Pre engineered building is a steel structure built over a structural concept of primary

members, secondary members, and the cover sheeting connected to each other. The
structural members are custom designed to be lighter in weight as well as high in strength
being peb construction companies in delhi / peb shed manufacturer in delhi, India..Today
and in the future, Steel has become the material of choice in building construction,
compared to concrete and timber. Thus steel building designs have become more flexible,
durable and adaptable.Pre Engineered Steel Buildings (PEB) revolutionized the construction
market using built-ups in place of conventional Hot Rolled Sections. Pre-Engineered Steel
Buildings can be fitted with different structural additions like trusses, mezzanine floors,
fascias, canopies and crane systems as per user requirements being PEB manufacturer
companies in delhi.
Pre-engineered metal buildings are ideal for use in non residential, wide span low rise
buildings. Among the advantages of PEB structure is low cost, consistent quality control,
and fast delivery to name a few. PEB buildings are used for diverse applications such as
factories, warehouses, offices, shopping malls, schools, hospitals, community buildings and
several more.

The basic parameters of PEB building are:

 Building Length : The between the outside from flanges of end wall columns in opposite
end walls is considered the building length.
 Building Height : Building height is the eave height which usually is the distance from the
bottom of the main frame PEB column base plate to the top outer point of the eave strut.
When columns are recessed or elevated from finished floor, eave height is the distance from
finished floor level to top of eave strut.
 Roof Slope : This is the angle of roof with respect to the Horizontal. The most common roof
slopes are 1/10 and 1/20. Though any practical roof slope is possible as per customer’s
requirement.
 Design Loads : Unless otherwise specified PEB are designed for the following minimum
loads:
Roof Live Loads

Design for snow loads, Seismic loads, collateral loads, or any other local climatic condition
must be specified at the time of quotation.

Design Wind Speed

It is calculated as per location.

As a leading PEB structure manufacturer in India, SML provides the complete service of
engineering and fabrication thus ensuring better quality control at every stage of the
process.

Pre engineered building consists of following components:

 Intermediate Frame : Rafter  Foam Filler

 Intermediate Frame : Column  Inside gutter
 Bearing Frame : Rafter  Valley gutter
 Bearing Frame : Corner column  Ridgevent
 Endwall column  Turbovent
 Tie rods for wind bracing  Sectional door
 Purlins  Single door
 Wind bracing  Window
 Strut purlin for wind bracing  Monitor
 Eave struct  Canopy
 Rake angle in PEB Building  Parapet, Sidewall
 Girts  Parapet, endwall
 Roof panels  Crane runway
 Wall panels  Bridge crone
 Blanket insulation  Mezzanine
 Skylight

Trusses
A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements. The most
common use of trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the floors and internal loading such as
services and suspended ceilings, are readily provided. The main reasons for using trusses are:

Long-span, curved roof trussesRobin Hood Airport, Doncaster(Image courtesy of Tubecon)

 Long span
 Lightweight
 Reduced deflection (compared to plain members)
 Opportunity to support considerable loads.
 The penalty, however, is increased fabrication costs .
The article describes alternative forms of truss, where and why different forms might be appropriate
and introduces design considerations. Primarily, pin jointed trusses are discussed, with some
discussion of rigid-jointed Vierendeel trusses.

Contents
[hide]
 1Definition of a truss
 2Use of trusses in buildings
 3Types of trusses
o 3.1Pratt truss ('N' truss)
o 3.2Warren truss
o 3.3North light truss
o 3.4Saw-tooth truss
o 3.5Fink truss
 4Aspects of truss design for roofs
o 4.1Truss or I beam
o 4.2General geometry
o 4.3Types of truss member sections
o 4.4Types of connections
o 4.5Lateral stability
 5Design of wind girders
o 5.1Transverse wind girder
o 5.2Longitudinal wind girder
 6Guidance on global analysis
o 6.1Modelling
o 6.2The effect of non-preloaded assemblies on truss deflection
 7Detailed design considerations for elements
o 7.1Verification of members under compression
 8Vierendeel trusses
o 8.1Use of Vierendeel trusses
o 8.2Analysis
o 8.3Connections
 9References
 10Further reading
 11Resources
 12See also
 13External links
[top]Definition of a truss

Members under axial forces in a simple truss1 - Compression axial force2 - Tension axial force

A truss is essentially a triangulated system of (usually) straight interconnected structural elements; it

is sometimes also referred to as an open web girder. The individual elements are connected at
nodes; the connections are often assumed to be nominally pinned. The external forces applied to the
system and the reactions at the supports are generally applied at the nodes. When all the members
and applied forces are in a same plane, the system is a plane or 2D truss.
The principal force in each element in a truss is axial tension or compression.

Overview of trusses
[top]Use of trusses in buildings
Trusses are used in a broad range of buildings, mainly where there is a requirement for very long
spans, such as in airport terminals, aircraft hangers, sports stadia roofs, auditoriums and
other leisure buildings. Trusses are also used to carry heavy loads and are sometimes used as
transfer structures. This article focuses on typical single storey industrial buildings, where trusses
are widely used to serve two main functions:
 To carry the roof load
 To provide horizontal stability.

Two types of general arrangement of the structure of a typical single storey building are shown in the
figure below.
 Building braced in both directions.
Lateral stability provided by portal trusses.
Lateral stability provided by longitudinal wind girder and
Longitudinal stability provided by transverse wind girder and vertical bracings in the gables (blue)
vertical cross bracings (blue)
Longitudinal stability provided by transverse wind girder and
No longitudinal wind girder. vertical bracings (green)

Typical truss building arrangements

In the first case (left) the lateral stability of the structure is provided by a series of portal trusses; the
connections between the truss and the columns provide resistance to a global bending moment.
Loads are applied to the portal structure by purlins and side rails.
In the second case, (right) each truss and the two columns between which it spans, constitute a
simple structure; the connection between the truss and a column does not resist the global bending
moment, and the two column bases are pinned. Bracing in both directions is necessary at the top
level of the simple structure; it is achieved by means of a longitudinal wind girder which carries the
transverse forces due to windon the side walls to the vertical bracing in the gable walls. Longitudinal
stability is also provided by a wind girder in the roof and vertical bracing in the elevations.
[top]Types of trusses
Trusses comprise assemblies of tension and compression elements. Under gravity loads, the top
and bottom chords of the truss provide the compression and tension resistance to overall bending,
and the bracing resists the shear forces. A wide range of truss forms can be created. Each can vary
in overall geometry and in the choice of the individual elements. Some of the commonly used types
are shown below.

[top]Pratt truss ('N' truss)

Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in span. In a
conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity loads. This type of truss is used
where gravity loads are predominant (see below left). An alternative Pratt truss is shown (below
right) where the diagonal members are in tension for uplift loads. This type of truss is used where
uplift loads are predominant, which may be the case in open buildings such as aircraft hangers.
 

Pratt truss (gravity loads)

Pratt truss (uplift loads)

It is possible to add secondary members (as illustrated below left) to:

 Create intermediate support points for applied loads

 Limit the buckling length of members in compression (although in a 2D truss, the buckling length
is only modified in one axis).

For the Pratt truss and any of the types of truss mentioned below, it is possible to provide either a
single or a double slope to the upper chord of a roof supporting truss. An example of a double (duo-
pitch) Pratt truss is shown below.

Pratt truss with secondary members

Duo-pitch Pratt truss

A Pratt truss – University of Manchester(Image courtesy of Elland Steel Structures Ltd.)

[top]Warren truss

Modified Warren trusses – National Composites Centre, Bristol(Image courtesy of Billington Structures Ltd.)

In this type of truss, diagonal members are alternatively in tension and in compression. The Warren
truss has equal length compression and tension web members, and fewer members than a Pratt
truss. A modified Warren truss may be adopted where additional members are introduced to provide
a node at (for example) purlin locations.
Warren trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in span.
This type of truss is also used for the horizontal truss of gantry/crane girders.

Modified Warren truss

[top]North light truss

North Light truss

North light trusses are traditionally used for short spans in industrial workshop-type buildings. They
allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the use of glazing on the steeper pitch
which generally faces north or north-east to reduce solar gain. On the steeper sloping portion of the
truss, it is typical to have a truss running perpendicular to the plane of the North Light truss, to
provide large column-free spaces.
The use of north lights to increase natural daylighting can reduce the operational carbon emissions
of buildings although their impact should be explored using dynamic thermal modelling. Although
north lights reduce the requirement for artificial lighting and can reduce the risk of overheating, by
increasing the volume of the building they can also increase the demand for space heating. Further
guidance is given in the Target Zero Warehouse buildings design guide .
[top]Saw-tooth truss

Saw-tooth (or Butterfly) truss

A variation of the North light truss is the saw-tooth truss which is used in multi-bay buildings. Similar
to the North light truss, it is typical to include a truss of the vertical face running perpendicular to the
plane of the saw-tooth truss.

[top]Fink truss

Fink truss

The Fink truss offers economy in terms of steel weight for short-span high-pitched roofs as the
members are subdivided into shorter elements. There are many ways of arranging and subdividing
the chords and internal members.
This type of truss is commonly used to construct roofs in houses.

[top]Aspects of truss design for roofs

[top]Truss or I beam
For the same steel weight, it is possible to get better performance in terms of resistance and
stiffness, with a truss than an I beam. This difference is greater for long spans and/or heavy loads.
The full use of this advantage is achievable if the height of the truss is not limited by criteria other
than the structural efficiency, e.g. a limit on total height of the building. However, fabrication of a
truss is generally more time consuming than for an I beam, even considering that modern fabrication
equipment is highly efficient.
The balance between minimum weight and minimum cost depends on many conditions: the
equipment of the fabrication factory, the local cost of manufacturing; the steel unit cost, etc. Trusses
generally give an economic solution for spans over 20 m.
An advantage of the truss design for roofs is that ducts and pipes that are required for operation of
the buildings services can be installed through the truss web, i.e. service integration.
[top]General geometry
For efficient structural performance, the ratio of span to truss depth should be chosen in the range
10 to 15. The architectural design of the building determines its external geometry and governs the
slope(s) given to the top chord of the truss. The intended use of the internal space can lead either to
the choice of a horizontal bottom chord, e.g. where conveyors must be hung under the chord, or to
an inclined bottom chord, to allow maximum space to be provided.
For an efficient layout of the truss members between the chords, the following is advisable:

 The inclination of the diagonal members in relation to the chords should be between 35° and 55°
 Point loads should only be applied at nodes
 The orientation of the diagonal members should be such that the longest members are subject
to tension (the shorter ones being subject to compression).

[top]Types of truss member sections

Bolted angles to form lightweight, long-span trusses(Image courtesy of Metsec plc)

Many solutions are available. Choice of members depends on the magnitude of the internal forces,
ease of connections between members, aesthetics and any necessity to connect prefabricated truss
sections on site. When selecting members, the out-of-plane buckling resistance will be important,
together with resistance under reversed loading, for example, uplift.
Typical element cross sections for light building trusses

For smaller spans, tee sections are frequently used for chords, with angles used as internal
members. The internal members may be bolted or welded to the tees. Back-to-
back angles or channels may be used for longer spans or heavier loads, with a gusset plate used at
nodes to connect the members.
For large trusses and heavy loads, typically found in transfer trusses in buildings, members may be
rolled sections; typically UKC sections. Nodes are usually welded. Any necessary connections are
completed with bolted splices within the length between nodes.
For many exposed trusses, hollow sections are chosen for their structural efficiency and for aesthetic
reasons. Nodes will generally be welded in the workshop. As part of the truss design, it is essential
to verify the resistance of the joints (in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-8[1]) as the joint design may
dominate member selection and final truss geometry. Members should be selected carefully to avoid
expensive strengthening of trusses fabricated from hollow sections.

Different types of steel section used in trusses

[top]Types
of
connections
For all the types of
member sections, it is
possible to design
either bolted or
welded connections.
Generally in
steelwork
construction, bolted
site splices are
preferred to welded
splices for economy
and speed
of erection.
Where bolted
connections are
used, it is necessary
to evaluate the
consequences of
'slack' in connections.
In order to reduce
these consequences
(typically, the Typical joints in welded building roof trusses
increase of the
deflections), pre-
loaded assemblies to produce non-slip joints are recommended.
Hollow sections are typically connected by welding whilst open sections are connected
by bolting or welding, which will usually involve the use of gusset plates. Guidance on the design of
welded joints for Celsius®355 and Hybox®355 hollow sections is available from Tata Steel.
Small trusses which can be transported whole from the fabrication factory to the site, can be
entirely welded. In the case of large roof trusses which cannot be transported whole, welded sub-
assemblies are delivered to site and are either bolted or welded together on site.
In light roof trusses, entirely bolted connections are less favoured than welded connections due to
the requirement for gusset plates and their increased fabrication costs.

Profile shaping of tubular sections for joint fabrication

[top]Lateral stability
It is necessary to design members in compression against out-of-plane buckling. For simply
supported trusses, the upper chord is in compression for gravity loading, and the bottom chord is in
compression for uplift loading. For portal trusses, each chord is partly in compression and partly in
tension.
Lateral restraint of the upper chord is generally given by the purlins and the transverse roof wind
girder.
For the restraint of the bottom chord, additional bracing may be necessary, as shown below. Such
bracing allows the buckling length of the bottom chord to be limited out of the plane of the truss to
the distance between points laterally restrained; the diagonal members transfer the restraint forces
to the level of the top chord, where the general roof bracing is provided.

Key
Thick black dashes - two consecutive trusses
Blue - The purlin which completes the bracing in the upper region
Green - The longitudinal element which closes the bracing in the lowe
Red - Vertical roof bracing

Lateral bracing
It is possible to create a horizontal wind girder at the level of the bottom chords, with longitudinal
elements to stabilize all the trusses.

[top]Design of wind girders

[top]Transverse wind girder
In general, the form of a transverse wind girder is as follows:

 The wind girder is arranged as a Warren or Pratt truss, parallel to the roof plane
 The chords of the wind girder are the upper chords of two adjacent vertical trusses. This means
that the axial forces in these members due to loading on the vertical truss and those due to
loads on the wind girder loading must be added together (for an appropriate combination of
actions)

It is convenient to arrange a transverse wind girder at each end of the building so that the
longitudinal members need act only in tension.

[top]Longitudinal wind girder

It is necessary to provide a longitudinal wind girder (between braced gable ends) in buildings where
the roof trusses are not 'portalized'.
The general arrangement is similar to that described for a transverse wind girder:
 Warren or Pratt truss
 Generally, chord members will be provided from hollow sections
 The posts (if required) are the upper chords of the consecutive stabilized roof trusses.

[top]Guidance on global analysis

Although joints in trusses are often hardly pinned in reality, it is generally satisfactory (and
encouraged by design Standards) to assume the joints are pinned and to verify the members for
axial load only.
If loads are applied between nodes, trusses are often analysed with continuous chords, but with all
internal members pinned. These assumptions about pinned joint behaviour apply to both bolted and
welded connections.
Where member centre lines do not intersect at a node (the joint geometry may have been adjusted
to increase the strength of the joint), the additional moments produced by the eccentricity are usually
allowed for in the design of the chord members.

[top]Modelling
Fastrak truss structure model(Fastrak model courtesy of Trimble)

Several questions arise in respect of the modelling of a truss.

It is usually convenient to work on restricted models. For example, for a standard building, it is
common and usually justified to work with 2D models (portal, wind girder, vertical bracing) rather
than a global 3D model. A truss can be modelled without its supporting columns when it is
articulated to the columns.
Nonetheless, it is important to note that:

 If separate models are used, it may be necessary, in order to verify the resistance of certain
elements, to combine the results of several analyses; example: the upper chord of a truss also
serves as chord of the wind girder.
 If a global 3D model is used and appropriate member releases not provided, 'parasitic' bending
can be observed, which often only creates an illusory precision of the structural behaviour.

For trusses, two analysis models are commonly used, either:

 Continuous chords with pinned internals, or

 Pinned joints throughout the truss.

[top]The effect of non-preloaded assemblies on truss deflection

When the connections between elements which make up a truss are bolted, with bolts in shear and
bearing (category A in BS EN 1993-1-8[1] ), the clearance introduced into these connections (which
allows slip) can have a significant effect on displacement of the nodes.
In order to facilitate erection, the bolts are located in holes which are larger than the bolts
themselves. For standard bolt sizes, holes which are 2 mm bigger than the bolt are usually made
(usually referred to as a clearance hole).
Tubular trusses as an aestetic feature in a single storey building

In order for a connection with clearance holes to transmit the load, the bolt must come into contact
with one or other of the connected parts which allows slip in the connection. For a connected tension
member, this slip can be considered as an additional extension that is added to the elastic
elongation of the member in tension. Likewise, for a connected compression member, the slip is
considered as a reduction in length that is added to the elastic shortening of the compressed
member.
The total slip in the many different connections of a truss structure can lead to a significant increase
in displacements, which can have more or less serious consequences:

 In most of the cases, the visual effect is the worst consequence

 Increased deflection can lead to a reduction of free height under the bottom chord, which might
prevent or upset the anticipated usage. For example, the additional deflection of a truss holding
doors suspended in a gable of an aeroplane hangar could prevent the smooth operation of the
doors
 Increase in the deflection can result in reduction in the slope of the supported roof and even, if
the nominal slope were small, to a slope inversion; the risk of water ingress is increased.

It is therefore essential, where truss structures are concerned, to control the effect of connection
slack on the displacements. In order to do this, it is often necessary:

 To use preloaded bolts (category B or C connections); or

 To use welded connections instead of bolted connections.

[top]Detailed design considerations for elements

Truss members are subjected to axial force, but may also be subjected to bending moments, for
example, if the chords have been modelled as continuous.

[top]Verification of members under compression

The resistance of a member to compression is evaluated by taking into account the different modes
of instability:
 Local buckling of the section is controlled using section classification
 Buckling of the member is controlled by applying a reduction factor to the resistance of the
cross-section.

In most truss members, only flexural buckling of the compressed members in the plane of the truss
structure and out of the plane of the truss structure need be evaluated.
The buckling resistance is obtained from BS EN 1993-1-1[2] by applying a reduction to the resistance
of the cross-section. This reduction factor is obtained from the slenderness of the member, which
depends on the elastic critical force.
For the diagonals and the verticals stressed in uniform compression the elastic critical force is
determined from the buckling length of the member in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-1[2] Section
6.3.1.3 and according to Annex BB of BS EN 1993-1-1[2] :
 For buckling in the plane of the truss, the buckling length is taken equal to 90% of the system
length (distance between nodes), when the truss member is connected at each end with at least
two bolts, or by welding.
 For buckling out of plane of the truss beam, the buckling length is taken equal to the system
length.

For buckling in the plane of the truss of the chord members in uniform compression, the buckling
length may be taken as 90% of its system length (distance between nodes).
For buckling out of plane of the truss, the buckling length must be taken between lateral support
points.
In the worked example, where the truss supports a roof, with purlins at the level of the upper chord
of the truss:
 All the purlins connected to a roof bracing can be considered as lateral rigid support points.
 Intermediate purlins can also be considered as a rigid point of support, if the roof behaves as a
diaphragm (class 2 construction according to BS EN 1993-1-3[3]).
 Lateral support points are provided to the lower chord by additional vertical bracing elements
between trusses.

[top]Vierendeel trusses
[top]Use of Vierendeel trusses

Vierendeel truss

Vierendeel trusses are rigidly-jointed trusses having only vertical members between the top and
bottom chords. The chords are normally parallel or near parallel.
Elements in Vierendeel trusses are subjected to bending, axial force and shear , unlike conventional
trusses with diagonal web members where the members are primarily designed for axial loads.
Vierendeel trusses are usually more expensive than conventional trusses and their use limited to
instances where diagonal web members are either obtrusive or undesirable.
Vierendeel trusses are moment resisting. Vertical members near the supports are subject to the
highest moments and therefore require larger sections to be used than those at mid-span.
Considerable bending moments must be transferred between the verticals and the chords, which
can result in expensive stiffened details.

[top]Analysis
As Vierendeel trusses are statically indeterminate structures, computer analysis software packages
are generally used to analyse the truss.
[top]Connections
Vierendeel trusses have rigid joints which must transfer significant bending moments, especially
near the supports. Welded joints are therefore common and may involve significant local
reinforcement of the members at the joint. If joints are bolted, substantial connections will be
necessary, generally using pre-loaded bolts.

Typical joints for Vierendeel trusses

In my experience , yes.

I always preferred one way slabs in the design of Industrial buildings.

Normally they had chequered steel plates unless an RC slab was a functional
requirement.

Having secondary beams of steel transferring loads to the main steel beam is
much simpler to design and execute . Often two way slabs need to support loads
from heavy equipment and the slab will have to be extra thick and have more
reinforcement in both directions to accommodate this concentrated load.

It is a lot more reassuring to have closely spaced secondary steel beams under the
slab with shear lugs that enter the slab and convert this into a slab that spans
one-way
 In case, in future you need to make an opening in the slab, that was not envisaged
before, it is a lot simpler to do so for a one way slab. Cut open one entire panel
between two secondary supporting beams. and fix additional secondary beams
along the edges of the opening and the job is done.

You can't do this with a slab that spans two way. The opening will weaken the
slab and even if reinforced along the edges, there will be no beams close to the
opening which can be used to support the additional reinforcing beams.

GV

1.9k views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Aditya Karbhari

Upvote· 1516

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Jinal Doshi, Structural engineer and founder of structural madness

Answered Jul 3, 2016 · Upvoted by Niraj Malla, M.S Structural Engineering, Tokyo Institute of
Technology (2018)

Yes. Generally that is true.

The beauty of steel structures lie behind the short construction timeline.
Members are cut in factory or shops to the required length and bolt holes are also
drilled at right locations. On site, you lift it up and tie the structure together. It
basically acts as a giant jigsaw puzzle.

The load path generally followed is slabs -> beams -> Girders -> Columns ->
Foundations.

Now the slabs are concrete over metal deck. These metal decks are W formloks.
They are just like a folded plate.
Image courtesy: Miami Steel Deck

Now because of the shape of these metal decks, they have pretty good flexural
capacity. They can carry self weight of the concrete poured on top upto 10′ or so.
Now, as the advantage of steel structure is the pace of its construction, if we use
some other variation of slab or even larger spans for metal decks, you will require
formwork till concrete is poured and cured. This is a time consuming process as
scaffolding requires time to erect. This will delay the construction schedule and
increase the material cost as well as labor cost.

So we generally go for 10′ span for deck. And without any need of scaffolding we
pour concrete and run towards next level. It is literally that fast.

If someone finds out a similar way for a two way slab in concrete over metal deck
which can span up to 30′ x 30′ without any need of scaffolding, we would
definitely use it as it means less number of beams to erect and connect.

Thus concluding, the use of one way slab is kind of tradition as it is the only deck
that people find it most efficient today in the construction industry. It may be
possible that there might be some available. But I don’t see any.

Have fun.

6.6k views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Aditya Karbhari