Literary Devices & Terms

Literary devices and terms are the techniques and elements—from figures of speech to narrative
devices to poetic meters—that writers use to create narrative literature, poetry, speeches, or any
other form of writing.

1. Acrostic Definition

What is an acrostic? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

An acrostic is a piece of writing in which a particular set of letters—typically the first letter of
each line, word, or paragraph—spells out a word or phrase with special significance to the text.
Acrostics are most commonly written as a form of poetry, but they can also be found in prose or
used as word puzzles.

Some additional key details about acrostics:

While the most common type of acrostic is one formed by the initial letters of each line, there
are many different types of acrostics with letters in different positions.

The word that is spelled out in an acrostic is called the acrostich. The acrostich typically bears a
special meaning in relation to the content of the acrostic, such as revealing the name of the
poem's subject or the name of its author.

Acrostic poems may be written in meter or in free verse, with or without rhyme.

Acrostic Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce acrostic: uh-krahss-tik

Types of Acrostic Poems

In the most common type of acrostic poems, the initial letter of each line forms a word. This type
of acrostic is simply called an acrostic.

Roses are red,

Oranges yummy,

Sugar's a sweet,

Elixir in my tummy.
But other types of acrostic, with more specialized locations of the letters that spell out the word
or phrase, do have special names:

Telestich: An acrostic in which the last letters of each line spell a word or message.

Mesostich: An acrostic in which the middles of words or lines form a word or message.

Double Acrostic: An acrostic in which words are spelled by both the first and last letters of each
line, so that one word can be read vertically down the left side of the poem and another word
can be read vertically down the right side of the poem.

Abecedarian: An acrostic that, instead of spelling a word, spells the alphabet. Chaucer's poem
"La Priere de Nostre Dame" is an example of an abecedarian acrostic. This type of acrostic may
also be referred to as an abecedarius.

In addition to these named forms, acrostics can be non-standard. For example, some acrostics
spell out words using neither the first nor last letters of a line, but rather by emphasizing letters
in different places.

Roses are red,

Violets are blue,

Sugar is sweet,

And so are you.

Decoding Acrostics

The level of difficulty in decoding the hidden message of an acrostic varies widely, and that
difficulty depends on how carefully the author has hidden it or, conversely, how deliberately he
or she has revealed it. In many cases, it's easy to recognize the word being spelled in the acrostic
because the important letters are capitalized or bolded and they fall at the beginning of each
line. In other cases, the author may have intended for the acrostic to be harder to solve, leading
them to insert the important letters more subtly by embedding them somewhere other than the
first word of each line or leaving the letters lower-case. Put another way: an acrostic may be a
show, in which the author wants you to see it at once, or a puzzle that the author is content to
have some people find and other's not.

Acrostics vs. Acronyms

Acrostics are in some ways similar to acronyms, in that both involve the isolation of individual
letters to make a new word. Just as a poem might form the acrostich "Rose" from the first letters
of its four lines, so is the acronym POTUS made by taking the first letters of "President of the
United States." However, acrostics and acronyms are not the same, for two reasons:

Real words vs. made-up words: Acrostics must form real words or names (or at the very least
spell out the letters of the alphabet). In contrast, acronyms can be made up words. For example,
POTUS isn't really a word, it's just an acronym that makes it easier to refer to the President of the
United States. Acronyms can form real words, such as ACT UP, the acronym for an important
activist group of the 1980's that was otherwise known as "AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power," but
they don't have to.

Artistic merit vs. practical use: The more significant difference between acronyms and acrostics is
that while acronyms have a practical purpose—whether as a mnemonic or to make it easier to
refer to things more quickly—acrostics have been regarded, to varying degrees at different
moments in history, as a form of writing with literary value.

Acrostics Through History

The earliest examples of acrostics can be found in the Hebrew Bible. Several passages in the
book of Psalms begin with letters of the alphabet, forming an abecedarian acrostic (an acrostic
that spells out the entire alphabet). The first examples of non-abecedarian acrostics come from
ancient Greece, where the Erythraean Sybil (an oracle from the ancient Greek town of Erythrae)
was known to write her prophesies on leaves and arrange them so that the first letters would
spell out a word. Later, acrostics were commonly used in medieval literature to encode a secret
message—for example, to disclose the name of the poet or the name of the poem's subject,
especially in cases where the subject of the poem was a secret lover. Today, however, acrostics
have lost some of the literary prestige they once enjoyed in the past. Instead, they are now often
considered to be juvenile, or useful primarily as a comedic form.

Acrostic Examples

In the examples below, the letters that form the acrostich (the acrostic's hidden message) are
bold.

Acrostic in Lewis Carroll's "Acrostic"

This poem by Lewis Carroll spells out the names of three sisters: Lorina, Alice, and Edith. Alice
was purportedly the real-life inspiration for Carroll's book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
Little maidens, when you look

On this little story-book,

Reading with attentive eye

Its enticing history,

Never think that hours of play

Are your only HOLIDAY,

And that in a HOUSE of joy

Lessons serve but to annoy:

If in any HOUSE you find

Children of a gentle mind,

Each the others pleasing ever—

Each the others vexing never—

Daily work and pastime daily

In their order taking gaily—

Then be very sure that they

Have a life of HOLIDAY.

Acrostic in Nabokov's "The Vane Sisters"

While acrostics are most often found in poetry, Vladimir Nabokov's short story "The Vane Sisters"
contains an example of an acrostic formed with prose. In "The Vane Sisters," a short story which
is about a professor who becomes fascinated with acrostics, the first letters of each word in the
story's final paragraph spell out the phrase, "Icicles by Cynthia; Meter from me, Sybil." While
these words may seem like nonsense if you haven't read the story, they are, in fact, key to
interpreting the story's mysterious plot.

I could isolate, consciously, little. Everything seemed blurred, yellow-clouded, yielding nothing
tangible. Her inept acrostics, maudlin evasions, theopathies—every recollection formed ripples
of mysterious meaning. Everything seemed yellowly blurred, illusive, lost.
Acrostic in Chaucer's "La Priere de Nostre Dame"

Commonly referred to as "Chaucer's ABC's," this poem is an example of the sub-genre of acrostic
known as abecedarian poetry, in which the first letters of each stanza spell the alphabet in
sequence.

ALMIGHTY and all-merciable Queen,

To whom all this world fleeth for succour...

Bounty so fix'd hath in thy heart his tent,

That well I wot thou wilt my succour be...

Comfort is none, but in you, Lady dear!

For lo! my sin and my confusion...

Acrostic in Blake's "London"

This poem by William Blake puts a special emphasis on the sounds of London's cityscape, such as
the cries of the chimneysweeps and the sighs of the soldiers. In the third stanza, the initial letters
of each line form an acrostic that spells the word "HEAR," which underscores the speaker's
fixation on the sounds in his environment. This is an example of acrostic being used in just one
stanza of a poem—the remainder of the poem does not contain acrostics.

How the Chimney-sweepers cry

Every blackning Church appalls,

And the hapless Soldiers sigh

Runs in blood down Palace walls

Acrostic in Cage's "Overpopulation and Art"

John Cage was a hugely influential experimental composer and poet who, toward the end of his
life, became interested in writing acrostic poems in which the key letters were placed in the
middles of lines instead of at the beginnings—a form known as mesostich poetry. The following
excerpt is the beginning of one of the last poems Cage wrote in his lifetime, "Overpopulation and
Art." The long mesostich poem, written in free verse, spells out the words of the title,
"overpopulation and art," twenty times (the number of letters in the title). The excerpt below
shows just one of the twenty cycles of the poem.

abOut 1948 or 50 the number of people

liVing

all at oncE

equaled the numbeR who had ever lived at any time all added together

the Present as far as numbers

gO

became equal to the Past

we are now in the fUture

it is something eLse

hAs

iT doubled

has It quadrupled

all we nOw

kNow for sure is

the deAd

are iN the minority

they are outnumbereD by us who're living

whAt does this do to

ouR

way of communicaTing...

Why Do Writers Choose to Write Acrostics?

Acrostics are used to add new dimension to a poem or other text. They can transform
straightforward poetry or prose into a word puzzle by enlisting the reader to decode a secret
message. In addition, acrostics are often used to spell out names or meanings that are
associated with the text but that have not been said outright—this can be used for comedic
effect, to tell a secret, or to give supplemental information. Acrostics can also make poems easier
to remember or memorize, as their messages can function as mnemonic devices that help a
reader to recall the remainder of each line. For this reason, acrostics are commonly used in
children's poetry.

Other Helpful Acrostic Resources

The Wikipedia Page on Acrostic: A somewhat technical explanation, including various helpful
examples.

The dictionary definition of Acrostic: A basic definition that includes a bit on the etymology of
acrostic.

An article that gives the history of alphabet poems (including Old Icelandic poems written in
runes), with many examples.

An article on acrostics as love poems in colonial Williamsburg: "For the young men and women
of Williamsburg in 1768, acrostic verses were the equivalent of pop songs and Hallmark cards."

A reading of John Cage's long mesostich poem, "Overpopulation and Art".

2. Allegory Definition

What is an allegory? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

An allegory is a work that conveys a hidden meaning—usually moral, spiritual, or political—

through the use of symbolic characters and events. The story of "The Tortoise and The Hare" is a
well-known allegory with a moral that a slow and steady approach (symbolized by the Tortoise)
is better than a hasty and overconfident approach (symbolized by the Hare).

Some additional key details about allegory:

Some allegories have morals that are easy to discern, such as the example of "The Tortoise and
The Hare," but others can be so subtle that it becomes unclear whether the author intended for
the story to have a double meaning (or be an allegory) at all.

Although all allegories use symbolism heavily, not all writing that uses symbolism qualifies as
allegory. Allegories are characterized by a use of symbolism that permeates the entire story, to
the extent that essentially all major characters and their actions can be understood as having
symbolic significance.

An allegory can be long and extend over an entire book or even a series of books, or it can be
short or a part of a longer work (such as the Allegory of the Cave in Book 7 of Plato's Republic).

Allegory Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce allegory: al-ih-gore-ee

Allegory vs. Symbolism

Allegory and symbolism are often confused, but they are not the same thing.

Symbolism is the use of symbols, usually physical objects, to represent abstract ideas or
qualities. For instance, in To Kill a Mockingbird the mockingbird symbolizes innocence and
beauty.

Allegory is a work that makes extensive use of symbolism in order to communicate a broader
moral or meaning. Nearly every aspect of an allegory—from characters, to objects, to dialogue,
to settings, to major plot events—can typically be interpreted as having a secondary, symbolic
meaning that fits into the allegory's broader meaning. For instance, in the 17th-century allegory
Pilgrim's Progress, the protagonist (named "Christian") and his journey, as well as every other
character, object, and location he interacts with along the way, symbolically fit into a larger
moral or lesson about the proper "path" to reach heaven.

So, to put it another way: an allegory is a type of work or story that represents some idea,
concept, or historical event that is different from the literal events contained within the story.
Symbolism is the technique that an allegory uses in order to be able to represent and
communicate its deeper meaning.

How Allegories Use Symbolism

Allegories use symbolism in all sorts of ways. While the types of symbols in allegories are so
varied that it's not possible to categorize them all, it is possible to group them into two broad
categories. Characters, events, locations, and objects in allegories usually symbolize:

Virtues, vices, or other abstract ideas. For instance, a crooked banker might symbolize greed,
while the character of Mr. Legality in the allegory Pilgrim's Progress symbolizes a viewpoint that
prioritizes the law over faith in Jesus Christ.
Real people and specific historical events. For example, one character might symbolize Queen
Elizabeth I, or two characters might symbolize opposing sides in the American Civil War.

Although the symbolism in some allegories can be quite subtle, it's more often the case that the
symbolism is clear or even heavy-handed. For example, Mr. Legality, who symbolizes a mindset
focused around the law, is named Mr. Legality! Similarly, in Geoffrey Chaucer's House of Fame,
Lady Fame is the name of a character who determines the social reputations of others.

Not All Symbolism is Allegory

While allegories do involve a lot of symbolism, the presence of symbolism in a work does not
automatically make that work an allegory. Rather, an allegory is a story in which the majority of
characters and plot developments serve as symbols for something else, or in which the entire
storyline is symbolic of a broader concept, idea, historical event, or phenomenon in society. But
a story or poem can contain symbols while not functioning as an allegory. An example might be
helpful:

Edmund Spenser's poem The Faerie Queene is an allegory. Its characters are not very complex or
deep: they're meant to embody virtues or ideas more than they are meant to resemble real
people.

Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter contains lots of symbolism, but it is not an allegory.
The protagonist, Hester Prynne, as well as every other significant character exhibit a great deal
of psychological and emotional complexity and individuality. While the novel is full of symbols,
the complexity of the characters mean that it wouldn't really make sense to say that The Scarlet
Letter is an allegory about adultery. Rather, it's a novel that is literally about characters in Puritan
times who are affected by adultery, and the novel also has symbolic aspects to deepen and
intensify its various themes.

In short, all allegories are highly symbolic, but not all symbolic writing is allegorical.

Types of Allegory

There are two main types of allegory. The basic technique is the same in both categories, but in
each kind characters and events symbolize different things.

Historical allegories: Writing in this category allegorizes historical figures and events. Writers of
this kind of allegory may be using symbols to mask the true subject of their writing (for instance,
to avoid censorship or punishment), or to effectively distill a complex history into a more
simplified and vivid story that will engage readers on an emotional and aesthetic level.

A good example of this type of allegory is George Orwell's Animal Farm, which corresponds
pretty closely to the events of the Russian revolution.

Conceptual allegories: This kind of allegory uses characters and events to symbolize abstract
things rather than actual events or people. For example, it's common for writers of conceptual
allegories to use characters that embody particular moral qualities, such as purity or love. Most
religious and social allegories fall under this category, since they usually don't have to do with a
specific person or historical event, but rather some virtue or vice more generally.

In "The Pardoner's Tale," a story in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, a character known as the
Pardoner asserts that greed is the root of all evil, and illustrates the point using an allegory in
which three drunken men set out to find a character known as "Death," but find a small fortune
in gold instead. They end up killing each other in an attempt to secure the entire treasure. The
three men can be said to embody greed.

It's certainly possible, and not uncommon, for a writer of an allegory to draw elements from
both of these two types of allegory.

Allegory vs. Parable

People often confuse allegories with parables—another, similar type of story that makes heavy
use of symbolism to convey meaning. But in fact, the two terms mean quite different things.
Here are some of the key differences between allegory and parable:

Morality: Parables are didactic, meaning that they are intended to teach the listener something.
Therefore, parables always have a moral or a lesson. For instance, religious figures like Jesus and
Buddha constantly used parables to impart their beliefs to others. Allegories, by contrast, do not
always have a moral: they may simply be concerned with retelling a historical event from a
certain perspective, or with conveying a complex idea about the world without turning it into a
lesson.

Length: Parables are always short, whereas an allegory can be as long as a entire book or film.

Subtlety: Since the purpose of parables is to teach a moral lesson, the symbolic meaning of a
parable is almost always immediately clear. Like parables, allegories can use very blunt
symbolism—but unlike parables, some allegories can be so subtle that readers don't always even
pick up on the symbolic meaning of the text.

Allegory Examples
Allegory in Literature

Allegory is one of the oldest literary forms, with writers long relying on allegory's ability to
convey a moral or political message efficiently and discreetly.

Allegory in George Orwell's Animal Farm

Animal Farm is a political allegory. It tells the story of the animals on a farm owned by an abusive
farmer. One night, a boar named Old Major gathers all the animals of the farm together.
Knowing that he will soon die, Old Major gives a speech in which he reveals to the animals that
men cause all the misery that animals endure. Old Major says that all animals are equal and
urges them to join together to rebel. Old Major dies shortly thereafter, but the farm animals
develop his ideas into the philosophy of Animalism, and they defeat the abusive farmer in an
uprising, renaming the farm "Animal Farm." What follows is a long story of political turmoil
among the animals, with the pigs rising to power and becoming oppressive rulers themselves,
amending Old Major's revolutionary statement ("All animals are equal") to a nonsensical one
that justifies their dominance ("All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than
others").

Animal Farm is an allegorical story about communism, the political ideology that promotes the
eradication of class and the equality of all people. Old Major symbolizes the fathers of
communism, Karl Marx and Vladmir Lenin, while the hypocritical ruling class of pigs represents
the Soviet Government in the wake of the Russian Revolution. George Orwell likely chose to use
an allegorical story to attack totalitarianism (rather than attacking it directly or explicitly)
because it was such a sensitive political subject at the time that he wrote the book (1944-45).

Allegory in John Milton's Paradise Lost

In Book II of Paradise Lost, a character known as Sin describes how she gave birth to Death after
she was impregnated by Satan (or the devil), who is her own father. Her story is allegorical
because each character is highly symbolic, as are their relationships to one another. (For
instance, in the Judeo-Christian tradition, death didn't even exist until Satan tempted the first
humans to sin. In that sense, Satan gave rise to Sin, and together the two gave rise to Death.) In
this passage, Milton describes Sin giving birth to Death:

At last this odious offspring whom thou seest

Thine own begotten, breaking violent way

Tore through my entrails, that with fear and pain

Distorted, all my nether shape thus grew

Transform'd: but he my inbred enemy

Forth issu'd, brandishing his fatal Dart

Made to destroy: I fled, and cry'd out Death;

Hell trembl'd at the hideous Name, and sigh'd

From all her Caves, and back resounded Death.

Additional Allegories in Literature

Some additional famous allegorical works of literature, and their symbolic meanings, are:

Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene: A moral allegory about Queen Elizabeth I's reign, and
knightly virtues such as temperance.

John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress: A religious allegory about a Christian's spiritual journey
toward finding salvation.

Percy Bysshe Shelley's Prometheus Unbound: A complex allegory about the French Revolution,
and the Romantic ideal of creativity.

Franz Kafka's Metamorphosis: A social allegory about the alienation of the modern individual in
society.

Allegory in Philosophy

For thousands of years, philosophers have expressed their beliefs using allegories, particularly
because allegorical narratives are handy for illustrating concepts that might otherwise be too
abstract to explain easily.

Symbolism in Plato's Cave

Plato's "Allegory of the Cave" is a classic and well-known example of allegory. Consider the
following lines, spoken by Socrates:

Imagine this: People live under the earth in a cavelike dwelling. Stretching a long way up toward
the daylight is its entrance, toward which the entire cave is gathered. The people have been in
this dwelling since childhood, shackled by the legs and neck..Thus they stay in the same place so
that there is only one thing for them to look that: whatever they encounter in front of their
faces. But because they are shackled, they are unable to turn their heads around.

It becomes apparent later in his dialogue that Socrates' imaginary prisoners are actually symbolic
representations of the average person. The prisoners in his cave may perceive only what is
dictated by their circumstances—for example, while in bondage, they cannot perceive the sun.
Likewise, people cannot access certain information about the universe by relying on their senses
alone. Thus, Plato posits the existence of a higher reality that can't be conceived of as long as
people continue to believe that what they are capable of perceiving is all that is real.

Allegory in Film

There is a long tradition of allegorical movies that represent historical figures or moral qualities
through a series of symbols.

Allegory in Pan's Labyrinth

Guillermo del Toro's 2006 dark fantasy film is set during the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s, and
chronicles the journey of a girl named Ofelia into a fairy underworld she discovers near her
home. In the haunting final scene, the young Ofelia refuses to harm an innocent person, even
though it will cost her the kingdom she had been promised by a mythical fawn, and ultimately
her life. Though none of the characters in the film are actual historical figures, they symbolize
the opposing sides of the Spanish Civil War. If Ofelia is an allegorical figure for Spanish resistance
to tyranny, her calculating stepfather (who is a captain on the side of the country's military
dictator) represents Spanish officials' all-consuming pursuit of power and blind allegiance to the
ideals of the dictatorship.

Why Do Writers Choose to Write Allegories?

Authors might choose to write allegories for a number of reasons, and its certainly possible that
an author might choose to write an allegory for more than one of the reasons below.

To address a controversial topic: There are certain topics that are difficult to discuss directly in
writing—for example, it might be too controversial or impolite to refer directly to sensitive and
ongoing political developments. Because an allegory masks its commentary behind another
story, it can make it easier for a writer to make his or her points without angering an audience.
To make something more interesting: Readers might find it hard to pay attention to an essay on,
say, the right way to behave to reach heaven, or the evils of the Soviet Union. Pilgrim's Progress
in the 17th century and Animal Farm in the 20th century used allegory to address both of these
topics, and achieved extreme popularity. By presenting a story that illustrates a moral or idea
rather than explaining it directly, writers can make their audience more likely to engage with—
and ultimately absorb—the message they're trying to convey.

To make something more understandable: Allegories can make complex ideas concrete, and
therefore more understandable to readers. Plato's Allegory of the Cave, for instance, illustrates
both a complex philosophical idea about reality and a similarly complex psychological lesson
about the ways that people resist hearing an unfamiliar truth. The allegory captures all this, and
makes both ideas more digestible.

Because it's fun: Reading (and writing) an allegory can feel like solving a little puzzle, where
every element of the story has a second meaning to be deciphered.

Other Helpful Allegory Resources

The Wikipedia Page on Allegory: Has a rather broad view of allegory that ignores the focus on
narrative adopted by critics and reflected in our guide. Still, this is a good overview of classical
allegories with a useful discussion on visual allegory in painting.

Slate's "Save the Allegory!": A more personal take on the literary device, with a clear sense of
what allegory is not. A good read after you've spent some time familiarizing yourself with
classical allegories, like Spenser's The Faerie Queene.

Taste of Cinema's 10 Brilliant Films Used as Allegories for Social and Political Issues: A helpful list,
which underscores the fact that allegory can be so subtle that some viewers may not even
register that a story is an allegory even if they've heard it a dozen times.

Wikipedia entry on Pilgrim's Progress: The entry covers the symbolism within the allegory in
great detail.

3. Alliteration Definition

What is alliteration? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

Alliteration is a figure of speech in which the same sound repeats in a group of words, such as
the “b” sound in: “Bob brought the box of bricks to the basement.” The repeating sound must
occur either in the first letter of each word, or in the stressed syllables of those words.

Some additional key details about alliteration:

Alliteration is the repetition of sounds, not just letters.

Alliterative words don’t have to be right next to each other. Other words can appear between
them.

Alliteration is found often in poetry and prose, as well as in commercial writing like brand names
and marketing taglines.

How to Pronounce Alliteration

Here's how to pronounce alliteration: uh-lit-uh-ray-shun

Understanding the Rules of Alliteration

Alliteration is complicated enough, and there are enough misconceptions about it, that it’s worth
taking a closer look at the rules that cover how alliteration works.

Alliteration Doesn’t Require Sequential Words

The repeated sounds of alliteration do not have to appear in sequential words, one immediately
after another. A phrase can still contain alliteration if the repeated sounds are separated by other
words. For instance, the example below is alliterative despite the “a” and “of”.

Peter picked a peck of pickled peppers.

Alliteration Refers to Repeating Sounds, Not Letters

Alliteration isn’t just about repeated letters. It’s about repeated sounds:

Crooks conspire with the kind king.

This example is alliterative because the “c” and “k” produce the same sound even though they
are different letters.

Alliteration, First Syllables, and Stressed Syllables

Some people believe that alliteration occurs whenever the repeating sounds occur in the first
syllable of a word, while others argue that alliteration only occurs when the sounds occur on
stressed, or emphasized, syllables. People holding these two separate views on alliteration
would disagree on whether the following two examples are alliterative:

Dan declares that he deserves to debate.

Crooks conspire with the unkind king.

In the first example, the “d” sound clearly occurs in the first syllable of each word, but in three of
the words it occurs on an unstressed syllable (de-clares, de-serves, de-bate). In the second
example, it occurs in the second syllable of “unkind,” but that second syllable is the stressed one:
"un-kind.”

So which side is right? The short answer is that both definitions of alliteration are currently
accepted. But, not so long ago, only the stressed-syllable version of alliteration was considered
legitimate. Even today many people who really care about alliteration—poets, for instance—
would insist that the stressed syllable viewpoint is correct.

Vowels Can Alliterate

While alliteration nowadays most often refers to repetition of the sounds of consonant, vowels
can alliterate. For instance, “American alliteration” is alliterative. That said, "open octagon" isn't
really alliterative because the "o" makes different sounds in those two words.

Consonant Clusters Affect Alliteration

Alliteration sticklers may contest that the best use of alliteration takes into consideration how
certain combinations of consonants affect the resulting sounds. For instance, they might argue
that the example “Sam speeds with skill through the storm” is not alliterative because the
clusters of “sp,” “sk,” and “st” have their own distinct sounds and therefore don’t alliterate with
each other or with a single “s.” This is not a hard and fast rule by a long shot (and we have an
example below from none other than Charles Dickens that actually does alliterate with “st” and
“sp”) but the way that consonant clusters can affect the degree of alliteration is still worth
knowing about.

Alliteration vs. Consonance vs. Assonance

There are two close relatives of alliteration, both of which are often confused with each other
and with alliteration itself. They are consonance and assonance. Here are quick descriptions of
each:

Consonance is the repetition of similar consonant sounds across several words. The repeated
sound can occur at any point within the word, not just on first or stressed syllables. So, for
example, in the sentence “ A truck full of unlucky ducks careened into the aqueduct,” the hard
“k” consonant sound doesn’t just occur on stressed or first syllables, making this an example of
consonance but not alliteration.

Assonance is exactly the same as consonance, but with vowel sounds instead of consonant
sounds. An example of assonance is the “oo” sound in this sentence: “The smooth balloon flew
up and blew up when it hit the roof.” Note that in this example, because all of the repeated
sounds occur on stressed syllables, this example is both assonance and alliteration.

Alliteration, then, is a specialized form of assonance or consonance in which the repeated

sounds occur only on stressed syllables.

Alliteration Examples

Alliteration appears all over the place. It is used very often in lyric poetry, and appears regularly
in novels, plays, and other literature. It’s also very common in more commercial writing, such as
marketing taglines, brand names, and even in naming superheroes.

Alliteration Examples in Literature

Alliteration is common in poetry, as well as in literature ranging from from Shakespeare to

Stephen King. Below are some examples.

Alliteration in the Prologue to Romeo and Juliet

This example from lines 5-6 of the Prologue of Romeo and Juliet has two sets of alliteration, one
with “f” sounds and one with “l” sounds.

From forth the fatal loins of these two foes

A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life;

Alliteration in Robert Frost’s “Birches”

This example from the poem “birches” by Robert Frost includes an alliteratively intense
repetition of “b” sounds in every line, and often multiple times per line.

I'd like to go by climbing a birch tree,

And climb black branches up a snow-white trunk

Toward heaven, till the tree could bear no more,

But dipped its top and set me down again.

That would be good both going and coming back.

One could do worse than be a swinger of birches.

Alliteration in John Keats’s “Ode to a Nightingale”

In these lines from stanza 7, lines 5-10 of John Keats’s famous “Ode to a Nightingale,” there are
alliterations of both “s” and “f” sounds.

Perhaps the self-same song that found a path

Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,

She stood in tears amid the alien corn;

The same that oft-times hath

Charm'd magic casements, opening on the foam

Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.

Alliteration in Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities

The alliteration of “s” sounds in the example below comes from Part 1, Chapter 5 of Charles
Dickens’ novel A Tale of Two Cities. The alliteration, which in each case has the sibilant “s”
followed by a harder consonant (either a “p” or a “t”) creates a sound almost of something soft
splashing against something hard, which is exactly what Dickens is describing here: blood hitting
the hard surface of the street.
“The time was to come, when that wine too would be spilled on the street-stones, and when the
stain of it would be red upon many there.”

Alliteration in Toni Morrison’s Beloved

In this sample from Part 1, Chapter 9 of her novel Beloved, Toni Morrison intertwines alliteration
on the “d,” “l,” “b,” “p,” and “h” sounds. Notice how the “l” sound repeats throughout the entire
passage and occurs between the alliteration of the other sounds, which is a good example of
how alliterative words don’t always have to occur sequentially to qualify as alliteration.

The dark, dark liver – love it, love it and the beat and beating heart, love that too. More than
eyes or feet. More than lungs that have yet to draw free air. More than your life-holding womb
and your life-giving private parts, hear me now, love your heart.

Alliteration Examples in Marketing

Marketing copywriters often use alliteration because it can help make phrases and sentences fun
to say and easy to remember, perfect for taglines, such as:

“Maybe she’s born with it, maybe it’s Maybelline”

“Snickers satisfies”

“Be all that you can be, find your future in the Army”

Alliteration is also a tool that many companies use in their branding, so that their names roll off
the tongue more easily and stick in your head. For example:

Best Buy

Canon Camera

Krispy Kreme

Kit Kat

Bed, Bath, and Beyond

Alliteration Examples in Superheroes

The number of superheroes or supervillains whose names (super-names or alter ego names) are
alliterative is frankly astounding. To name just a few:
Bruce Banner

Clark Kent

Green Goblin

J. Jonah Jameson

Jessica Jones

Lois Lane

Silver Surfer

Steven Strange

Teen Titans

The Fantastic Four

Wade Wilson

Wonder Woman

It makes sense when you think about it. Every superhero is like a brand, created by comic-book
folks to sound cool and stick in your mind. (That’s also why characters like Mickey Mouse and
Donald Duck are alliteratively named). Alliteration, you might say, is the real superhero.

Alliteration Examples in Song Lyrics

Just as poets use alliteration for its lyricism and beauty, songwriters in every genre from folk to
rap use it to create stylistic effects in their lyrics.

Alliteration in “Hello” by Adele

I've forgotten how it felt before the world fell at our feet.

Alliteration in “It’s Alright Ma (I’m Only Bleeding)” by Bob Dylan

He not busy being born is busy dying.

Alliteration in “Rap God” by Eminem

So I wanna make sure, somewhere in this chicken scratch I

Scribble and doodle enough rhymes

To maybe try to help get some people through tough times

But I gotta keep a few punchlines

Just in case, ‘cause even you unsigned

Rappers are hungry looking at me like it's lunchtime…

Alliteration in “Waiting on the World to Change” by John Mayer

So we keep waiting

Waiting on the world to change

It's hard to beat the system

When we're standing at a distance

So we keep waiting

Waiting on the world to change

Alliteration in “All I Want” by Joni Mitchell

I want to be strong I want to laugh along

I want to belong to the living

The repeated “l” sound in this Joni Mitchell lyric is a good example of alliteration in which the
repeated sound does not always occur on the first letter in each successive word. But notice that
it does always occur on the stressed syllable, making this an example of alliteration and not just
consonance.

Why Do Writers Use Alliteration?

Writers use alliteration, with its emphasis on sound and rhythm, for a variety of different
reasons:

To enhance the beauty of their writing

To emphasize particular phrases or feelings

To use the sounds they repeat (a soft “s” or a hard “t”, for instance) to mirror the ideas or events
or feelings being described

To make writing feel merry, musical, and mightily memorable.

Alliteration is especially popular in poetry, which is distinct in its emphasis on sound and rhythm.
For example, take a look at the astonishing amount of alliteration in the final stanza of Edgar
Allen Poe’s most famous poem, “The Raven”:

And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting

On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door;

And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming,

And the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor;

And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor

Shall be lifted—nevermore!

The onslaught of alliteration on the “fl”, “s”, “p”, “d”, and “l” sounds makes the poem feel musical
but also overwhelming and mesmerizing, which is precisely what Poe was going for in his poetic
tale of a phantasmagorical raven that visits a grieving man who seems to be uncertain if he is
awake or asleep.

Other Helpful Alliteration Resources

The Wikipedia Page on Alliteration: A somewhat technical explanation, including helpful

examples from fiction, poetry, and pop culture.

The Dictionary Definition of Alliteration: Includes a bit on the etymology of alliteration (spoiler:
it’s derived from the Medieval Latin word for “letter”).

A Poet's Guide to Alliterative Verse: Short and to the point. This is an example of a person who is
a stickler about alliteration.

Alliteration on YouTube

An impassioned rap performance that’s all about alliteration.

An explanation of alliteration and rhyme.

4. Allusion Definition

What is an allusion? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the
text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals, historical events, or
philosophical ideas, and they do so in order to layer associations and meanings from these
sources onto their own work. Allusions can also occur in media other than literature, such as
film, visual arts, or even casual conversation. If you've ever responded to betrayal with a
dramatic cry of "Et tu, Brute?" ("You too, Brutus?"), then you've made an allusion—to a famous
line from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar.

Some additional key details about allusions:

Allusions can be direct or indirect, meaning that they might explicitly state the name of the thing
they're referring to, or they might hint at it in other, subtler ways.

Allusions to other works of literature are often harder to identify and understand than allusions
to events or people, since they require a reader to have familiarity with the text being
referenced.

Many phrases used in everyday speech are actually allusions to works of literature. For example,
the use of "catch 22" to describe a situation with no good outcome alludes to Joseph Heller's
Catch-22. To use "Cassandra" to refer to someone who correctly predicts a bad outcome alludes
to Aeschylus's The Orestia. And using "big brother" to refer to governmental surveillance alludes
to George Orwell's 1984.

Allusion Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce allusion: uh-loo-zhun

Understanding Allusions

Imagine if every time someone used the expression "it was a real Cinderella story," they had to
retell the entire story of Cinderella to explain exactly what they meant. By using an allusion to a
classic fairytale that a majority of people will already know, a speaker can dramatically shorten
what could have been a much lengthier explanation. However, in order for an allusion to achieve
its intended effect, the person making the allusion needs to make accurate assumptions about
what knowledge their audience already has. A few key things factor into whether someone will
or won't catch an an allusion included by a writer:

Cultural or historical familiarity: A reader's ability to understand a given allusion depends

strongly on their cultural background. For this reason, it can be particularly difficult to identify
and understand allusions in texts that are from different historical periods or other cultures. So
an allusion that would have been easy to understand for readers who lived two-hundred years
ago in China may be exceedingly difficult for a modern American reader to grasp without the
help of an editor's footnote.

General knowledge: Take the following scene from The Sopranos as an example. In the 28th
episode of the HBO series The Sopranos, there's a scene in which Tony Soprano eats a slice of
capicola (a type of salami), and the taste of it induces a flashback to a panic attack he had in
early childhood. It's a direct allusion to a famous passage from Marcel Proust's canonical book In
Search of Lost Time, in which the taste of a madeleine (a type of French tea cookie) sends the
narrator down a rabbit hole of early childhood memories.

Subtlety of the allusion: Even readers who might have the cultural or general knowledge to catch
an allusion might not always catch it, based on how subtle the allusion is. The example from The
Sopranos, for instance, never explicitly refers to In Search of Lost Time. Rather, it just echoes
events from that other work of art, and it doesn't even do so with the same good (it uses
capicola rather than a madeleine). Even someone who knows In Search of Lost Time might have
missed this allusion.

In the example above, the scene would still make perfect sense to anyone unfamiliar with
Proust's madeleines. But to those "in the know," the fact that this scene parallels such an
important moment in French literature has the effect of elevating Tony Soprano to equivalence
with distinguished literary figures and heightening the resonance of the flashback.

How Are Allusions and References Different?

There's a lot of confusion, particularly online, about what kinds of references count as allusions,
and which are merely references. There are two different ways that people draw a distinction
between allusions and references:

Allusions must be indirect while references are direct. This school of thought holds that an
allusion can only be a allusion if it is indirect, in the sense that what is being alluded to is not
explicitly named. So people who believe this would say that the example "it was a real Cinderella
story" that we gave above shouldn't count as an allusion because it names the thing it's
referencing directly. Under this definition, for the previous statement to be an allusion it would
have to be something like: "It was a glass-slipper ending" (a reference to Cinderella that doesn't
explicitly use the main character's name).

Allusions must not be further explained. This second position holds that it doesn't matter if an
allusion is direct or indirect, but rather that an allusion is only an allusion if it's not followed by
further explanation that tries to make the allusion's meaning or source clear to the reader.

While either definition of an allusion is valid and defensible, we tend to lean toward the second
interpretation because in some cases the line between whether an allusion has been provided in
a way that is direct or indirect can be so subtle that it's actually difficult to tell if it's indirect or
not. For that reason, it seems simpler and easier to just go with the second definition.

Intertextual and Autobiographical Allusions

Allusions can be made to all sorts of things: history, sports, pop culture, and so on. There are two
types of allusions that can be more difficult for readers to notice than other kinds, simply
because these allusions require that the reader have more specialized knowledge in order to be
able to spot them. These two types of allusions are intertextual allusions and autobiographical
allusions.

Intertextual Allusions

Intertextual allusions—that is, allusions to other texts—are often more difficult to identify and
understand than allusions to historical events or popular culture, because intertextual allusions
require a knowledge of other works of literature. A writer may use intertextual allusion to invoke
a character or plot that they see as having relevance to their own work. Intertextual allusion can
also be a tool for writers who want to put their work in dialogue with a particular literary
tradition, or signal who their influences are without stating them explicitly.

For example, in his poem "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," T.S. Eliot makes an intertextual
allusion to Shakespeare's Hamlet. Prufrock, the narrator of Eliot's poem, speaks at length about
his own emotional paralysis, but in this passage he makes a decisive shift and declares himself to
be different from Hamlet, who is a famously conflicted and indecisive character. Prufrock then
compares himself to one of the play's "attendant lords," who are presented as figures with
seriousness and a sense of purpose.

No! I am not Prince Hamlet, nor was meant to be;

Am an attendant lord, one that will do

To swell a progress, start a scene or two,

Advise the prince...

Autobiographical Allusions

Autobiographical allusions, or allusions to events in the life of an author, may go over the heads
of all but the most familiar readers—such as the author's friends and family—but they can add a
deeply personal dimension to the text. For example, in "This Lime Tree Bower My Prison," a
poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the poet makes indirect reference to an injury that prevented
him from joining his friends on a hiking trip. To readers unfamiliar with Coleridge's injury, it may
be unclear why he compares a shady spot under a lime tree to a prison.

Yes! they wander on

In gladness all; but thou, methinks, most glad,

My gentle-hearted Charles! for thou hast pined

And hunger'd after Nature, many a year,

In the great City pent, winning thy way

With sad yet patient soul, through evil and pain

And strange calamity!

In addition, though Coleridge addresses his friend "Charles" by only his first name, he is alluding
to Charles Lamb, a famous English essayist. Readers likely would have made the connection from
the name alone (if Matt Damon wrote a poem referring to "Ben," you'd probably guess that it
was Ben Affleck, since they're notoriously close friends), but Coleridge underscores the allusion
by referring to the "great City"—Lamb spent much of his life living in London.

Allusion vs. Similar Terms

Allusion is similar to several other literary devices that link a text with an external person or
thing. For that reason, it's worthwhile to understand what makes each device unique. Here are
three devices that are similar to allusion:

Citation: Quoting a relevant author or source by name.

Parody: Imitating an author or style with the intent to ridicule.

Pastiche: Imitating an author or style with the intent to celebrate.

Though citation, like allusion, links the author's work with an external text, the reference is not
indirect. In citation, unlike in allusion, the name of the author or source of the reference must be
explicitly mentioned. Further, citations are almost always further explained, meaning that when
a writer includes a citation they go on to describe why they've included it and how it relates to
what they are writing.

Parody and pastiche are genres of writing that indirectly refer to the the general styles of other
writers or genres. Unlike allusions, which generally function by referring to specific events,
characters, or sentences or lines from another work, parody and pastiche do not operate so
specifically. Instead, parody and pastiche require a thorough imitation of an author's tone, plot,
or diction—as opposed to a simple reference to just a word or phrase, as in allusion.

Other Devices Used in Making Allusions

Sometimes, other literary devices are used in the process of making an allusion. For that reason,
these devices are closely linked to allusion, though they are not the same thing. Below are some
literary devices that are often—though not always—used when making an allusion.

An epithet is a word or phrase that describes an important characteristic of someone or

something and is often used in the place of a name (e.g., calling Abraham Lincoln "Honest Abe"
or "The Great Emancipator"). Because epithets can be used to refer to people or things without
naming them directly, they can be a helpful tool for making allusions. For example, if a writer
described a character as "The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up," readers might understand that the
writer is making an allusion to the character of Peter Pan by using a widely-recognized epithet
instead of naming him directly.

Euphemism is the use of a polite or indirect word in the place of a harsh, improper, or explicit
term when referring to something troubling, uncomfortable, or offensive. The indirect nature of
euphemism makes it a helpful tool in making a subtle allusion to something uncomfortable. For
example, in one of the examples below, a character uses the term "big bang" as a euphemism for
the atomic bomb. This euphemism is one of the passage's key clues to the reader that the writer
is alluding to the Second World War.

Allusion Examples

The use of allusion is widespread—in literature, in other disciplines, and even in conversation—
because it is an effective way of establishing a relationship between different ideas, time
periods, or works of art.
Allusion in Literature

Because most writers are active readers, many works of literature are full of allusions to other
texts. Allusions to current events and major political developments are also quite common in
poetry, prose, and drama.

Allusion in Shakespeare's Hamlet

In this example from Act 3, Scene 4 of Shakespeare's Hamlet, Prince Hamlet alludes to several of
the Greek and Roman gods while describing a portrait of his late father.

See what a grade was seated on this brow,

Hyperion's curls, the front of Jove himself,

An eye like Mars' to threaten and command ...

Instead of describing his father's appearance and personality outright, Hamlet uses allusion to
communicate more poetically: his father has the god Hyperion's curly hair, the strong forehead
of Jove (also known as Jupiter or Zeus), and the commanding presence of Mars, the god of war.
As Shakespeare's audience would have been familiar with the physical appearance of these gods
(as depicted in paintings), as well as their backstories, these allusions invoke a whole range of
images, stories, and historical periods (the Greek and Roman empires, most notably). These
allusions add to the descriptive power of the passage, and they also make Hamlet's father seem
powerful and noble by describing him as a composite of several major deities, and associating
him with a lineage of historical power.

Allusion in John Osborne's Look Back in Anger

In John Osborne's 1957 play Look Back in Anger, the character Jimmy alludes to the Second
World War in order to contrast his generation's perceived lack of purpose with the sacrifice and
duty his parents' generation demonstrated in fighting the spread of fascism in Europe.

I suppose people of our generation aren't able to die for good causes any longer. We had all that
done for us, in the thirties and forties, when we were still kids. There aren't any good, brave
causes left. If the big bang does come, and we all get killed off, it won't be in aid of the old-
fashioned grand design. It'll just be for the Brave New-nothing-very-much-thank-you.

Note that Osborne never mentions the war outright. Instead, the audience is expected to piece
together the subject of the allusion from contextual clues, such as the reference to dying for a
good cause, or the "thirties and forties." In addition, Osborne also alludes to the line "brave new
world," which Miranda says in Shakespeare's The Tempest when she first encounters other
people after her lifetime of growing up alone with her father on their island. (The title of the
novel Brave New World also alludes to Miranda's lines.) Here Jimmy alludes to Miranda's lines in
order to invoke the idea of a Brave New World—some miraculous possible place full of noble
ideas—and then deny any such thing exists for him. Jimmy is saying that he has been forced to
live in a world without any big noble ideas or bright hope for a future, and so his words "Brave
New-nothing-very-much-thank-you" alludes to the idea of those bright ideals and future in order
to deny them.

Allusion in Speeches

Allusion is a powerful tool for speechwriters, because the device creates a sense of community
between the speaker and their audience. Many of the most persuasive speeches make listeners
feel that they have shared experience with a speaker, who seems to be speaking "their
language."

Allusion in the Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" Speech

As Martin Luther King, Jr. began to deliver his "I Have a Dream" speech in front of a massive
audience at the National Mall in Washington, D.C., he made an allusion to Abraham Lincoln.

I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration
for freedom in the history of our nation. Five score years ago a great American in whose symb-
olic shadow we stand today signed the Emancipation Proclamation.

Rather than mention Abraham Lincoln by name, King alludes to him by imitating the opening of
the historic "Gettysburg Address" ("Four score and seven years ago..."). Through this use of
allusion, King establishes a link between his vision of liberty and Lincoln's, and he suggests that
he and his fellow Americans are taking a step that is connected to and as equally historic as
Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation.

Allusion in Barack Obama's Second Inaugural Address

In his Second Inaugural Address, president Barack Obama fostered a sense of community and
inclusiveness by alluding to important moments in the history of American civil rights.
We, the people, declare today that the most evident of truths—that all of us are created equal—
is the star that guides us still, just as it guided our forebears through Seneca Falls, and Selma,
and Stonewall, just as it guided all those men and women, sung and unsung, who left footprints
along this great Mall, to hear a preacher say that we cannot walk alone, to hear a King proclaim
that our individual freedom is inextricably bound to the freedom of every soul on Earth.

President Obama's speech begins with an allusion to some of the most memorable passages
from the Constitution ("We, the people, of the United States of America") and the Declaration of
Independence ("We hold these truths to be self-evident"). The speech then goes on to refer to
Seneca Falls, Selma, and Stonewall—an alliterative list of major moments in the history of
American civil rights movements for woman, African Americans, and gay rights. By referring to
these historic moments without explicitly describing what they achieved, the president suggests
that the activists' achievements are widely known among Americans, which is itself a marker of
success. Finally, Obama refers to Martin Luther King by calling him "a preacher" and "a king,"
punning on King's name. With this series of allusions, Obama implicitly likens his historical
moment to other moments of social progress in America.

Allusion in Film and Television

Directors and screenwriters often incorporate allusions to other films in their work, particularly if
they want to subtly acknowledge the films that inspired them. Since film is a multimedia form,
allusions in film can be visual (as in architecture), verbal (as in literature), or even musical, as
seen below.

Allusion in Ferris Bueller's Day Off

In an iconic scene from John Hughes's film Ferris Bueller's Day Off, Cameron drops his father's
priceless Ferrari off at a parking garage in Chicago. Unbeknownst to Cameron, the valet promptly
takes the Ferrari for a joy ride. As the Ferrari speeds down a hilly street, it takes flight to the tune
of the Star Wars theme—a musical allusion to George Lucas's groundbreaking series of science
fiction films. John Hughes gets a lot of mileage (so to speak) out of this allusion. It nods to his
love of George Lucas, it heightens the sense of the valet's childish glee, and it enhances the
scene's humor, since the triumphant theme is at odds with the horror that Cameron would feel if
he knew what was happening to his dad's car.

Allusion in 500 Days of Summer

In this scene from 500 Days of Summer, the film's lovestruck protagonist plays a game of chess
against Cupid. Unlike the rest of the film, this scene is shot in black and white and uses an aged
film effect. The style and content of the scene make it a not-so-subtle allusion to Ingmar
Bergman's classic film, The Seventh Seal, in which a knight plays a game of chess against Death.
This nod to a classic film not only introduces an element of melodrama at a point in the film in
which the protagonist is suffering from heartbreak, but it also puts the film in direct dialogue
with the work of a distinguished and revered filmmaker.

Why Do Writers Use Allusions?

Writers or speakers may use allusions for a wide variety of reasons:

To create a sense of cultural kinship between storyteller and listener, since those who pick up on
allusions have a sense of being "in the know."

To efficiently convey big ideas, or refer to stories that would take too long to explain.

To deepen and enrich the meaning of a text by adding a layer that may not be obvious to all
readers.

To add dimension to a work by relating it to other texts.

To invite readers to reflect on the similarities between their own lives and the lives of authors or
characters being alluded to.

To place their work in dialogue with the work of those who influenced them.

To demonstrate their own cultural literacy, or test that of their readers or listeners.

However, when a writer makes use of allusion too frequently, or without making accurate
assumptions about whether their audience will understand, it can have the negative effect of
alienating readers, or making the writer seem like a show-off.

Other Helpful Allusion Resources

The Wikipedia Page on Allusion: a somewhat threadbare and also jargon-y entry on allusion, but
it has some good examples.

The Wikipedia Page on Intertextuality: Though the discussion can be full of jargon at points, the
page provides an overview of the tools authors use to "link" their texts with other works. It also
discusses some of the theoretical concerns that allusions raise (e.g., what happens when readers
fail to notice an allusion).

The Merriam-Webster definition of allusion: includes a note on the term's etymology, along with
discussion of its relationship to a similar sounding term, illusion.

Chungdahm Learning's "What is Allusion?" Video: a fun animated video on the definition and
uses of allusion.

Paste Magazine's List of Movies that Pay Tribute to Other Movies: While Paste doesn't use the
word "allusion" outright, that's what they're talking about—each of the movies on the list makes
a visual, verbal, or musical allusion to another classic movie, and Paste magazine explains it.

5. Anachronism Definition

What is an anachronism? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

An anachronism is a person or a thing placed in the wrong time period. For instance, if a novel
set in Medieval England featured a trip to a movie-theater, that would be an anachronism.
Although the device can be used for many different purposes, authors often use anachronisms
to make it easier for audiences to relate to other historical periods, or to add an element of
humor and surprise to a story.

Some additional key details about anachronisms:

While the inclusion of an anachronism can be a purposeful decision made by an author, it can
also be the result of an error: an author making a mistake or doing inadequate research.

Anachronism is closely related to juxtaposition, another literary device that places two things
side by side in order to highlight their differences.

How to Pronounce Anachronism

Here's how to pronounce anachronism: uh-nack-run-iz-um

Understanding Anachronism

An anachronism is usually someone or something that is so clearly associated with a particular

historical period that readers would be surprised to find it in a work set during any other time
period. An anachronistic object might be way ahead of its time (imagine a modern-day couple
pulling up to a dinner party in downtown Manhattan on a horse-drawn chariot), or it might be so
outdated that no one would possibly use it (imagine a character from a story set in the 16th-
century suddenly pulling out a vacuum cleaner after a party).

Though historical accuracy is a major concern for many poets, novelists, and playwrights, it is
sometimes outweighed by a writer's desire to connect with a popular audience. For example, it
is not historically accurate for Cassius, an ancient Roman in William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar,
to say "The clock has stricken three" (since modern mechanical clocks weren't invented until
many hundreds of years later); however, it probably helped Shakespeare's audience understand
the scene, in which timing is critical. Though Shakespeare certainly could have written the scene
such that Cassius read the time off a historically accurate time-keeping device, such as a Roman
sundial, that might have puzzled readers and shifted their focus away from the more important
points in the plot.

Comedic Anachronisms

Writers often intentionally include anachronisms for comedic effect. For example, the comedic
filmmaker Mel Brooks used anachronism in scene after scene in Blazing Saddles, a satirical
Western set in 1874. In one scene, the 19th-century characters bust down a wall, only to find
that they have interrupted a modern-day Hollywood dance production. The scene is a surprising
interjection, and may seem like nonsense at first, but it's likely that the writer or director
inserted the scene as a way of commenting on the artifice of Hollywood films in general—and
Westerns in particular.

Anachronism in Nonfiction

An entire work may be considered anachronistic, especially if it judges past or even future
civilizations according to modern day values. For example, it would be anachronistic to write an
essay about Marxist undertones in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, given the fact that Chaucer's
work predates Marx's Communist Manifesto by nearly five hundred years, and Chaucer likely
had very little consciousness of the class struggles that Marx wrote about. However, the fact that
an argument is anachronistic doesn't make it worthless. In fact, anachronistic arguments may
have considerable intellectual value. They might demonstrate the way in which an older work
anticipates or addresses modern-day concerns. Nonetheless, most analytical writers try to avoid
anachronistic arguments because they prefer not to remove an older text from its historical
context.

Juxtaposition and Anachronism

Anachronisms often rely heavily on juxtaposition, a literary device that places two different
things side by side in order to highlight their difference. Anachronistic people, objects, ideas, or
phrases must be juxtaposed with someone or something that clearly belongs to another
historical time period. It may seem like a subtle juxtaposition to modern readers, but in the
example of Cassius reading the time from a clock in Julius Caesar, the juxtaposition of Roman
politicians and modern mechanical clocks produces an anachronistic moment in the text.

Unintentional vs. Intentional Anachronism

Authors are people, too—so it should come as no surprise that, sometimes, writers would
mistakenly incorporate ideas, objects, and customs that are familiar to them into stories that
take place before those things actually existed. Alternatively, writers can purposefully use
anachronism to appeal to a modern audience's sensibilities.

As seen in the example from Julius Caesar above, it's not always easy to distinguish one kind of
anachronism from another. We have no way of knowing for certain whether Shakespeare
referred to a mechanical clock because of his ignorance of Roman technology, or because of his
desire to make the play easier for readers to understand. (Note that it's actually fairly
anachronistic to talk about Shakespeare's concern for his readers, since when his plays were
written in the 16th and 17th centuries, far more people watched his plays than read them.)

Often readers must rely on their knowledge of a writer's craft to determine whether an
anachronism is intentional or unintentional. An assessment of Shakespeare's body of work as a
whole reveals that he is a playwright with deep historical knowledge and a clear sense of his
audience (for example, many of Shakespeare's plays are retellings of historical events that he
knew would resonate with theatergoers in 16th- and 17th-century England) so it's reasonable to
assume that his use of anachronism in this case was considered and purposeful. In other cases,
though, critics or readers might conclude that a writer was careless in accidentally including
something anachronistic in their story, and criticize the writer for it.

Anachronism vs. Archaism

In literature, archaism is the use of outdated language for stylistic effect. There are a number of
archaisms in John Keats's poem "Ode to Psyche," for example:

The winged boy I knew;

But who wast thou, O happy, happy dove?

His Psyche true!

Keats's language sounds poetic, with his use of "thou" and antiquated verb tenses like “wast,”
but the language is actually inconsistent with the standard English of his day. However, the poem
doesn’t specify when what it is describing takes place, and Keats' use of old-sounding language is
consistent throughout the poem, so even if his antiquated style makes some readers pause, it
wouldn’t be accurate to describe this use of language as an anachronism. Rather, in the poem
Keats employs archaism to achieve the effect that he wants.

Authors often use archaisms like this on purpose, to add a sense of mystique, sophistication, or
even timelessness to their work.

Anachronism Examples

Because writers don't always have perfect knowledge of time periods other than their own,
there are examples of unintentional anachronism in most art forms. There are just as many
examples of intentional anachronism, because the use of anachronism can help translate stories
about different time periods into more relatable terms for modern audiences, and can also add
humor to a piece.

Anachronism in Literature

William Shakespeare's Hamlet

In this example from Act 1, Scene 2 of Shakespeare's Hamlet, Claudius’s words contain an
anachronism that Shakespeare may or may not have intended to include in the text.

For your intent

In going back to school in Wittenberg,

It is most retrograde to our desire;

And we beseech you, bend you to remain

Here in the cheer and comfort of our eye,

Our chiefest courtier, cousin, and our son.

Shakespeare portrays Hamlet as a former student at the Danish University of Wittenberg, which
still exists today. One little problem with that reference—Wittenberg was established in 1502,
almost a hundred years after the story of Hamlet is supposed to take place. It's impossible to say
whether Shakespeare simply failed to remember the date of Wittenberg's founding, or felt it was
important to use a university that members of his audience would recognize. It's also possible
that Shakespeare purposefully included Wittenberg because it was where Martin Luther began
the Protestant Reformation, and Hamlet (as well as Hamlet himself) wrestles with religious
questions that also drove the Reformation.

Mark Twain's The Prince and the Pauper

In Chapter Three of The Prince and the Pauper, Twain includes an anachronism in his description
of a popular form of entrainment in 16th-century England:

“In truth, yes, so please you, sir, save when one is hungry. There be Punch-and-Judy shows, and
monkeys—oh such antic creatures! and so bravely dressed!—and there be plays wherein they
that play do shout and fight till all are slain, and ‘tis so fine to see, and costeth but a farthing—
albeit ‘tis main hard to get the farthing, please your worship.”

The anachronism here is that the first “Punch-and-Judy show” took place in the late 17th-
century, making it impossible for Twain's English characters to have watched a performance as
early as 1547, the year in which Twain's book is set. It's possible that Twain mistakenly believed
that the plays were already being performed in 16th-century England, but it seems more likely
that he took liberties with some aspects of his historical fiction. If it is intentional, Twain's
anachronism may be a way of satirizing, or poking fun at, the customs of 16th-century England,
since the Punch-and-Judy shows were a popular form of entertainment that typically depicted
brutal violence.

Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote

In Chapter Two of Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote, the title character's elaborate armor is
presented to readers as an anachronism.

Things would have come to a pretty pass if it hadn't been for the appearance at that moment of
the innkeeper, a man who, being very fat, was very peaceable, and who on seeing such an
ungainly figure, with such ill-matched equipment as the long stirrups, the lance, the leather
shield, and the infantryman's body-amour, was more than willing to join the maidens in their
merry-making.

This passage is one of many examples in Don Quixote of characters responding to Don Quixote's
old-fashioned suit of armor with scorn or puzzlement. One of the major themes of Cervantes'
masterpiece is the incongruity between Don Quixote, who believes in medieval codes of chivalry,
and the society he lives in, which treats those chivalric values as outmoded relics of the past. In
this case, unlike others, it is not just that Cervantes includes an anachronistic detail of which the
characters themselves seem to be unaware. Rather, the characters are very aware, and scornful
of, Don Quixote's own anachronistic characteristics.

Charles Olson's "I, Maximus of Gloucester, to You"

Charles Olson's "I, Maximus of Gloucester, to You" is an anachronistic poem about American
history written from the perspective of a character who calls himself Maximus and is modeled
after a second-century Greek philosopher of the same name.

Antony of Padua

sweep low, o bless

the roofs, the old ones, the gentle steep ones

on whose ridge-poles the gulls sit, from which they depart,

And the flake-racks

of my city!

The passage above is a mishmash of references to things from vastly different regions and
historical periods. Maximus (a name from ancient Greece) invokes the name of a 13th-century
Portuguese priest (Anthony of Padua) and then goes on to describe racks that are used in parts
of North America to sun-dry fish. As an experimental poet, Olson purposefully used anachronism
to create complex associations between different historical periods.

Anachronism in Theater

Some plays continue to be performed hundreds of years after they were originally written.
Inevitably, as directors and producers adapt such plays so that they appeal to modern audiences,
they end up giving rise to anachronisms in the work.

Sam Gold's 2017 Production of Hamlet

In Sam Gold's recent production of Shakespeare's Hamlet, the characters are costumed in polos,
jeans, and tennis shoes. Though many theater-goers expect elaborate, period-specific costumes
in productions of Shakespeare's plays, they might find Gold's "modern take" on a classic to be an
exciting twist that makes the characters seem more relatable.

Keegan-Michael Key as Horatio in Sam Gold's Hamlet | Image source

Anachronism in Film

While writers can avoid anachronism by cutting down on allusions to historical events they're
not entirely familiar with, filmmakers face an even greater risk of unconscious anachronism—
they need to research and recreate period-correct costumes, hairstyles, vehicles, architecture,
and, as seen below, musical instruments! Further, when making a series or trilogy, it is important
for filmmakers to remain faithful to the chronology developed in earlier movies. Filmmakers also
sometimes intentionally use anachronisms for the same reasons writers do: to help their
audience interpret different historical periods or to draw laughter.

Robert Zemeckis' Back to the Future

In this clip from the 1985 classic about time travel, the teenager Marty McFly has gone back in
time to perform at his parents' prom in 1955. The scene features intentional anachronism: McFly
performs the guitarist Chuck Berry's hit single "Johnny B. Good," which was actually written
three years later, in 1958. McFly, who happens to be performing the song in front of Chuck
Berry's cousin, says that the song will be a big hit one day. The anachronism jokingly suggests
that McFly changed the history of American pop music.

But the scene also contains unintentional anachronism: McFly plays the song on a Gibson ES-345
—a guitar that didn't exist in 1955—which suggests that whoever was responsible for props in
the film probably didn't do their research.

Why Do Writers Use Anachronisms?

Writers don't always mean to use anachronisms, but when they do it's often with one of the
following aims in mind:

To make it easier for readers to understand or relate to time periods other than their own.

To add humor to their work.

To analyze things from the past using ideas or theories that didn't come into practice until much
later.

To underscore the outmodedness of a thing or person.

To appeal to modern readers' aesthetic tastes and sensibilities.

To establish a relationship between different time periods.

It can be difficult to draw the line between intentional and unconscious uses of anachronism—so
be careful before you conclude that an anachronism means that the author didn't do their
research!

Other Helpful Anachronism Resources

The Wikipedia Page on Anachronism: The list of categories of anachronism in this wikipedia
entry is more complicated than it has to be, but the page includes illuminating examples of
anachronism from many fields.

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary Definition of Anachronism: Includes a bit on the word's

etymology that actually makes it easier to remember anachronism's function.

Mental Floss's List of 15 Obvious Movie Anachronisms: Though the list can be a bit mean
spirited, it's a reminder of just how hard filmmakers must work to avoid historically inaccurate
props or plot lines (and how they sometimes fail).

The Poetry Foundation's Definition of Anachronism: Features a wonderfully simple definition of

the device, with more details about the Charles Olson poem cited above.

6. Anadiplosis Definition

What is anadiplosis? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

Anadiplosis is a figure of speech in which a word or group of words located at the end of one
clause or sentence is repeated at or near the beginning of the following clause or sentence. This
line from the novelist Henry James is an example of anadiplosis: "Our doubt is our passion, and
our passion is our task."

Some additional key details about anadiplosis:

Anadiplosis appears everywhere, from literature, to children's books, to famous speeches, to

everyday conversation. It is also very common in the Bible.

The emphasis created by anadiplosis's repetition of words has the power to persuade, to create
a sense of urgency or emotion, as well as to give a pleasing rhythm to text or speech.

Aanadiplosis is also often used to stretch a logical progression of ideas across three or more
clauses, as in the line from the movie Gladiator: "The general who became a slave. The slave
who became a gladiator. The gladiator who defied an emperor."

Anadiplosis Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce anadiplosis: an-uh-dih-ploh-sis

A Closer Look at Anadiplosis

It's helpful to look at examples of anadiplosis in more detail to understand the specific details
about how it does (and doesn't) work.

Anadiplosis Can Repeat a Single Word or Multiple Words

Anadiplosis can involve a single repeated word, or the repetition of a group of words. Both of
these sentences, for example, employ anadiplosis:

"She opened a café, a café that ruined her financially."

"While driving, whenever you see a big red hexagon, the big red hexagon means you should stop
the car."

Repeated Words Don't Have to be Adjacent

Anadiplosis can include words that aren't immediately next to each other. Take these lines from
Romeo and Juliet:
It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.

Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon...

Here, the second sentence's "sun" doesn't immediately follow the preceding "sun." Nonetheless,
it appears near the beginning of the second sentence, and there is still a sense of repetition of
the word "sun." So this is an example of anadiplosis.

Anadiplosis Can Take Place in Different Clauses or Different Sentences

Anadiplosis isn't determined by punctuation, and therefore can appear within different clauses
of a single sentence or across two or more sentences. Both of the examples below contain
anadiplosis:

"When you love, love with all your heart."

"We ordered a pizza pie. A pizza pie that changed our lives.

Anadiplosis Often Appears in a String of Related Ideas

The repetition involved in anadiplosis makes it a handy tool for building a sequence of related
ideas, each one leading to the next, across either a string of clauses or sentences. In the below
quote, Malcolm X uses anadiplosis to argue for a process of personal growth, beginning with
philosophy and mounting to action.

Once you change your philosophy, you change your thought pattern. Once you change your
thought pattern, you change your attitude. Once you change your attitude, it changes your
behavior pattern and then you go on into some action.

When anadiplosis extends across at least three clauses, it can also be called by the name
gradatio.

Anadiplosis and Antimetabole

Anadiplosis is related to another figure of speech called antimetabole. In antimetabole, the

words of the first clause of a sentence are reversed in the next clause. The use of antimetabole
frequently results in punchy maxims, such as:
"When the going gets tough, the tough get going."

"Live to eat, don't eat to live."

The way that antimetabole creates a mirroring effect between its two clauses also means that it
creates a repetition of words within those clauses. As a result, all instances of antimetabole also
contain anadiplosis:

"When the going gets tough, the tough get going."

"Live to eat, don't eat to live."

However, not all anadiplosis involves antimetabole. For instance, anadiplosis occurs in both of
the following two sentences:

"I know what I like and I like what I know."

"Love leads to marriage; marriage to a baby in a baby carriage."

But antimetabole only occurs in the first sentence, because only in that one do the clauses
mirror each other.

Anadiplosis Examples

Once you start to recognize anadiplosis, you'll see it everywhere, from movies to the Bible. The
repetition created by anadiplosis has the power to persuade, to evoke emotion, to present a
logical progression or sequence of steps, and to please the ear through rhythm. Kids love it in
nursery rhymes, and adults respond to it in political speeches. Anadiplosis is common in
everyday writing and speech, too.

Anadiplosis Examples in Literature

In both poetry and prose, anadiplosis can signal the importance of a word or concept and create
beautiful musicality in the text.

Anadiplosis in Jamaica Kincaid's "Those Words that Echo...Echo...Echo Through Life"

In Jamaica Kincaid's personal essay about her dead father, the repetition of her father's name,
Mr. Potter, emphasizes the emotional space he occupies in her life. Through its repetition,
anadiplosis can put focus on a writer's—or, in fiction, a character's—fixations, thereby signaling
key themes. In this case, the signaled theme is coping with death by using art to reincarnate the
lost loved.

I come back and look at Mr. Potter.

"Mr. Potter," I write, and I put clothes on him, even though I do not see him naked, for he was
my father, and just now he is not yet dead.

It's worth noting that, here, anadiplosis takes place over a paragraph break.

Anadiplosis in Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita

In Lolita, the morally bankrupt Humbert Humbert defends his relationship to the young Lolita to
an imagined jury. Here, he reveals that what he presented as another person's letter was actually
written by him, ostensibly from memory.

What I present here is what I remember of the letter, and what I remember of the letter I
remember verbatim (including that awful French.)

A tactic of his deceit involves convincing the jury of the improbable—that is, that he remembers
a letter verbatim—and his use of anadiplosis as a persuasion tool reflects both his charming and
incredibly slimy personality.

Anadiplosis in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet

In an address to her father in Act 4, Scene 2 of Romeo and Juliet, Juliet uses anadiplosis to plea
for forgiveness for her disobedience. In this case, the plea is actually an act, part of her scheme
to flee with Romeo, but anadiplosis makes her begging all the more dramatic and convincing.

...[I] am enjoined

By holy Lawrence to fall prostrate here.

I beg your pardon.

Pardon, I beseech you!

Anadiplosis in William Butler Yeats' "The Lake Isle of Innisfree"

In Yeats' iconic poem about longing for nature's tranquility, anadiplosis contributes both to the
poem's pleasant, lilting rhythm, and to the dreamy effect of yearning for a place faraway.

I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree...

And I will have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow.

Anadiplosis Examples in Children's Stories and Songs

Repetition provides a predictability that is both comforting and delightful for children. In
addition, repetition makes retention and memorization easier. It makes sense, then, that
anadiplosis is common in children's books, songs, and nursery rhymes.

Anadiplosis in "Dem Bones"

This grade school song uses anadiplosis to teach, in sequence, the connection between different
joints in the body.

The leg bone's connected to the knee bone

The knee bone's connected to the thigh bone

The thigh bone's connected to the hip bone

Now shake dem skeleton bones!

Anadiplosis in Beatrix Potter's "The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin"

In this storybook, the red squirrel sings a menacing riddle repeating the words "Hitty Pitty" (the
squirrel's nickname for stinging nettles). Here, anadiplosis both has a playful effect and stresses
the fearsomeness of Hitty Pitty.

Hitty Pitty within the wall,

Hitty Pitty without the wall;

If you touch Hitty Pitty,

Hitty Pitty will bite you!

Anadiplosis Examples in Speeches

Politicians love using anadiplosis in speeches, as do other orators, public figures, attorneys—
anyone trying to evoke a certain response from their audience. The emphasis from repetition
can be powerfully persuasive.

Anadiplosis in Steve Job's Macworld 2007 Keynote Address

Below, Steve Jobs uses anadiplosis to underscore how poorly a Microsoft product performed.
Even to a listener unaware of what "two percent market share" means, the repetition implies it's
dismal.

And they garnered two percent market share. Two percent market share. iPod had 62 percent
market share and the rest had 36.

Anadiplosis in Jesse Jackson's 1988 Democratic National Convention Address

Jesse Jackson's speech uses anadiplosis to argue for the link between suffering and faith. While
he doesn't explain why suffering breeds character or character breeds faith, the anadiplosis
suggests an unspoken logical reasoning. Plus, it makes potentially complex logic easy to follow.

Suffering breeds character; character breeds faith; in the end faith will not disappoint.

Anadiplosis Examples in the Bible

The Bible is brimming with anadiplosis. In fact, some literature and speeches uses anadiplosis as
a stylistic reference to the Bible. For instance, Jesse Jackson's 1988 speech shown just above is
actually a reference to the line from Romans 5:3-5 shown just below.

Anadiplosis in Romans 5:3-5

This Bible verse uses anadiplosis to show the way suffering can lead people to hope.

We also rejoice in our sufferings, because we know that suffering produces perseverance,
perseverance, character; and character, hope. And hope does not disappoint us.
Anadiplosis in Genesis 1:1-2

The following verse is typical of the iconic style, often involving anadiplosis, found in the Bible.

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and
void.

Why Do Writers Use Anadiplosis?

Writers, from speechwriters to poets, use anadiplosis for its stylistic power to persuade, to
beautify words through rhythm and cadence, and sometimes to give prose a more natural
sound, closer to the way we speak.

Anadiplosis is a Killer Tool in Persuasion

Check out Jesse Jackson's original quote, then the same quote with the anadiplosis removed:

Suffering breeds character; character breeds faith; in the end faith will not disappoint.

Suffering breeds character, which breeds faith, which in the end will not disappoint.

The second sentence reads as clunky and too "which"-heavy. Anadiplosis makes such claims at
once more coherent, easier to grasp, and more powerful and authoritative through forceful
repetition.

Anadiplosis Creates Rhythm and Cadence

Because repetition is essential to musicality, anadiplosis can lend a sentence a lyrical effect. Take
Edgar Allen Poe's "The Raven":

While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,

As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door.

Without that second "rapping," the poem's famous cadence would be thrown off kilter.

Anadiplosis' Stylistic Effect Can Sound More Natural

When we speak, we tend to repeat words. Anadiplosis can therefore give a more natural, less
rigid effect to the written word, and make it feel more like normal speech. In Jamaica Kincaid's
essay "Those Words that Echo...Echo...Echo Through Life," anadiplosis creates the sense that
she's speaking aloud to the reader, or perhaps working through her own memory:

"And then that one day, that one day after Mr. Potter's life advanced and exploded on the page, I
had to have my lunch..."

Other Helpful Anadiplosis Resources

Dictionary.com Entry on Anadiplosis: Gives a solid, succinct definition.

Wikipedia Page on Anadiplosis: The definition offered isn't thorough--in fact, it's arguably
incomplete--but Wikipedia does list some useful examples.

Slate Article: An entertaining think piece on the power of anadiplosis and its popularity in
culture.

Buzzle Page on Anadiplosis: Has some good examples of anadiplosis in different media, plus a bit
of explanation of its uses.

Manner of Speakin Page on Anadiplosis: Brief, but with some good notes on the rhetorical effect
of anadiplosis.