Chapter 8

Continuous System

1 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Chapter Outline

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable
8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod
8.4 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod
8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams
8.6 Vibration of Membranes
8.7 Rayleigh’s Method
8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

2 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.1
Introduction

3 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.1 Introduction

• It is not possible to identify discrete masses, dampers and springs

in continuous systems.

• They are systems of infinite degree of freedom.

• If they are modeled as discrete systems, the equations are ordinary

differential equations.

• If they are modeled as continuous systems, the equations are

partial differential equations, which are more accurate but harder to
solve.

4 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.1 Introduction

• The frequency equation of a continuous system is a transcendental

equation.

• Yields infinite number of natural frequencies and natural modes

• Need to apply boundary conditions to find the natural frequencies,

unlike discrete systems.

5 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.2
Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

6 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Consider a tightly stretched elastic string subjected to a transverse

force f(x,t) per unit length as shown. w(x,t) is assumed to be small.

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Equations of Motion

Net force acting on an element is equal to inertial force acting on

the element.
2w
P  dP sin   d   fdx  P sin   dx 2 8.1
t
P is the tension
ρ is the mass per unit length
θ is the angle the string makes with the x-axis

P w
For an elemental length dx, dP  dx and sin   tan  
x x
w  w
2
sin   d   tan  d    2 dx
x x
8 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Equations of Motion

  wx, t   2 wx, t 
Hence Eq. 8.1 can be simplified to
 P   f  x, t     x 
x  x  t 2

If the string is uniform and P is constant,

 2 w x, t   2 w x, t 
P  f  x, t   
x 2
t 2
 2 w x, t   2 w x, t 
If f ( x, t )  0, P 
x 2
t 2
 2
w  2
w P
or c 2 2  2 where c  (Wave Equation)
x t 
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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Initial and Boundary Conditions

We need 2 boundary and 2 initial conditions to solve the equations

of motion.

For known deflection w0(x) and velocity w 0 x  at time t=0, initial

conditions are

wx, t  0  w0 t 
w
x, t  0  w 0 t  8.10
t
If string fixed at one end, boundary condition: wx  0, t   0, t  0

10 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Initial and Boundary Conditions

If string is connected to a pin that move perpendicularly as shown,

the end cannot support transverse force.

Boundary condition becomes

wx, t 
P x  0 (8.12)
x

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Initial and Boundary Conditions

If the end x=0 is free and P is constant, Eq 8.12 becomes

w0, t 
 0, t  0 8.13
x
If the end x=l is constrained elastically as shown,

wx, t 
P x   k wx, t  x l , t  0 8.14
x x l

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Free Vibration of a Uniform String

Free vibration equation can be solved by method of separation of

variables.
wx, t   W x T t  8.15
c 2 d 2W 1 d 2T
Substitute into free vibration equation: 2
 8.16
W dx T dt 2
Since the left hand side depends only on x and right hand side
depends only on t, their common value must be a constant
c 2 d 2W 1 d 2T
2
 2
 a where a is a constant 8.17
W dx T dt

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Free Vibration of a Uniform String

2 2 2
We have d W  a W  0, d T  aT  0 and a is generally negative
dx 2 c 2 dt 2
Hence set a=-ω2 we get d 2W  2 d 2T
2
 2
W  0, 2
  2
T 0
dx c dt
Solution of these equations:
x x
W x   A cos  B sin 8.22
c c
T t   C cos t  D sin t 8.23
Constants A,B,C and D can be found from boundary and initial
conditions

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Free Vibration of a String with Both Ends Fixed

Boundary conditions are w(0,t)=w(l,t)=0, t≥0

Hence from wx, t   W x T t  we obtain W(0)=0, W(l)=0

To satisfy W(0)=0, A must be zero from Eq 8.4.

l
To satisfy W(l)=0, B sin 0
c
Since B≠0 for nontrivial solution,
l
sin 0 (Frequency or characteristic equation)
c
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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Free Vibration of a String with Both Ends Fixed

The values of ω satisfying the equation are called eigenvalues of the

problem.

nth natural frequency is given by

n l nc
 n , n  1,2,... or n  , n  1,2,...
c l

The nth mode of vibration wn(x,t) corresponding to ωn is

nx  nct nct 

wn x, t   Wn x Tn t   sin C cos  D sin
l  l 
n n
l
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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Free Vibration of a String with Both Ends Fixed

The mode corresponding to n=1 is called the fundamental mode,

and ω1 is the fundamental frequency.

2 2l
The fundamental period is  1  
1 c
The figure shows the first 3 modes of vibration.

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Free Vibration of a String with Both Ends Fixed

The solution of the wave equation which satisfies W(0)=0 and

W(l)=0 is given by:
 nx  nct nct 
wx, t    wn x, t    sin Cn cos  Dn sin 8.30
n 1 n 1 l  l l 

If the initial conditions are as specified in Eq 8.2, we have

 nx  nc nx
 n C sin  w0  x  ,  Dn sin  w 0 x  8.31, 8.32
n 1 l n 1 l l

This is the Fourier series expansions of w0 and w 0 x, 0  x  l

18 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

Example 8.1
Dynamic Response of a Plucked String

If a string of length l, fixed at both ends, is plucked at its midpoint as

shown and then released, determine its subsequent motion.

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

Example 8.1
Dynamic Response of a Plucked String
Solution

 0 x   0  Dn  0
No initial velocity: w
nx 
nct
Thus w x, t    Cn sin cos
n 1 l l
nx
where Cn   w0  x sin
2 l
dx (E.1)
l 0 l
Initial deflection:  2hx l
 l for 0  x 
w0 x    2
2hl  x 
(E.2)
l
 for  x  l
 l 2

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

Example 8.1
Dynamic Response of a Plucked String
Solution

Substituting (E.2) into (E.1),

2  l / 2 2hx nx nx 

l  x sin
l 2h
Cn   sin dx   dx
l 0 l l l / 2 l l 
 8h n
 2 2 sin for n  1,2,5,...
  n 2
0 for n  2,4,6,...

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

Example 8.1
Dynamic Response of a Plucked String
Solution

n
  1
 n 1 / 2
By using the relation sin , n  1,3,5,... the desired
2

solution can be expressed as

8h  x ct 1 3x 3ct 

wx, t   2 
sin cos  sin cos  
  l l 9 l l 

22 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Traveling-Wave Solution

The solution of the wave equation for a string of infinite length can
be expressed as

wx, t   w1 x  ct   w2 x  ct  8.35
where w1 and w2 are arbitrary functions of (x-ct) and (x+ct)
respectively.

Proof: Differentiate w x, t   w1 x  ct   w2 x  ct  and substitute

into wave equation.
 2 wx, t   2 wx, t 
 w1x  ct   w2x  ct   c 2
w x  ct   c 2
w2x  ct 
x t
2 2 1

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Traveling-Wave Solution

w1 and w2 are determined from initial conditions

Substituting Eq 8.35 into Eq 8.10 gives

w1 x   w2 x   w0 x  8.38
 cw1 x   cw2 x   w 0 x  8.39
Integrating Eq 8.39 gives

 w1 x   w2 x   x0 w 0 xdx where x0 is a constant. 8.40

1 x
c

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Traveling-Wave Solution

Solving Eq 8.41 and Eq. 8.42,

1  1 
w1 x    w0 x   x0 w0 x dx , w2 x    w0 x   x w 0 xdx
1 x 1 x
  
2 c  2 c 

Replacing x by (x-ct) and (x+ct), total solution:

wx, t   w1 x  ct   w2 x  ct 

 w0 x  ct   w0 x  ct   x ct w 0 xdx 8.43

1 1 x ct
2 2c

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 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable

• Traveling-Wave Solution

No need to apply boundary conditions.

Solution can be expressed as w(x,t)=wD(x,t)+wV(x,t)

wD(x,t) denotes the waves due to the known initial displacement

with zero initial velocity.

wV(x,t) denotes the waves due to the known initial velocity with
zero initial displacement.

26 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.3
Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

27 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• Consider a bar with varying cross-sectional area A(x) as shown

below.

28 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• Forces acting on cross section of a small element on the bar are

given by P and P+dP
u
P  A  EA 8.45
x
σ is the axial stress
E is Young’s Modulus
u is the axial displacement
u is the axial strain
x

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• If f(x,t) is the external force per unit length, total force in the x
direction:

 2u
P  dP   fdx  P  Adx 2 8.46
t
where  is the density of the bar

• Equation of motion for forced longitudinal vibration of non-uniform

bar:
  u x, t  2
u
 EAx    f x, t    x Ax  2 x, t  8.47
x  x  t
• For a uniform bar,
 2u  2u
EA 2 x, t   f x, t   A 2 x, t  8.48
x t
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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• Equation of Motion and Solution

For a uniform bar,

 2u  2u
EA 2 x, t   f x, t   A 2 x, t  8.48
x t
For free vibration (f=0),

 2u  2u
c 2
x, t   2 x, t  where c  E
8.49
x 2
t 
Solution:
 x x 
u x, t   U x T t    A cos  B sin C cos t  D sin t  8.51
 c c 
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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• Equation of Motion and Solution

If the bar has known initial axial displacement and velocity, initial
conditions:
u
u  x, t  0   u 0  x   x, t  0  u0 x  8.52
t
The common boundary conditions and corresponding frequency
equations for longitudinal vibration of uniform bars are given in the
following table on the next slide.

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• Equation of Motion and Solution

u
u  x, t  0   u 0  x   x, t  0  u0 x  8.52
t

33 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.2
Boundary Conditions for a Bar

A uniform bar of cross-sectional area A, length l and Young’s modulus

E is connected at both ends by springs, dampers and masses as shown
below. State the boundary conditions.

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.2
Boundary Conditions for a Bar
Solution

Free-body diagram:

Force at the left end = Sum of spring, damper and inertia forces:
u u  2u
AE 0, t   k1u 0, t   c1 0, t   m1 2 0, t  E.1
x t t
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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.2
Boundary Conditions for a Bar
Solution

Force at the right end = Negative sum of spring, damper and inertia
forces:
u u  2u
AE l , t   k 2u l , t   c2 l , t   m2 2 l , t  E.2
x t t

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• Orthogonality of Normal Functions

The normal functions for the longitudinal vibration of bars satisfy

the orthogonality relation:

 U i  x U j  x dx  0 8.53 
l
0

Ui(x) and Uj(x) are the normal functions corresponding to ωi and ωj.

c 2U ix   i2U i x   0 and c 2U jx    2j U j x   0 8.55

d 2U i d 2U j
where U i  2
and U j 
dx dx 2

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• Orthogonality of Normal Functions

Multiply c 2U i x   i2U i  x   0 by Uj:

c 2U iU
 j  i2U iU j  0 8.56 

Multiply c 2U j x    2j U j  x   0 by Ui:

c 2U jU i  i2U jU i  0 8.57 

Subtract the 2 equations and integrate from 0 to l:

0 U iU j dx   2
l c2 l
2 0
i   j
U iU  
 j  U jU i dx   2
c2
i   j
2

U iU j  U jU i  l

0
8.58

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

• Orthogonality of Normal Functions

Right hand side is zero for any combination of boundary conditions.

E.g. bar fixed at x=0 and free at x=l: u(0,t)=0, t≥0 or U(0)=0

i j 
Thus U U  U U
j i  x 0
0
u
l , t   0, t  0 or U l   0
x


Therefore U iU j  U jU i  x l
0

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.3
Free Vibration of a Fixed-Free Bar

Find the natural frequencies and the free vibration solution of a bar
fixed at one end and free at the other.

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.3
Free Vibration of a Fixed-Free Bar
Solution

Let the bar be fixed at x=0 and free x=l.

Boundary conditions: u(0,t)=0, t≥0 (E.1)

u
l , t   0, t  0 (E.2)
x
Substitute E.1 into Eq. 8.51 gives A  0

 l l
Substitute E.2 into Eq. 8.51 gives B cos  0 or cos 0
c c c
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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.3
Free Vibration of a Fixed-Free Bar
Solution

Eigenvalues:  n l  2n  1  , n  0,1,2,...

c 2
or  n 
2n  1c , n  0,1,2,...
2l

Total solution: u x, t    un  x, t 
n 0

  sin
2n  1x C 2n  1ct  D 2n  1ct 
2l  n cos 2l
n sin
2l 
n 0

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.3
Free Vibration of a Fixed-Free Bar
Solution

Constants Cn and Dn are determined from the initial conditions:

Cn   u0  x sin
2 l 2n  1x
dx
l 0 2l
4 l
u0 x sin
2n  1x
Dn  
2n  1c 0 2l
dx

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.4
Natural Frequencies of a Bar Carrying a Mass

Find the natural frequencies of a bar with one end fixed and a mass
attached at the other end, as shown below.

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.4
Natural Frequencies of a Bar Carrying a Mass
Solution

Eq. 8.51 gives the solution to the equation of motion.

Boundary condition at x=0 is u(0,t)=0. Thus A  0

At x=l, tensile force in the bar = inertia force of vibrating mass M.

u  2U
AE l , t    M 2 l , t  E.2
x t

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.4
Natural Frequencies of a Bar Carrying a Mass
Solution

This equation can be expressed as:

 l l
AE cos C cos t  D sin t   M 2
sin C cos t  D sin t 
c c c
i.e.  l l
AE cos  M 2 sin
c c c
l
or  tan    where  
c
AEl Al m
and   2
  where m is the mass of the bar.
c M M M
46 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.4
Natural Frequencies of a Bar Carrying a Mass
Solution

First 2 natural frequencies are given below for different β.

47 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.4
Natural Frequencies of a Bar Carrying a Mass
Solution

If m is negligible compared to M, m≈0

E EAl l
c    and   0
 m c
l l  l 
2

In this case, tan  and α tan    can be taken as    

c c  c 
Approximate value of fundamental frequency:
c c Al EA g Mgl
1   1/ 2    where  s  is static elongation
l l M lM s EA
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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.5
Vibrations of a Bar Subjected to Initial force

A bar of uniform cross-sectional area A, density ρ, modulus of

elasticity E, and length l is fixed at one end and free at the other end.
It is subjected to an axial force F0 at its free end, as shown below.
Study the resulting vibrations if the force F0 is suddenly removed.

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.5
Vibrations of a Bar subjected to Initial force
Solution

F0
Tensile strain in bar due to F0:  
EA
Initial displacement (see figure): u0  u  x,0   x 
F0 x
EA
u
Initial velocity: u0  x,0  0, 0  x  l
t
2 l F x 2 n  1x 8 F l  1n

l 0 EA
Therefore, Dn  0, Cn  0
 sin dx  0
2l EA 2 2  12

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 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod

Example 8.5
Vibrations of a Bar Subjected to Initial force
Solution

Solution becomes: u x, t  

8F0l 
 1n 2  1x 2  1ct
EA 2
 2  1
n 0
2
sin
2l
cos
2l
This shows that motion of a typical point at x=x0 is composed of the

amplitudes Cn sin 2  1x0 corresponding to the circular frequencies

2l
2  1c
2l

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 8.4
Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod

52 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.4 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod

• Figure represents a nonuniform shaft subjected to external torque

f(x,t) per unit length.

Mt(x,t) = twisting moment


M t x, t   GJ x  x, t  8.62 G = shear modulus
GJ = torsional stiffness
x
J(x) = polar moment of inertia of the cross
section for a circular section

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 8.4 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod

 2
• Inertia torque acting on an element of length dx is I 0 dx where I0 is
x 2

the mass polar moment of inertia of the shaft per unit length.

• If external force f(x,t) acts on the shaft per unit length,

 2
M t  dM t   fdx  M t  I 0 dx 2
t
M t
dM t  dx 8.62
x
• From Eq. 8.61, forced torsional vibration for non-uniform shaft:

     2
GJ x  x, t   f x, t   I 0 x  2 x, t  8.64
x  x  t

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 8.4 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod

 2  2
• For uniform shaft, GJ  x , t   f  x, t   I 0 2  x , t  8.64
x 2
t

• For uniform shaft with free vibration,

 2  2
c 2
 x , t    x , t  where c 
GJ
8.65, 8.66
x 2 t 2 I0
G
• If the bar has uniform cross-section, I0=ρJ, c 


• General solution:
 x x 
 x, t    A cos  B sin C cos t  D sin t  8.69
 c c 

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 8.4 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod

• The following table gives the common boundary conditions and the
corresponding frequency equations and normal functions.

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 8.4 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod

Example 8.6
Natural Frequencies of a Milling Cutter

Find the natural frequencies of the plane milling cutter shown below
when the free end of the shank is fixed. Assume the torsional rigidity
of the shank as GJ and the mass moment of inertia of the cutter as I0.

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 8.4 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod

Example 8.6
Natural Frequencies of a Milling Cutter
Solution

By using θ(0,t)=0, we obtain A=0.

  2
Boundary condition at x=l: GJ l , t    I 0 2 l , t 
x t
i.e.  l l
BGJ cos  BI 0 2 sin
c c c
l l Jl J rod
or tan   where J rod  Jl
c c I0 I0
l J rod
This equation can be expressed as  tan    where   and  
c I0
58 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.5
Lateral Vibration of Beams

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Consider the free-body diagram of an element of a beam shown in

the figure.

• M(x,t) is the bending moment

• V(x,t) is the shear force
• f(x,t) is the external force per unit length of the beam

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Equation of Motion
2w
Inertia force acting on the element of the beam is A x dx 2  x, t 
t
Force equation of motion in z-direction:

2w
 V  dV   f x, t dx  V  Ax dx 2 x, t  8.70
t
Moment equation of motion about the y-axis passing through point
0:

M  dM   V  dV dx  f x, t dx dx  M  0 8.71

2

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Equation of Motion

By writing dV  V dx and dM  M dx disregarding terms involving

x x
2nd powers in dx,

V 2w
 x, t   f x, t   Ax  2 x, t 
x t
M
x, t   V x, t   0 i.e. V  M
x x
2M 2w
Hence  2  x, t   f  x, t   A x  2  x, t  8.74
x t

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Equation of Motion

2w
From thin beam theory, M  x, t   EI  x  2 x, t  8.75
x
Inserting into Eq. 8.75, we have the equation of motion for forced
lateral vibration of a non-uniform beam:

  2w  2w
 EI x  2 x, t   Ax  2 x, t   f x, t  8.76
x 2  x  t

For uniform beam,

4w 2w
EI 4 x, t   A 2 x, t   f x, t  8.77
x t
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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Equation of Motion

For free vibration,

4w 2w
c 2
x, t   2 x, t   0 where c  EI
8.78, 8.79
x 4
t A

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Initial Conditions

2 initial conditions and 4 boundary conditions are needed for unique

solution.

Initial conditions: wx, t  0  w0 x 

w
x, t  0  w 0 x  8.80
t

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Free Vibration

Free vibration solution can be found by separation of variables:

w(x,t)=W(x)T(t)

c 2 d 4W x  1 d 2T t 
Substituting this into Eq. 8.78,    a   2
8.82
W x  dx 4 T t  dt 2
This can be written as 2 equations:

d 4W x 
4
  4
W x   0 8.83
dx
d 2T t   2 A 2
2
  T t   0 where   2 
2 4
8.84, 8.85
dt c EI

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Free Vibration

Solution can be written as: T(t)=Acosωt + Bsinωt

We assume W(x)=Cesx where C and s are constants.

Auxiliary equation: s4 – β4=0

Roots of equation s1,2= β, s3,4= iβ

Hence solution becomes

W(x)=C1eβx+C2e-βx+C3eiβx+C4e-iβx
= C1cosβx+C2sinβx+C3coshβx+C4sinhβx (8.92)
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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Free Vibration

Constants C1, C2, C3 and C4 can be found from boundary conditions.

 l 
EI EI
Natural frequencies of the beam:  2 2

A Al 4

Infinite number of normal modes with one ω for each normal mode

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Boundary Conditions

Free end:
2w
Bending moment = EI 0
2
x
Shear force =    2
w
 EI 2   0
x  x 

Simply supported (pinned) end:

Deflection = w = 0, Bending moment = EI
 2
w
0
2
x
Fixed (clamped) end: w
Deflection = 0, Slope = x  0
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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Boundary Conditions

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Boundary Conditions

End connected to linear spring, damper and mass

Resisting forces due to spring, damper and mass are balanced by

shear force at the end:

  2w   w 2w
 EI 2   a kw  c m 2  8.97
x  x   t t 

a=-1 for left end and +1 for right

end of beam.
2w
EI 2  0
x
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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Boundary Conditions

End connected to torsional spring, damper and rotational inertia:

a=-1 for left end and +1 for right end of beam.

2w  w 2w 3w 

EI 2  a kt  ct  I0 2
8.99
x  t xt xt 

  2w
 EI 2   0 8.100
x  x 

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Orthogonality of Normal Functions

Normal functions W(x) satisfy the following:

d 4W
c 2
4
 x    2
W x   0 8.101
dx

Let Wi(x) and Wj(x) be the normal functions corresponding to ωi

and ωj respectively.

d 4Wi
c 2
4
  i Wi  0
2
8.102
dx
4
d Wj
  j W j  0 8.103
2 2
c 4
dx
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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Orthogonality of Normal Functions

Multiply Eq 8.102 by Wj and Eq 8.103 by Wi, subtract the resulting

equations one from the other, and integrate from 0 to l:

 2 d 4Wi   2 d 4W j 
W j  i WiW j  dx  0 c Wi   j W jWi  dx  0
l l
 c
2 2
0 4 4
 dx   dx 

or  WiW j dx   2
l c2

l
WiW j  WiW jdx 8.104
0
i   j
2 0

Right hand side of the equation can be evaluated using integration

by parts
0 WiW j dx   2
l c2
i   j
2

  
 
  
Wi W j  W jWi  W j Wi  Wi W j 
l

0
8.105 
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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Orthogonality of Normal Functions

Right hand side of the equation is equal to zero for any combination
of boundary conditions.
l
Hence  W W dx  0
0
i j

Orthogonality of normal functions for transverse vibration of beams

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.7
Natural Frequencies of a Fixed-Pinned Beam

Determine the natural frequencies of vibration of an uniform beam

fixed at x=0 and simply supported at x=l.

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.7
Natural Frequencies of a Fixed-Pinned Beam
Solution

Boundary conditions: W(0)=0, W(l) =0

d 2W
dW
0  0, 2 l   0
dx dx

C1 + C3 =0 in Eq. 8.91

   C1 sin x  C2 cos x  C3 sinh x  C4 cosh xx 0  0

dW
dx x 0

or  C2  C4   0
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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.7
Natural Frequencies of a Fixed-Pinned Beam
Solution

W(x)=C1(cosβx-coshβx)+C2(sinβx-sinhβx)

Applying boundary conditions:

C1(cosβl – coshβl)+C2(sinβl – sinhβl) = 0
-C1(cosβl – coshβl) – C2(sinβl – sinhβl) = 0

For non-trivial solution of C1 and C2,

cos l  cosh  sin l  sinh 
0
 cos l  cosh   sin l  sinh 

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.7
Natural Frequencies of a Fixed-Pinned Beam
Solution

Expanding,

cos l sinh l  sin l cosh l  0 or tan l  tanh l

n   nl 
EI
, n  1,2,...
2

Al 4

where the values of βnl are given in Table 8.1

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.7
Natural Frequencies of a Fixed-Pinned Beam
Solution

If the value of C2 corresponding to βn is denoted as C2n,

 cos  nl  cosh  nl 
C2 n  C1n  
 sin  nl  sinh  nl 
Hence

  cos  nl  cosh  nl  
Wn x   C1n cos  n x  cosh  n x    sin  n x  sinh  n x 
  sin  nl  sinh  nl  

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.7
Natural Frequencies of a Fixed-Pinned Beam
Solution

Normal modes of vibration wn x, t   Wn x An cosnt  Bn sin nt 

where Wn(x) is given as above.

Total solution of the simply-fixed supported beam:


wx, t    wn x, t 
n 1

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Forced Vibration


Deflection of the beam: wx, t    Wn x qn t  8.110
n 1

Wn(x) is the nth normal mode satisfying

d 4Wn x 
EI 4
  2
n AWn x   0; n  1,2,... 8.111
dx
qn(t) is the generalized coordinate in the nth mode

 4
 2
Substitute wx, t    Wn x qn t  into EI 4 x, t   A 2 x, t   f x, t 
w w
n 1 x t

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Forced Vibration

We obtain EI  d 4
W  x 
 

  d 2
qn t 
 f  x, t 
n 1 dx
n
4
q n t  An 1
Wn x
dt 2

This can be written as:

  2
qn t  1
  2
W  x q t    W  x  d
 f  x, t 
A
n n n n 2
n 1 n 1 dt
Multiply this by Wm(x), integrate from 0 to l and using orthogonality
condition: 2
d qn t 
  2
q t  
1
Qn t  8.114
Ab
2 n
dt
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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Forced Vibration

Qn(t) is the generalized force corresponding to qn(t)

Qn t   0 f  x, t Wn  x dx where constant b  0 Wn2  x dx

l l

Eq 8.114 is the equation of motion of undamped single DOF

system.

Using Duhamel integral, solution of Eq 8.114 can be expressed as

qn t   An cos nt  Bn sin nt  0 Qn  sin n t   d 8.117

1 t

Abn

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Forced Vibration

First 2 terms on the right hand side represent the transient

vibration

3rd term represent steady state vibration

Once solution is found, total solution can be determined from


w x, t    Wn x qn t 
n 1

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.8
Forced Vibration of a Simply Supported Beam

Find the steady-state response of a pinned-pinned beam subject to a

harmonic force f(x,t)=f0sinωt applied at x=a as shown below.

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.8
Forced Vibration of a Simply Supported Beam
Solution

We use Mode superposition method approach.

nx
Normal mode function: Wn x   sin  n x  sin where βnl=nπ
l
Generalized force: Qn t  
na
f x, t sin  n xdx  f 0 sin
l
0 l
sin t

Steady state response qn t  

 Q  sin  t   d
1 t

Abn
n n
0

where b   W  x dx   sin  n xdx 

l
2
ll 2
n
0 0 2
87 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.8
Forced Vibration of a Simply Supported Beam
Solution
na
sin
Solution can be expressed as n
q t  
2 f0 l sin t
Al n2   2
Thus response of the beam is given by
2 f0  na nx
  x, t  
1

Al n 1 n  
2 2
sin
l
sin
l
sin t

88 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effect of Axial Force

Consider an element of a beam shown below

89 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effect of Axial Force

Vertical motion:
2x
 V  dV   fdx  V  P  dP sin   d   P sin   Adx 2 8.118
t
Rotational motion about 0:

M  dM   V  dV dx  fdx  M  0
dx
8.119
2
For small deflections,
 w  2 w
sin   d     d    dx   2 dx
x x x

90 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effect of Axial Force

2w
Combine all equations with M x, t   EI x  2 x, t  to give:
x
2  2w 2w 2w
2 
EI 2   A 2  P 2  f
x  x  t x
For free vibration of uniform beam:
4w 2w 2w
EI 4  A 2  P 2  0 8.121
x t x
Solution can be obtained using separation of variables

wx, t   W x  A cost  B sin t  8.122

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 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effect of Axial Force

 4W  2W
Substitute Eq 8.122 into Eq. 8.121: EI  A W  P 2  0
2

x 4
x
Assuming W(x)=Cesx, auxiliary equation can be obtained:

P A  2
s4  s2  0
EI EI
Roots of equation:

P P2 A 2
s ,s 
2
1
2
2  2 2

2 EI 4E I EI
So, W(x)=C1coshs1x+C2sinhs1x+C3coss2x+C4sins2x
92 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.9
Beam Subjected to an Axial Compressive Force

Find the natural frequencies of a simply supported beam subjected to

an axial compressive force.

93 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.9
Beam Subjected to an Axial Compressive Force
Solution

d 2W d 2W
Boundary conditions: W(0)=0, W(l)=0, 2
0  0, 2 l   0
dx dx
C1 = C 3 = 0

Hence W(x)=C2sinh s1x + C4sin s2x

Applying boundary conditions, we have sinh s1l•sin s2l=0

94 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.9
Beam Subjected to an Axial Compressive Force
Solution

Since sinh s1l>0 for all s1l≠0, the only roots are s2l=nπ, n=0,1,2,…

2 EI  4 n 2 Pl 2 
Thus n   n  2  where P is negative since it is
l2 A   EI 
compressive.

Smallest Euler buckling load for simply supported beam: Pcri 

 2 EI
l2
2 EI  4 P 
n   n  n 2 
Thus l2 A  Pcri 
95 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.9
Beam Subjected to an Axial Compressive Force
Solution

Some observations:
• If P=0, ωn is same as that of simply supported beam
• If EI=0, ωn is that of a taut string.
• If P>0, ωn increases as tensile force stiffens the beam.
• If PPcri, ωn 0 for n=1

96 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effects of Rotary Inertia and Shear Deformation

If cross-sectional dimensions are not small compared to length of

the beam, need to consider effects of rotary inertia and shear
deformation.

Consider an element of the beam:

97 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effects of Rotary Inertia and Shear Deformation

w
  
x
where Φ is the slope of the deflection curve due to bending
deformation alone.
  w 
M  EI , V  kGA  kAG   
x  x 
M = bending moment
V = shear force
G = modulus of rigidity
k = Timoshenko’s shear coefficient, which depends on the shape of
the cross-section
98 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effects of Rotary Inertia and Shear Deformation

Equations of motion
Translation in z-direction:

2w
 V x, t   dV x, t   f x, t dx  V x, t   Ax dx 2 x, t 
t
 Translational inertia of the element
Rotation about a line passing through pt D and parallel to y-axis:

M x, t   dM x, t   V x, t   dV x, t dx  f x, t dx  M x, t 

dx
2
 2
 I  x dx 2 x, t   Rotary inertia of the element
t
99 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effects of Rotary Inertia and Shear Deformation

V M
Using the relation dV  dx and dM  dx and ignoring 2nd powers
x x

in dx, the equations of motion can be expressed as:

   2 w  2w
 kAG  2   f x, t   A 2 8.133
 x x  t
 2  w   2
EI 2  kAG     I 2 8.134
x  x  t

Solve Eq 8.133 for and substitute into Eq. 8.134 to obtain
x
equation of motion:
4w 2w  E  4w  2 I  4 w EI  2 f I  2 f
EI 4  A 2  I 1   2 2    f 0
x t  kG  x t kG t 4
kAG x 2
kAG t 2

100 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

• Effects of Rotary Inertia and Shear Deformation

For free vibration, f=0: EI  4

w  2
w  E   4
w  2
I  4
w
 A 2  I 1   2 2 0
x 4
t  kG  x t kG t 4

Boundary conditions
Fixed end: φ=w=0


Simply supported end: EI 0
x
 w  
Free end: kAG     EI 0
 x  x

101 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.10
Natural Frequencies of a Simply Supported Beam

Determine the effects of rotary inertia and shear deformation on the

natural frequencies of a simply supported uniform beam.

102 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.10
Natural Frequencies of a Simply Supported Beam
Solution

EI I
Let   and r 
2 2

A A
 4
w  2
w  E   4
w r 2
 4
w
Equation of motion:  2   r 2
 1    0 (E.1)
x 4
t 2
 kG  x t
2 2
kG t 4

nx
Express the solution as w x, t   C sin cos nt (E.2)
l
 r 4  2 n 2 2 r 2 n 2 2 r 2 E    2 n 4 4 
Substitute (E.1) into (E.2),     n 1  2
4
n  2
   4
  0
 kG   l l kG   l 

103 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.10
Natural Frequencies of a Simply Supported Beam
Solution

104 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.10
Natural Frequencies of a Simply Supported Beam
Solution

Note:
If only rotary inertia is considered, EI  4
w  2
w  4
w
 A  I 0
x 4
t 2
x t
2 2

 n
2 4 4

Frequency equation reduces to: n  2


4 n 2 2 r 2 
l 1  2

 l 
4w  2 w EI  4 w
If only shear deformation is considered, EI x 4  A t 2  kG x 2t 2  0
 2 n 4 4
n 
2

Frequency equation becomes: 4 n 2 2 r 2 E 

l 1  2

 l kG 
105 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Example 8.10
Natural Frequencies of a Simply Supported Beam
Solution

Note:
If both rotary inertia and shear deformation are disregarded, equation
of motion becomes:
4w 2w
EI 4  A 2  0
x t
Frequency equation:
 2 n 4 4
n2 
l4

106 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.6
Vibration of Membranes

107 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.6 Vibration of Membranes

• Membrane is a plate subjected to tension with negligible bending

resistance.

• Consider a membrane
bounded by plane curve S
in the xy plane.

108 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.6 Vibration of Membranes

• Equation of Motion

2w 2w
Net forces acting along z-direction are P dxdy and P 2 dxdy
y 2
x
Pressure force along z-direction is f(x,y,t)dxdy

2w
Inertia force is   x, y  2 dxdy where ρ(x,y) is the mass per unit
t
area.

 2w 2w  2w

Equation of motion: P 2   f   2
2 
8.137
 y x  t

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 8.6 Vibration of Membranes

• Equation of Motion

If external force f(x,y,t)=0, free vibration eq:

 2w 2w  2w

c  2  2   2 where c 
2 P
8.138
 y x  t 
Eq. 8.137 and Eq. 8.138 can be written as

 2
w  2
w
P w  f   2 and c  w  2
2 2 2

t t
2 2
where   2  2 is the Laplacian operator
2

x y

110 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.6 Vibration of Membranes

• Initial and Boundary Conditions

Need 2 initial and 4 boundary conditions to find unique solution

Initial conditions:
w
wx, y,0  w0 x, y , x, y,0  w 0 x, y 
t
Boundary conditions:
Membrane fixed at any pt (x1, y1): w(x1,y1,t)=0

If membrane is free to vibrate in z-direction at pt (x2, y2), force in

z-direction must be zero.
w
P x2 , y2 , t   0, t  0 n = normal to the boundary at pt (x2, y2)
n
111 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.6 Vibration of Membranes

Example 8.13
Free Vibrations of a Rectangular Membrane

Find the free vibration solution of a rectangular membrane of sides a

and b along the x and y axes, respectively.

112 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.6 Vibration of Membranes

Example 8.13
Free Vibrations of a Rectangular Membrane
Solution

Method of separation of variables:

w(x,y,t) = W(x,y)T(t) = X(x)Y(y)T(t)

By using this and Eq.8.138,

d 2 X x  d 2Y  y  d 2T t 
2
  2
X  x   0, 2
  2
Y  y   0, 2
  2
T t   0
dx dy dt
2
where  2  2
 2
c

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 8.6 Vibration of Membranes

Example 8.13
Free Vibrations of a Rectangular Membrane
Solution

Solutions are given by

X x   C1 cosx  C2 sin x
Y  y   C3 cos x  C4 sin x
T t   A cos t  B sin t
where constants C1 to C4, A, and B can be determined from boundary
and initial conditions.

114 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.7
Rayleigh’s Method

115 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.7 Rayleigh’s Method

 dm   w Ax dx
1 l 2 1 l 2
• Kinetic energy T   w
2 0 2 0
2
Ax W 2 x dx
l
• Assuming w(x,t)=W(x)cos ωt, maximum KE: Tmax 
2 0

• Ignoring work done by shear forces, potential energy:

2w w
V   Md where M x, t   EI x  2 x, t  and  
1 l
2 0 x x
2
• Thus, 1  2w  2w
l 1 l  2w 
V    EI 2  2 dx   EI  2  dx
2 0  x  x 2 0  x 
  2W x  
2

  EI x 
1 l
• Max value of w(x,t) is W(x). Hence Vmax  dx
 x 
2
2 0

116 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.7 Rayleigh’s Method

• Equating Tmax to Vmax, Rayleigh’s quotient

 d W x   2 2

 
l
 EI x 
 dx 2
 dx
R    
0
2

  
l
  2
A W x dx
0

• For a stepped beam,

2 2
l1 d W
2
 l2 d W2

E1 I1   2  dx  E2 I 2   2  dx  
R     2
0
 dx  0
 dx 
l1 l2
A1  W dx  A2  W 2 dx  ...
2
0 0

117 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.7 Rayleigh’s Method

Example 8.14
Fundamental Frequency of a Tapered Beam

Find the fundamental frequency of transverse vibration of the

nonuniform cantilever beam shown below, using the deflection shape
W(x)=(1-x/l)2

118 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.7 Rayleigh’s Method

Example 8.14
Fundamental Frequency of a Tapered Beam
Solution

Cross sectional area: Ax  

hx
l
3
1  hx 
Moment of inertia: I  x    
12  l 

Rayleigh’s quotient:
 h 3 x 3  2 
2
l
 E 


3  2 
12l  l 
dx
Eh2 Eh2
R    
0
2
 2.5 4 or   1.5811
l  hx  x
4
l l 4
0   l 1  l  dx
119 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.7 Rayleigh’s Method

Example 8.14
Fundamental Frequency of a Tapered Beam
Solution

Eh2
The exact value of ω is known to be 1.5343
l 4

120 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.8
The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

121 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

• Superimpose a number of assumed functions instead one function

as in Rayleigh’s method

• If n functions are chosen to approximate W(x),

W(x)=c1w1(x)+c2w2(x)+…+cnwn(x)

• Coefficients ci are adjusted and natural frequency is made

stationary at the natural modes

  2 
• To do so, set  0, i  1,2,..., n
ci
• This is algebraic eigenvalue problem.

122 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Example 8.15
First Two Frequencies of a Tapered Beam

Find the natural frequencies of the tapered cantilever beam of

Example 8.12 by using the Rayleigh-Ritz method.

123 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Example 8.15
First Two Frequencies of a Tapered Beam
Solution

Assume deflection functions wi(x) to be

2 2 2
 x x x x2  x 
w1 x   1   , w2 x   1   , w3 x   2 1   ,
 l l l l  l

2
If we use one term approximation W x   c1 1  x  , fundamental
 l
frequency will be the same as that in Example 8.12

124 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Example 8.15
First Two Frequencies of a Tapered Beam
Solution
2 2
 x x x
Use 2-term approximation: W x   c1 1    c2 1  
 l l l

Rayleigh’s quotient:

RW x    
  2 X
Y
 d W x   2 2

where X   EI x 
  dx and Y  0 Ax W x  dx
l l 2
20 
 dx 

125 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Example 8.15
First Two Frequencies of a Tapered Beam
Solution

Eh 3
 c12 c22 c1c2 
Substituting W(x) into X and Y: X      (E.1)
3 
3l  4 10 5 
 c12 c22 2c1c2 
Y  hl     (E.2)
 30 280 105 

Conditions that make ω2 or R[W(x)] stationary are

X Y X Y
X 
 
 2

Y
c1 c1
 0,
 
 2

Y
c2
X
c2
0
c1 Y2 c2 Y2

126 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Example 8.15
First Two Frequencies of a Tapered Beam
Solution

With the help of (E1) and (E2), (E3) and (E4) can be expressed as
 1 1 1 1 
 2   2
    
2
 c
105   1  0 3 2 l 4
 15  5
     where  
2

 1   2  2  1  
2
1
  2   
c 0 Eh
  
2
 5 205  5 140 

By setting the determinant of the matrix = 0,

1 13 2 3
4    0
8820 1400 50
127 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Example 8.15
First Two Frequencies of a Tapered Beam
Solution

Eh2 Eh2
Roots of equation:  1 1.5367 and  2  4.9936
l 4
l 4

128 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units