BLUE BELLS

PUBLIC
SCHOOL
-LOVE TO LEARN-WILL FOR WISDOM-
-SURE TO SUCCED-

PHYSICS PROJECT
2019-20

SUMBITED BY: SUBMITED TO:

RISHABH SINGH MR. PRADEEP AWASTI

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Contents
1) Resistance
i) Define resistance, its unit and symbol.
ii) Types of resistance.
✓ Write two to three lines.
✓ Their collection to be made.
iii) Combination of resistance.
iv) Colour coding of rings.
2) Capacitor
i) Define capacitor, its unit and symbol.
ii) Its role in electronics.
iii) Types of capacitors.
✓ Write two to three lines.
✓ Their collection to be made.
iv) Combination of capacitors.
3) Junction-Diot
i) Define Junction-Diot, its symbol.
ii) Type of Diots.
✓ JFETS.
✓ FETS.
✓ MOSFETS.
iii) Uses of Diots.
✓ Diot as a half wave rectifier.
✓ Diot as a full wave rectifier.
✓ Diot as a bridge rectifier.
iv) Symbols of different types of Diot.
v) Role of Zener diots and its symbol.
4) Transistors (triot valve)
i) Define transistors.
ii) Role in electronics.
iii) Types of transistors and their symbols.
iv) Uses of transistors.
✓ Transistors as amplifier (all three) common base, common emitor,
common collector.
✓ Transistors as oscillator (circuit diagram only).
✓ Transistors as a switch (circuit diagram only).

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 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my
teacher (Mrs. Pradeep Awasti) as well as our principal (Mr. Nitin
A. Williams) who gave me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project which also helped me in doing a lot of research
and I came to know about so many new things I am really thankful
to them. Secondly I would also like to thank my parents who
helped me a lot in finishing this project within the limited time. I
am making this project not only for marks but to also increase my
knowledge.

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 RESISTANCE
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty of
passing an electric current through a substance. It explains the relationship
between voltage (amount of electrical pressure) and the current (flow of electricity). With
more resistance in a circuit, less electricity will
flow through the circuit. The inverse of resistance
is conductance, a measure not much used. All
objects have some resistance,
except superconductors.
Resistance, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm in
1827, is the ratio between voltage and
current. Ohm's law said that the voltage between
any two points in a conductor changes directly as
the current between the two points, given the
temperature remains the same. He described it
with the equation:

V=IR
which models the ratio, where:
R is the resistance of the object, measured in ohms (Ω)
V is the voltage across the object, measured in volts (V)
I is the current going through the object, measured in amperes (A)

Types of Resitance
They are two types of resistors

1) Linear Resistors

2) Non-Linear Resistor

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Wire wound Resistors
These resistors vary in physical appearance
and size. These wire-wound resistors are
commonly a length of wires usually made of
an alloy such as nickel chromium or copper-
nickel manganese alloy. These resistors are
the oldest type of resistors having excellent
properties like high power ratings and low
resistive values. During their use, these
resistors can become very hot, and for this
reason these are housed in a finned metal
case.

Metal film Resistor

These resistors are made from metal oxide or small rods of ceramic-coated metal.
These are similar to carbon-film resistors
and their resistivity is controlled by the
thickness of the coating layer. The
properties like reliability, accuracy and
stability are considerably better for these
resistors. These resistors can be obtained
in a wide range of resistance values (from a
few ohms to millions of ohms).

Thick film and Thin film Resistors

Thin film resistors are made by sputtering some resistive material on to an insulating
substrate (a method of vacuum deposition), and are therefore more expensive than the
thick film resistors. The resistive element for these resistors is approximately 1000
angstroms. Thin film resistors have better temperature coefficients, lower capacitance,
low parasitic inductance and low noise.

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These resistors are preferred for microwave active and passive power components
such as microwave power terminations, microwave power resistors and microwave
power attenuators. These are mostly used for applications that require high accuracy
and high stability.

Surface mount Resistors

Surface mount resistors come in a variety of

packages size and shape agreed by the EIA
(Electronic Industry Alliance). These are
made by depositing a film of resistive material
and don’t have enough space for color-code
bands owing to small size.

The tolerance may be as low as 0.02% and

consists of 3 or 4 letters as an indication. The
smallest size of the 0201 package is a tiny 0.60mm x 0.30mm resistor and this three
number code works in a similar way to the color code bands on wire-ended resistors.

Network Resistors

Network resistors are a combination of

resistances that give identical value to all
pins. These resistors are available in dual
inline and single inline packages. Network
resistors are commonly used in applications
such as ADC (Analog to digital converters) and

DAC, pull up or pull down.

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 Variable Resistors

Most commonly used types of variable

resistors are potentiometers and presets.
These resistors consist of fixed value of
resistance between two terminals and are
mostly used for setting the sensitivity of
sensors and voltage division. A wiper
(moving part of the potentiometer) changes
the resistance that can be rotated with the
help of a screw driver.

These resistors have three tabs, in which the wiper is the middle tab that acts as a
voltage divider, when all the tabs are used. When the middle tab is used along with the
other tab, it becomes a rheostat or variable resistor. When only the side tabs are used,
then it behaves as a fixed resistor.

Special Resistors
These are classified into two types:

• Thermistors
• Light-Dependent Resistors

Light-dependent resistors are very useful in different

electronic circuits, especially in clocks, alarms and street
lights. When the resistor is in darkness, its resistance is
very high (1 Mega Ohm) while in light, the resistance falls
down to a few kilo Ohms.
These resistors come in different shapes and colors.
Depending on the ambient light, these resistors are used to
turn ‘on’ or turn ‘off’ devices.

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 Combination of Resistence
Resistance can be joined to each other by two ways:
1. Series combination
2. Parallel combination

• Series Combination

Characteristics:
1. If different resistances are joined with each other such that there is
only one path for the flow of electric current then the combination of
such resistances is called Series Combination.
2. In series combination current through each resistor is constant.
3. In series combination Potential difference across each resistor is
different depending upon the value of resistance.
4. Equivalent resistance of circuit is equal to the sum of individual
resistances.

Re = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + …………….. Rn

• Parallel combination
Characteristics:
1. If there are more than one
path for the flow of current in a
circuit then the combination of
resistances is called Parallel
Combination.
2. In parallel combination current
through each resistor is different.
3. Potential difference across
each resistor is constant.

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 4. Equivalent resistance of circuit is always less than either of the
resistances included in the circuit.
Colour Coding of rings

Components and wires are coded

with colors to identify their value and
function.
The colors brown, red, green, blue,
and violet are used as tolerance
codes on 5-band resistors only. All 5-
band resistors use a colored
tolerance band. The blank (20%)
“band” is only used with the “4-band”
code (3 colored bands + a blank
“band”).

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a two-terminal, electrical component. Along with resistors and inductors,
they are one of the most fundamental passive components we use. You would have to
look very hard to find a circuit which didn't have a capacitor in it.

What makes capacitors special is

their ability to store energy; they're
like a fully charged electric
battery. Caps, as we usually refer to
them, have all sorts of critical
applications in circuits. Common
applications include local energy
storage, voltage spike suppression,
and complex signal filtering.

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Symbols and Units

Circuit Symbols
There are two common ways to draw a capacitor in a schematic. They always have two
terminals, which go on to connect to the rest of the circuit. The capacitors symbol
consists of two parallel lines, which are either flat or curved; both lines should be
parallel to each other, close, but not touching (this is actually representative of how
the capacitor is made. Hard to describe, easier to just show:

(1) and (2) are standard capacitor circuit symbols. (3) is an example of capacitors
symbols in action in a voltage regulator circuit.

The symbol with the curved line (#2 in the photo above) indicates that the capacitor
is polarized, meaning it's probably an electrolytic capacitor. More on that in the types of
capacitors section of this tutorial.
Each capacitor should be accompanied by a name -- C1, C2, etc.. -- and a value. The
value should indicate the capacitance of the capacitor; how many farads it has.
Speaking of farads...

Capacitance Units
Not all capacitors are created equal. Each capacitor is built to have a specific amount of
capacitance. The capacitance of a capacitor tells you how much charge it can store,
more capacitance means more capacity to store charge. The standard unit of
capacitance is called the farad, which is abbreviated F.
It turns out that a farad is a lot of capacitance, even 0.001F (1 milifarad -- 1mF) is a big
capacitor. Usually you'll see capacitors rated in the pico- (10-12) to microfarad (10-6)
range.
Prefix Name Abbreviation Weight Equivalent Farads

Picofarad pF 10-12 0.000000000001 F

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 Nanofarad nF 10-9 0.000000001 F

Microfarad µF 10-6 0.000001 F

Milifarad mF 10-3 0.001 F

Kilofarad kF 103 1000 F

When you get into the farad to kilofarad range of capacitance, you start talking about
special caps called super or ultra-capacitors.

Role of Capacitors in electronics

Power conditioning:
In DC systems, capacitor is used as a filter (mostly). Its most common use is converting
AC to DC power supply in rectification (such as bridge rectifier). When AC power is
converted into fluctuating (with ripples i.e. not a steady state with the help of rectifier
circuits) DC power (Pulsating DC) in order to smooth and filter out these ripples and
fluctuation, DC Polar capacitor is used. Its value is calculated precisely and depends on
the system voltage and the demand load current.

Decoupling Capacitor:
Decoupling capacitor is used, where we have to decouple the two electronics circuits. In
other words, the noise generated by one circuit is grounded by decoupling capacitor
and it does not affect the performance of other circuit.

Coupling Capacitor:
As we know that Capacitor blocks DC and allows AC to flow through it (we will discuss it
in the next session that how does it happens). So it is used to separate AC and DC
signals (also used in the filter circuits for the same purpose). Its value is calculated in
such a way that its reactance is minimized on the basis of frequency, which we want to
pass through it. Coupling Capacitor is also used in filters (ripple remover circuits like
RC filters) to separate AC and DC signal and removes the ripples from pulsating DC
supply voltage to convert it into pure AC voltage after rectification.

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Role of Capacitor in AC Circuits:
In an AC circuit, capacitor reverses its charges as the current alternates and produces a
lagging voltage (in other words, capacitor provides leading current in AC circuits and
networks)

Role of Capacitor in DC Circuits:

In a DC Circuit, the capacitor once charged with the applied voltage acts as an
open switch.

Types of Capacitors

There are four types of capacitors:

• Parallel Plate Capacitor

• Spherical capacitor
• Cylindrical capacitor

Parallel Plate Capacitor

The parallel plate capacitor consists of two metal plates of Area, A and is separated by
a distance d. The plate on the top is given a charge +Q and that at the bottom is given
the charge –Q. A potential difference of V is developed between the plates.
The separation is very small compared to the dimensions of the plate so that the effect
of bending outward of electric field lines at the edges and the non-uniformity of surface
charge density at the edges can be ignored.

The charge density on each plate of

parallel plate capacitor has a magnitude
of σ
σ = Q/A
From Gauss law, E = Q/ε0A
Also, E = V/d
Now taking field due to the surface
charges, outside of the capacitor,

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Spherical Capacitor
Let’s consider a spherical capacitor that
consists of two concentric spherical shells.
Suppose the radius of the inner sphere,
Rin = a and radius of the outer sphere,
Rout = b. The inner shell is given a positive
charge +Q and the outer shell is given –Q.
The charge enclosed by the sphere is Q.
Thus by Gauss’s law,

The potential difference in Spherical Capacitor between the two conducting shells is:

which yields,

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Cylindrical Capacitor
Consider a solid cylinder of radius, a surrounded by
a cylindrical shell, b. The length of the cylinder is l
and is much larger than a-b to avoid edge effects.
The capacitor is charged so that the charge on
inner cylinder is +Q and outer cylinder is –Q.
From gauss’s law,

Where λ = Q/l, linear charge density

The potential difference of Cylindrical Capacitor is given by,

Where we have chosen the integration path to be along the direction of the electric field
lines. As expected, the outer conductor with negative charge has a lower potential. That
gives

Combination of capacitors

When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of
the series capacitors’ individual capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected
in series, the overall effect is that of a single (equivalent) capacitor having the sum
total of the plate spacings of the individual capacitors. As we’ve just seen, an increase
in plate spacing, with all other factors unchanged, results in decreased capacitance.

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Thus, the total capacitance is less than any one of the individual capacitors’
capacitances. The formula for calculating the series total capacitance is the same
form as for calculating parallel resistances:

When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the
individual capacitors’ capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in
parallel, the overall effect is that of a single equivalent capacitor having the sum total
of the plate areas of the individual capacitors. As we’ve just seen, an increase in plate
area, with all other factors unchanged, results in increased capacitance.

Thus, the total capacitance is more than any one of the individual capacitors’

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capacitances. The formula for calculating the parallel total capacitance is the same
form as for calculating series resistances:
As you will no doubt notice, this is exactly the opposite of the phenomenon exhibited
by resistors. With resistors, series connections result in additive values while parallel
connections result in diminished values. With capacitors, its the reverse: parallel
connections result in additive values while series connections result in diminished
values.

JUNCTION DIODE
The junction diode is the basic semiconductor diode format. It is used for many forms of
rectification for current levels both large and small, as well as high and low voltage
levels, and it finds many uses in all manner of electronic circuits.

The junction has the very useful property that electrons are only able to flow in one
direction. As current consists of a flow of electrons, this means that current is allowed to
flow only in one direction across the structure, but it is stopped from flowing in the other
direction across the junction.

The junction diodes can be obtained in a number of semiconductor materials - the

earliest diodes tended to be made from germanium, but most of them today are silicon
diodes.

The diode is simple in its basic concept, being formed from the junction of N-type and P-
type materials, although in reality the manufacture and theory of operation are more
complex.

DIODES
A diode is a device which has two active electrodes and two terminals and allows the
current to pass only in single direction. These devices are used to protect circuits by
limiting the voltage and also turn AC into DC. Semiconductors like silicon and
germanium are used to make most of the diodes. Even though they transmit current in a
single direction, the way with which they transmit differs. There are different kinds
of diodes and eac h type has their own applications.

Types of Diodes

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

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When electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light is
produced. In other words, light is generated when sufficient amount of forwarding
current passes through it. In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as they are
frequency levels that do not allow visibility. LEDs are available in different colors. There
are tri-color LEDs which can emit three colors at a time. Light color depends on the
energy gap of the semiconductor used.

Laser Diode
It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in CD drives,
DVDs and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs and are cheaper
when compared to other laser generators. Limited life is the only drawback of
these diodes.

Avalanche Diode
This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using avalanche effect. When
voltage drop is constant and is independent of current, the breakdown of avalanche
takes place. They exhibit high levels of sensitivity and hence used for photodetection.

Zener Diode
It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference voltage. These
are operated in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a certain voltage. If
current passing through the resistor is limited, a stable voltage is generated. Zener
diodes are widely used in power supplies to provide a reference voltage.

Schottky Diode
It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop will be
seen where there is a low current and at that stage, voltage ranges between 0.15 and

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0.4 volts. These are constructed in a different way in order to obtain that performance.
These are highly used in rectifier applications.

Photodiode

A photodiode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulted from the light.

These are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse bias diode and
used in solar cells and photometry. They are even used to generate electricity.

USES OF DIODES
1- Half Wave Rectifier

A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into a
Direct Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a single-phase
or a multi-phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that of the Half
Wave Rectifier.

The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete
sine wave of the AC supply in order to convert it into a DC supply. Then this type of
circuit is called a “half-wave” rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming AC
power supply as shown below.

2- Full Wave Rectifier

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load
resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When
point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the
forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is
in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistor R is
the phasor sum of the two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is
also known as a “bi-phase” circuit.

3- Bridge Rectifier

It consists of four diodes, which are connected in the form of bridge, hence, these types
of rectifiers are termed as bridge-wave rectifiers or bridge rectifiers. Different types of
diodes are used for designing bride-wave rectifier. These diodes are classified based on
the voltage and current ratings of the diodes. Thus, bridge-wave rectifiers can be
classified into different types based on the types of diodes used. Similarly, bridge wave

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rectifiers designed using diodes are called as uncontrolled rectifiers and rectifiers
designed using thyristors are called as controlled rectifiers. Let us start with diodes
1N4007 that are typically used to implement bridge-wave rectifier.

Role of Zener diode

The maximum voltage rating specifies how much reverse voltage a diode can
withstand before breakdown occurs. For most, this is at least 50 V. Ordinary diodes
that are reverse-biased have reverse current that is so small as to be zero, so that the
diode behaves similar to an open circuit. When the maximum voltage rating is
exceeded, however, a large reverse current is produced, and the diode becomes
destroyed. This destruction occurs at what is known as the reverse breakdown voltage
or peak inverse voltage (PIV). Zener diodes are created to operate optimally when
they are reverse-biased and, instead of being destroyed, will conduct electricity under
conditions where normal a diode's breakdown voltages are reached. Zener diode
breakdown voltages can range from 2 to 200 V.

Transistor
The transistor is a semiconductor device which transfers a weak signal from low
resistance circuit to high resistance circuit. The words transmean transfer
property and istor mean resistance property
offered to the junctions. In other words, it is a
switching device which regulates and amplify the
electrical signal likes voltage or current.

The transistor consists two PN diode connected

back to back. It has three terminals namely
emitter, base and collector. The base is the
middle section which is made up of thin layers.
The right part of the diode is called emitter diode and the left part is called collector-
base diode. These names are given as per the common terminal of the transistor. The
emitter based junction of the transistor is connected to forward biased and the collector-
base junction is connected in reverse bias which offers a high resistance.

Role in electronics

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The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Many
consider it to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century. Its importance in
today's society rests on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated
process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-
transistor costs. The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE
Milestone in 2009.

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known
as discrete) transistors every year,[38] the vast majority of transistors are now produced
in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with
diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete
electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an
advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors
(MOSFETs). "About 60 million transistors were built in 2002… for [each] man, woman,
and child on Earth."

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device.
Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in
controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard
microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to
design an equivalent mechanical system to control that same function.

Types of Transistors
There are so many types of transistors and they each vary in their characteristics and
each has their possess advantages and disadvantages. Some types of transistors are
used mostly for switching applications.

Some types of transistors are listed

below:

• Bipolar Junction Transistor

• Diffusion Transistor
• Avalanche Transistor
• Schottky Transistor
• Darlington Transistor
• Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor
• Field Effect Transistor
• Junction FET Transistor

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 • Dual Gate MOSFET
• Multiple-Emitter Transistor

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

These are current controlled devices and are of two types NPN and PNP. In NPN,
majority of current is carried by electrons. In PNP, majority of current is carried by holes.

Diffusion Transistor
These are one type of BJT and is formed by diffusion of dopants into a semiconductor
substrate. For example, Philco’s micro alloy diffused transistor.

Avalanche Transistor
It is one kind of Bipolar Junction Transistor which process the region of collector-
current/collector-to-emitter voltage and which is beyond the voltage of the breakdown of
collector-to-emitter also called avalanche breakdown voltage. The operation in here is
called avalanche-mode operations which is, it switches between high currents in less
than nanoseconds.

Schottky Transistor
When a transistor is combined with a schottky diode, it is called schottky transistor.
Introducing that type of diode prevents the transistors from saturating by diversion of
extreme input current.

Darlington Transistor
It is a transistor circuit made from two different transistors. It has a higher ability to gain
current. Its circuit can be inside an integrated circuit also.

Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor (HBT)

These types of transistors are used in analog or digital microwaves with higher
frequency. It provides faster switching speeds and provide better lithographic yield.
They present better emitter injection efficiency.

Field Effect Transistor (FET)

These are voltage controlled and has high input impedance which cause little current to
pass through them. They are unable to provide the same type amplification as BJTs.

Junction FET Transistor

This type of FET transistors has no PN junctions but a majority of current flows through
two electrical connections at either end called the Drain and Source respectively. These
are of two types N-channel and P-channel.

Dual Gate MOSFET

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It operates as two MOSFET devices in series. There are two gates which is made-up

along the length of the channel. Both gates affect the general MOSFET operation and
the output.

Multiple-Emitter Transistor
A multiple-emitter transistor is specialize bipolar transistor frequently used as the inputs
of transistor transistor logic (TTL) NAND logic gates. Input signals are applied to the
emitters. Collector current stops flowing simply, if all emitters are driven by the logical
high voltage, thus performing a NAND logical process using a single transistor. Multiple-
emitter transistors replace diodes of DTL and agree to reduction of switching time and
power dissipation.

MOSFETS
One form of MOSFET that is a particularly popular in several RF applications is the dual
gate MOSFET. The dual gate MOSFET is used in many RF and other applications
where two control gates are required in series. The dual gate MOSFET is fundamentally
a form of MOSFET where, two gates are made-up along the length of the channel one
after the other.

In this way, both gates influence the level of current flowing between the source and
drain. In effect, the dual gate MOSFET operation can be considered the same as two
MOSFET devices in series. Both gates affect the general MOSFET operation and
therefore the output. The dual gate MOSFET can be used in a lot of applications
including RF mixers /multipliers, RF amplifiers, amplifiers with gain control and the like.

JFETS
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JUGFET or JFET) has no PN-junctions but in its
place has a narrow part of high resistivity semiconductor material forming a “Channel” of
either N-type or P-type silicon for the majority carriers to flow through with two ohmic
electrical connections at either end normally called the Drain and the Source
respectively. There are a two basic configurations of junction field effect transistor, the
N-channel JFET and the P-channel JFET. The N-channel JFET’s channel is doped with
donor impurities meaning that the flow of current through the channel is negative (hence
the term N-channel) in the form of electrons.

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FETS
The FET used in many circuits constructed from discrete components in areas from RF
technology to power control and switching to general amplification.

However the major use for the field effect transistor, FET is within integrated circuits. In
this application FET circuits are able to consume only very small levels of power, and
this enables the huge very large scale integrated circuits to operate. If bipolar
technology was used the power consumption would be orders of magnitude greater and
the power generated far too large to accommodate within a single integrated circuit.

USES
• Transistor as an amplifier

1- Coman base

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2- Common emitor,

3- Comman collector

• Transistor as an oscillator

• Transistor as an switch

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REFRENCE
• www.elprocus.com
• www.wikipedia.com
• www.google.com
• www.byjus.com
• Nootan Physics Book-XII

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