PYSCHOLOGICAL APPRAISAL OF SPIRITUALITY INDICES OF CRASH

HELMET PHOBIA AMONG NIGERIANS

By
David Adebayo Oluwole, PhD.
Dept. of Guidance & Counselling
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
[email protected]
234-803-4105-253

PYSCHOLOGICAL APPRAISAL OF SPIRITUALITY INDICES OF CRASH

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 HELMET PHOBIA AMONG NIGERIANS

Abstract
This study examined the spirituality factors associated with crash helmet
phobia among motorcycle cyclists and customers in Nigeria. The study
randomly selected 1,327 participants across 5 major cities in Nigeria. These
are Ibadan, Lagos, Kaduna, Kano and Enugu. They consist of 862 commercial
motorcyclists and 465 customers who responded to the crash helmet scale.
The survey uses a nationally representative probability sample selected
using an extended form of the two-stage random–digit selection procedure.
The survey employs a rotating panel design to gather data from
approximately 200 respondents on a weekly basis. Using the SPSS version
14.0 software for frequencies analysis, results showed that 56.9% of the
participants refused use of crash helmet because they believe people could
use the avenue to charm helmets for various evil machinations such as
money ritual. Also, 75.7% stated that the use of helmet could not prevent
accident most of the time. Majority of the commercial cyclists and customers
(93.2%) averred that the helmet is not convenient for them. The findings are
highly essential to raise awareness about the relevance of cultural reality in
the treatment of helmet phobia among Nigerians. It was recommended that
training and education could be effective in re-orientating the motorcycle
cyclists and customers in Nigeria.
Keywords: Motorcyclists, Customers, Spirituality, Crash Helmet
Phobia, Culture, Psychopathology
Introduction
For the past ten years, motorcycle popularly known as ‘okada’ has
become a viable means of transport in Nigeria. This is as a result of fuel crisis
and near total collapse of road infrastructure. This boosted the commercial
motorcycle transportation business in almost every major towns and cities
such as Lagos, Ibadan, Abuja, Kaduna, Enugu, Port Harcourt with swarm of
commercial motorcyclists carrying two or more customers.
Despite the fact that it enjoys high patronage as a means of
transportation, the menace of fatal accidents is on the high side. Many
hospitals do have a staggering record of commercial motorcycle accident
victims daily. A study carried out in 1993 in Yola, a medium-sized city in the

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north-eastern state of Adamawa, Nigeria, provides additional insight into the
nature of the motorcycle business. The study showed that about 88% of the
commercial cyclists were aged between 18 and 30 years and only 47% of
them received formal education of any form. The 1993 survey also elicited
information from 106 motorcycle users. Customers were generally: male
(65%); young adults between 18 and 30 years of age (57%); in possession of
a diploma from a secondary school or higher (83%); unemployed but in the
job market (59%); and of low-to-moderate income levels (45%). Commercial
motorcycles were valued mainly because they were fast and readily
available. Customers disliked them because they were considered to be
unsafe (stated by two-thirds of respondents) and expensive (stated by 43%
of respondents). The survey of commercial motorcycles customers in Akure,
Nigeria also revealed customer concerns over safety – 61% felt operators
drove too fast and 31% felt they drove too recklessly. Left with few mobility
options, many patronize Commercial motorcycles well knowing the
significant risks involved (Solagberu, Adekanye, Ofoegbu, Udoffa, Abdur-
Rahman, Taiwo, 2006).
Okadas, like all motorcycles elsewhere, have a far higher rate of
crippling and fatal accidents per unit distance than automobiles. A study
conducted in the USA in 2004 showed that While about 15.0 cars out of
100,000 ended up in fatal crashes, the rate for motorcycles was 69.3 per
100,000 (WHO, 2004).
A 1998 study at the Obafemi Awolowo Teaching Hospital, Ile-Ife,
Nigeria, showed that injuries to limb the occurred in 79.3% of patients who
reported at the emergency department of that hospital. The same study also
stated the male: female ratio of accident victims to be around 2.8:1, and
identified the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) to be practically
nonexistent among most commercial cyclists (The UK Department for
Transport, 2004).
In a study by Li-Pin, Gong-Li, Qi-En, Lin Zhang and Sing Kai (2008), they
observed that motorcycle helmet wearing rates remain low in smaller cities
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in developing countries. In their study of mid-size cities in China, a large
proportion of both drivers and customers (34% and 71%, respectively) did
not wear a helmet, or did not have their helmet fastened (34% and 14%).
Proper helmet usage rates were lower among male drivers, younger people,
on secondary streets, and during the evenings and weekends. The majority
of the 2325 drivers interviewed (90%) acknowledged the benefits of helmet
wearing, but 72% reported that helmets are not always comfortable, and
only 20% said they would wear a helmet for preventive purposes (Li-Ping, et
al., 2008).
In Nigeria, Federal Road Safety Commission (2008) has said that the
commercial motorcycle popularly known as okada accounts for 60 per cent
of all intra-urban road accidents in the country. This unabated high accident
risk therefore inform the reason why the FRSC, inaugurated the National Joint
Task Force on the enforcement of the use of safety helmets by motorcyclists
on 15th December 2008 in Abuja.
The Commission also noted that over 90 per cent of all commercial
motorcyclistsin Nigeria were untrained and unlicensed and as a result of this,
not qualified to operate on Nigerian roads. The National Action Committee in
pursuance of the goal of creating sanity on the Nigerian roads commenced
the enforcement of the use of safety helmets by motorcycle cyclists in
Nigeria from January 1, 2009. The crash helmet safety measure attracted
outcry, resistance and protests from both the commercial motorcyclists
associations and customers across the country.
This research is therefore, interested in examining factors responsible
for the resistance over the use of the crash helmet among Nigerians and to
justify the buffering effect of health belief model on the phobia for the crash
helmet.
Numerous research studies have addressed the importance of spiritual
beliefs in the lives of Nigerian people and the potential influences of
spirituality on mental health (Ogundayo, 2007; Oluwole, 2008a; Oluwole,
Okon, Petters, & James, 2008). In the study of the pattern and strength of
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religiosity among world people, out of the 76 countries investigated, Nigeria
expressed the strongest level of religiosity by scoring 93 per cent (Razib,
2004; Inglehart and Norris, 2005). Researchers have reported that a majority
of people within Nigeria find spirituality beliefs as an important aspect of
their lives (Oluwole, 2008a; Oluwole, 2008b; Oluwole, In Press).
Though spirituality may be a pathway to mental and physical health,
yet, the attendant problems are usually being overlooked or unexpressed.
Most of the trauma, disappointments, manipulations and brainwashing that
are experienced by individuals in their religious groups are hidden to those
outside the groups. Spiritual beliefs have the power to negatively or
otherwise transform and maintain enormous changes in one's perceptions,
values, and behaviours. It could be a personal source of strength in coping
with physical, mental, emotional, or social stress (Oluwole, 2008a) while it
could also in the long run, inhibit rational and effective functioning of an
individual’s cognition (Anderson and Worthen, 1997; Millison, 1995). The
literature on spirituality from scientific perspective is problematic in that it
lacks consistent conceptual and operational definitions (McGrath, 1997;
Seaward, 1995; Jenkins, 1995 and Warfield, 1996).
The Health Belief Model (HBM) was initially propounded by social
psychologists (Hochbaum, Rosenstock & Kegels in the 1950s). It was used to
understand the lack of participation in disease detection and prevention
programs established by the U.S. Public Health Service. The first documented
use of the HBM was by Hochbaum (1958) who studied probability samples of
more than 1200 adults in 3 cities that conducted tuberculosis (TB) screening
programs in mobile X-ray units. It was explained that one’s “readiness” to
obtain an X-ray was assessed by their beliefs that they were susceptible to
tuberculosis and their beliefs in the personal benefits of early detection
(Rosenstock, Strecher, & Becker, 1994).
Later the HBM was expanded to understand people’s responses to
symptoms and their adherence to medical regimens (Janz, Champion, &
Strecher, 2002). One of the related theories is known as value-expectancy
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theory. As such, value-expectancy theories of health-related behavior,
explain behavior in terms of the desire to avoid illness or to get well (value)
and the belief that a specific health action available to a person prevents
illness (expectation) (Janz et al., 2002). The expectation component is
represented by the individual’s estimate of personal susceptibility to and
severity of an illness, and of the likelihood of being able to reduce that threat
through personal action (Janz et al., 2002).
Against this backdrop, it could be explained that the reservations
commercial motorcyclists and their customers have for crash helmet use
may be associated with various unexpressed irrational beliefs they have
about the crash helmet. This may also make them feel rather unsafe using
the crash helmet than using it.
The HBM has been one of the most widely used psychosocial
approaches to explaining health-related behavior. It explains why people fail
to practise the desired health behaviour and also explains that the
probability that one will engage in a particular undesirable health behaviour
is related to one’ belief about the seriousness or severity of the potential
illness. Thus, it has been used to explore a number of long and short-term
health behaviour including sexual risk behaviour (Campus, 2005). It is
therefore pertinent that the psychopathology of helmet use phobia that
pervades Nigeria as a country should be explored. This is the thrust of this
paper.

Method
Participants
Participants were 1,327 who responded to the crash helmet scale across 5
major cities in Nigeria. These are Ibadan, Lagos, Kaduna, Kano and Enugu.
The participants were all adults of age 18 and older. They consist of 862
commercial motorcyclistsand 465 customers. The survey uses a nationally
representative probability sample selected using an extended form of the
two-stage random–digit selection procedure described by Waskberg (1978).
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The survey employs a rotating panel design to gather data from
approximately 200 respondents on a weekly basis. Each weekly sample
consists of about 100 new respondents. For six weeks (December 1, 2008 to
January 9, 2009), the study added questionnaires to the weekly survey
administered to the new national samples of about 100 respondents. The
total sample for the 6-week period was 1,327 respondents, and the response
rate for the survey ranged from 0.72 to 0.75 during the 6-week period.
Table 1.1: Percentage, mean and standard deviation scores of various age
groups
Frequenc Cumulative
Age y Percent Percent
18-30 464 37.8 37.8
30-39 434 35.4 73.2
40-49 189 15.4 88.6
50 and
140 11.4 100.0
above
Total 1227 100.0

The data above showed that about 37.5% of the total respondents were
quite young (18-30) and they are supposed to be at early career
development stage of their lives.

Table 1.2: Percentage, mean and standard deviation scores of commercial

motorcycle users
Frequenc Cumulative
Respondents y Percent Percent
Commercial
862 70.3 70.3
motorcyclists
Customers 365 29.7 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

70.3% of the respondents in this study were commercial motorcyclists while

the rest were customers.

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Table 1.3: Percentage, mean and standard deviation scores of commercial
motorcycle users

Cumulative
Respondents Frequency Percent Percent
Male 676 55.1 55.1
Female 551 44.9 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

55.1% of the respondents in this study were males. What informs this may
be that majority of the commercial motorcyclists were males.

Measure
The Crash Helmet Abhorrence Scale was constructed and validated by the
author. Out of several reasons presented by people as the factors for
abhorrence of crash helmet use among Nigerians, they were summarized
into eight statements. The scale consisting the eight items could best
describe the socio-cultural norm of most commercial motorcyclists and
customers about the use of crash helmet while meandering through Nigeria
roads. The items were:
1. The crash helmet could be charmed for evil purposes.
2. Crash helmet could bring curse on whoever uses it.
3. Crash helmet could be used to rob people of good fortune.
4. Crash helmet cannot prevent accident.
5. Crash helmet is inconvenient.
6. Crash helmet is not appropriate for our culture and it is strange
culture.
7. A typical crash helmet that is being used by several customers is a
public material and may therefore become unsafe.
8. Crash helmet could transmit diseases.
For all the items, respondents were asked whether they strongly agreed,
agreed, disagreed or strongly disagreed. These items are both face and
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criterion valid, in that, they directly assess the reasons behind the phobia of
the people about the use of crash helmet. The internal reliability is 0.76.

Statistical analyses
All data were analyzed using the SPSS version 14.0 software and frequencies
tabulations means were determined with a 95% confidence limit at a P value
of < 0.05 taken as significant.

Results
Table 1.4: The crash helmet could be charmed to bring evil
Cumulative
Responses Frequency Valid Percent Percent
No 529
56.9 56.9
yes 698
43.1 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

Table 1.5: Crash helmet may bring curse on whoever uses it

Valid Cumulative
Responses Frequency Percent Percent
no 480 39.1 39.1
yes 747 60.9 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

Table 1.6: Crash helmet is used to rob people of good fortune

Valid Cumulative
Responses Frequency Percent Percent
No 214 17.4 17.4
yes 1013 82.6 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

Table 1.7: Crash helmet cannot prevent accident

Responses Frequency Cumulative Percent

no 53 24.3
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 yes 1174 100.0
Total 1227

Table 1.8: Crash helmet is inconvenient

Cumulative
Responses Frequency Percent Percent
no 83 6.8 6.8
yes 1144 93.2 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

Table 1.9: Crash helmet is not appropriate for our culture and it is
strange

Cumulative
Responses Frequency Percent Percent
no 450 36.7 36.7
yes 777 63.3 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

Table 1.10 A typical crash helmet that is being used by several customers is
a public material and may therefore become unsafe
Cumulative
Responses Frequency Percent Percent
no 318 25.1 25.1
yes 909 74.1 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

Table 1.11: Crash helmet could transmit diseases

Cumulative
Responses Frequency Percent Percent
no 513 41.8 41.8
yes 714 58.2 100.0
Total 1227 100.0

Discussion

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Research on crash helmet phobia is an area of research that is gradually
emerging. This study explored helmet phobia among motorcycle cyclists and
customers in Nigeria. While investigating whether the crash helmet could be
charmed to bring evil to the user or not, 56.9% affirmed that it is possible
that occult people could use the avenue to charm helmets for various evil
machinations such as money ritual. This widespread belief of black magic or
voodoo practices is rampant in Nigeria hence the pathological fear for the
helmet use.
This belief was corroborated by a recast of the statement in item number
2 of the questionnaire. For instance, participants who indicated that crash
helmet may eventually bring curse on whoever uses was calculated to be
60.9%.
In table 3, it was discovered that 82.6% of the respondents agreed that
helmet could be used to rob people of their fortune. Moreover, 75.7% stated
that the use of helmet could not prevent accident most of the time. This may
be as a result of already existing high mortality rate in Nigeria due to some
other factors such HIV/AIDS, robbery incidents and motor accidents. The
result also revealed that majority of the commercial cyclists and customers
(93.2%) averred that the helmet is not convenient for them. The similarity in
some findings of Li-Pin, Gong-Li, Qi-En, Lin Zhang and Sing Kai (2008) with
the recent study lends credence to the relativist paradigm of culture and
psychology. Moreover, 63.3% of the respondents indicated that the use of
helmet is strange and inappropriate to the Nigerian culture. These
observations are attitudinal factors because there are so many other safety
practices such as use of seat belt in vehicle and oral vaccination which are
imbibed by the citizenry though with some grudges. On whether a typical
crash helmet that is being used by several customers is a public material and
may therefore become unsafe, 94.9% agreed to this statement. Most
Nigerians believe that crash helmet is akin to cap or clothing material with
personalised aura, smell and sweat. People are always careful about using
other people’s personal effect because of some perceived spiritual
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implications. This view was supported by 58.2% response rate to the
likelihood of crash helmet possibility of transmitting diseases.
The underlying overbearing factors may be low education which makes
individuals to overspiritualise their problems as Solagberu, Adekanye,
Ofoegbu, Udoffa, Abdur-Rahman, Taiwo (2006) noted that about 83% of the
commercial motorcycle customers in Nigeria are not well educated. It
appears here that training and education could be effective in reorientating
the motorcycle cyclists and customers in Nigeria. This divergent finding may
be explained on the strength and the influence spirituality could exert on the
helmet use behaviour.
Counselling and Educational Implications and conclusion
The findings of the current study also have some implications for
counselling, clinical and social psychologists. These psychologists should be
able to use their skills to assist in managing cultural psychopathology of
crash helmet use among commercial motorcyclistsand their customers.
Specifically, the populace could be counseled and educated on safety
education. Psychologists could also develop training and organize workshops
(through the assistance of the Federal Road Safety Commission and Police
authorities) for the commercial motorcycle cyclists. The outcome of this
could make the federal Road Agency to appreciate the roles of counselling in
making people live a healthy life, and thereby improving the quality of life in
the country.
The findings are highly essential to raise awareness about the relevance
of cultural reality in the treatment of helmet phobia among Nigerians. More
importantly, since findings have shown that both cyclists and customers of
the commercial motorcycles popularly known as ‘Okada’ do have excessive
fear for helmet use due to some psycho-spiritual reasons identified in this
study, psychologists should design interventions that would help to re –
orientate the commercial motorcycle cyclists. Similarly, a strong advocacy on
helmet use should be made.

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 It is imperative to acknowledge that the present study is centred on
commercial motorcyclists in Nigeria. This therefore, calls for some caution in
generalizing the findings of the study in spite of the homogenous nature of
motorcycling worldwide. Thus, the findings may not be applicable to the
general helmet use behaviours of motorcycle cyclists in order parts of the
world. These limitations notwithstanding, the study has significantly
contributed to the emerging knowledge in helmet use behaviour and
motorcycling.
The results of this study are important because they contribute to
knowledge base in helmet use behaviour; and also to a greater
understanding of how motorcycle cyclists and customers perceive helmet
use. The findings also provide greater insight into the attitude of the
respondents to crash helmet hence the overall import on commuter
generally in Nigeria cannot be overemphasized.
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