18, 125–6, 133, interpercentile range 28 second 162
102–3 188–9 interpolation 26, 64 third 170
air resistance 121, 123, 124 maximum and minimum interquartile range (IQR) 28 normal reaction 123
alternative hypothesis 99, values 186–7 data comparisons 53 null hypothesis 99–103
105 rate of change of 131, 185 intersection 72
anomalies 42 displacement–time graphs objects, light 121
131–2 key points summaries one-tailed tests 99–100,
beads 121 distance 125–6, 133 constant acceleration 155 105–6
bias distributions 83–93 correlation 68 opportunity sampling 7–8
introducing 6, 7 binomial see binomial data collection 19 outcomes 70
removing 4 distribution data representations 58 equally likely 70
testing for 99 discrete uniform 84 distributions 97 expected 107
binomial distribution 88–90, even 26 forces and motion 180 outliers 41–2
101–3 hypothesis testing 112
cumulative distribution estimates, spread measures location and spread parameter 89
function 91–3, 204–8 31 measures 39 particles
bivariate data 60–5 events 70, 72–3 modelling in mechanics connected 169–71, 173–5
box plots 43–4 independent 75–6 129 modelling assumptions
buoyancy 123 mutually exclusive 75–6 probability 82 121
experiment 70 variable acceleration 196 pegs 121
causal relationships 61 explanatory variables see kinematics formulae 142–3, percentiles 28, 46–7
census 2 independent variables 191–2 population parameter 99
central tendency, measures extrapolation 64 populations 2
of 21 lamina 121 proportions of 107
centre of mass 121 first law of motion 157 large data set 11–13 probability 69–78
class boundaries 9 force diagrams 123, 124, least squares regression line calculating 70–1
class width 9 157–8 63–4 distributions see
classes 9 forces 122–3, 156–75 line of best fit 63 distributions
coding 33–4 and acceleration 162–4 linear regression 63–5 independent events 75–6
complement 72 resultant 157, 160, 166–7 location, measures 21–38 mutually exclusive events
compression see thrust as vectors 125, 160, 166–7 lottery sampling 4 75–6
continuous variables 9 see also friction lower quartiles 25, 28 tree diagrams 78
convenience sampling 7–8 frequency density 48–9, 50 Venn diagrams 72–3, 75–6
correlation 59–65 frequency polygon 48–9 mass 125 probability mass function
linear regression 63–5 frequency tables 21–2 maxima 186–7 84, 89
scatter diagrams 60–1, friction 123 mean 21–4 pulleys 121, 173–5
63–4 straight line motion 157, coded data 33–4
critical region 101–3, 105–6, 159–60, 163–4 data comparisons 53 quadratic formula 143
108 mechanics 119 qualitative data 9
critical values 101–3 gradients 131, 133 median 21–4, 27 quantitative data 9
cumulative frequency 46–7 gravity 162 data comparisons 53 quartiles 25, 41, 43, 46–7
cumulative probability acceleration due to 147 midpoint 9, 31 discrete data 25, 27
function 91–3, 204–8 modelling assumptions minima 186–7 quota sampling 7
121 mode (modal class) 21–4
data cleaning 42 vertical motion under modelling in mechanics random numbers 4
data comparisons 53 146–50 118–26 random variables 84–6
data representations 40–53 grouped data 26, 30–1 assumptions 120–1 range 28
box plots 43–4 constructing a model 119 reactions 170
comparing data 53 histograms 48–50 models, statistical 85 regression line 63–4

231231

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 Index

response variables see spread, measures 28–34 tree diagrams 78 variance 30–1
dependent variables standard deviation 30–1 trials 88 grouped data 30–1
rods 121 coded data 33–4 two-tailed tests 99, 103, variation, measures 28
data comparisons 53 107–8 vectors 125–6
sample space 70, 72, 84 grouped data 30–1 addition 126
samples 2 stratified sampling 5, 6 uniform bodies 121 notation 125–6, 160
sampling strings 121 union 72 unit 160
non-random 7–8 summary statistic 30 units 122–4 velocity 125–6, 131, 185,
random 4–7 surfaces 121 SI 122, 123 188–9
sampling frame 2 suvat formulae 142–3, 191–2 upper quartiles 25, 28 average 131
sampling units 2 systematic sampling 4–5, 6 constant 157
scalar quantities 125 variables maximum and minimum
scatter diagrams 60–1, 63–4 tension 123 continuous 9 values 186
second law of motion 162 test statistic 99, 100, 101–2, dependent (response) 60, rate of change of 133, 185
significance levels 99, 105, 105–6, 107–8 64–5 velocity–time graphs 133–5,
107 third law of motion 170 discrete 9, 84 137, 182, 189
actual 102–3 thrust 123, 124 independent (explanatory) Venn diagrams 72–3, 75–6
simple random sampling time 125 60, 64
4, 5 of flight 147 qualitative 9 weather data 11–13
speed 125–6, 183 functions of 182–3 quantitative 9 weight 122, 123, 124, 125,
of projection 147 trapezium area 134, 135 random 84–6 162

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