Observational

cosmology:
The Friedman equations 1

Filipe B. Abdalla
Kathleen Lonsdale Building G.22
http://zuserver2.star.ucl.ac.uk/~hiranya/PHAS3136/PHAS3136
A brain teaser: The anthropic principle!
• Last lecture I said “Is cosmology a science given that we
only have one Universe?”
• Weak anthropic principle: "The observed values of all
physical and cosmological quantities are not equally
probable but they take on values restricted by the
requirement that there exist sites where carbon
carbon--based life
can evolve and by the requirements that the Universe be
old enough for it to have already done so.
so "
• Strong anthropic principle
principle:: "The Universe must have
those properties which allow life to develop within it at
some stage in its history.“
• Does it make sense to assume we exist and infer
fundamental values for components of the Universe?
– Can we say anything about Lambda given that we exist?
– Can we say anything about the matter density given that
we exist?
• If one could make a second Universe how do we know
there would be life?
OUTLINE:
Friedman equation derivation
After the lecture, you should be able to:
• Define/derive the terms: “metric”, “scale factor”
and “co
“co--moving coordinates”
• Derive the relation between the scale factor and
redshift
• Derive the Friedman equation using Newtonian
arguments
• Describe and discuss the possible geometries of
the Universe
• [Non-
[Non-examinable: Discuss possible topologies of
the Universe]
Our world line in special relativity!
• Is a one dimensional line or
curve that represents the
coordinates of a given place in
space
space--time.
• As an objects moves the world
line moves sideways.
y As time
passes a static object moves
along the z axis.
• Einstein said v<c. so world
lines don’t bend more than 45
degrees or x/t > c.
• The photon world line defines
boundaries of the knowable
Universe from the unknowable
Universe
The metric.
• In relativity space and time are mixed up so we have to
define a distance which defines how separate 2 events are
distant from one another in space
space--time.
• Infinitesimally separated events in space and time have a
distance equal to:

• This is a space-
space-time metric. It determines who one count
distance between 2 points.
• If we measure distances from the origin there is no harm
in choosing a spherical polar coordinate system:

• So the proper time difference between two events is

The metric.
• For light:
• If
the interval is a space like event
• If
the interval is a time like interval
• If space
space--time is curved then the metric
defines the straightest possible world line.
I.e. the geodesic. It is defined by:
Euclidean geometry
• = “flat” geometry

• parallel straight lines never meet

• 180°
triangle angles add up to 180°
• circumference of circle = 2p2p r
• NB. General definition of a straight line:
– shortest distance between two points
– applies for non-
non-flat geometries
The surface of a objects…
• Are lines of longitude straight?
– Yes, they are great circles
• Are lines of latitude straight?
– No, they are not great circles
• Is the surface of a sphere flat?
– No
• Is the surface of a cylinder flat?
– Yes
The metric of a sphere
• The equation for a sphere:
• So if we calculate
differentials
• This leads to
• If we go to a more
convenient
parameterisation
• This means the space-
space-like
element is:
• Notice the factor
underneath the radial terms
The metric of a sphere
embedded in 4D
• The equation for a 3 sphere
embedded in 4D:
• So if we calculate
differentials
• This leads to
• If we go to a more
convenient
parameterisation
• This means the space-
space-like
element is:
• Notice the factor
underneath the radial terms
… again!!!!!
we define k = 1/a^2
Summary of Geometries
Curvature Geometry Angles of Circumference Type of
triangle of circle Universe

k>0 spherical >180°°

>180 c<2pr Closed

k=0 flat 180°°

180 c=2pr Flat

k<0 hyperbolic <180°°

<180 c>2pr Open

• Copy of Liddle Table 4.2:

The meaning of k in

http://www.dur.ac.uk/Physics/students//csflevel1/cffig1.jpg
• k = 1 /R2 (from GR), where R = radius of curvature
• Flat
– R = infinity
–k=0
• Spherical
– R < infinity
–k>0
• Hyperbolic
– R imaginary
–k<0
The FRW metric:
• We want to be general… i.e. for our Universe we
want to write a metric which is isotropic.

• For a homogeneous and isotropic Universe we

can prove that (from GR later…)

• k can be associated with the Gaussian curvature

of the Universe…
• Fro convenience we can
change variables to:
The derivation of the redsfhit
• For a photon, using the FRW metric we have:

• How if we take a photon arrival and emission

time:

• The second equality is because we can take the

second crest given that the photon is a wave.

• So equating the two we have

• If we assume a(t) is unchanging during these

small intervals we can take a out of the integral.

• Hence:
• So if we take the time intervals to be the periods
of the photon we have now:
Principle of Equivalence:
• Constant ratio of the inertial mass
and the gravitational mass
• Means that “All local freely falling,
non--rotating labs are fully
non
equivalent
i l t ffor th
the purposes off
physical experiments”
• i.e. the strong equivalent principle t
is always possible to choose a local
co--ordinate system such that all the
co
laws of physics have the same form.
• Acceleration = gravitation =
curvature
Derive the Friedmann equation
• Describes expansion rate of Universe
• a = scale factor
• da/dt = differential of a wrt time
• r = matter density
• k = a constant

• Full derivation uses GR.

• Use Newtonian derivation here
Friedman eq. derivation:
• Lets follow Newton and write the force on a
mass m.

• The particle’s gravitational potential can be

written as:

• The kinetic energy of a particle can be

written as:

• Energy conservations gives us:

• The relation between the position and the

co--moving position is:
co

• So the total internal energy of the system is:

• Making the substitution:

• We finally have: (we will prove that this is

the Hubble constant later)
General Relativity in two slides:
Christophel, Ricci and Riemann (non examinable)

• All of Special Relativity applies.

• Worldlines are straight.
• In a non-inertial frame, there are accelerations:

where the Christophel

symbol is:

and the Riemann tensor and Ricci tensor and scalars are
defined as:
General Relativity in two slides:
Einstein……….. (non examinable)

• Einstein told us that

and also that

• For perfect fluids

where U is the 4 momentum, and these Einstein

equations reduce to 2
Friedman equations
cosmologists use…
Implications of Friedmann eqn
• Allows us to solve for a(t)
• If we know r(t) and k
• r(t) depends on contents of Universe
– see next lecture on fluid equation

• What is the meaning of k?

– From GR derivation
– geometry of the Universe What is the meaning of k?
• In GR we can sa we want a maximally symetric metric only
dependent on the curvature so

• Implies that the metric should be the way it was derived before
Topologies:
• So far we look at a patch of the
Universe but is the Universe infinite
or a tiling of bits?
• One example:
– What kind of Universe is this?
– A Thorus:
• Other examples:
p a bit weird but
possible! Called a torus of genus 2

• Simpler but still unusual: what is

this?
• One consequence: we can see
ourselves in the past if we look far
away enough!!!!!!! We can test this
seeing circles in the CMB
OUTLINE
Acceleration equation derivation
After the lectures, you should be able to:
• Find the change in density as a function of scale factor
r(a) for matter dominated universe, just by considering
conservation of matter
• Derive the fluid equation
• Derive the change in density as a function of scale factor
r(a) for a single fluid universe with given equation of
state, from the fluid equation
• Derive the acceleration equation from the Friedmann
equation and the fluid equation
• Discuss the cosmological constant and dark energy
The fluid equation
• The change of volume as a
function of time can be written as:

• But if we write the energy as:

• So the change in energy as a
function of time is:

• Here we start with the second law

of thermodynamics:

• So we have if we assume the

expansion is reversible, i.e.
isentropic:
The acceleration equation
• We take the Friedman
equation in the following
form and differentiate it:
• N
Now we substitute
b tit t th
the
value of the differential
of the density from the
fluid equation back into
this equation to get:
• Simplifying we get:
 Derivation for the density evolution
for a component with w.
• We can re
re--write the acceleration
equation and the fluid equation
with the natural parameter w the
ratio of the pressure to the energy
density.
density
• Re--writing the fluid equation in
Re
such way:
• We can describe how different
components with different w evolve
as a function of the scale factor.
• So for example we have proven
that if a component such as matter
has no pressure, then the density
varies as the cubed power of a
Different component evolutions:

• Matter: w = 0 varies as a cubed

• Radiation w = 1/3 varies as a to the 4
• A cosmological constant is has rho
constant so w must be -1.
• Any particle which goes from relativistic to
non
non--relativistic has w from 1/3 to 0.
Matter/radiation domination
• In a matter dominated
universe, given that the
density goes as the cube of
the scale factor:
• Try a solution
• For matter domination we
have: q=2/3.
• So the Hubble parameter
can be written as :
• Implications for the age of
the Universe! This value is
less than the age of some
systems. Which?
• For radiation domination
q=1/2
The cosmological constant
• Einstein spotted a constant of integration
• Appears in our equations:

• Out of fashion (assumed zero) until ~ 10 years ago

• Looks just like a fluid with w=-
w=-1
– has negative pressure!
• The vacuum energy from particle physics could produce this effect
– current calculations give L a factor 10120 too high!
– Compare the energy in dark energy to GUT scale energies…
• Implies r(a) = constant, despite expansion of the Universe!
It is by looking at the second equation
that Supernovae people have told us
the universe is accelerating!!!!!

• Acceleration:

• Important parameter is:

• For acceleration we need

• A Network of cosmic strings has w = -1/3, first check

more than a decade ago!
BTW here we are not assuming a lambda, it
COULD be there or a term with w also
COULD be there…
Network of cosmic strings and
topological defects: (not examinable)
• A configuration formed at a phase
transition in the very early
Universe:
• Can be:
– Monopoles
– Strings
– D
Domaini walls
ll
– Textures (non localised unstable)
• A mechanism for forming these
objects is called the Kibble
mechanism
• Could explain accelerated
expansion but…. Power spectrum
very different (we will see this…)
Constraints from the
CMB (blue) cf Supernove

WMAP team
Spergel et al 2003
OUTLINE:
Friedmann equation derivation
After the lecture, you should be able to:
• Define/derive the terms: “metric”, “scale factor”
and “co
“co--moving coordinates”
• Derive the relation between the scale factor and
redshift
• Derive the Friedman equation using Newtonian
arguments
• Describe and discuss the possible geometries of
the Universe
• [Non-
[Non-examinable: Discuss possible topologies of
the Universe]
OUTLINE
Acceleration equation derivation
After the lectures, you should be able to:
• Find the change in density as a function of scale factor
r(a) for matter dominated universe, just by considering
conservation of matter
• Derive the fluid equation
• Derive the change in density as a function of scale factor
r(a) for a single fluid universe with given equation of
state, from the fluid equation
• Derive the acceleration equation from the Friedmann
equation and the fluid equation
• Discuss the cosmological constant and dark energy
END for now!!!