CLASS 12 : PHYSICS

FORMULA
BOOK
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 1 q
(ii) At very large distance i.e. r >> a E =
4 πε 0 r 2
k q1q2 1 q1q2
‰‰ Coulomb’s law : F = =
r 2 4 πε r 2 ‰‰ Torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform
  
‰‰ Relative permittivity or dielectric constant : electric field : τ = p × E or τ = pE sin θ
ε ‰‰ Potential energy of an electric dipole in a
i.e., ε r or K =
ε 0 uniform electric field is U = –pE(cosq2 – cosq1)
‰‰ Electric field intensity at a point distant r from where q1 & q1 are initial angle and final angle
1 q
a point charge q is E = . between
4 πε 0 r 2
 
‰‰ Electric flux φ = E ⋅ dS
‰‰ Electric dipole momentm,

‰‰ Electric field intensity on axial line (end on ‰‰ Gauss’s law :

position) of the electric dipole
‰‰ Electric field due to thin infinitely long straight
(i) At the point r from the centre of the electric
wire of uniform linear charge density l
1 2 pr
dipole, E = . λ
4 πε 0 (r 2 − a 2 )2 E= ,
2 πε 0r
(ii) At very large distance i.e., (r > > a), (i) At a point outside the shell i.e., r > R
2p
E= 1 q
4 πε 0r 3 E=
4 πε 0 r 2
‰‰ Electric field intensity on equatorial line (board (ii) At a point on the shell i.e., r = R
on position) of electric dipole
1 q
E=
(i) At the point at a distance r from the centre 4 πε 0 R 2
1 p (iii) At a point inside the shell i.e., r < R
of electric dipole, E = .
4 πε 0 (r 2 + a 2 )3 / 2
E=0
(ii) At very large distance i.e., r > > a, ‰‰ Electric field due to a non conducting solid

1 p
sphere of uniform volume charge density r
E= . and radius R at a point distant r from the centre
4 πε 0 r 3
of the sphere is given as follows :
‰‰ Electric field intensity at any point due to an (i) At a point outside the sphere i.e., r > R
1 p 1 q
electric dipole E = 1 + 3 cos 2 θ E= ·
4 πε 0 r 3 4 πε 0 r 2
‰‰ Electric field intensity due to a charged ring (ii) At a point on the surface of the sphere
(i) At a point on its axis at distance r from its i.e., r = R
1 q
1 qr E= ·
centre, E = 4 πε 0 R 2
4 πε 0 (r + a 2 )3 / 2
2

Physics 1
 (iii) At a point inside the sphere i.e., r < R  
‰‰ Relationship between E and V
ρr 1 q r  
E= = · , for r < R E = −∇V
3ε 0 4 πε 0 R 3
‰‰ Electric field due to a thin non conducting where
infinite sheet of charge with uniformly charge
σ ‰‰ Electric potential energy of a system of two
surface density s is E =
2ε0 1 q1q2
point charges is U =
‰‰ Electric field between two infinite thin plane 4 πε 0 r12
parallel sheets of uniform surface charge ‰‰ Capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius
density s and – s is E = s/e0. R is C = 4pe0R
‰‰ Capacitance of an air filled parallel plate
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE capacitor
W ‰‰ Capacitance of an air filled spherical capacitor
‰‰ Electric potential V =
q
ab
‰‰ Electric potential at a point distant r from a C = 4 πε 0
b−a
point charge q is V = q
‰‰ Capacitance of an air filled cylindrical capacitor
4 πε 0r
‰‰ The electric potential at point due to an electric 2 πε 0 L
C=
dipole  b
ln  
1 p cos θ  a
V=
4 πε 0 r 2 ‰‰ Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
‰‰ Electric potential due to a uniformly charged with a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K,
spherical shell of uniform surface charge completely filled between the plates of the
density s and radius R at a distance r from the
capacitor, is given by
centre the shell is given as follows :
(i) At a point outside the shell i.e., r > R ‰‰ When a dielectric slab of thickness t and
1 q dielectric constant K is introduced between the
V=
4 πε 0 r plates, then the capacitance of a parallel plate
(ii) At a point on the shell i.e., r = R ε0 A
1 q capacitor is given by C =
V=  1
4 πε 0 R d − t  1 − 
K
(iii) At a point inside the shell i.e., r > R
1 q ‰‰ When a metallic conductor of thickness t is
V= introduced between the plates, then capacitance
4 πε 0 R
‰‰ Electric potential due to a non-conducting solid of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
sphere of uniform volume charge density r and
radius R distant r from the sphere is given as
follows : ‰‰ Energy stored in a capacitor :
(i) At a point outside the sphere i.e. r > R 2 1 1 1 Q2
1 q U = 2 CV = 2 QV = 2 C
V=
4 πε0 r 1
‰‰ Energy density : u = ε E2
(ii) At a point on the sphere i.e., r = R 2 0
1 q
V= 1 1 1 1
4 πε 0 R ‰‰ Capacitors in series : = + + .... +
CS C1 C2 Cn
(iii) At a point inside the sphere i.e., r < R
1 q( 3R 2 − r 2 ) ‰‰ Capacitors in parallel : CP = C1 + C2 + .... + Cn
V=
4 πε 0 2R3

2 Physics
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY ‰‰ Relationship between e, V and r

‰‰ Current, I =
q
or r = R
V (ε )
−1
where e emf of a cell, r internal resistance and R
t
‰‰ Current density J =
I
(Electricity, Class 10) is external resistance
A
P R
‰‰ Wheatstone’s bridge =
‰‰ Drift velocity of electrons is given by Q S

 eE ‰‰ Metre bridge or slide metre bridge
vd = − τ Sl .
m The unknown resistance, R =
‰‰ Relationship between current and drift velocity 100 − l
I = nAe vd ‰‰ Comparison of emfs of two cells by using
‰‰ Relationship between current density and drift
ε1 l1
potentiometer =
velocity ε 2 l2
J = nevd ‰‰ Determination of internal resistance of a cell by
l −l 
| v | qEτ / m qτ potentiometer r =  1 2 R
‰‰ Mobility, µ = d =
E E
=
m  l2 
electric work done
‰‰ Resistance ‰‰ Electric power P =
time taken
1 V2
‰‰ Conductance : G = . P = VI = I 2 R = .
R R
‰‰ The resistance of a conductor is (Electricity, Class 10)
m l l m
R= 2 =ρ where ρ = 2 MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
ne τ A A ne τ
‰‰ Conductivity : ‰‰ Force on a charged particle in a uniform electric
 
1 ne τ 2
 As µ = vd = eτ  field F = qE
σ= = = neµ 
ρ m E m  ‰‰ Force on a charged particle in a uniform
  
‰‰ If the conductor is in the form of wire of length magnetic field F = q ( v × B ) or F = qvB sin θ
l and a radius r, then its resistance is ‰‰ Motion of a charged particle in a uniform
magnetic field
(i) Radius of circular path is
‰‰ If a conductor has mass m, volume V and
density d, then its resistance R is
(ii) Time period of revolution is
1 qB
(Electricity, Class 10) (iii) The frequency is υ = =
T 2 πm
‰‰ A cylindrical tube of length l has inner and (iv) The angular frequency is
outer radii r1 and r2 respectively. The resistance
between its end faces is Bq
‰‰ Cyclotron frequency, υ =
ρl 2πm
R= .
π ( r22 − r12 ) ‰‰ Biot Savart’s law
 
‰‰ Relationship between J, s and E  µ 0 Idl sin θ  µ 0 I ( dl × r )
J = sE dB = or dB =
4π r2 4π r3
‰‰ The resistance of a conductor at temperature
‰‰ The magnetic field B at a point due to a straight
t°C is given by Rt = R0 (1 + at + bt2)
wire of finite length carrying current I at a
‰‰ Resistors in series Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 perpendicular distance r is
1 1 1 1
‰‰ Resistors in parallel = + + . µ0I
Rp R1 R2 R3 B= [sin α + sin β]
4πr
(Electricity, Class 10)

Physics 3
‰‰ The magnetic field at a point on the axis of the ‰‰ If a is the angle between plane of the coil and
circular current carrying coil is the magnetic field, then torque on the coil is
µ 2πNIa 2 t = NIAB cosa = MB cosa
B = 0 2 2 3/2
4π (a +x ) ‰‰ Workdone in rotating the coil through an angle
‰‰ Magnetic field at the centre due to current q from the field direction is
carrying circular arc W = MB (1 – cos q)
µ0 Iφ ‰‰ Potential energy of a magnetic dipole
. B=  
4 πa U = − M ⋅ B = − MB cos θ
‰‰ An electron revolving around the central
‰‰ The magnetic field at the centre of a circular
nucleus in an atom has a magnetic moment and
coil of radius a carrying current I is
it is given by
µ 0 2 πI µ 0 I
B= =
4π a 2a
‰‰ Conversion of galvanometer into a ammeter
If the circular coil consists of N turns, then
µ 0 2 πNI µ 0 NI  Ig 
B= = S= G
4π a 2a  I − Ig 
  ‰‰ Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter
mpere’s circuital law ∫
‰‰ A B ⋅ dl = µ0 I .
V
‰‰ Magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight R= −G
Ig
solid cylindrical wire of radius a, carrying ‰‰ In order to increase the range of voltmeter n
current I times the value of resistance to be connected in
series with galvanometer is R = (n – 1)G.
(a) Magnetic field at a point outside the wire
µ0I ‰‰ Magnetic dipole moment
 
i.e. (r > a) is B = M = m (2l )
2πr
(b) Magnetic field at a point inside the wire ‰‰ The magnetic field due to a bar magnet at any
µ Ir
i.e. (r < a) is B = 0 2 point on the axial line (end on position) is
2πa µ0 2 Mr
(c) Magnetic field at a point on the surface of a B =
axial
4π (r 2 − l 2 ) 2
µ0 I For short magnet l2 << r2
wire i.e. (r = a) is B =
2 πa
µ 2M
‰‰ Force on a current carrying conductor in a Baxial = 0 3
uniform magnetic field 4πr
   The direction of Baxial is along SN.
F = I ( l × B) or F = IlB sinq ‰‰ The magnetic field due to a bar magnet at any
‰‰ When two parallel conductors separated by a point on the equatorial line (board-side on
distance r carry currents I1 and I2, the magnetic position) of the bar magnet is
field of one will exert a force on the other. The µ0 M
force per unit length on either conductor is B =
equatorial
4π (r 2 + l 2 ) 3 / 2
µ 0 2I 1 I 2 For short magnet
f =
4π r µ0 M
‰‰ The force of attraction or repulsion acting on Bequatorial =
4π r 3
each conductor of length l due to currents in The direction of Bequatorial is parallel to NS.
µ 0 2 I 1I 2 ‰‰ In moving coil galvanometer the current I
two parallel conductor is F = l.
4π r passing through the galvanometer is directly
‰‰ When two charges q1 and q2 respectively proportional to its deflection (q).
moving with velocities v1 and v2 are at a
I ∝ q or, I = Gq.
distance r apart, then the force acting between
k
them is where G = = galvanometer constant
NAB
µ 0 q1q2 v1v2
F=
4π r2 ‰‰ Current sensitivity :
‰‰ Torque on a current carrying coil placed in a
uniform magnetic field
‰‰ Voltage sensitivity :
t = NIABsinq = MBsinq

4 Physics
 MAGNETISM AND MATTER where M is the coefficient of mutual inductance.
The emf induced in the secondary coil is given
‰‰ Gauss’s law for magnetism by
 
φ= ∑ B ⋅ ∆S = 0 dI P
εS = − M
all area dt
elements ∆S
where M is the coefficient of mutual inductance.
‰‰ Horizontal component :
BH = B cosd ‰‰ Coefficient of coupling (K) :

‰‰ Magnetic intensity
M
K=
B = mH L1L2
‰‰ Intensity of magnetisation ‰‰ The coefficient of mutual inductance of two
Magnetic moment M long co-axial solenoids, each of length l, area of
I= =
Volume V cross section A, wound on air core is
‰‰ Magnetic susceptibility µ 0 N1 N 2 A
I M=
χm = l
H ‰‰ Energy stored in an inductor
‰‰ Magnetic permeability
B 1 2
µ= U= LI
H 2
‰‰ During the growth of current in a LR circuit is
‰‰ Relative permeability :
I = I0 (1 – e–Rt/L) = I0(1 – e–t/t)
where I0 is the maximum value of current,
‰‰ Relationship between magnetic permeability t = L/R = time constant of LR circuit.
and susceptibility ‰‰ During the decay of current in a LR circuit is
µ I = I0e–Rt/L = I0e–t/t
µ r = 1 + χm with µ r =
µ0 ‰‰ During charging of capacitor through resistor
C
‰‰ Curie law : χ m = q = q0(1 – e–t/RC) = q0(1 – e–t/t)
T
C where q0 is the maximum value of charge.
χm = (T > TC ) t = RC is the time constant of CR circuit.
T − TC
‰‰ During discharging of capacitor through resistor
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION q = q0e–t/RC = q0e–t/t
‰‰ Magnetic Flux ALTERNATING CURRENT
 
φ = B ⋅ A = BA cos θ
‰‰ Mean or average value of alternating current or
‰‰ Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
dφ voltage over one complete cycle
ε=− T
dt
‰‰ When a conducting rod of length l is rotated
∫ I0 sin ωt dt
I m or I or I av = 0
=0
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B, then T

induced emf between the ends of the rod is ∫ dt

0
T

∫ V0 sin ωt dt
|e| = Bu (pl ) = BuA 2 Vm or V or Vav = 0
T =0
‰‰ The self induced emf is ∫ dt
0
dφ dI ‰‰ Average value of alternating current for first
ε=− =−L
dt dt half cycle is
‰‰ Self inductance of a circular coil is T/2

µ N 2 πR ∫ I 0 sin ωt dt
L= 0 2I0
2 I av = 0
= = 0.637 I 0
T/2 π
‰‰ Let IP be the current flowing through primary ∫ dt
coil at any instant. If fS is the flux linked with 0
‰‰ Similarly, for alternating voltage, the average
secondary coil then
value over first half cycle is
fS ∝ IP or fS = MIP

Physics 5
 T/2 1
∫ V0 sin ωtdt υr =
2V 2π LC
Vav = 0
= 0 = 0.637V0
T/2 π
∫ dt
0 ‰‰ Quality factor
‰‰ Average value of alternating current for second
cycle is
T

∫ I 0 sin ωtdt
T/2 2I0
I av = =− = − 0.637 I 0
T π
∫ dt
T/2

‰‰ Similarly, for alternating voltage, the average ‰‰ Average power (Pav) :

value over second half cycle is V0 I 0
T Pav = Vrms I rms cos φ = 2 cos φ
∫ V0 sin ωtdt VI
2V0 ‰‰ Apparent power : Pv = Vrms I rms = 0 0
Vav = T/2
=− = − 0.637 V0 2
T π
∫ dt ‰‰ Efficiency of a transformer,
T/2
‰‰ Mean value or average value of alternating output power VS IS
η= = .
current over any half cycle input power VP I P
2I0
I av = = 0.637 I 0
π ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
2I0
I av = = 0.637 I 0 ‰‰ The displacement current is given by
π
‰‰ Root mean square (rms) value of alternating

current
I0 ‰‰ Four Maxwell’s equations are :
I rms or I v = = 0.707 I 0 €€ Gauss’s law for electrostatics
2
Similarly, for alternating voltage
V0 €€ Gauss’s law for magnetism
Vrms = = 0.707 V0
2

‰‰ €€ Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
  dφB
‰‰ Inductive reactance : ∫ E ⋅ dl = − dt
XL = wL = 2puL €€ Maxwell-Ampere’s circuital law
1 1
‰‰ Capacitive reactance : XC = =
ωC 2 πυC
The impedance of the series LCR circuit. ‰‰ The amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields
in free space, in electromagnetic waves are
( )
2
1
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2 = R 2 + ωL − related by
ωC
1 1 E0
∴ Admittance = or Y = E0 = cB0 or B0 =
Impedance Z c
‰‰ The speed of electromagnetic wave in free
1 space is
∴ Susceptance =
Reactance 1
1 c=
€€ Inductive susceptance = µ0ε0
Inductive reactance
1 1 ‰‰ The speed of electromagnetic wave in a
or SL = =
X L ωL medium is
1
€€ Capacitive susceptance =
Capacitive reactance
1 1
or SC = = = ωC
XC 1/ ωC ‰‰ The energy density of the electric field is
‰‰ The resonant frequency is 1
uE = ε E2
2 0

6 Physics
‰‰ The energy density of magnetic field is ‰‰ Superficial magnification :
1 B2 area of image
uB = mS = = m2
2 µ0 area of object
‰‰ Average energy density of the electric field is 1 1 1
‰‰ Mirror's formula + =
1 u v f
< uE > = ε 0 E02
4
‰‰ Newton’s formula is f 2 = xy,
‰‰ Average energy density of the magnetic field
sin i 1
is ‰‰ Laws of refraction : = µ2
2 sin r
1B 1
< uB > = = ε E20
‰‰ Absolute refractive index :
4 µ0 4 0 0
‰‰ Average energy density of electromagnetic
wave is
1 2
< u > = ε 0 E0
2
‰‰ Intensity of electromagnetic wave sin (i − r )
Lateral shift, d = t
1 cos r
I = < u > c = ε 0 E02 c
2 (Light, Reflection and Refraction, Class 10)
‰‰ Momentum of electromagnetic wave ‰‰ If there is an ink spot at the bottom of a glass
U slab, it appears to be raised by a distance
p= (complete absorption)
c
2U
p= (complete reflection )
c
‰‰ The poynting vector is
‰‰ When the object is situated in rarer medium,
 1  
S=
µ0
(E × B) the relation between m1 (refractive index of
rarer medium) m2 (refractive index of the
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS spherical refracting surface) and R (radius of
curvature) with the object and image distances
‰‰ When two plane mirrors are inclined at an is given by
angle q and an object is placed between them, µ1 µ 2 µ 2 − µ1
the number of images of an object are formed − + =
u v R
due to multiple reflections.
‰‰ When the object is situated in denser medium,
360° Position of Number of the relation between m1, m2, R, u and v can be
n=
θ object images obtained by interchanging m1 and m2. In that
case, the relation becomes
even anywhere n–1
µ 2 µ1 µ1 − µ 2 µ µ µ − µ1
odd symmetric n–1 − + = or − 1 + 2 = 2
u v R v u R
asymmetric n ‰‰ Lens maker’s formula
1 1 1 
‰‰ If
360°
is a fraction, the number of images = (µ − 1)  − 
θ f  R1 R2 
formed will be equal to its integral part. ‰‰ Thin lens formula
(Light, Class 8)
‰‰ The focal length of a spherical mirror of radius
R is given by ‰‰ Linear magnification
size of image ( I ) v
m= = .
size of object (O) u
‰‰ Transverse or linear magnification
‰‰ Power of a lens
size of image v
m= =−
size of object u
‰‰ Longitudinal magnification : ‰‰ Combination of thin lenses in contact
dv 1 1 1 1
mL = − = + + + ....
du F f1 f 2 f 3

Physics 7
‰‰ The total power of the combination is given by Length of tube, L = vo + fe
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... ‰‰ When the final image is formed at least distance
‰‰ The total magnification of the combination is of distinct vision,
given by
m = m1 × m2 × m3 ....
‰‰ When two thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2
where uo and vo represent the distance of object
are placed coaxially and separated by a distance and image from the objective lens, fe is the focal
d, the focal length of a combination is given by length of an eye lens.
1 1 1 d
= + − .  f D 
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2 Length of the tube, L = vo +  e 
 fe + D 
‰‰ In terms of power P = P1 + P2 – dP1P2. ‰‰ Astronomial telescope
(Light, Reflection and Refraction, Class 10) fo
magnifying power, M =
fe
‰‰ If I1, I2 are the two sizes of image of the object of
size O, then O = I1I 2  fD 
Length of tube, L = fo +  e
‰‰ The refractive index of the material of the  fe + D 
prism is
WAVE OPTICS
 ( A + δm ) 
sin 
µ=  2  ‰‰ For constructive interference (i.e. formation of
sin ( )
A
2
bright fringes)
€€ For nth bright fringe,
where A is the angle of prism and dm is the angle
d
of minimum deviation. Path difference = xn = nλ
D
δV + δ R
‰‰ Mean deviation δ = . where n = 0 for central bright fringe
2
n = 1 for first bright fringe,
‰‰ Dispersive power,
n = 2 for second bright fringe and so on
angular dispersion (δV − δR )
ω= d = distance between two slits
mean deviation (δ) D = distance of slits from the screen
µV − µ R
ω= , xn = distance of nth bright fringe from the
(µ − 1)
centre.
µ + µR D
where µ = V = mean refractive index ∴ xn = nλ
2 d
‰‰ Magnifying power, of simple microscope ‰‰ For destructive interference (i.e. formation of
angle subtended by image at the eye dark fringes).
M=
angle subtended by thee object at the eye €€ For nth dark fringe,
tan β β d λ
path difference = xn = ( 2n − 1)
= = D 2
tan α α
where
‰‰ When the image is formed at infinity (far
n = 1 for first dark fringe,
point), D
M= n = 2 for 2nd dark fringe and so on.
f
xn = distance of nth dark fringe from the centre
‰‰ When the image is formed at the least distance
λ D
of distinct vision D (near point), ∴ xn = ( 2n −1)
2 d
‰‰ Fringe width, β = λD
d
‰‰ Magnifying power of a compound microscope β λ
‰‰ Angular fringe width, θ = =
M = mo × me D d
‰‰ If W1, W2 are widths of two slits, I1, I2 are
‰‰ When the final image is formed at infinity
intensities of light coming from two slits; a, b are
(normal adjustment),
the amplitudes of light from these slits, then
vo  D 
M= W1 I1 a 2
uo  f e  = =
W2 I 2 b 2

8 Physics
 I max ( a + b)2 (f0), then maximum kinetic energy of the
= emitted electron is given as
I min ( a − b)2
I − I min Kmax = hu – f0
‰‰ Fringe visibility V = max For u > u0 or eV0 = hu – f0 = hu – hu0
I max + I min
1 1 
‰‰ When entire apparatus of Young’s double or eV0 = K max = hc  − .
slit experiment is immersed in a medium of λ λ0 
refractive index m, then fringe width becomes ‰‰ de Broglie wavelength,
λ′D λD β
β′ = = = ‰‰ If the rest mass of a particle is m0, its de Broglie
d µd µ
‰‰ When a thin transparent plate of thickness t and wavelength is given by
1/ 2
refractive idnex m is placed in the path of one  v2 
of the interfering waves, fringe width remains h1 − 2 
unaffected but the entire pattern shifts by λ=  c 
m0 v
D β ‰‰ In terms of kinetic energy K, de Broglie
∆x = (µ −1) t = (µ − 1) t
d λ h
wavelength is given by λ = .
‰‰ Diffraction due to a single slit 2mK
Width of secondary maxima or minima ‰‰ If a particle of charge q is accelerated through a
λD λf potential difference V, its de Broglie wavelength
β= =
where a a h
is given by λ = .
a = width of slit 2mqV
D = distance of screen from the slit
V )
( 150
1/ 2
f = focal length of lens for diffracted light For an electron, λ = Å.
‰‰ For a gas molecule of mass m at temperature
‰‰ Width of central maximum
‰‰ Angular width fringe of central maximum
by
T kelvin, its de Broglie wavelength is given
2λ h
= . λ= , where k is the Boltzmann
a 3mkT constant.
‰‰ Angular fringe width of secondary maxima or
λ ATOMS
minima =
a
a2 ‰‰ Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom
‰‰ Fresnel distance, ZF =
λ N ntZ 2 e 4
‰‰ Resolving power of a microscope N (θ) = i
(8 πε 0 ) r K 2 sin 4 (θ / 2)
2 2

1 2µ sin θ
Resolving power = = The frequency of incident alpha particles
d λ
‰‰ Resolving power of a telescope
scattered by an angle q or greater
1 D 2
Resolving power = =  Ze 2  2θ
dθ 1.22 λ f = πnt 
4 πε K  cot 2
 0 
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER ‰‰ The scattering angle q of the a particle and
hc impact parameter b are related as
‰‰ Energy of a photon E = hυ =
λ Ze 2 cot(θ / 2)
‰‰ Momentum of photon is b=
E hυ 4 πε0 K
p= =
c c E hυ ‰‰ Distance of closest approach
‰‰ The moving mass m of photon is m = = .
c2 c2 2 Ze 2
‰‰ Stopping potential r0 =
4 πε0 K
1
K = eV = mv 2 ‰‰ Angular momentum of the electron in a
max 0
2
max
stationary orbit is an integral multiple of h/2p.
‰‰ Einstein’s photoelectric equation
If a light of frequency u is incident on a i.e., L = nh or, mvr =
nh
photosensitive material having work function 2π 2π

Physics 9
‰‰
The frequency of a radiation from electrons ‰‰ Balmer series
makes a transition from higher to lower orbit Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
E − E1 transition of electron from higher energy
υ= 2 levels (n2 = 3, 4, ....∞) to second energy level
h
‰‰ Bohr’s formulae (n1 = 2) constitute Balmer series.
1 1 1
(i) Radius of nth orbit = R  2 − 2 
λ 2 n
 2
where n2 = 3, 4, 5...........,∞

‰‰ Paschen series
(ii) Velocity of electron in the nth orbit Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
1 2 πZe 2 2.2 × 106 Z transition of electron from higher energy
vn = = m/s. levels (n2 = 4, 5, .....,∞) to third energy level (n1
4 πε0 nh n = 3) constitute Paschen series.
(iii) The kinetic energy of the electron in the nth 1 1 1 1
orbit = −
λ R  32 n2 
 2
‰‰ Brackett series
Emission spectral lines corresponding
13.6 Z2 to the transition of electron from higher
= eV.
n2 energy levels (n2 = 5, 6, 7,.....,∞) to fourth
(iv) The potential energy of electron in nth orbit energy level (n1 = 4) constitute Brackett
series. 1 1 1
= R  2 − 2 
λ
4 n2 
where n2 = 5, 6, 7..........,∞
−27.2 Z2
= eV. ‰‰ Pfund series
2
n Emission spectral lines corresponding to the
(v) Total energy of electron in nth orbit transition of electron from higher energy
levels (n2 = 6, 7, 8,.......,∞) to fifth energy level
(n1 = 5) constitute Pfund series.
1 1 1
= R  2 − 2 
(vi) Frequency of electron in nth orbit λ
5 n2 
2
 1  4 π2 Z2 e 4m 6.62 × 1015 Z2 where n2 = 6, 7,...........,∞
υn =   = ‰‰ Number of spectral lines due to transition of
 4 πε0  n3h 3 n3
electron from nth orbit to lower orbit is
(vii) Wavelength of radiation in the transition n(n − 1)
from N= .
2
n2 → n1 is given by 2
13.6 Z
‰‰ Ionization energy = eV.
1  1 1 n2
= RZ2  2 − 2 
λ n
 1 n2  13.6 Z2
‰‰ Ionization potential = volt.
where R is called Rydberg’s constant. n2
‰‰ Energy quantisation
n2 h 2
En = where n = 1, 2 , 3 , .........
8mL2
‰‰ Lyman series NUCLEI
Emission spectral lines corresponding to
the transition of electron from higher energy ‰‰ Nuclear radius, R = R0A1/3
levels (n2 = 2, 3, ...,∞) to first energy level (n1 = where R0 is a constant and A is the mass
1) constitute Lyman series. number
1 1 1
= R  2 − 2  ‰‰ Nuclear density,
λ
1 n2  mass nuclear
where n2 = 2, 3, 4, ......,∞ ρ=
volume of nucleus

10 Physics
‰‰ Mass defect is given by ‰‰ The current in the junction diode is given by
Dm = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN] I = I0 (eeV/kT –1)
‰‰ The binding energy of nucleus is given by where k = Boltzmann constant, I0 = reverse
Eb = Dmc2 = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN]c2 saturation current.
= [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN] × 931.49 MeV/u. In forward biasing, V is positive and low,
‰‰ The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus eeV/kT > > 1, then forward current,
= Eb/A If = I0 (eeV/kT )
‰‰ Law of radioactive decay In reverse biasing, V is negative and high
dN − λt eeV/kT < < 1, then reverse current,
dt = −λN (t) or N (t) = N0 e Ir = – I0
‰‰ Half-life of a radioactive substance is given by ‰‰ Dynamic resistance
ln 2 0.693 ∆V
T1 / 2 = λ = λ rd =
∆I
‰‰ Mean life or average life of a radioactive Half wave rectifier
substance is given by ‰‰ Peak value of current is
1 T1 / 2 Vm
τ= = = 1.44T1 / 2 Im =
λ 0.693 rf + RL
‰‰ Activity : R = –dN/dt
where rf is the forward diode resistance, RL is
‰‰ Activity law R(t) = R0e–lt
the load resistance and Vm is the peak value of
where R0 = lN0 is the decay rate at t = 0 and the alternating voltage.
R = Nl. ‰‰ rms value of current is
‰‰ Fraction of nuclei left undecayed after n half Im
live is Irms =
2

( ) = ( 21 ) ‰‰ dc value of current is
n t /T
N 1 1/ 2
or t = nT1/2
= Im
N0 2 Idc =
‰‰ Neutron reproduction factor (K)
π
‰‰ Peak inverse voltage is
rate of production of neutrons
= P.I.V = Vm
rate of loss of neutrons
‰‰ dc value of voltage is
Im
SEMICONDUCTOR ELETRONICS, MATERIALS, Vdc = Idc RL = R
π L
DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Full wave rectifier
‰‰ Forbidden energy gap or forbidden band ‰‰ Peak value of current is
Vm
Eg = hυ = hυ Im =
λ rf + RL
‰‰ The intrinsic concentration ni varies with ‰‰ dc value of current is
temperature T as 2Im
Idc =
3 − Eg / kT π
ni2 = A0T e ‰‰ rms value of current is
‰‰ The conductivity of the semiconductor is given
Im
Irms =
by s = e(neme + nhmh) 2
‰‰ Peak inverse voltage is
where me and mh are the electron and hole
P.I.V = 2Vm
mobilities, ne and nh are the electron and hole
‰‰ dc value of voltage is
densities, e is the electronic charge.
2Im
‰‰ The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor Vdc = Idc RL = R
π L
is Ripple frequency
si = nie(me + mh) rms value of the components of wave
r=
‰‰ The conductivity of n-type semiconductor is average or dc value
sn = eNdme
2
‰‰ The conductivity of p-type semiconductor is I 
r =  rms  − 1
sp = eNamh  Idc 

Physics 11
‰‰ For half wave rectifier, Im / 2 π
I I Form factor = = = 1.57
Irms = m , Idc = m Im / π 2
2 π
2
‰‰ For full wave rectifier,
I /2
r =  m  −1 Im 2I
 Im / π  Irms = , Idc = m
2 π
= 1.21
Im / 2 π
‰‰ For full wave rectifier, Form factor = = = 1.11
2Im / π 2 2
Im 2I
Irms = , Idc = m Common emitter amplifier
2 π
‰‰ dc current gain
2
I / 2  IC
r=  m −1 βdc =
 2 Im / π  IB
‰‰ ac current gain
= 0.482 ∆IC
βac =
Rectification efficiency ∆IB
dc power delivered to load ‰‰ Voltage gain
η=
ac input power from transformerr secondary
Vo R
‰‰ For a half wave rectifier, Av = = − βac × o
Vi Ri
dc power delivered to the load is ‰‰ Power gain

( )R
2
2 I output power (Po )
Pdc = Idc RL = m L Ap =
π input power (Pi )
Input ac power is Vo
‰‰ Voltage gain (in dB) = 20 log10
( I2 ) (r
2 Vi
2 m
Pac = Irms (r f + RL ) = f + RL ) = 20 log10 Av
P
Rectification efficiency ‰‰ Power gain (in dB) = 10 log o
Pi
Pdc ( Im / π)2 RL
η= = × 100% Common base amplifier
Pac ( I / 2)2 (r + R )
m f L ‰‰ dc current gain
40.6 IC
= % αdc =
1 + r f / RL IE
‰‰ ac current gain
‰‰ For a full wave rectifier,  ∆I 
dc power delivered to the load is αac =  C 
 ∆IE 
‰‰ Voltage gain
( 2πI ) R
2
2 m
Pdc = Idc RL = L Vo R
Av = = αac × o
Vi Ri
Input ac power is ‰‰ Power gain
2
2 I  output power (Po )
Pac = Irms (r f + RL ) =  m  (r f + RL ) Ap =
 2 input power (Pi )
Rectification efficiency = aac × Av
P ( 2Im / π)2 RL 81.2 ‰‰ Relationship between a and b
η = dc = × 100% = %
1 + r f / RL
Pac
(Im / 2 )2 (r f + RL ) ;
If rf << RL,
Maximum rectification efficiency, h = 81.2% Name Symbol Truth Boolean
Form factor of gate Table expression

Irms OR A B Y Y = A + B
‰‰ Form factor = 0 0 0
Idc
‰‰ For half wave rectifier, 0 1 1
Im I 1 0 1
I rms = , Idc = m 1 1 1
2 π

12 Physics
 AND A B Y Y=A·B area covered = pd2 = p2hR
Population covered = population density × area
0 0 0
covered
0 1 0
‰‰ The maximum line of sight distance dM between
1 0 0
1 1 1 two antennas having heights hT and hR above
the earth is given by
NOT A Y
Y=A
0 1
1 0 where hT is the height of the transmitting
NAND A B Y antenna and hR is the height of the receiving
Y = A⋅B antenna and R is the radius of the earth.
0 0 1
0 1 1 ‰‰ The amplitude modulated signal contains
1 0 1 three frequencies, viz. uc, uc + um and uc – um.
1 1 0 The first frequency is the carrier frequency
NOR A B Y Thus, the process of modulation does not
Y = A+B change the original carrier frequency but
0 0 1
0 1 0 produces two new frequencies (uc + um)
1 0 0 and(uc – um) which are known as sideband
1 1 0 frequencies.
XOR A B Y uSB = uc ± um
Y = A⋅B + A⋅B ‰‰ Frequency of lower side band
(also 0 0 0
called 0 1 1 uLSB = uc – um
exclusive 1 0 1 ‰‰ Frequency of higher side band
OR gate) 1 1 0 uUSB = uc + um
‰‰ Bandwidth of AM signal = uUSB – uLSB = 2um
XNOR A B Y
Y = A⋅B + A⋅B ‰‰ Average power per cycle in the carrier wave is
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0 where R is the resistance
1 1 1 ‰‰ Total power per cycle in the modulated wave

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
 µ2 
Pt = Pc  1 + 
2 
‰‰ If It is rms value of total modulated current
‰‰ Critical frequency, uc = g(Nmax)1/2
where Nmax the maximum number density of and Ic is the rms value of unmodulated carrier
electron/m3. current, then 2
It µ
‰‰ Maximum usable frequency = 1+
Ic 2
υc
MUF = = υc sec i ‰‰ For detection of AM wave, the essential
cos i
‰‰ The skip distance is given by condition is
2
υ 
Dskip = 2 h  0  − 1 ‰‰ The instantaneous frequency of the frequency
 υc 
modulated wave is
where h is the height of reflecting layer of Vm
atmosphere, u0 = maximum frequency of υ(t) = υc + k sin ωmt
2π
electromagnetic waves used and uc is the critical where k is the proportionality constant.
frequency for that layer. ‰‰ The maximum and minimum values of the
‰‰ If h is the height of the transmitting antenna, frequency is
then the distance to the horizon is given by k Vm k Vm
υmax = υc + and υmin = υc −
2π 2π
where R is the radius of the earth. ‰‰ Frequency deviation
k Vm
For TV signal, δ = υmax − υc = υc − υmin =
2π

Physics JJJ 13
14 Physics