Research methods and approaches

a. Research terminology:
Data Information gathered during the research process.
‘Raw’ data is information which has not yet been
analysed.

Empirical Research based on first-hand gathering of data

Research through interviews, questionnaires, ethnographies,
participant observation, action research and so on.

Ethnography The direct observation, description and analysis of

the activities and behaviour of members of a social
group, for instance a youth gang.

Informant Someone that participates in a research project,

generally through interview. Also referred to as a
research participant or interviewee.

Methods The tools used to gather research data, for instance

a phone questionnaire, face-to-face interview,
gathering census data.
Different methods are used in quantitative research
and qualitative research.

Quantitative Research discovering facts about social

Research experiences and trends where data is collected
through measuring things and is analysed through
numerical comparisons and statistical inferences.
Data is represented numerically as a percentage, a
mean, and average etc. Commonly, data appears
as a table, a graph, or a pie or line chart.
As data is presented as representative, the sample,
that is the source of the data, is extremely
important.

Qualitative Research that is not presented as representative

Research but as offering people’s reflections or perspectives
on an issue or experience. It is traditionally
conducted via interviews or observation.
 Data is analysed by themes drawn from informants’
descriptions.
Also referred to as ‘interpretive’ and ‘grounded’,
qualitative research is more interested in questions
of how and why than in how many.

Theory A substantiated (evidence based) explanation for

the way something is as it is.
The body of rules, ideas, principles, and techniques
that applies to a particular subject.

Transcript The typed record of an interview obtained from

audio or video recordings.

Sample A group of individuals selected by a researcher

because they possess particular attributes of
interest to the research project.
A representative sample is one which is
representative of a larger group. If the sample is
selected carefully, the resulting data can be applied
to the group as a whole.
Observation Observation is the systematic noting and recording of
events, behaviours and objects in the social setting
chosen for the study. The observational record is
referred to as field notes, which are detailed, non-
judgmental, concrete descriptions of what is being
observed. A participant observer is someone who is a
part of the activity as well as making the observations.
b. Quantitative methods: the survey or questionnaire

Questionnaires produce quantitative data

which is processed and analysed
numerically.

Questionnaires can be conducted by

mail, telephone, over the internet and
face-to-face.

The largest questionnaire in Australia is the Census of

Population and Housing conducted every 5 years by the
Australian Bureau of Statistics. An example of 2006 Census
data for Airds can be found at the back of this workbook.

Questionnaires are generally time efficient, cheap and can be

distributed to a large number of people fairly easily. It is also
possible to select groups of people to survey who are
representative of the wider population which means that
sample data can be representative of the wider community.

c. Qualitative methods: the interview

Gaining access to people’s views and experiences is the key to
qualitative research. Although there are many different qualitative
methods, the interview is the most common.

Interviews are usually undertaken face-to-face, although telephone

interviews are sometimes used. The interview is recorded for later
transcription (typing up raw data) and analysis. Recording an interview
prevents important things the informant has said from being missed.

Interviews can be time consuming, and at times emotionally draining for

both the researcher and the informant.
Styles of interview:

1. Structured interview: most resembles the survey method discussed

above except that the interviewer completes the questionnaire in a face-
to-face encounter with the participant.

2. Semi-structured interview: not as structured but includes a series of

questions as well as prompts which encourage the participant to expand
on their answers. For instance ‘Can you give me an example of that?’ or
‘Why do you think that?’

3. Unstructured interview: this is the most open type of interview.

Open-ended questions and prompts are used to explore an issue with
the informant, but these are not necessarily prepared before the
interview. As the informant is more able to guide the interview it is often
used to enable people to tell their life story.

4. Group Interview / Focus Group: A focus group usually involves up

to ten people who have a similar interest or experience. This form of
interview can be very lively as the participants can redirect the
discussion to their own interests. It tends to generate a large amount of
data as participants stimulate discussion amongst themselves. This
method is generally the hardest style of interview to arrange, conduct,
record and transcribe.

Interviews commonly involve the following questions styles:

 Background demographic: How old you are?
 Descriptive: How would you describe yourself?
 Structural: If you had to put yourself into a social class, what would
you say?
 Opinion: How successful do you think the youth leadership program
has been?
 Feelings: How did failing that exam make you feel?
 Knowledge: How do you begin each ‘outreach’ evening?
d. Other methods
There are many ways to collect the information needed for research and
new a creative ways are constantly being explored by researchers at
SJSC.

Example: Photo-elicitation interviews

The ‘photo elicitation’ interview is a research method ideally suited to
young people who may be reserved or have difficulty expressing
themselves verbally. It is being used to both encourage and empower
young people to express their feelings and talk about their experiences
through the use of photos they have taken.

“Photo elicitation lets children set the linguistic level in accord

with their ability. The children decide what they want to say and
how to do so. The researcher typically does not have a
structured or complex interview schedule but rather lets the
photographs and child’s insights lead the way for conversation
and sharing.

In photo elicitation, children’s cognitive development is matched

with the type of information that may be elicited. Photography
stimulates kids’ memories in ways that are different from
verbal-based interviews … Using photos can improve the
interview experience with children by providing them with a
clear, tangible, yet non-linguistic prompt.”
From Marisol Clark-Ibanez (2007) Inner-city. In Sharper Focus in G. S. Stanczk (e)
Visual Research Methods, Sage Publication.

Evaluation research
Evaluation research involves examining the value and benefits of a
program as a means of contributing to its improvement.

The evaluation partnership

The evaluation is based on collaborative research between researchers
from the university and members of the contracting organisation.
The evaluation is conducted by negotiation, with respect being given to
the organisation’s goals and ethos and to the needs of the researchers
and the people or organisations being researched.
The evaluation is a learning experience for all partners. The researchers
/ evaluators respect the expertise and wisdom of the organisation’s
members and these members respect the knowledge and competence
of the researchers.

The role of the evaluator

The evaluator’s role is generally that of an independent consultant, but
with the flexibility to become a participant when the study requires.
The role involves collaboration with stakeholders to ensure that their
interests and priorities are covered within the study.

The evaluation research project

An evaluation research project is generally required to assess the key
objectives and activities of a program against performance measures.

The steps involved in the evaluation research project are:

i. Develop the evaluation questions

ii. Negotiate, plan and design the evaluation research plan
iii. Submit the proposal to an ethics committee for ethics approval
iv. Undertake research activities to collect data
v. Analyse the data and information collected
Report on the evaluation