Package P3: Kiln – Operation and Optimisation

Module 3: Fuel Types and their Characteristics

TEXTBOOK

Course name : Kiln operation and optimisation

Course number : P3
Module number : 3
Module title : Fuel types and their characteristics
Module objectives : The participants will be able to:

Identify the influence of fuel characteristics

on kiln operation.
Explain how operation is supervised to take
the various fuel characteristics into account.
Specify required actions and set points set-
tings for various characteristics.

Duration : 0,25 day

Necessary facilities : Classroom.
Access to laboratory with fuel testing equip-
ment.
Necessary instruments : -

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Package P3: Kiln – Operation and Optimisation
Module 3: Fuel Types and their Characteristics

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FUEL TYPES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS ....................................................... 3

3.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 3
3.2 FUEL OIL .................................................................................................................. 3
3.2.1 Fuel oil properties ................................................................................................ 4
3.2.2 Fuel oil preparation .............................................................................................. 6
3.2.3 Fuel oil atomisation ............................................................................................. 7
3.2.3.1 Viscosity ....................................................................................................... 8
3.2.3.2 Oil pressure ................................................................................................... 8
3.2.3.3 Flow regulation ............................................................................................. 8
3.2.3.4 Regulating the oil spray angle .................................................................... 12
3.2.4 Fuel oil burners .................................................................................................. 13
3.3 COAL ....................................................................................................................... 13
3.3.1 Coal characteristics ............................................................................................ 14
3.3.2 Coal classification ............................................................................................. 18
3.3.2.1 The concept of rank .................................................................................... 18
3.3.2.2 Chemical composition and properties of coal ............................................ 19
3.3.2.3 Moisture ...................................................................................................... 20
3.3.2.4 Volatile matter ............................................................................................ 21
3.3.2.5 Ash in coal .................................................................................................. 22
3.3.2.6 Calorific value ............................................................................................ 22
3.3.2.7 Analyses of coal ash ................................................................................... 23
3.3.2.8 Summary..................................................................................................... 24
3.3.3 Coal preparation ................................................................................................ 24
3.3.3.1 Moisture content ......................................................................................... 24
3.3.3.2 Fineness ...................................................................................................... 25
3.3.4 Utilising special coal types ................................................................................ 26
3.3.4.1 The use of low grade coal in cement kiln systems ..................................... 26
3.3.4.2 The use of anthracite and petroleum coke in cement kiln systems ............ 30
3.3.5 Components introduced with the fuel ................................................................ 34
3.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ......................................................................... 35

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FUEL TYPES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In principle almost all types of fuel can be used for firing rotary kilns: coal, anthracite,
lignite, petroleum coke, heavy fuel oil, crude oil, natural gas, coal gas and mixtures
thereof. However for firing in the rotary kiln the flame must release the heat at a tem-
perature high enough for the clinker formation process to take place. This can rule out
some fuel types, which display very low theoretical flame temperatures, e.g. coals with
very high ash content.

In the international cement industry, the majority of cement plants utilise coal of vary-
ing qualities as the main fuel source for firing in the kiln system.

The use of oil as the main fuel is limited although some oil will always be used in heat-
ing of the kilns and for firing in auxiliary furnaces etc. The use of gas as a primary fuel
source is worldwide quite limited and will therefore not be dealt with here in detail.

Alternative fuels such as sawdust, used tires and combustible waste materials of high
calorific values, are receiving growing attention in the cement industry. For the success-
ful application of these fuels in the cement kiln, various aspects must be considered that
differs according to the highly variable fuel characteristics. These alternative fuels are
therefore not treated in this module.

This module consists of two main parts relating to fuel type and their characteristics and
a summary part. The two main parts comprise:

• Fuel oil, its properties and preparation including atomisation and fuel oil
burners
• Coal, its characteristics, classification and preparation including utilisation of
special coal types and components introduced with the fuel.

3.2 FUEL OIL

All cement plants use oil at some point in the plant. For instance for start up and heat-
ing of a coal fired kiln and for use in auxiliary furnaces. For this use normally expen-
sive diesel oil is used, as it requires no preheating to burn easily and thus only simple
installations. As the use of diesel oil and other lighter oil types are limited to these pur-
poses, the following part will concentrate on the heavier and cheaper oils used for kiln
firing.

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Module 3: Fuel Types and their Characteristics

The section comprises the following subsections:

• Fuel Oil Properties, describing the basic properties of fuel oil

• Fuel Oil Preparation, including oil firing installations and preheating
• Fuel Oil Atomisation, including the influence of viscosity, pressure, flow
regulation, and oil spray angle and;
• The development of fuel oil burners

3.2.1 Fuel oil properties

Fuel oils come in several types such as gasoil, light fuel oil and heavy fuel oil. The
chemical composition within various types varies only little with the origin of the crude
oil and the refining process. The price differs considerably for the various types and
heavy oil is often considerably cheaper than for instance gasoil. This is the main reason
that cement plants use heavy fuel oils.

Basically all fuel oils are composed of approximately 86% Carbon, 11 – 17 % Hydro-
gen and 1 – 2 % Sulphur. The sulphur content in heavy fuels-oils is more than twice as
much as in lighter gas-oils, reaching levels of 4 – 5 %.

The sulphur content of the fuel oil is a main concern of the cement plant as sulphur may
accumulate in the kiln system to a point where is can cause closure of riser pipes and
blocking of cyclones. This is described in more detail in Module 4.

The most noticeable difference between the oil types is the oil temperature that is re-
quired to obtain a viscosity of 2 – 2,5°E (degree Engler) or 12 – 18 cSt (centiStoke).
Viscosity is measured in various units of which degree Engler (°E) is the easiest for our
purpose. The viscosity is the most important figure for the practical use of fuel oil and
viscosities in the range between 2 – 2,5°E is required by most burners for the satisfac-
tory atomisation of the oil.

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Figure 3.1 shows the variation of the viscosity with the temperature; it is fortunate that
the shape of the curve is nearly always the same so that when a viscosity is known at
one temperature, the viscosity at other temperatures can be predicted. It is seen in Figure
3.1 that to obtain 2°E gas oils need heating to less than 20°C and heavy oils to more
than 150°C.

Figure 3.1 Viscosity / temperature relation.

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Module 3: Fuel Types and their Characteristics

3.2.2 Fuel oil preparation

Before using heavy oil as fuel it is necessary to treat it, as it cannot be utilised in its raw
form. The treatment necessary for optimum combustion of heavy fuel is as follows:

• Heating to constant temperature and desired viscosity

• Pressure necessary for atomisation
• Proper flow for the burner
• Proper oil spray angle

Figure 3.2 describes the basic components of the oil firing installation.

Figure 3.2 Typical Installation for an oil fired kiln.

The oil is stored in a storage tank (1), usually placed at the perimeter of the plant and
surrounded by a high wall. This acts as a dam if the tank leaks and confines the leaking
oil to the immediate area of the tank.

Oil pumps (2) transfer the oil to the feed tank (3) and from here the oil is pumped by
high-pressure pumps (4) through the pre-heater (5) and the burner station (6) to the
burner (7).

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The pre-heater supplies the burner with oil at a predetermined pressure and temperature,
irrespective of variations in the oil quantity and quality. The burner station is the final
control position for supervision of these parameters. The tank (9) contains light diesel
oil for the boiler (8), which in turn supplies steam to the pre-heater, the burner station
and the heating coils in the storage and feed tanks.

It is essential that the oil temperature and the oil pressure before the burner station is
automatically kept constant to avoid disturbances in the oil atomisation and oil flow
rate.

Preheating of the oil can be affected with steam, electrically or via heat transmitting oil.
When heating the oil to more than 130°C, heat transmitting oil is normally preferred.

The burner station monitors the oil temperature, pressure and flow rate and will give an
alarm if pre-set ranges are exceeded. Furthermore it shuts off the oil to the burner when
appropriate and purges the oil burner with air or steam.

Measurement of the oil flow is either carried out by displacement type or turbine type
meters. In modern installations, the meter is often through a PI regulator connected to
the oil flow-regulating device so that the pre-set amount of oil is maintained within ±
0,25%.

When handling fuel oil special safety precautions are not required as the flash point of
heavy fuel oil is as high as 110°C. Open tanks should of course not be heated exces-
sively, but the rest of an oil installation is closed and offers no risk when it is kept clean
and without breakage. A serious risk exists, however whenever oil is introduced into the
kiln without being ignited or if burned with a deficit of air. Explosions both in the kiln
and in the precipitator can occur. An interlocking system stopping the oil flow by means
of a magnetic (solenoid) valve when disturbances occur is therefore a necessity for safe
oil firing.

3.2.3 Fuel oil atomisation

The properly prepared and heated fuel oil must be atomised in droplets of a suitable size
and mixed with the combustion air. Practice has shown that oil droplets should be of an
average size of 80 – 100 µm as finer droplets are difficult to mix with the air and lar-
ger droplets burn too slowly.

Proper atomisation is vital for the combustion process of the oil. Droplets beyond a cer-
tain size will not combust completely during the time-span allocated within the flame
and CO is created by the flame even at elevated oxygen levels in the kiln.

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Large droplets will furthermore have a tendency to fall out of the flame and drop burn-
ing onto the charge in the kiln. When this happens, reducing conditions are created in
the kiln, which will increase the re-circulation of sulphur and adversely affect the
clinker quality as well as significantly reduce the lifetime of lining materials.

Atomisation can be achieved using compressed air, steam or with the oil pressure alone,
also known as mechanical atomisation. When high capacities are desired, as for the kiln
main burner, the most widely used and most economic principle, is pressure atomisa-
tion.

The atomisation is effected by the oil's viscosity and pressure. Increasing viscosity as
well as reduced atomising pressure will reduce the atomisation and produce undesired
larger droplets.

3.2.3.1 Viscosity
The lower the temperature the higher the viscosity and the greater the difficulty to atom-
ise the oil. To obtain a desired atomisation the viscosity must therefore be kept constant
by maintaining a pre-set oil temperature. This is normally done automatically in the oil
preheating installation and monitored by the burner station which gives an alarm should
pre-set limits be exceeded. Increasing the pump pressure to compensate for a lower
temperature is impossible for the majority of oil fired installations.

When the oil preheating fails, the first noticeable effect is an increase in the CO levels
in the kiln. This is caused by the incomplete combustion of the now larger oil droplets.

3.2.3.2 Oil pressure

Atomisation is affected by the oil pressure and a high oil pressure is required to form
small oil drops. Since the flow rate of the oil is dependent upon the oil pressure and the
size of the discharge orifice, the discharge orifice must be selected according to the de-
sired flow rate. It is important that the selected orifice is not excessively large, so that a
suitable oil pressure is obtained at the desired flow rate.

3.2.3.3 Flow regulation

Regulating the flow rate when using pressure atomisation can be done by two princi-
ples:

(1) having a fixed orifice and changing the oil pressure

(2) using a discharge orifice of variable size and keeping constant oil pressure.

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3.2.3.3.1 Fixed orifice

When using the fixed orifice, the flow is controlled within a range given by the orifice
size by regulating the oil pressure between approximately 25 to 50 bar.

For the purpose of flame shaping, the oil flow in the burner head is often divided into an
axial and tangential component, which can be controlled independently. The tangential
flow introduces a rotating movement in the oil, which will then leave the orifice at an
angle. By adjusting the ratio between the two flows the oil spray angle can to some ex-
tent be adjusted.

A widely used burner of the fixed orifice type is the Pillard burner seen in figure 3.3.
The oil flow is divided into a tangential and an axial flow to permit flame regulation.
Increasing the ratio of tangential oil pressure to axial oil pressure will result in a larger
oil spray angle, which in conjunction with appropriate regulation of the primary air will
produce a wider flame. To increase the oil flow rate while maintaining the oil spray an-
gle, both the tangential and axial oil pressures are increased.

Figure 3.3 Pillard burner

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3.2.3.3.2 Variable orifice

An example of the variable orifice design is the FLS TFSM burner, which uses the ad-
justable needle valve principle for flow rate control. The nozzle, as seen in Figure 3.4,
consists of a circular orifice through which a concentric conical needle passes and the
nozzle is thus ring shaped. Displacing the needle changes the area of the nozzle, which
will then reduce or increase the oil flow, while the oil pressure remains constant. The
spray angle of the oil is adjusted independently of the flow rate as illustrated in Figure
3.5 by giving the oil more or less rotation. This is accomplished by adjustment of the
openings in the spreader part, which is performed, at the end of the burner.

Figure 3.4 TFSM burner.

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Figure 3.5 Spreader regulation.

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3.2.3.4 Regulating the oil spray angle

Regulation of the oil spray angle is a tool for shaping the flame. It is mostly used when
the burner type leaves little room for flame shape control by means of the injected pri-
mary air, e.g. a single channel oil burner seen in Figure 3.6. The only way of widening
or narrowing the flame on a single channel burner is by regulating the oil spray angle.

Figure 3.6 Single channel oil burner.

For a modern burner type seen in Figure 3.7 the amount and distribution of axial and
radial air is more important for the control of the flame shape and the oil spray angle is
normally kept at a moderate angle.

Figure 3.7 Multi channel oil and coal burner (Swirlax).

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In the initial stages of heating of a cold kiln it can be an advantage to start with a wide
and relatively soft flame to obtain a stable oil ignition. When the radiated heat from the
lining is sufficient to get a stable flame, the oil spray angle can be reduced to narrow the
flame in the kiln and reduce the thermal load on the lining.

3.2.4 Fuel oil burners

As burner technology has advanced rapidly, several types of burners for all fuel types
including oil are available from various suppliers. For heat economy reasons new burn-
ers have been implemented which often are designed to minimise the use of primary air
and subsequently require high primary air velocities and high primary air supply pres-
sure.

To ensure a good flame formation with oil the necessary flame momentum range be-
tween 1.200 to 1.500 % ms-1 and the optimum flame momentum is often slightly higher
with oil than for coal firing (reference is made to Module no. 2: Combustion Theory).

3.3 COAL
Coal is a solid fossil fuel and constitutes an important natural resource. It is related to
peat, which can be considered a precursor and as coal formed from plant-derived or-
ganic remains. Other fossil fuels such as petroleum and oil shales are generally agreed
to originate from animal organic remains.

Coal is not another form of carbon, as graphite or diamond, but is a complex mixture of
organic chemical substances containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, together with
smaller amounts of nitrogen, sulphur and some non-organic minerals.

The organic components of coal basically constitute its combustible part.

Thus, coal is a fossil, or an organic sedimentary rock, formed mainly by the action of
temperature and pressure on plant debris and associated with various amounts of mois-
ture and minerals. For such a rock to be called coal, however, it is conventionally re-
quired that the organic components constitute more than 50 % by weight on a dry basis.

The most widely used fuel type is coal. This is mainly due to coal being cheaper than oil
and easily available from domestic sources.

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In this section coal will be dealt with under the following headings:
• Coal characteristics
• Coal classification
• Coal preparation
• Utilising special coal types
• Avoiding reducing condition in the Kiln
• Firing installations for coal

3.3.1 Coal characteristics

Among the principle types of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) coal represents the
widest range of variations regarding quality.

Some typical range of properties for the main groupings of coal are shown on Figure
3.8. Representative examples on chemical composition, calorific values, etc. are also
given. It appears that as the coals become older it loses more and more of the gas form-
ing elements, as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen and is consequently being enriched in
carbon. Compared to oil and gas, the content of hydrogen in most coals is fairly low,
averaging 2 – 5 % H resulting in a low dew point of the waste gases, and a relatively
small difference between gross and net calorific values of 200 – 300 kcal/kg.

Figure 3.8 Properties of typical coals.

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The calorific value of a coal sample depends quite naturally on the content of inert sub-
stances such as moisture and ash, but the content of volatile material will also affect the
calorific value yet in a more complex way. Since the calorific values of hydrocarbons
are considerably higher than that of carbon, the calorific value will increase with the
volatiles. This is so for ordinary bituminous coals with moderate volatiles, see figure
3.9. For young and gas rich lignites, the opposite is found to be the case, due to an in-
creasing proportion of the volatiles being compounds nitrogen and oxygen, inactive in
the combustion.

Figure 3.9 Fuels and firing systems: calorific value / % volatiles.

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Figure 3.10 Seyler's coal chart.

Sulphur contents of 1% are indicated for the three types of coal selected in Figure 3.8.
The sulphur content of coals displays substantial variations depending on their origin.
Generally, European coal is moderate in sulphur (0,5 to 1,5%S), whereas coals from
certain locations in the USA occasionally are as high as 4 – 5 % S. Some British coals
hold chlorides in amounts that make them unsuitable for preheater kilns (1% chloride),
unless a kiln by-pass is installed.

A very illustrating graph to aid understanding the nature of coals is the so-called Sey-
ler's Chart reproduced in Figures 3.10 & 3.11. From this chart we can see that although
the properties may vary widely, the variations are bound to follow certain patterns.

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Seyler’s chart is used to classify a coal as anthracite, bituminous or lignitous as well as

to predict additional information such as the calorific value. An example in the use of
the chart is given in Figure 3.10. Here the C and H in the coal analysis are converted to
dry mineral free basis by division with the factor (100 – Ash – moisture) and termed C*
and H*. Entering the chart with C* on the abscissa and H* as the ordinate, the intersec-
tion point describes the coal type. Using the analysis given in the example of C* = 83,3
and H* = 5,3, the intersection point is seen to fall in the group of meta-lignitous coal.

SEYLER’s CHART

(Example of utilisation)

Coal Analysis Dry Mineral Free

Gas 29,3% C* 83,3

Moisture 2,55% H* 5,3
Ash 18,5% VM* 37,1
C 65,7% HS* 8055
H 4,16%
S 0,7%
HS 6534 kcal/kg
Hi 6130 kcal/kg

CONVERSION FACTOR TO ”DRY-MINERAL-FREE” :

100 ⋅ C
C* =
100 − Ash − H 2 O

*
(Same formula for H, VM and Hs)

Figure 3.11 Seyler's chart.

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3.3.2 Coal classification

The classification of coal is dealt with under the following points:

• The concept of rank

• Chemical composition and properties of coal
• Moisture
• Volatile matter
• Ash in coal
• Calorific value
• Analyses of coal ash

3.3.2.1 The concept of rank

Rank is an important concept in all coal classification systems. The rank is an expres-
sion of the fixed-carbon content of the coal, that is, the carbon which stays after the coal
is treated to a specific temperature, e.g. 925°C or 950°C, depending on which standards
are considered. In general, this ranking consists of peat, lignite, bituminous coal and an-
thracite, with corresponding fixed carbon contents increasing from about 29% to about
95%.

This rank or scale of coalification basically implies:

• progressive increase of the fixed carbon content;

• progressive decrease of the volatile matter content;
• progressive decrease of the hydrogen and oxygen content;
• progressive increase of the calorific value.

At the end of the scale of coalification, however, the calorific value tends to decrease
slightly because of the effect of the decrease in volatile matter. From a practical point of
view, the increase of calorific value is the most important because it enhances the value
of coal as a fuel.

All classification schemes use a measure of rank as one of the parameters to classify
coal. However, rank is not an objective property and therefore opinions may differ as to
which parameter would provide the best "measure" of rank.

Coals do not simply follow a single, band of development from the lowest to the highest
rank. Coal is formed from a diverse set of flora and different phenomena characterised

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by the various peat swamps and marshes from which coal originated. This led to a great
variety of coal types being formed throughout the geological ages; different coal types
can be found within one coal deposit and even within a single coal seam. Coals in dif-
ferent areas also reached their present rank under widely differing sets of conditions.
Thus, one may expect many distinct bands of coal development.

3.3.2.2 Chemical composition and properties of coal

Coals to be used in the cement industry are subjected to a range of analyses in order to
assess their properties with respect mainly to:

• their use as a fuel

• their qualities in relation to grinding.

In the classification of coals, distinction is made between two types of chemical analy-
sis:

• a proximate analysis which gives the relative amounts of moisture, volatile

matter, ash and fixed carbon in coal; and
• an ultimate analysis, which determines the total, amounts of each of the prin-
cipal elements present in coal, namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sulphur.

In addition to these analyses, it is of special importance to the cement industry also to

determine the heat value of the coal, its content of alkalis and chlorine as well as results
of certain other tests such as grindability, abrasion, swelling and safety index. More-
over, a sieve analysis may be performed on the raw coal. Finally, different tests on the
coal ash can be performed such as a determination of its chemical constituents and its
fusibility.

The different types of analyses performed on coal will briefly be described in the fol-
lowing.

Most chemical analyses on coal are carried out on air-dried samples and the percentages
of the various constituents are reported on this basis. However, the analytical results can
be modified by appropriate corrections to allow expressions (factors) to a number of
different bases.

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In an analysis scheme the following bases of reported results are used:

• as analysed (air dried) (ad) - data is expressed as percentages of the coal after
air drying until the sample has reached equilibrium with the laboratory atmos-
phere
• as received (ar) - here all results are expressed as percentages of coal received
by the laboratory
• dry basis (db) - data are expressed as percentages of the coal after the moisture
has been removed, which largely dependent on atmospheric conditions;
• dry, ash free basis (daf) - the coal is assumed to be free of both moisture and
ash
• dry, mineral matter free basis (dmmf) - the coal is assumed to be free of both
moisture and mineral matter and the data are therefore a measure of only the
organic component of coal.

Analyses calculated to the dmmf basis give a better measure of the organic portion of
coal than the daf basis. For example, when coal is heated to determine volatile matter,
volatile species will be evolved from both the organic constituents and from the decom-
position of the associated inorganic material. This will include water from the hydration
of the clay minerals, carbon dioxide from the carbonates, sulphides from pyrite and
marcasite, and hydrogen chloride from the chlorides. When volatile matter is calculated
to a daf basis, no allowance is made for this contribution from the decomposition of the
minerals and thus volatile matter on a daf basis will be higher than on a dmmf basis.
The difference will be most marked in coals high in pyritic sulphur, carbonates and
chlorides. An ash determination is however, easier to perform than the analyses required
for dmmf calculations.

3.3.2.3 Moisture
Knowledge of the moisture content of the coal has a bearing on the economic value of a
coal, since moisture is incombustible. A high moisture content is a disadvantage since it
reduces the calorific value; heat is required to vaporise the moisture and therefore this
amount of heat does little useful work.

Excessive moisture in the coal meal can hinder ignition and a high moisture content re-
duces the flame temperature, slowing the rate of combustion, increasing the burnout
time and resulting in a longer flame envelope and an increased risk of flame instability.

The moisture content can also influence the handling of the coal elsewhere in the proc-
ess. For example, a high moisture content can cause caking problems in the fine coal
bins and reduce the stability of the coal dosage equipment by affecting the flowability
of the coal meal. Spontaneous combustion problems can also be promoted by the mois-
ture content.

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Generally, coals with a low moisture content are preferred; however, a certain amount
of moisture is required to avoid the risk of explosion.

3.3.2.3.1 Free Moisture

Raw coal always contains a certain amount of moisture. The moisture content of a coal
sample is always expressed as a percentage of the initial wet weight.
Free moisture is the moisture, which is removed by air drying at or slightly above room
temperature. The amount of free moisture is determined by drying coal of a standard
amount and fineness for 24 hours at 30°C.

3.3.2.3.2 Moisture in air dried sample

The moisture remaining in an air dried sample is the hygroscopic moisture, which is
more tightly bound to the coal and is not removed until the sample has been heated for
some time at a temperature above 100°C.

3.3.2.3.3 Total moisture

The total moisture is the sum of the free moisture and the hygroscopic moisture. These
two quantities cannot immediately be added together, as their basis of calculation are
different.

Typical moisture percentages are given below:

Type of coal Free moisture in Hygroscopic moisture in

% of net weight
% of initial weight
Anthracite coals 5 – 10 1–2
Bituminous coals 5 – 10 2–6
Lignite 10 – 20 10 – 25

3.3.2.4 Volatile matter

The yield of volatile matter is one of the most commonly employed parameters in the
classification of coal. The volatile matter yield is an important property in combustion
reactions, providing a rough indication of the reactivity or combustibility of a coal.

Important steps in combustion are the devolatilisation, ignition and burning of the vola-
tiles. The mass of volatiles evolved varies with coal rank (as indicated by carbon con-
tent), decreasing with increasing rank for a given set of conditions. As the rank ap-
proach anthracite, the ignition temperature rises, and ignition becomes more difficult. In

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order to assist flame stability, volatile matter yield (daf) should preferably be at least
22%. Volatile matter also influences the length of a flame. No general correlation exists
between the volatile matter of a coal and the combustion behaviour, since other proper-
ties also influence these processes. The volatile matter of coal cannot be directly related
to flame stability or burnout. Yields of volatiles are heavily dependent of the combus-
tion process conditions, such as the final temperature reached, heating rate, particle size
and pressure.

Differences in the combustion of coals with the same volatile matter yield have been
observed and attributed to differences in their maternal composition. Volatile matter is
also one of the factors governing the reactivity and burnout efficiency of the residual
coke particle. Coke reactivity is one of the main factors determining combustion effi-
ciency. There is, unfortunately, no standard test for its determination.

Volatile matter is determined by heating the coal sample under rigidly controlled condi-
tions. Typically in a special oven in a nitrogen atmosphere at 900°C for 7 min. The per-
centage loss of mass less the percentage of moisture gives the proportion of volatile
matter.

3.3.2.5 Ash in coal

When a coal sample is incinerated, the pure carbon and any organic constituents will
burn completely and form water, CO2, SO2 and NO2 (if present). The residual amount of
ash depends on the content of mineral matter in the sample.

Ash is thus the residue left after combustion and its formation is influenced mainly by
the chemical composition, thermal properties and mode of occurrence of the mineral
matter in coal. Ash differs in both mass and composition from the mineral matter from
which it was formed.

Mineral matter (ash) is not merely an inert diluent of coal during combustion. It influ-
ences the reactivity of coal, lowering the calorific value and delaying ignition.

3.3.2.6 Calorific value

Calorific value (or specific energy) is one of the most widely employed parameters used
in classification schemes for the lower rank coals and is of obvious commercial signifi-
cance, both in the trade and evaluation of coal. In the operation of a cement kiln it is
considered the most important quality of the coal.

The maximum theoretical amount of energy available from a coal for a given process is
calculated from the calorific value, and consequently, the calorific value is used to de-
termine the quantity of coal required in the process.

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The amount of combustible ballast, that is, the mineral (ash) and water (moisture) con-
tents in coal influences the calorific value. A high ash and moisture content decreases
the calorific value.

The calorific value is, however, not directly related to the combustibility and reactivity
of the coal.

Distinction is made between gross calorific value and net calorific value.

In industrial installations the net calorific value is of more significance than the gross
calorific value since it allows for the loss of heat resulting in the latent heat of vaporisa-
tion of steam. However, the net calorific value can be calculated from the gross calorific
value, and vice versa.

Gross calorific value is determined by burning a weighed sample of coal under con-
trolled conditions in pure oxygen, usually in a calorimeter, and correcting the results for
the presence of sulphur and nitrogen.

The net calorific value is lower than the gross calorific value and these two values can
differ significantly for low rank coals with high moisture content. The net calorific
value is important in the commercial market since it gives a more accurate estimation of
the calorific value of coal under actual operating conditions. However, it is the gross
calorific value that is usually used in the various classification schemes. The two values
can be predicted from each other, if the moisture and hydrogen contents of the coal, as
burned, are known.

3.3.2.7 Analyses of coal ash

Various ash analyses may be performed both to predict the final composition of the
clinker produced in the rotary kiln and calculate the required corresponding raw mix
composition. Such analyses include a chemical analysis including the main oxides of
interest in the cement industry as well as the loss on ignition of the ash. Typically this is
carried out by X-ray fluorescence analysis of the coal ash sample.

In addition, the contents of alkalis, chloride and sulphur in the ash may be calculated on
the basis of their concentrations in the coal sample.

Finally, a determination of the fusibility of the ash may be carried out. The ash fusion
temperatures (AFT) are used in combustion applications to predict the slagging and
fouling properties of coal. The test provides relative information on a coal, which is
compared with similar data on coals of known behaviour. The empirical method for de-

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termining AFT's involves the gradual heating of a cone of ash at a controlled rate and in
a controlled atmosphere.

3.3.2.8 Summary
The purpose of the various physical and chemical studies described in the above is to
evaluate the value of the coal as a fuel and of its properties and thereby:

• evaluate the risk of self-ignition and explosions

• evaluate the coal consumption during kiln operation
• predict flame characteristics
• evaluate contribution to the re-circulation of alkalis and sulphur
• calculate the amount of ash absorbed in the clinker and the raw mix composi-
tion
• aid in the design of coal grinding installations

3.3.3 Coal preparation

The preparation of the raw coal for firing in a kiln system involves a drying and grind-
ing process.

The raw coal characteristics and the fact whether the fuel is meant for the kiln or cal-
ciner will decide the optimal parameters for the coal meal namely;

• Moisture content
• Fineness

3.3.3.1 Moisture content

The moisture content of the coal meal is important not only for the firing process but
also for the trouble free and safe operation of the coal milling plant and the coal meal
handling department.

The risk of fire and explosions can be limited considerably if the coal meal is produced
with a certain content of residual moisture.

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Figure 3.12 Recommended residual moisture of coal dust.

The recommended residual moisture content in coal meal depends on the content of hy-
groscopic moisture in the raw coal as indicated in figure 3.12. The higher the hygro-
scopic moisture of the raw coal, the higher the residual moisture in the finished coal
meal must be.

3.3.3.2 Fineness
To achieve a complete combustion in kiln and calciner and a satisfactory flame forma-
tion in the kiln, the proper fineness of the coal meal is very important. The optimal fine-
ness of the combustible is not necessarily identical for the kiln and the calciner. Due to
the different combustion conditions, most noticeable the lower combustion temperature
in the calciner, the combustible will often have to be ground finer for firing in the cal-
ciner.

The optimal fineness is mainly a function of the volatile content of the coal. As high
volatile coals will develop a very porous structure with a higher specific surface as the
gas is expelled, the burn out time is reduced compared to a low volatile coal. Thus the
optimal fineness decreases with increasing volatile content as indicated in figure 3.13

Figure 3.13 Recommended fineness of coal dust.

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3.3.4 Utilising special coal types

A substantial part of the production cost of clinker is the purchase of combustibles. The
utilisation of coal types which can be obtained at a competitive price on a calorific basis
will obviously reduce the production costs but can put special demands on the design
and operation of a kiln system.
In the following the experiences obtained with the use of high ash low calorific coal and
anthracite and petroleum coke in cement kilns are discussed.

3.3.4.1 The use of low grade coal in cement kiln systems

Generally, the cement industry normally receives low-grade coal types having specific
heat values below 5.000 kcal/kg.

No international definition of low-grade coal exists, but with reference to the use in the
cement industry we will here consider a coal low-grade if the content of mineral matter
in a dried coal sample exceeds 30% and/or if the net calorific value is below 5.000
kcal/kg (20,9 MJ/kg).

The cement industry is well suited to utilise low-grade coal as the mineral matter of the
coal can substitute the clay component in the raw meal and partly offset the extra cost of
transportation and grinding the mineral matter.

3.3.4.1.1 Impact on clinker quality

The low lime content of the introduced coal ash will require that the LSF of the raw
meal is increased when switching to firing with low-grade coal.

Figure 3.14 shows the relation between the ash content in the coal and the LSF of the
raw meal, in order to keep a constant LSF of 90% in the clinker. It is seen that when fir-
ing low-grade coal, the raw meal LSF must be increased up to between 100 and 115%
in order to keep a good clinker quality with LSF of 90%.

It is also necessary to ensure that:

• The coal ash is introduced continuously into the system at the anticipated rate
• The coal ash is distributed evenly in all the clinker, which means that the ash
should preferably be mixed with the raw meal before clinker nodulisation
starts

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Figure 3.14 Relation between the ash in coal meal and the raw meal.

The first condition implies that the raw coal must be homogenised before it is fed to the
coal mill, and that rapid changes between coal types or changing to oil firing is impos-
sible unless the kiln feed LSF instantaneously can be adjusted by the feeding of a sepa-
rate component such as fly ash.

To fulfil the second condition it is advantageous to introduce the low-grade coal in the
precalciner. In kiln systems with precalciner, 55 to 65% of the heat input will be di-
rected to the precalciner where the ash component formed by the combustion will be
thoroughly mixed with the raw meal.

In the rotary kiln, some of the ash introduced by the coal meal can settle on the already
formed clinker in the burning zone. In this case, the clinker will exhibit a centre with
relative high free lime and an ash layer on the surface. To avoid this phenomenon, a
modern burner, which can blow the coal ash high up into the kiln, must be utilised.

The ash content will as previously discussed influence the flame temperature and result
in a less intensive flame which can make it difficult to reduce the free lime in the clinker
even in a easy burning raw meal. By grinding the coal more finely, using a modern
burner with a high flame momentum and at times using preheated primary air, flame
intensity has been increased and satisfactory results have been obtained.

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3.3.4.1.2 Specific energy consumption

The use of low-grade coal will inevitably increase the calorific consumption of the kiln
system as compared to firing high-grade coal or fuel oil.

This is due to the fact that as the (cold) ash component replaces some of the (preheated)
raw meal, the raw meal/kiln gas ratio decreases and subsequently the temperature and
heat content of the smoke gas leaving the preheater increase.

The approximate relation between the ash content of coal meal and heat consumption of
a typical 4-stage precalciner kiln is depicted in Figure 3.15.

Figure 3.15 Approximate relation between ash content in coal meal and specific heat
consumption of a kiln system with 4-stage preheater

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For the same kiln system the relation between the ash content and the exhaust gas tem-
perature and volume is shown in figure 3.16.

Figure 3.16 Approximate relationship between ash content in coal meal, and temperature
and specific volume of exhaust gas from a kiln system with 4-stage preheater

It can be inferred from the graph, that the gas temperature is increased by approximately
30 °C and the volume by approximately 10% when the ash content is increased from 15
to 40%. Consequently, the smoke gas fan must be amply dimensioned for the utilisation
of low-grade coal.

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3.3.4.2 The use of anthracite and petroleum coke in cement kiln systems
Petroleum coke or pet coke is the undesirable waste of the petroleum refinery. Com-
pared with bituminous coal the fixed carbons and calorific values are considerably
higher in the petroleum coke, while the ash and volatile matter content is much lower.
An important feature is the high sulphur content which is directly related to the charac-
teristics of the crude oil being refined and to the cooking process employed (see figure
3.17).

Petroleum coke
as received air dry basis
Proximate analysis:
% Total moisture 8,03 0,00
% Inherent moisture 0,00 0,00
% Ash 0,27 0,29
% Volatile 10,25 11,15
% Fixed carbon 81,45 88,56
kcal/kg 7.787 8.471
% Sulphur 5,17 5,62
Hard-grove G.I. 60,00 0,00
Ultimate analysis:
% Moisture 8,03 0,00
% Carbon 80,00 86,99
% Hydrogen 3,52 3,83
% Nitrogen 1,44 1,57
% Chlorine 0,0000 0,0000
% Sulphur 5,17 5,62
% Ash 0,27 0,29
% Oxygen 1,57 1,70
Figure 3.17 Analyses of petroleum coke.

For the purpose of firing in cement kilns, important properties such as burn-out charac-
teristics of anthracite and petroleum coke are comparable. Petroleum coke generally has
burn-out properties similar to those of a coal type with a similar content of volatile mat-
ter and considerations regarding the combustion process of these low volatile fuels will
generally be valid for both.

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Notwithstanding these similarities, the elevated sulphur content of petroleum coke will
have a significant impact on the re-circulation of volatiles e.g. sulphur, chlorides and
alkalis (not to be confused with volatile matter of coal) within the kiln system. Common
problems encountered are formation of rings in the kiln, increased build-ups occurring
in the riser duct and frequent blockages of preheater cyclones, but the impact on kiln
operation will vary from plant to plant depending on raw meal characteristics, kiln op-
eration and the particular kiln type.

For these reasons, the successful firing of petroleum coke requires that the total input of
volatile components is routinely monitored and information is gathered to become fa-
miliar with the behaviour of the volatiles in the particular kiln.

3.3.4.2.1 Combustion considerations

The burn-out time of the coke particles will generally be high due to the dense coke
structure resulting from the low volatile content. Thus the required fineness will in-
crease and in Figure 3.18 the recommended fineness is related to the volatile content. It
is noted that the fineness for the calciner fuel is higher than for the rotary kiln.

Figure 3.18 Recommended fineness of fuel as function of the volatile content (daf) for
rotary kiln and calciner firing (normal temperature operation) respectively.

When considering the factors influencing the burn-out time of a coal particle, it be-
comes necessary to distinguish between the combustion process as it occurs in the kiln
as opposed to the calciner.

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3.3.4.2.2 Firing in the calciner

In the calciner the heat released by the combustion process is immediately absorbed by
the raw meal in the strongly endothermic calcination reaction.

Heat + CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

As long as a reasonable amount of carbonate is present, the temperature can only tem-
porarily exceed the equilibrium temperature which typically is in the range of 850 – 900
°C. At this low temperature, the combustion rate of a low volatile coal or petroleum coal
is low and a long retention time is required to complete the combustion of the residual
coke.

This is the reason why firing of a calciner with anthracite or pet coke is considerably
more problematic than firing the rotary kiln.

The required fineness of the fuel for the calciner becomes as high as < 1 per cent +90
µm and < 6 per cent +45 µm, which poses great demands to the grinding installation.

Decreasing the burn-out time by operating the precalciner with an increased oxygen
level will normally have a limited effect. Further-more, as it will raise the volumetric
flow through the preheater, the pressure drop over the preheater will increase and result
in higher exit gas temperatures and higher power consumption of kiln ID fans.

The most efficient way to decrease the burn-out time of pet coke is by raising the com-
bustion temperature. This is performed by the implementation of a special design of the
precalciner, which permits the temperature to be increased beyond the equilibrium tem-
perature of the calcining process. This is achieved by splitting the raw meal feed into
various flows and adding them step-wise to the calciner. A high temperature zone is
created which ensures the complete combustion of the fuel after which the rest of the
feed is added and the temperature brought down to normal levels.
An example of this principle is seen in figure 3.19. following page

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Figure 3.19 ILC system for combustion of anthracite or pet-coke

3.3.4.2.3 Firing in the rotary kiln

Provided the kiln is equipped with a modern multi-channel burner installation with
proper provisions for adjusting the flame, experience shows that anthracite and pet coke
can be burned without problems.

In the rotary kiln, the high combustion temperature will help ensure a satisfactory burn-
out time of the fuel. As the target is to maintain the same mixing controlled flame length
with anthracite as with bituminous coal, this can be done by grinding the anthracite to a
greater fineness. An old rule of thumb says that the order of magnitude of the +90 µm
sieve residue should be 0,50 – 0,75 times per cent volatile (dmmf).

The flow pattern in the flame is very important when firing fuels of high ignition tem-
perature. To reduce the ignition time, a high secondary air temperature must be ensured
and it is important that the burner generates the required momentum while using a low
percentage of primary air.

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3.3.5 Components introduced with the fuel

When firing a fuel, the introduced ash component left after the combustion will in most
kiln systems leave the kiln as a part of the clinker. Normally the ash will have a low
lime content with a composition comparable to the clay component of the raw meal.
This means that in order to ensure a certain LSF in the clinker, the raw meal must be
designed with a higher LSF.

While most plants will have no problem to produce a raw meal with high LSF, to facili-
tate the production of a consistent clinker quality it is imperative that the ash component
is introduced continuously into the process, at the exact anticipated rate.

Rapid changes between different coal types or switching to oil firing is impossible
unless special measures have been taken to compensate, such as the provision of a spe-
cial feeding system for fly ash.

With increasing ash content in the coal, the impact on the clinker composition increases
and it becomes increasingly important that the coal meal is homogeneous, implying that
some kind of pre-homogenisation of the raw coal becomes necessary for firing coal with
high ash content.

The fuels will also provide a large part of the total sulphur input to a kiln system. Sul-
phur has an affinity for forming sulphates with the alkalis, potassium and sodium. The
remaining sulphur will react with the calcium in the raw meal forming calcium sulphate.

There are limits to the amount of sulphur that the kiln system can absorb without prob-
lems being experienced. The volatile nature of sulphur will always induce a re-
circulation as part of the sulphur is evaporated in the kiln burning zone. The evaporated
sulphur gas (SO2) will react with the calcined raw meal in the preheater cyclones to re-
form calcium sulphates and again be transported to the burning zone where it will once
again be evaporated. The formed cycle can lead to large amounts of sulphur being pre-
sent in the kiln and create undesired coatings in the preheater. If large amounts of sul-
phur are present in the fuel, it can become necessary to extract some of the kiln gas in
the kiln riser duct with a kiln gas bypass to reduce the sulphur level in the kiln.

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3.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this module we have related the properties of fuel oil to the necessary preparation of
the oil for the use in the cement kiln. The importance of proper fuel preparation together
with the factors influencing this has been described in relation to kiln operation and
clinker quality. For obtaining good atomisation of fuel oil, it has been demonstrated that
the oil pressure and viscosity are important parameters.

Coal is the most important fuel for the cement industry and the characteristics and prop-
erties of coal has been described in relation to the classification of the coal, the behav-
iour of coal in the combustion process and to the preparation of the coal. Properties of
raw coal as the volatile content and hygroscopic moisture, is seen to greatly influence
the optimal preparation of the coal that in turn also depends on the combustion process
for which the coal is used.

Important characteristics of the fine coal for the use in the cement kiln include calorific
value, ash composition, moisture, volatile content and fineness. The influence of these
parameters on the operation of the kiln system as a whole is discussed with the consid-
erations that must be taken.

Finally the use of high ash coal and anthracite in the kiln system is discussed, these be-
ing the two principal special coals that are widely employed for economic reasons.

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