PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 1

UCL PHAS3136 2010

Extragalactic Astronomy Handout

Hiranya Peiris

http://zuserver2.star.ucl.ac.uk/~hiranya/PHAS3136/
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 2

Course textbooks
• Jones & Lambourne, An Introduction to Galaxies and
Cosmology (hereafter JL)
– 22 copies in UCL science library
– On amazon.co.uk 30 pounds
• Liddle, An introduction to modern cosmology
– In UCL science library

Also, for further information:

• Peterson, Active galactic nuclei
• Binney & Merrifield, Galactic Astronomy
 15

Normal galaxies: interface with JL

All of JL chapters 1 and 2 are examinable, except:
• 1.2.1 - 1.2.3 is (hopefully) a revision of earlier courses
• 1.4.1 paragraphs on open clusters and OB associations
• 1.4.2 paragraph on interstellar dust
• 1.5 is more detail on our galaxy, not in our course
– (generally, features of our galaxy not readily observable in other galaxies are
not in this course)
• 2.5.4 on galaxy mergers - non examinable

The following are examinable but not in JL:

• details of chemical evolution, including G-dwarf problem
• the luminosity function
• galaxy light profiles: exponential and de Vaucouleurs
• rotation curves for non spherically symmetric mass distributions
• more details on fundamental plane, Tully-Fisher, Faber-Jackson relations
• calculation of expected luminosity evolution of galaxies
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 3

1.1 Our Galaxy: basics

List of topics:
• Disk, bulge, halo
• Stellar populations: Baade’s observations
• Stellar populations: Current thinking
• Metal enrichment
• Age-metallicity relation
• Galactic fountain

See JL 1.2.1 to 1.2.4

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 4

Our Galaxy
• Why in this lecture course?
– An example of a well studied galaxy

• Contents:
– stars (~1011 )
– gas (~1010 Mo)
– dust (~108 Mo)
– dark matter (~1012 Mo)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 5

Location of galaxy contents

• Most of the stars are in a disc, with spiral arms
• Significant concentration of stars in the center
– The bulge
• Also: stellar halo (~109 stars) and some gas
• Mass is believed to be mainly in a spheroidal
halo, dominated by dark matter
– Extends out to >100 kpc diameter
• Globular clusters, open clusters
– clusters of stars distributed throughout halo
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 6

Stellar populations:
Baade’s observations
• Population I (‘pop one’)
– Blue
– Galactic disk , open clusters
• Population II (‘pop two’)
– Red
– Galactic globular clusters
– Elliptical galaxies
– Bulges of spiral galaxies

Read JL p14-15
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 7

Stellar populations:
Current thinking
• Pop I
– Z= 0.01 – 0.04
– circular orbits within plane of Galaxy
– young: Myr to 10 Gyr
• Pop II
– stellar halo: Z<0.002 (minimum observed: Z=2e-6)
– bulge Z ~< 0.02
– eccentric orbits (high-velocity stars)
– old: 12 to 15 Gyr, so only low mass are visible
• Pop III
– Theoretical idea = the first stars

Read JL p16-18
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 8

Metal enrichment
• After big bang nucleosynthesis
– low metallicity gas Z~10-9
• Massive stars inject metals into the ISM
– Stellar winds
– Planetary nebula shells
– Supernovae
• Metallicity of ISM gas depends on
– Masses of stars in that region
– Efficiency of enrichment as fn of star type

Read JL p 19
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 9

Age-metallicity relation
• Z of a main sequence star
= Z of ISM where and when the star formed

We observe a strong
~Z
age-metallicity

astro-ph/0001382
correlation solar

– explained by
progressive metal
enrichment

Read JL p 19 0 Gyr Age 15 Gyr

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 10

Galactic Fountain
• Multiple supernovae make a superbubble
– of hot ionized gas
• Gas cannot expand far sideways into disc
• Can burst out of disc into stellar halo
• If it falls back to the disc this is like a fountain
– Why would it fall back to the disc?
• Could be the cause of the diffuse gas in the
halo
Read JL p 54
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1.2 The Galactic Disk

List of topics:
• Gas in the disk
• Different wavelengths probe different
components
• Populations as a function of position
– The scale height
• Spiral arms

All covered in JL p26-40

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Gas in the disk

• Gas mass = ~ 10 % of the stellar mass
• Observed using 21cm emission by HI
• ~1/4 of galaxies have warped disks
Thin gas disk:
~0.3 kpc
mostly in 1000s of H2 clouds + intercloud medium of HI
~1 kpc

~16 kpc
~12 kpc

Also hotter gas extends into halo

Read JL p31, see Fig 1.18

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What determines form of H?

• Gas clouds cooler than about 100 K generally
do not emit the 21 cm line; why not?
– 21cm is from atomic hydrogen
– In cool regions hydrogen is molecular

• Why are hot HII regions often found in

association with cool, dense clouds?
– Hot HII regions occur from ionization by young
stars
– Young stars form in cool, dense clouds
Read JL p32
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 14

The Galactic Disk: Basics

• Majority of visible matter is in the disk
– visible matter = stars, gas, dust
• Disk is dominated by visible matter
– dark:visible matter is ~ 40:60
• Observations:
– X-ray:
– Optical: stars; some obscuration by dust
– near ir: stars; dust is now transparent
– far ir: dust
– radio: gas
Read JL p26, 27
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 15

Scale height h
• ρ(z) = density as function of height from mid-
plane z
• To a good approximation:
– ρ(z) = ρ0 e-|z|/h

• h= distance on which ρ drops by factor 1/e

• Sketch ρ(z)

Read JL p 34 - 35
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The thin disk

Main sequence stars
G, K, M
h ~ 350 pc
Interstellar Σ ~ 13 Mo pc-2
gas, dust
B B
h ~ 120pc B O B B
O
B B
B B B Young stars
B, O
h ~ 50 pc
Σ ~ 10-3 Mo pc-2

Why???
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 17

Explaining the relative h values

• O and B stars are formed from interstellar gas
– why do they not have the same scale height as
the interstellar gas?

• Ditto main sequence stars

Read JL p 36
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 18

1.3 The Galactic Rotation Curve

List of topics
• Keplerian rotation curve
• The rotation curve of our galaxy
• M(r) from v(r) assuming a spherical model M(r)
from v(r) assuming a disk-like mass
distribution
• The winding problem and density wave theory
• Metallicities of spiral arm stars
• Galactic archaeology
Some, but not all, of this material is in JL 1.3
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 19

The rotation curve of our galaxy

Roughly flat

Roughly linear rise

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Rotation curves
• A v v=rω
Rigid body
(~center of galaxy)
ω = constant
r
• B v ω / 1/r Flat rotation curve
(Our galaxy)
Differential rotation
r Not Keplerian
• C v
v / r-1/2 Keplerian
(The solar system)
Differential rotation
r
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 21

Problem class questions

• Estimate the mass of the galaxy within ro
– You may assume the galaxy is spherically symmetric
– ro = radius of the Sun = 8.5 kpc
• Estimate M(r)
– M(r) = the total mass enclosed in a spherical radius r.
– You may assume M(r) ∝ rα.
– You may assume spherical symmetry.
• What does this imply for the density ?
– If spherical M(r) ∝ rα implies ρ ∝ rβ where β = ?
• How could you modify gravity to remove the
requirement for dark matter at large radii?
– If F=GMm/rγ what would γ need to be?
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 22

The winding problem

• Estimate the time for one orbit of the
Galactic disk at (i) 5 kpc and (ii) 10 kpc from
the galactic center

• Which is greater?
A. Time for 1 orbit at 5 kpc radius
B. Time for 1 orbit at 10 kpc radius

• Sketch the spiral arms after ~109 years

Read JL p 37 - 40
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Density wave theory

• Solves the winding dilemma
• Spiral arms reflect overdensities in gas (not
mass)
• Galaxy rotates at different speed to these
waves
– cf sound waves in air do not travel at wind speed
• Roughly rigid rotation of spiral pattern
• Compression of gas causes star formation

Read JL p 37 - 40
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 24

1.4 Galaxy Light Distributions

List of topics
• Hubble classification scheme
– see Binney & Merrifield text
• Galaxy surface brightness profiles (JL 2.3.1, plus additional
material)
• Galaxy luminosity function (not in JL)
• The Tully Fisher relation (additional material cf JL)
• The Faber-Jackson relation (additional material cf JL)
• Metallicity and populations in typical spirals
• Metallicity and populations in typical ellipticals

See JL 2.2 for some background material only

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 25

Surface Brightness Profiles

• What is the total luminosity of a galaxy?
– At what radius to stop adding up?
– Atmosphere and instrument limit radius
• Surface brightness profile = apparent surface
brightness as fn of radius
– Apparent surface brightness = energy from source, per unit
area of telescope, per arcsec2
– Usually for a given waveband, e.g. R-band
• Usually assume
– ellipticals: de Vaucouleurs profile: I(R) / exp(-(r/r0)1/4)
– spirals: de Vaucouleurs bulge + exponential disk
exponential disk: I(R) / exp(-r/r0)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 26

The Galaxy Luminosity Function

• Number of galaxies of given L per unit V
• Schechter function fits well
– φ(L) = (n* / L*) (L/L*)α exp(-L/L*)
– Where α ~ -1.1, L* ~1010Lsolar, n* ~ 0.01 Mpc-3 (depending
on selection criteria of galaxies)
• L* is a typical galaxy luminosity
• n* is a typical galaxy density
– what is a typical intergalactic distance? n*-1/3 = 5 Mpc
∞
• N= ∫L(min) φ(L) dL diverges as L(min) -> 0
– not physical but emphasises large number of faint galaxies
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 27

The Tully-Fisher relation

• Relates luminosity to line-width for spirals
– Tully & Fisher 1977
• v(r) shape for our galaxy is typical of spirals
– Observe other galaxies using HI or HII
– call vrot the flattened velocity
• We observe L ∝ vrot β
– β~2.5 in B-band
– β ~ 4 in the infrared
• What would you expect for β ?
– Assume M ∝ L (constant mass to light ratio)
– Assume L = Lo π r2 (with Lο same for all gals)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 28

The Faber Jackson relation

• Relates luminosity and central velocity
dispersion of ellipticals
• Stars in ellipticals seem to be virialised
– all move in random directions, velocities v
– velocity dispersion = σv = <v2>1/2
– virial theorem: 2 K.E.=-P.E. so σv2 / M/R
• Faber-Jackson relation: L / σv4
• The Fundamental Plane:
– plot galaxies in 3d: L, σv, R
– find R / σv-2 L1.25
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 29

Mass-to-light in ellipticals
2
• Virial theorem: M ∝ σv R
• The fundamental plane: R ∝ σv-2 L1.25
γ
• Suppose (M/L) ∝ L
– Find γ

• The bigger the luminosity, the bigger the mass,

the more dark matter
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 30

Spiral galaxies
• See notes on our galaxy
• Blue spiral arms, young, high Z
• Older disk population, medium Z
• Old low mass Pop II stars in bulge and
spheroid
• Decrease in Z with increasing r
– e.g. bulge metallicity is higher than solar
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 31

Elliptical galaxies
• Little sign of gas or recent star formation
• Stellar populations are old and red (Pop II)
– (B-V ~ 1)
– most light from red giants
• Small E/S0 gals have low metal content
– Large E/S0 galaxies are relatively metal rich
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 32

Stellar populations in the disk

Read JL p28,29
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 33

Galactic Archaeology
• Observe positions and velocities of all stars in
our galaxy

• Compare with simulations to constrain models

• Future experiments:
– RAVE: just started, Australia
– GAIA: satellite
– WFMOS: proposed, UCL is involved
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 34

1.5 Galactic Chemical Evolution

(GCE)
List of topics:
• Aims and issues with GCE
• The initial mass function
• derivation of f(Z,t) for closed box model
• the 'G-dwarf problem'
• possible solutions of the G-dwarf problem

Not in JL
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 35

Aims and issues with GCE

• Aims:
– predict history and future of ISM metallicity
– explain number of stars as fn of Z and M
– unravel facts about how stars form
• Issues
– we can’t calculate massive star metal production well
– we don’t know how well these metals mix into ISM
– we don’t know well how many stars form of each mass (or
how this depends on metallicity, radiation levels...)
– we don’t know how many stars form at different times
• Simple models attempt to provide some insight
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 36

The initial mass function

• Number of stars per unit mass M that form, as
function of stellar mass, ψ(M)
– ψ(M) dM = number of stars of mass M to M + dM
• Simple fit to observations:
– Salpeter IMF ψ(M) / Mα
– α ~ 2.5
– Fits well in our solar neighborhood
• Theorists speculate about a “top heavy IMF”
– lots of high mass stars
– may occur in regions with high radiation levels
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 37

Qualitative problems
• Sketch ZISM(t)
• Sketch MS(Z), the total mass of stars with a
given metallicity, as a fn of metallicity
– (i) for an early time
– (ii) for a later time
• Sketch the fraction of stellar mass in stars of
metallicity Z or less, f(Z,t)
– (i) for an early time
– (ii) for a later time
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 38

Popular GCE assumptions

• ‘Closed box’ model
– MTOT = constant
• Instantaneous recycling approximation:
– In a short time Δ t, a mass Δ MS’ of stars are
formed.
• “Short lived” stars return immediately to ISM
• “Long lived” stars live forever
• A mass Δ MS of long lived stars are formed
– The mass of metals returned to the ISM is p Δ M,
by defn of p (called the yield).
– So there are no remnants, so MTOT=MISM+MS
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 39

Galactic Chemical Evolution

calculations (page 1 of 2)
1. Derive the metallicity of the interstellar medium ZISM,
as a function of the mass in stars MS
• assume a closed box model
• assume instantaneous recycling approximation
2. Derive the fraction of stellar mass in stars of
metallicty Z or less, as a function of time t, f(Z,t)
• assume a closed box model
• assume instantaneous recycling approximation
3. Derive the fraction of stellar mass in stars of
metallicty Z or less, as a function of time t, f(Z,t)
• estimate p using today: Zlocal ~ Zsolar, MS~0.9MTOT
• assume an initial metallicity of zero
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 40

Galactic Chemical Evolution

calculations (page 2 of 2)
4. Suppose that the initial metallicity were
not zero, could that solve the problem?
• What initial metallicity is required to match the
observations in this model?
5. Suppose instead that the closed box
assumption were wrong, and that gas is
falling into the region.
i. Re-calculate Z(t) for the case of constant ISM
mass
ii. Re-calculate the fraction of objects with Z<
0.25 Zsolar
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 41

Summary of the G-dwarf problem

• Simple model predicts 50% of stellar mass in local
neighborhood has Z<0.25 Zsolar
• Observations find ~1%
– Called the G-dwarf problem
• Lifting the closed box assumption is expected to help.
– Instead assuming ISM flows in to keep ISM mass constant
gives 3%
– How likely is it that the ISM mass is topped up like this?
• Not clear: likely ISM flows into our solar neighborhood from larger
radii, but also likely ISM flows out of our solar neighborhood towards
the bulge.
• Dropping assumption that ISM initially has no metals is
expected to help match observations.
– To exactly match the observations need ZISMi= 0.246 Zsolar
– Is this level of pre-enrichment likely?
• Not clear: Some theories suggest an early burst of massive star
formation, that left only metals (and no long-lived low mass stars).
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 42

1.6 The Hubble Constant

List of topics
• Measurement methods and results
• Age of Universe
JL Section 2.4 (p 83 – 100)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 43

Hubble constant calculations

1. How far away does a galaxy have to be to
alone yield a good H0 estimate?
(Assume a typical galaxy has a peculiar velocity
of 500 km s-1 and that H0~70 km s-1.)

4. Estimate the age of the Universe using the

HSTKP value for the Hubble constant.
(Make simple assumptions).
Hubble estimated H0 = 530 km s-1 Mpc-1.
What age did he get?
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 44

Hubble constant calculations

2. Estimate the distance of this star
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/distance.htm

(a) ~0.07 pc
(b) ~1 pc
(c) ~5 pc
(d) ~15 pc

1 arcsec

1 parsec == 1 A.U. / 1 arcsec

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 45

Hubble constant calculations

3. Galaxies A and B have the same apparent
magnitude in the infrared but galaxy A has
twice the rotation velocity of galaxy B.
What is the ratio dA / dB ?

(a) ~1/4
(b) ~1/2
(c) ~2
(d) ~4
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/distance.htm
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 46

Measurements of the age of the Universe

• Age of the Earth ~ 5 Gyr
– Lower limit: t0 > 5 Gyr!
• Uranium isotopes in our galaxy
• Cooling of white dwarfs

Krauss & Chaboyer astro-ph/0111597

• Star [globular] clusters
– Stars’ age ~ 12.4 Gyr
– Estimate ~2 Gyrs for
formation
– t0 ~ 14 Gyr
• CMB + flatness → t0~13.7 Gyr
– See later lectures
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 47

Measuring the Hubble Constant

• Difficulties:
– Need distances and velocities
• Redshifts give velocities
• Get distances how?
– Nearby galaxies are moving relative to Hubble flow
• Can see SN1a far enough away
– We don’t know the absolute magnitude of SN1a

• Distance ladder:
– Use parallax to determine Cepheid absolute magnitude
– Use Cepheids to determine SN1a absolute magnitude
– Can use SN1a to measure H0
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 48

Standard Candles
• Definition:
– Anything that is intrinsically the same brightness
wherever it is placed
• e.g.
– Could estimate distance to nearby farmhouse by
looking at apparent brightness of lightbulb

• Historical example
– e.g. Hubble used galaxies for discovering expansion
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 49

Galaxies as standard candles

• Hubble: assume all galaxies are same luminosity

• Measure rotation speed of spirals

– Use Tully-Fisher to find intrinsic luminosity
– Compare with observed luminosity -> distance
• Measure velocity dispersion and size of ellipticals
– Use Fundamental plane to find intrinsic L
– Compare with observed luminosity -> distance

• Typical uncertainties of 20% on distance

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 50

Cepheid variables
• Pulsate with a period that depends on luminosity
• Measure period -> intrinsic luminosity
• Compare with apparent luminosity -> distance
• Uncertainty of
about 15%

http://www.astronomynotes.com/ismnotes/s5.htm
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 51

SNIa as Standard Candles

• Theoretically plausible (1.4M_solar limit)
• Observations support it
• Simulations are too primitive to dispute
• Open questions:
– Is there a dependence on metallicity?
– Are SN different at z~1?

• We don’t know the absolute magnitude of supernovae

– 5 log10 ( DL / 1pc ) = m – M + 5
– Results in unknown multiplicative scaling of DL

• Uncertainty of about 5% on distance

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 52

HST Key Project

• HST = Hubble Space Telescope
• Attempt to end the great debate
• Cepheids + 5 other distance indicators
• Conclusion: H0 = 72 +/- 2 +/- 8 km s-1 Mpc-1
• Main uncertainty (+/- 8) is distance to LMC
Freedman et al 2001, ApJ 553, 47
42 – 55 kpc
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 53

1.7 Clusters of galaxies

List of topics:
• Our local environment
• What is in a (galaxy) cluster?
• Mass estimates from
(a) Velocity dispersions
(b) X-ray observations
(c) Strong gravitational lensing
(d) Weak gravitational lensing

Read JL section 4.3

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 54

Our local environment

• We do not live in a cluster of galaxies, but a
“group”
– The “Local group”
– ~30 members within ~1Mpc
– sparse and non-symmetrical
• Nearest cluster is Virgo ~15 Mpc away
– Virgo has 1000s of galaxies in
– Irregular, dominated by 3 cD galaxies
• Coma is larger than Virgo, spherical
~100 Mpc away
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 55

Clusters: summary
• Many elliptical galaxies
• Usually one giant elliptical, or “cD” galaxy
– giant ellipticals ~ 1 Mpc across, ~ local group size
• Composition: (not just galaxies!)
~1 % of mass is in galaxies
~10 % of mass is hot gas
the rest is dark matter
• The largest gravitationally bound systems
– Typical mass is up to 1015 Msolar
• “Field galaxies”: galaxies not in clusters
– Most galaxies are not in clusters
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 56

The Abell catalogue

• The first comprehensive cluster catalogue
• Abell (1958) inspected red sensitive photographic
plates of Northern sky
– identified 2712 clusters
– Used: cluster = overdensity of galaxies in radius 1.7’/z
• Many clusters studied today are in this
– e.g. A2218 (A stands for Abell)
• Since updated to southern sky
– contains 4073 clusters
~30 to 300+ galaxies per cluster
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 57

Cluster masses from velocity

dispersions
• First applied by Zwicky in 1930s
– Discovered that Coma had much invisible matter
• Virial theorem
K.E. ~ | P.E.|
• M ~ σv / (G r)
– This time σv is that for the galaxies
– Measure from range of redshifts
• How reliable is the virial theorem for clusters?
– Many clusters are believed to be merging
• Virgo has a velocity dispersion of 550 km s-1
– Estimate its mass
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 58

Cluster masses from X-rays

• Hot gas in clusters emits lots of X-rays
– thermal bremsstrahlung
• X-ray observations are good for finding
clusters
– can observe luminosity and T as fn of position
• If spherically symmetric and stationary:
– can apply hydrostatic eqm to find mass
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 59

Hydrostatic equilibrium equations

• Observe T(r) and ρg(r) from X-rays

– T from spectra; ρg from X-ray luminosity
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 60

Mass of Abell 2390 from X-rays

X-ray
X-ray
Luminosity
Temperature

Radius Radius

~1015 Msolar in
Mass 1 Mpc radius

Radius
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 61

Just one equation from GR

• NB. Independent of light wavelength

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Apparent deflection angle, α

b
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 63

Einstein ring
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 64

Estimate the mass of A2218

• θE ~ 0.01 degrees
– Assume is a point mass
– Assume background galaxy is very far
– Assume distance ~700 Mpc

• If another cluster has arcs of size 0.02 degrees, how

massive is it relative to A2218?

Read JL p185
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 65

Weak versus strong lensing

• Strong lensing:
– multiple images
– banana shaped arcs
– inner parts of massive clusters/ galaxies

• Weak lensing
– ellipse orientation is changed
– low-mass clusters, outer parts of massive clusters
– have to average over many galaxies to measure mass
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 66

Weak lensing shear

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 67

Weak lensing method

• Divide image up into boxes containing

~10 galaxies in each
• Average galaxy images together
– shear map
• Guess mass map
– predict shear map
– compare to observed shear map
– repeat until fit the observations
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 68

1.8 The distribution of galaxies

List of topics
• Galaxy surveys
• Features of the galaxy distribution
• The galaxy power spectrum
• Qualitative meaning of a power spectrum
See JL p 189 to 198 and p 205 to p209 for a
qualitative introduction
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 69

Some galaxy surveys

• Hubble catalogue (1934) : 44,000 galaxies
• Lick catalogue (1967): 1,000,000+ galaxies
• APM (1990): 2,000,000 galaxies
• 2dF (2003): 250,000 galaxies with redshifts (z~0.2)
• SDSS: 675,000 galaxy redshifts so far (z~0.2)
• 2SLAQ LRGs: 1,000,000 approximate (photometric)
redshifts (z~0.6)
• WFMOS: 20,000 redshifts per night, at z~1
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 70

Features of the galaxy distribution

• Filaments (lines of galaxies)
• Pancakes (sheets of galaxies)
• Voids (gaps)
• Superclusters (groups of clusters)
• Fingers of God
– Surveys are measuring redshifts not distances.
– High velocity dispersions in clusters lead to a wide
range of redshifts at a given position on the sky.
Therefore a radial line on a plot of z versus angle.
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 1

2. Active Galaxies
• 2.1 Taxonomy
• 2.2 The mass of the central engine
• 2.3 Models of AGNs
• 2.4 Quasars as cosmological probes

Read JL chapter 3
 Active galaxies: interface with JL
All of JL chapter 3 is examinable, except:
• 3.1 and 3.2 are (hopefully) a revision of earlier
courses
• 3.4.4 An accretion disk should be basic stuff

Additional examinable notes will be provided on:

• Eddington limit will be derived
• Quasar luminosity function and evolution (log(N)-
log(S) and V/Vmax tests)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 2

Definition of an active galaxy

• What is an active galaxy?
– Radiation is not directly attributable to stars or dust
– Usually very powerful: ~1011 Lsolar in ~1AU
• What is an AGN?
– Active Galactic Nucleus
– Non-stellar radiation comes from small region
– Is in the center of galaxy, if galaxy is seen
– AGN used interchangably with “active galaxy”
• Role in galaxy formation unknown
– Special type of galaxy? or short phase of every galaxy?
• Four main classes:
– Seyfert galaxies, Quasars, Radio galaxies, Blazars
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 3

2.1 Taxonomy
List of topics and summary of properties:
• Seyfert galaxies
– Galaxies with very bright nuclei
• Quasars
– Point-like, extremely bright
• Radio galaxies
– Radio lobes beyond galaxies (often in pairs)
• Blazars
– Extremely variable
Read JL section 3.3 (pages 136 – 145)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 4

Seyfert Galaxies
• Galaxies with very bright nuclei
– Nuclei are unresolved in optical
– Almost all are spiral galaxies
– Variable
• Excess radiation in far IR and other bands
• Type 1 Seyferts: Two sets of emission lines
– “Narrow lines”: Widths ~400 km s-1. Mostly forbidden
• NB. this is wide cf typical HII region
– “Broad lines”: Widths ~10 000 km s-1. All permitted lines.
• Type 2 Seyferts: Only narrow lines, no broad lines.
• Type 1.5 Seyferts: somewhere in between
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 5

Quasars
• Point-like, extremely bright
– in both radio and optical
– Quasi-stellar radio source/object -> quasar
– Many are variable on times of months or days
• Spectral excesses in ir and other λ s
• Faint host galaxies (“quasar fuzz”)
• Strong broad lines, weaker narrow lines
– Strong Lyman-α
• Radio loud quasars: strong in radio
– ~10% of quasars
– many have jet(s)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 6

Radio galaxies
• The majority of known radio objects
• Pairs of bright lobes
– fed by narrow jets from faint core
• Two types:
– Broad-line radio galaxy (BLRG)
– Narrow-line radio galaxy (NLRG)
• Often in elliptical galaxies
– these often have dust lanes

Read JL pages 142 – 143

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 7

Blazars
• Like quasars, but variable on days or less
• All radio loud
• Two subclasses
– BL Lac: emission lines are absent or weak
• Not very bright
• Originally thought to be a variable star
– OVVs: Optically violent variables
• Much brighter
• Strong broad emission lines

Read JL page 145

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 8

2.2 The central engine

List of topics:
• The size of AGNs (JL 3.4.1)
• The mass of the supermassive black hole
– based on Schwarzchild radius (JL 3.4.3)
– based on Eddington Limit
– based on reverberation mapping (JL p163)
• Accretion power (JL 3.4.5)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 9

The size of AGNs

• Nuclei are unresolved in optical and radio
– Radio resolution ~0.001 arcsec (VLBI)
– Nearest AGN (NGC 4395) 4.3 Mpc away
– Must be <~ 0.02 pc = 4000 AU
• Size = θ (in radians) x distance
• Nuclei are highly variable ~ hours ~104 s
– Size ~ c x time ~ 10-4pc = 20 AU
• Quasars are brighter than entire galaxies
~1011 Lsolar in 20 AU !
Believed to contain a black hole
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 10

Mass from Schwarzchild radius

• Observed size > Schwarzschild radius
– Puts an upper limit on the mass of a BH
• Rs = 2 GM / c2 < Observed size
– M < Observed size x c2 / (2G)
– ~ 10^{-4} x 2e16 m x 9e16 / (12e-11)
– ~ 2e39 kg
– ~ 109 Msolar
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 11
Peterson p 32-33

Mass from Eddington limit

• Gravitational attraction > radiation pressure
• Consider HI on spherical shell, lit by luminosity L
– Radiation pressure = momentum flux = L/ (4 π r2 c)

• Force on an electron = pressure x cross section

• Gravitational attraction > radiation pressure
– GMmp/r2 > L/(4π r2 c) σe
– M > 4e-5 (L/Lsolar) Msolar > ~ 106 Msolar

• Supermassive black hole

– cf black hole produced on death of massive star
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 12

Mass from reverberation mapping

• Broad lines imply rotation at 7000 km s-1
– Can’t be thermal broadening since HI is seen
• Broad line variation lags continuum by ~10
days
– Assume is due to light travel time to BL region
– Radius of BL region is ~ 0.01 pc
• Apply virial theorem to get the mass
– M= r v2 / G ~ 108 Msolar

Consensus
•JL p163 of all three methods: M ~10 8 M
solar
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 13

2.3 Models of AGNs

List of topics:
• The dusty torus (JL 3.5.1)
• The broad line regions (JL 3.5.2)
• Unified models (JL 3.5.3)

First task:
Dust evaporates at ~2000K
Estimate the minimum radius of the torus
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 14

The broad-line region

• Made up of gas clouds
– illuminated by central engine esp uv, X-ray
– re-emit energy as emission lines
– see similar gas content to galactic HII regions
• No forbidden lines, so not very underdense
• From reverberation mapping slide
– radius ~0.01 pc
– rotation speed ~ 7000 km s-1
• Current estimates:
– ~1010 individual clouds
– total mass of gas ~ 10 Msolar
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 15

Unified models
• Theory: there are only two types of AGN

Radio Loud AGN Radio Quiet AGN

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 16

2.4 Quasars as cosmological probes

List of topics:
• Gunn-Peterson test
• log(N)-log(S) test
• V/Vmax test
Not in JL. See Peterson
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 17

Gunn-Peterson Test
• Quasar light is absorbed by intervening material
– Hydrogen clouds
– Damped Ly-α systems (proto-galaxies?)
• If continuous neutral hydrogen exists over range of z
– Expect rest-frame Ly-α to be absorbed
– Expect absorption bluewards of quasar Ly-α
– Called Gunn-Peterson trough
• Only observed five years ago at z~6
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 18

log(N) – log(S) test

• Aim: see if quasar numbers change with z
• If quasar no. density is constant n(r)=n0
– and quasars all have the same luminosity L
• Observe with a limiting flux S
– See all objects out to rmax = (L/(4π S))-0.5
– See a number N(S) = ∫0rmax n(r) r2 dr
= n0 rmax3 / 3 = n0 (L/(4π S))-1.5 /3
• Plot log(N) vs log(S).
– Should see slope of -1.5 if no evolution
• Problems with log(N) – log(S)
– Assumes one L, or non-evolving lum. fn.
– Gives false-positive if survey is incomplete Peterson p 159 - 161
(objects missing close to S)
PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 19

V/Vmax test
• Does not give false positive if incomplete
• Consider each object, distance r
– Find maximum distance at which could have
seen object = rmax
– Calculate V/Vmax = (r/rmax)3
• If uniform number density <V/Vmax>=0.5

Peterson p179, 180

PHAS3136 2010 Handout slides for Extragalactic Astronomy 20

Prove that for a single object,

expect <V/Vmax>=0.5
• Object has some rmax so Vmax= 4 π rmax3 / 3
• Average over possible positions of object, r
– If uniformly distributed n(r) = n0
• <V> = [ ∫ Vmax n(r) V dV ] / [∫ Vmax n(r) dV ]
= [s0rmax (4 π r3 /3) r2 dr ] / [s0rmax r2 dr]
= (4π/3) (rmax6 / 6) / (rmax3 / 3)
= Vmax /2

We observe <V/Vmax>= 0.65 +/- 0.03 for quasars

So there were more quasars in the past!