Study of Modified 9Cr-lMo Welds

Xiaotian Li 1 )，M. T. Cabrillat2)，Y. Lejeail2)

(1. Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology，Tsinghua University，

Beijing 100084， China 2. CEA Cadarache, DEN/DER/SESI, France)

Abstract ： Modified. 9Cr-lMo is the best candidate for higher service

temperature. It has attractive properties ： high creep strength with
good ductility, high resistance to cracking, high thermal conductivity
and low thermal expansion coefficient. This paper reviews the main
features concerning modified 9Cr-lMo welding. It is obtained that as
far as selecting optimum preheat temperature and suitable P W H T ,
controlling the chemical composition of weld metal, good material
properties of Mod. 9Cr-lMo weldment will be obtained.
Key words: Weld metal, Post weld heat treat, Heat affected zones,
Cracking

1. Introduction
Since, modified 9Cr-lMo has high thermal conductivity, low thermal
expansion, high strength and resistance to corrosion at elevated tefnperature，it
has been considered as the best candidate for high temperature conditions.
Modified 9Cr-lMo steel is a relatively new structural alloy that was
originally developed for use as a steam generator material for advanced fast
breeder reactors in the United States. It is a ferritic steel and micro alloyed with
columbium and vanadium with a controlled nitrogen content. The alloy is
currently under active consideration for use as a steam generator alloy for
advanced breeder reactors in Japan； it is used world wide in the power
generation industry for superheaters and other applications requiring piping and
tubing applications for prolonged service to temperatures of about 600° C. It is
also used in the petrochemical industries for such high temperature applications
as distillation, cracking and hydro-treating units.
This study will point out the main features concerning modified 9Cr-lMo
welding by analysing many references.
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2. Chemical composition
The improvement in properties of modified 9Cr-IMo are achieved by
controlled additions of v a n a d i u m ， n i o b i u m ， a n d nitrogen，combined w i t h a
normalize-and -temper heat treatment. T h e chemical composition of modified
9 C r - I M o is indicated in Tab. 1.

Tab. 1 Chemical composition mass fraction of Modified 9Cr-lMo

c Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo V Al Nb Cu N

0. 08- 0. 30- 0. 20- max max 8. 0- max 0. 85- 0. 18- max 、0. 06- max 0. 03-

0. 12 0. 60 0. 50 0. 015 0. 01 9. 5 0. 40 1. 05 0. 25 0. 04 0. 10 0. 1 0. 07

T h i s steel is also called 9 C r - l M o ~ V ， a n d is incorporated into A S M E as S A -

2 1 3 - T 9 1 for tubing，SA-387-Grade 91 f o r plates, SA-335-P91 and SA-369-FP91
for p i p e ， a n d S A - 1 8 2 - F 9 1 and S A - 3 3 6 - F 9 1 for forgings，or in Europe as
X10CrMoVNb9-l.

T h e h i g h ( 9 % 〜 1 2 % ) c h r o m i u m steels are either f u l l y austenitic or have a

duplex (austenite plus 8 — f e r r i t e ) s t r u c t u r e at austenitizing temperatures i n the
range 850 to 1 200 °C. T h e austenite phase transforms to martensite d u r i n g air
cooling or rapid quenching to ambient temperature, and the steels are
subsequently tempered to o b t a i n a good combination of s t r e n g t h , d u c t i l i t y ， a n d
toughness. T h e f e r r i t e phase i n h i b i t s austenite grain g r o w t h , b u t i t adversely
influences the s t r e n g t h and toughness.
M o d i f i e d 9 C r _ l M o requires a normalize and temper heat treatment to f u l l y
develop its s t r e n g t h and toughness properties. Standard practice is to normalize
between 1 038 to 1 090 °C to avoid objectionable grain g r o w t h , and tempering at
760 to 788 °C w h i c h allows carbides to precipitate homogeneously w i t h i n the
tempered f u l l y martensitic structure ( see Fig. 1 ) . Transmission electron
microscopy reveals a complex m i c r o s t r u c t u r e consisting of a h i g h dislocation
density and subboundaries decorated w i t h carbides [ 1 ] . T h e subboundaries are
stabilized by the precipitation of M C and M 2 3 C6 precipitates w h i c h accounts for
the alloy，s increased strength.

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 T h e lower critical temperature A c l ( t h e temperature at w h i c h the a ^ 7
transformation commences on heating) for modified 9 C r - l M o is determined to be
between 830 °C to 850 °C ； the upper critical A c3 (the temperature at w h i c h the a
一 7 t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is complete) exists between 900 to 940。C • T h e single phase
tempered martensite structure exhibits optimum strength and toughness
characteristics compared to t w o phase ( t e m p e r e d martensite and S f e r r i t e )
structure. For this reason it is imperative that modified 9 C r _ l M o not be
subjected to temperature above A c l after heat treatment d u r i n g hot f o r m i n g ,
bending, or any other heat treating operation. But heating above the critical
temperature is impossible to avoid i n weld regions.

Fig, 1 Typical tempered martensitic microstructure

of m o d i f i e d 9 C r - l M o steel

T h e h i g h - c h r o m i u m martensitic steels are generally regarded as being more

d i f f i c u l t to w e l d than austenitic steels, because it is often necessary to preheat
before welding to avoid cracking and it is essential to post w e l d heat treat
( P W H T ) to temper the b r i t t l e martensitic structures formed i n the fusion zone
( F Z ) and heat affected zones ( H A Z ) .
T h e various zones in a h i g h - c h r o m i u m martensitic steel fusion w e l d joint are
shown schematically i n Fig. 2.
FZ ( T 〉 T m ) : T h e f i r s t phase to f o r m during solidification of the m o l t e n
w e l d is 8 - f e r r i t e ； the ferrite to austenite transformation occurs on further
cooling，and austenite transforms to martensite on cooling below t e m p e r a t u r e M s

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( M s is martensite start t e m p e r a t u r e , M f is m a r t e n s i t e f i n i s h t e m p e r a t u r e ) . Some
8-ierrxte is usually retained i n the F Z at ambient t e m p e r a t u r e , even w h e n there is
no ferrite present in the base and filler wire materials， as complete
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to austenite does not occur d u r i n g cooling at the fast rates typical
of the w e l d i n g process [ 2 ] . Since the ^ - f e r r i t e can have d e t r i m e n t a l effects on the
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s ， p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r e n g t h and fracture toughness，the content
should be c o n t r o l l e d at ^ 3 % by balancing the concentrations of the austenite
and f e r r i t e f o r m i n g elements i n the base metal and f i l l e r wire.
HAZ-regionl ( T m 〉 T > ) : T h i s region consists of martensite and
( M e r r i t e . T h e f e r r i t e is f o r m e d along the p r i o r austenite grain boundaries as the
region is heated into t w o phase f i e l d d u r i n g welding； some of the d - f e r r i t e is
again retained at ambient t e m p e r a t u r e i n a band t y p i c a l l y 0. 3 to 0. 5 m m wide
adjacent to the fusion lines as a result of the rapid cooling after w e l d i n g [ 2 ] .

H A Z - r e g i o n 2 ( TyS > T > A c3 ) ： T h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e is f u l l y martensitic.

T h i s region is heated i n t o the higher t e m p e r a t u r e p a r t of the phase field d u r i n g
w e l d i n g , and the o r i g i n a l carbides particles are dissolved, r e s u l t i n g i n coarse
p r i o r austenite grain and martensite l a t h s t r u c t u r e .
H A Z - r e g i o n 3 ( TrS > T > A c 3 ) ： T h e s t r u c t u r e of this r e g i o n , w h i c h is
heated i n t o the lower t e m p e r a t u r e p a r t of the / -phase f i e l d , is again m a r t e n s i t i c ,
b u t i t is finer grained t h a n region 2，as some of the o r i g i n a l carbides are not
dissolved and i n h i b i t g r a i n g r o w t h .
HAZ-region4 ( A c 3 〉T〉A c l ) ： T h e s t r u c t u r e consists of untempered and
overtempered martensite. I n c o m p l e t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to austenite and additional
tempering of the o r i g i n a l tempered m a r t e n s i t e s t r u c t u r e of the base metal occur
d u r i n g heating i n this i n t e r c r i t i c a l zone, w i t h the austenite again t r a n s f o r m i n g to
martensite on cooling.

HAZ-region5 ( A c l 〉 T 〉 T t ) : T h e o r i g i n a l tempered martensite i n this

n a r r o w zone is f u r t h e r tempered d u r i n g w e l d i n g , but the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e is
o t h e r w i s e similar to t h a t of the base steel.
A typical m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of modified. 9 C r - l M o steel w e l d is i l l u s t r a t e d i n
fig3. Four regions are delineated - the W e l d metal ( W ) corresponds to the F Z of
Fig. 2，the T r a n s f o r m e d Zone ( T Z ) corresponds to regions 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 of Fig. 2，
the tempered zone ( T M P Z ) corresponds to region 5 of Fig. 2，and base metal
( B M ) is the base steel w h i c h was unaffected d u r i n g the w e l d i n g process.

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 =/①m鋼r
Fusion Zone ( F Z ) ： T〉'Tm

H e a t - A f f e c t e d - Z o n e ( H A Z ) [as-welded]：

Region 1 Tm >T>Tr3 Martensite+6 1

Region 2 Tyd >T>Tc3 Coarse grained Martensite

Region 3 Tyd >T>Tc3 Fine grained Martensite+厶

Region 4 A c 3 > T> T c i Martenslte+ Overtempered Martensite

Region 5 Tci>T>T r Overtempered Martensite

where T = temperature achieved during welding

T m = melting point of steel

TrS = temperature at which y^d transtormation is complete on heating

T t = original tempering temperature of steel

A c i = temperature at which transformation starts on heating

A c 3 = temperature at which transformation is complete on heating

Fig. 2 S c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of t h e heat-affected zone regions

in a f u s i o n w e l d of h i g h - c h r o m i u m martensitic steel

Fig. 3 T y p i c a l m i c r o s t r u c t u r e of a m o d i f i e d 9 C r - l M o steel w e l d

illustrating the weld ( W ) and t w o regions of the H A Z ( t r a n s f o r m e d zone (TZ)

and t e m p e r e d zone (TMPZ))

T h e microhardness profiles across G T A W (Gas Tungsten A r c Welding)

welds in modified 9 C r - I M o [3] is shown in Fig. 4. T h e data in Fig. 4 show that
the various regions of HAZ can be differentiated by their hardness. The
 presence of the softer 8 - f e r r i t e phase i n the untempered martensite m a t r i x is
responsible f o r the r e d u c t i o n of hardness i n H A Z region 1 ( o f Fig. 2 ) . Since the
hardness of martensite increases w i t h increasing carbon c o n t e n t , the d i s s o l u t i o n
of the carbide particles i n the austenite i n H A Z region 2 has resulted i n the
f o r m a t i o n of h i g h carbon martensite w i t h m a x i m u m hardness. The carbon
content of the m a r t e n s i t e i n H A Z region 3 is reduced relative to H A Z region 2
due to the incomplete d i s s o l u t i o n of the carbides at the lower austenitizing
temperature and hence the hardness is l o w e r . T h e hardness reduction i n H A Z
regions 4 and 5 result f r o m overtempering of the o r i g i n a l m i c r o s t r u c t u r e at
temperatures between A c 3 and A c l and b e l o w A c l ， r e s p e c t i v e l y .

A f t e r P W H T at 732 °C f o r l h , the hardness of the F Z and H A Z are reduced

as a result of the t e m p e r i n g reactions, w h i c h include a reduction i n dislocation
d e n s i t y , l a t h break up and development of a polygonized s t r u c t u r e , r e d u c t i o n i n
solid s o l u t i o n s t r e n g t h e n i n g due to p r e c i p i t a t i o n , and coarsening of precipitates.
I t is i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t the hardness of the H A Z approaches t h a t of the base
steel after P W H T f o r times up to 80 h at 732。C. See Fig. 5 [ 3 ] .

4. Weldablity for thick section

I n general, the h i g h alloy content makes it more hardenable i n the w e l d
r e g i o n , and therefore more susceptible to w e l d cracking. M o d i f i e d 9 C r - I M o has
p r o v e n to be h i g h l y w e l d a b l e , provided careful a t t e n t i o n is paid to p r e h e a t ,
post-heat, and consumable control. Many tests are performed, welding
modified. 9 C r - I M o plates w i t h thickness 25 m m , 51mm，203 m m , modified
9 C r - l M o pipes w i t h 於76X13，於 273X45，於 350X45，於 2 6 0 X 6 0 and so on. I t can
be obtained satisfactory m a t e r i a l properties by suitable w e l d i n g process.
4.1 Welding method

A l l of the t r a d i t i o n a l arc w e l d i n g methods of j o i n i n g steels except f l u x - c o r e d

w e l d i n g are appropriate for the j o i n i n g of modified 9Cr-lMo material. It
includes, Shielded M e t a l A r c W e l d i n g ( S M A W ) , Gas T u n g s t e n A r c W e l d i n g
(GTAW), Submerged A r c Welding (SAW)，Manual Metal Arc Welding
(MMA).

A d v a n c e d , low-heat i n p u t and high-speed processes such as E l e c t r o n Beam

welding ( E B ) and laser are also being developed. T h i s k i n d of process has
several attractive characteristics f o r w e l d i n g of t h i c k sections. T h e heating and

69
 400

(qdp) SS3UPSH

o5
o o
Lr
3 2

Standard 9 C r - l M o

• A S -Welded
O P W H T : 7,32°C for 1 h •

200

Weld
Metal

150

Fig. 4 M i c r o h a r d n e s s traverse across a G T A w e l d before and after PWHT

a t 7 3 2 °C f o r l h ； s t a n d a r d 9 C r - l M o s t e e l b a s e a n d f i l l e r wire

cooling rates are much higher compared to arc w e l d i n g , so narrower weld zones
are produced and thermal damage to the material adjacent to the welds is

therefore minimized.
But weldment in modified 9 C r - I M o produced by EB contained large porosity
presumably f r o m its relatively high nitrogen c o n t e n t w . N i t r o g e n content has
been shown to affect the occurrence of porosity i n other steels. Welding
parameter variations may reduce or eliminate this porosity but it has not been
evaluated.
4. 2 Welding consumable
T h e design of appropriate welding consumables is important. On many
occasions, it is wise to make the composition of welding consumable as similar
to the parent steel type as possible. H o w e v e r , for the modified 9 C r - l M o ， i t is
realised that adjustments to the N b and N i content are crucial to obtain
acceptable toughness values, give rise to significant changes in microstructure,
hardness, room temperature tensile strength and creep rupture ductility.
T h e weldments of modified 9 C r - l M o w i t h f u l l y martensite structure w h i c h

70
 3
O
2
3 2 2 2 2 2 1
0 8 6 4 2 0 8 6 4 2 A
O O O O O O O O O O A
(qdp) SS3UPS-BHOJ0I5

1 1 1 1

O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Distance ( m m )

Fig. 5 M i c r o h a r d n e s s traverse across t h e s u b m e r g e d arc w e l d b y s t r u c t u r e wells.

T h e base p l a t e w a s m o d i f i e d 9 C r - l M o a n d t h e f i l l e r w i r e w a s s t a n d a r d 9Cr-lMo.

T h e plate was posted heat treated for 2 , 1 0 , 2 0 , 4 0 , a n d 8 0 h a t 7 3 2 °C

are subjected to elevated temperatures and rapid cooling frequency contain small
amounts of 8 - f e r r i t e i n b o t h the w e l d metal and Heat A f f e c t e d Zone ( H A Z ) . I t
has been established that d - f e r r i t e has a number of detrimental effects on the
properties o f modified 9 C r _ l M o ， i n c l u d i n g reduction of creep d u c t i l i t y and
toughness of weldments. So the compositions of modified 9 C r - l M o consumables
should be selected to minimise d - f e r r i t e formation. Panton-kent 7 s w o r k gives
the expression to estimate the amount of retained ^ - f e r r i t e i n modified 9Cr-.IMo.
F F is called the Kaltenhauser ferrite factor.
FF= %Cr+6%Si +8%Ti+4%Mo+2%Al+ 4 % N b - 2 % M n - 4 % N i - 4 0 %
(C+N)
Increasing F F gives rise to an increase i n d - f e r r i t e content, f u l l y martensite
structure being obtained by F F value below approximately 8. d - f e r r i t e content is
also dependent on welding conditions, w i t h increasing arc energy and preheat
temperature causing a reduction i n w e l d metal 8 - f e r r i t e level.
For G T A W w e l d i n g , there is no need to m o d i f y the composition of weld
metal. W e l d w i r e meeting compositional ranges similar to those of the base
71
material specification, i t results in welds w i t h acceptable w e l d a b i l i t y and w e l d

properties.
F o r SMAW[ 5 — 6] S A W [ 5 ] ， M M A , some f u r t h e r modifications of composition
is necessary to achieve an acceptable balance of w e l d metal creep s t r e n g t h and
r o o m temperature n o t c h toughness properties.
N i o b i u m is i m p o r t a n t in achieving creep s t r e n g t h , but is d e t r i m e n t a l to the
toughness properties and should be at the lower l i m i t of the specifications.
N i c k e l has a favourable influence on the d u c t i l i t y and should be at the upper
l i m i t of the specifications. I t has been suggested c o m m o n l y that the N b content
is lower t h a n in base m e t a l , is l i m i t e d to 0. 0 4 % 〜 0 . 0 8 % ， a n d N i content is
higher i n weld metal t h a n in base m e t a l , up to 1 % . O n the other hand the
M n + N i contents is not allowed to exceed 1. 5% C 6 ] ，because not o n l y N i b u t also
M n influence the lower t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p o i n t A c l .
T w o consumable choices for w e l d i n g P91 by Esab[ 7 ] are one M M A w e l d i n g
electrode designated O K 76. 98 and one solid w i r e called O K T i g r o d 13. 38.

Tab. 2 Chemical composition mass fraction of OK 76. 98 and OK Tigrod 13. 38

C Mn Si P s Cr Ni Mo V Nb N

0. 08- 0. 40- 0. 20- max max 8.0- 0. 4- 0. 85- 0. 15- 0. 04- 0. 03-
OK

0. 13 1.0 0. 50 0. 02 0. 02 10. 0 1. 0 1. 1 0. 30 0. 08 0. 07
76. 98

O K T i g r o d 0. 08- 0. 35- 0. 20- max max 8. 6- 0. 6- 0. 85- 0. 18- 0. 04- 0. 03-

13. 38 0. 12 0. 60 0. 50 0. 01 0. 01 9. 3 0. 9 1. 05 0. 25 0. 08 0. 07

Tab. 3 Chemical composition (mass fraction)of the pure weld metal[6]

Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo V Al Nb N
C

0. 40- 0. 20- max max 8. 0 - 0. 4- 0. 85- 0. 15- max 0. 04- 0. 03-

0. 08-
0. 07
0. 12 1. 0 0. 50 0. 02 0. 02 10.0 1. 0 1. 10 0. 30 0. 04 0. 08

T h e w e l d metal i n reference [ 6 ] for S M A W is as follows：

T h e reference [ 8 ] investigates 1 2 m m t h i c k plates of modified 9 C r - l M o steel
w h i c h are welded by MMA using three different consumables： standard
9 C r - l M o s t e e l ( P 9 ) ， m o d i f i e d 9 C r - l M o ( P 9 1 ) ， a n d nickel-base alloy Inconel 182.
T h e toughness i n the case of P9 is not superior to that of P91 w h e n the latter is

used. I n the case of the P91 w e l d m e t a l , acceptable fusion zone mechanical

72
p r o p e r t i e s , especially d u c t i l i t y and t o u g h n e s s , are obtained o n l y after a p o s t w e l d
tempering t r e a t m e n t at 760 °C f o r 6 h. The relatively poor ductility and
toughness of the P91 welds is most l i k e l y a consequence of the presence of small
amounts of f e r r i t e i n local regions of the w e l d m e t a l m i c r o s t r u c t u r e . T h e f e r r i t e
islands are believed to occur because of segregation effects associated w i t h the
i n t r o d u c t i o n of a l l o y i n g elements t h r o u g h the f l u x coating. I t is suggested t o use
fine f e r r o a l l o y particles i n the f l u x coating. T h e w e l d i n g position has influence on
toughness. By experience the best toughness properties are achieved if the
weaving technique is used instead of the usual stringer bead welding16'9].
4.3 PWHT
T h e A S M E Boiler Code, Section I X has defined 9 C r - l M o - V as P - n u m b e r 5，
Group 4 material. Section I of the code stipulates that P W H T at 704 °C m i n i m u m is
mandatory after any and all welding to this alloy. I t is prudent to require that sections
greater than 1 / 2 inch in thickness be given a P W H T in a temperature range of 760 °C
to 788 °C. H i g h e r P W H T risks the chance of v i o l a t i n g the l o w e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
temperature w h i c h is as l o w as 830 °C. M o s t fabricators specify 760 °C f o r 2 h ,
b u t i n d i v i d u a l specifications require l o w e r temperature f o r longer time.
4.4 Preheat
Comprehensive w e l d a b i l i t y test programs are conducted using Y-groove
restraint tests to s t u d y the effects of preheat temperature. N o cracking is
observed i n test welds preheated to 204 °C. A l t h o u g h the A S M E does not
specifically address i t , i t is recommended t h a t preheat be maintained at a
m i n i m u m temperature of 204 °C o n sections thicker than 1 / 2 inch. F o r thinner
sections, 149 °C m i n i m u m is acceptable. F o r joints i n excess of 1 / 2 i n c h i n
thickness, preheat temperature should not be allowed to drop below the
m i n i m u m preheat t e m p e r a t u r e u n t i l at least t w o - t h i r d s of j o i n t is c o m p l e t e d , and
t h e n o n l y after either a post bake at 204 °C for four hours f o l l o w e d by an air
cool，or an instantaneous intermediate post w e l d heat t r e a t m e n t at a temperature
of 704 °C t o 732 °C is performed. I n the n e x t section, i t can be seen t h a t the
preheat temperature is best to be selected w i t h m u t u a l consideration of u l t i m a t e
tensile s t r e n g t h , specific elongation and martensite content.

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 Cracking during or after welding
T h e w e l d i n g of the 9%、〜12% c h r o m i u m steels requires a h i g h degree of
preparation and c o n t r o l to avoid cracking d u r i n g the w e l d i n g , PWHT，or
service. Cracking processes include ： s o l i d i f i c a t i o n cracking，HAZ liquation
cracking，hydrogen or cold cracking，reheat cracking and T y p e I V cracking.
5.1 Solidification cracking
T h e results of an extensive p r o g r a m using the T i g a m a j i g test on many
experimental heats of modified 9Cr-lMo steel have indicated little or no
susceptibility to s o l i d i f i c a t i o n cracking.
5. 2 HAZ liquation cracking
T h e h i g h c h r o m i u m m a r t e n s i t i c steels are t h o u g h t to be proned to l i q u a t i o n
cracking i n the H A Z i m m e d i a t e l y adjacent to the FZ. I n the coarse-grained
region of the H A Z , l i q u a t i o n cracks can develop as a result of acting stresses and
impurity segregations on grain boundaries, forming low melting phase.
T e m p e r a t u r e s are determined at w h i c h the d u c t i l i t y ( r e d u c t i o n of area) and
s t r e n g t h drop to zero - so called n i l - d u c t i l i t y (TND) and n i l - s t r e n g t h (TNS)
temperatures. T h e difference AT 二 T N S — T N D is a measure f o r l i q u a t i o n cracking
sensitivity.

Reference [ 1 0 ] studies the properties of P91 steel i n the f o r m of a pipe

於275X45 by M M A butt welding. T h e test i n [ 1 0 ] can be regarded as very
resistant to l i q u a t i o n cracking for AT ^ 0•
5. 3 Hydrogen or cold cracking
Cold cracking of the b r i t t l e m a r t e n s i t i c phase can occur d u r i n g cooling after
w e l d i n g of l o w and h i g h a l l o y m a r t e n s i t i c steels, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h i c k sections，
as a result of the stresses induced by t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n and volume expansion
associated w i t h the austenite to m a r t e n s i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e incidence of
h y d r o g e n or cold cracking is m i n i m i z e d by the use of covered electrodes w i t h l o w
h y d r o g e n contents and p r o t e c t i o n of the w i r e s and electrodes by storage at
elevated temperatures p r i o r to w e l d i n g . A n effective w a y of p r e v e n t i n g cold and
hydrogen-assisted cracking is by c o n t r o l l i n g the preheat, interpass，and P W H T
temperatures.
I n general, preheat temperature and interpass temperature is 200 to
300。C[ 8 ]. Reference [ 1 ] indicates t h a t the preheat temperature has influence o n
m a t e r i a l crack s u s c e p t i b i l i t y because the martensite content is c o n t r o l l e d b y the

74
preheat, investigates the relationship between preheat, interpass and M s
temperatures, and recommends to calculate the preheat temperature w i t h the
chemical composition of steel i n order to attain the o p t i m u m strength parameters
of the j o i n t .
T h e relationship between Ms and composition of steel is as follows
(concentrations i n w t % ) ：

M s = 454 - 210 • C + ^ - 27 • N i - 7. 8 • M n - 9. 5

• ( C r + M o + V + W + 1. 5 . Si) — 21 • Cu
F r o m the f o l l o w i n g Tab. 4，it can be seen that there is 50 to 60 °C difference
i n the M s temperatures，which f o r m the upper and lower content limits.

Tab. 4 composition and M s temperature of Mod. 9Cr-lMo

C(%) Mn(%) Si(%) Cr(%) Ni(%) Mo(%) V(%) Nb(%) Ms (°C)

0. 08 0. 30 0. 20 8. 0 0.2 0. 85 0. 18 0. 06 393

0. 12 0. 6 0. 50 9. 5 0.4 1. 05 0. 25 0. 1 339

I f the preheat temperature is chosen independently f r o m the composition of

the steel heat, in the case of welding steels at the composition l i m i t s , there may
be a 50% 〜 6 0 % difference i n martensite content. T h e steel w i t h the higher
martensite quantity may crack.
T h e austenite present at the austenitizing temperature should t r a n s f o r m
f u l l y to martensite on cooling. Neither a h i g h preheat temperature is favourable
because of the crack sensitivity d u r i n g cooling , nor one that is too l o w because
of the risk of cracking d u r i n g welding due to excessive martensite formation. If
the preheat temperature is above the M s temperature (austenitic w e l d i n g ) ， t h e r e
is no crack susceptibility until welding ceases, but considerable austenite
transforms into martensite d u r i n g cooling. A s a r e s u l t , h i g h residual stress can
result in cracking. I f martensite welding is carried o u t , some martensite has
already formed during welding. F o r a correctly selected preheat temperature,
there is a considerable amount of ductile austenite that is the reason for the
lower crack susceptibility. Since martensite welding gives lower stress levels
w h i c h tends to reduce crack susceptibility, it is commonly preferred to austenitic
welding.
75
 T h e preheat temperature should be selected w i t h m u t u a l consideration of
ultimate tensile strength，specific elongation and martensite content. See Fig. 6.
T h e recommended preheat temperatureD] when 9 C r ~ l M o type steel is
welded is as follows：
Tp 9Cr ( M s — 9 0 ) ± 1 0 °C (1)
the interpass temperature [ 1 ] is ：
T{ = ( M s — 1 9 0 ) ± 1 0 °C (2)

Temperature b e l o w M s , ( M s - 7 ) , (°C)

Ms (Ms-100) (Ms—200) (Ms—300)

2 000
80
100

- x X :
ods)
— I

8 6
S o
6 4
o o

1 600

Mbcis
(0/0)
ilow

4
o

n 1 200

31111
^ j c r ^ J ^
2
o

2
o

800

400
Ms ( M s --50) (Ms—100) (Ms—150) (Ms—200)

Temperature b e l o w M s , (Ms—7), (°C)

Fig. 6 M a r t e n s i t e f r a c t i o n , e l o n g a t i o n a n d t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f a 0. l C - 9 C r - l M o - t y p e

creep-resistant steel cooled f r o m the austenitizing t e m p e r a t u r e

to the testing temperature

5. 4 Reheat cracking
Reheat or stress-relief cracking may occur in the H A Z and sometimes in the
weld of alloy steels d u r i n g P W H T or service at elevated temperatures. The
cracking results f r o m increased 歹olution of alloy carbides i n those parts of the
H A Z and weld metal heated to temperatures of ^ 1 320 ° C ， f o l l o w e d by strain-
induced precipitation of f i n particles on the dislocations and stacking faults
w i t h i n the coarse prior austenite grains w h e n the residual stresses relax by creep
at temperatures in the range 400 to 750 °C. T h i s leads to marked strengthening
of the grains such that the deformation is concentrated at or near the grain

76
boundaries and can result i n l o w - d u c t i l i t y ? i n t e r g r a n u l a r failures.
I n general，the presence i n the steels of n i o b i u m and vanadium w i l l p r o m o t e
stress-relief cracking due to the i n t r a g r a n u l a r precipitation of n i o b i u m and
vanadium carbides. H o w e v e r , the m o d i f i e d 9 C r - I M o is proved to have resistance
to the reheat cracking 15 ’ 10 ’ 12 ] • T h e test i n reference [ 5 ] has been p e r f o r m e d on
m o d i f i e d 9 C r - I M o steel plate w i t h 300 m m t h i c k and coarse grain area of H A Z is
simulated b y t e m p e r a t u r e peaks at 1 300 and 1 350 °C. T h e specimen is t h e n
machined as a tensile specimen, and tensile test is p e r f o r m e d after P W H T up to
760 °C. T h e d u c t i l i t y is characterized by the r e d u c t i o n of area of the tensile
specimen. I f r e d u c t i o n of area > 2 0 % f o r any temperature peak, the m a t e r i a l is
considered to be not susceptible to reheat cracking. T h e result shows t h a t the
steel offers a very h i g h d u c t i l i t y , r e d u c t i o n of area is > 7 0 % .

5. 5 Type IV cracking
T h i s phenomenon is not f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d ， c i r c u m s t a n t i a l evidence suggests
that the cracking results f r o m h i g h stresses across the w e l d m e n t and the
accumulation of creep damage i n the i n t e r c r i t i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d zone-region4 of
Fig. 2 of the w e l d HAZ, w h i c h has a l o w r u p t u r e d u c t i l i t y . It has been
recommended t h a t the m o d i f i e d 9 C r - I M o steel should be p a r t i a l l y tempered at
600 t o 700 °C before w e l d i n g to remove the soft zone? and the effectiveness of
this approach i n p r e v e n t i n g p r e m a t u r e cracking has been demonstrated.

6. Material properties
6.1 Tensile properties
T h e m i n i m u m values for y i e l d and u l t i m a t e tensile strengths of modified.
9 C r - I M o at r o o m temperature are 414 and 585 M P a . T h e m i n i m u m value of
reduction of area is 55 % . T h e s t r e n g t h s properties of w e l d m e n t s indicated by
the ratio of w e l d m e n t to base metal and r e d u c t i o n of area value are s h o w n
I t can be seen t h a t the y i e l d strengths of all w e l d m e n t s made by GTA,
S M A ， a n d SA processes exceeded 1. 10 times m i n i m u m values for the base metal
except o n l y t w o points at very h i g h test temperatures. U l t i m a t e tensile s t r e n g t h
for all b u t t w o w e l d m e n t s met the base m e t a l m i n i m u m values，they ranged f r o m
1 to 1. 35 times the base metal m i n i m u m value. T h e reduction of area values for
all w e l d m e n t s exceeded the m i n i m u m value of 5 5 % for the base m e t a l f o r all test
temperatures.
77
 So it is concluded that modified 9 C r - l M o weldments w i l l have no problem in
meeting the base metal.
The influence of prolonged exposure on the elevated temperature short term
tensile properties is also of interest. Brinkman [ 1 ] develops the equations that
would analysis the yield and tensile strengths for aged to unaged material as a
function of a time-temperature parameter P where P is：
P = T ( l o g t+lO)/l 000，
T:temperature(K) ,^:time(A).
Ry 二 14. 143 • P- 1 102 9 (3)
R t 二 12.418 • _P-L。58 4 (4)
R y is the ratio of yield strength of aged to yield strength of unaged material,
R t is the ratio of tensile strength of aged to tensile strength of unaged material.
Predicted values are based on the parametric expression (R equations) given in
Fig. 7-8. Agreement between predicted and measured values is good.

i?:14..143-P-1.1029
(sp&gn Hauss
l.Lo.o.,ao.0,.0,,

P:T(logt+10)/1.000
1

r:Temperature(k)
.
0

/:time(h)
.
9
8
7
/p&v llaualls

6
5

• H E A T 30176
.

m H E A T 30383
PR!A

• H E A T 30394 A g i n g and Test Temper ature

W e r e the Same

14

Fig. 7 Ratio(i?) of yield s t r e n g t h of aged to yield strength

o f u n a g e d m a t e r i a l as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e a n d t e m p e r a t u r e

in a parameterized ( P ) f o r m for three heats of m o d i f i e d 9Cr-lMo

The comparision between measured and predicted values to be made i n

Tab. 5.

78
 Tab. 5 measured and predicted values of yield strength (YS)
and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) at several temperatures (at strain rate of 6. 7X 10" 5 s _ 1 )

A g m g and 八㈣ 75 000 h

testing Measured Measured Predicted

temperatureC °C) YS(MPa) UTS(MPa) YS(MPa) UTS(MPa) YS(MPa) UTS(MPa)

482 427 490 428 486 418 470

593 303 324 256 275 256 269

649 208 233 163 187 164 181

649 209 243 170 185 165 189

These equations are t h e n used to estimate the r e d u c t i o n i n yield and tensile

strengths t h a t w o u l d occur f o l l o w i n g p r o l o n g e d service at elevated temperature.
F r o m f o l l o w i n g Fig. 9 - 1 0 ， i t can be seen t h a t p r o l o n g e d t h e r m a l exposure w i l l
not degrade tensile properties below S„ values.
T h e m o d i f i e d 9 C r - l M o is strain-rate sensitive for aged and unaged material.
T h e yield and u l t i m a t e strengths increase w i t h increasing s t r a i n r a t e , the results
in [ 1 3 ] show a s t r a i n aging peak at t e m p e r a t u r e of 538 °C to 593 °C.
Results f r o m analytical electron microscopy are presented w h i c h show t h a t
prolonged t h e r m a l aging causes some a l t e r a t i o n i n the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e w h i c h can
account f o r the changes observed i n the mechanical properties. T h e r m a l aging
generally can cause a n u m b e r of changes in the microstructure including
increased precipitate densities of several phases ： M 2 3 C 6 ， M C and L a v e s , and
recovery depending upon the t i m e , t e m p e r a t u r e and specific c o m p o s i t i o n of heat
involved. Laves phase ( p r i m a r i l y S i - , Mo-, Fe- and i n some cases P - r i c h )
precipitation which is not found in unaged materials occurred over the
temperature range of 482 °C to 649 °C. Laves phase is n o r m a l l y t h o u g h t of as an
embrittling component, the presence of w h i c h can reduce r o o m temperature
toughness and long term creep-rupture ductility. Recovery, for example,
r e d u c t i o n i n dislocation density and sharpening of subgrain boundaries occurred
particularly w i t h longer times and at the higher temperatures. Some fine
precipitate d i s s o l u t i o n may have also occurred i n the process of g r o w i n g larger
precipitates. These processes of recovery and precipitate d i s s o l u t i o n w o u l d be
expected to cause s t r e n g t h at the aging temperatures to decline.

79
 1.2
^:12.418-PA1.0584
(^pagBun

P: T ( l o g / 1 0 y l . 0 0 0 )
s. T: Temperature(k)
• • • _ time(h)

• • •
IPMUoJls 3sssn/p<u§v

• • ^ ^ ^ • • •

• ^ ^

• • •
qauallsutsUISn

• 755 k (482 C )

El 811 k ( 5 3 8 ° C )

® 866 k (.593 °C)

• 922 k (649 C ) A g i n g and Test Temperature

A 977 k (704。C) Were the Same

10 11 12 13 14 15
P

8 R a t i o (R) o f u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f a g e d t o u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f u n a g e d m a t e r i a l

as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e a n d t e m p e r a t u r e i n a p a r a m e t e r i z e d (P)

f o r m f o r three heats o f m o d i f i e d 9Cr-lMo

o o
o o
5 4
(BP-IAO 石

3 2 1
o o o
o o o
sgfcsscuf

00 00 00 丨00

T('C)

Fig. 9 Y i l d e s t r e n g t h as a f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e c o m p a r i n g unaged

to estimates o f aged material

 o o o o o o o o o
8 6
Average U n a g e d

(cdds) 二tbca>i3s 31}SS1(D^UIPln

4
2

M a x i m u m Stress A l l o w a b l e ,

00 300
T('C

F i g . 10 U l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h as a f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e c o m p a r i n g unaged

to estimates of aged material

6. 2 Creep rupture properties

The creep behavior of base metal modified 9Cr-lMo is given for
temperatures ranging f r o m 427 °C t o 704 °C [ 1 ] .
Booker 114 ] develops the equation to predict the stress-rupture properties of
material at different temperatures, w h i c h is as follows：
log tr = Ch -0. 231<T— 2. 385log ^ + 3 1 . 0 8 0 / 7 (5)
where
tr ： r u p t u r e life ( h )
(7：stress ( M P a )
T： temperature ( K )
T h e parameter C h is a " l o t constant" that reflects the relative strengths of
different lots of m a t e r i a l , assuming that the stress and temperature dependence
is the same for all lots. T h e average value of C h was -23. 737. T h e analysis
yielded an overall Standard E r r o r of Estimate ( S E E ) of 0. 324 and a m i n i m u m
C h of-24. 272.
Predictions of r u p t u r e behavior of base metal using above rupture equations
are very good over the temperature range of 427 °C to 704 °C.
L o n g t e r m creep-rupture d u c t i l i t y is as an indication of the resistance of the
material to creep-fatigue interaction and to such creep phenomena as stress
relaxation induced cracking. O R N L C l ] gives a plot ( F i g . 11) of creep r u p t u r e
d u c t i l i t y f o r m u l t i p l e heats at several temperatures as a fuction of time. T h e plot
shows that modified 9 C r - l M o has excellent short t e r m creep-rupture d u c t i l i t y ,
1
81
 400

54
o
ji
o
(0/。)UOSB§UOI3 -SOH

ro AV v Oj
3
o o
2 1

•
V
U
U

1 1 1 1 1 1
i 1 1 1 1 i ‘ 1 ‘
1 1
‘
V
O
9

7礙灣
7 _
O
8

祖 A
厶 •
_ AA
(。/0)B9JVJo§ ^

o
O
7

•
O
6

Heats
• % -
F5349
0
O
5

30182
. Test 30176
O

Temperatures ( ° C )
4

30383
O — 4 8 2 0 -- 6 4 9 .30394
10148 • -
O

— A - 5 3 8 6 —- 6 7 7
3

91887 • _
• — 593 V -- 7 0 4 XA3602
A
0

14361

I . .. • 1 •
10° 101 102 1 03 1 04 1 05
Time to Rupture (h)

Fig. 11 C r e e p - r u p t u r e d u c t i l i t y d a t a as a f u n c t i o n o f r u p t u r e time

at v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r c o m m e r c i a l heats

and decreased d u c t i l i t y beyond about 20 000 h ， b u t no values below 1 0 % i n

terms of reduction of area.
Creep r u p t u r e s t r e n g t h behavior is also changed b y pre-thermal. T h e
results [ 1 ] show that pre-aging does reduce creep r u p t u r e s t r e n g t h somewhat and
that f o r 75 000 h exposure r u p t u r e strengths can f a l l below m i n i m u m values f o r
unaged material. See Fig. 12.
Creep fracture occurs m a i n l y at t h e softening zone i n the heat affected zone
( H A Z ) and o n l y rarely i n t h e w e l d metal. A soft zone that f o r m s at t h e outer
region of the H A Z adjacent to t h e base metal is called T y p e I V zone. I n this

82
zone, carbides coarsening takes place and this minimizes the precipitation

strengthening 1 1 4 ].
T h e r e d u c t i o n of creep s t r e n g t h of m o d i f i e d 9 C r - I M o welded j o i n t is due to
this creep weak zone [16 " 18] . T h e creep weak zone is very n a r r o w . The limited
w i d t h of the zone leads to macroscopically l o w d u c t i l i t y i n the type I V fractures.
I t is inevitable t h a t the T y p e I V zone w i l l always be present irrespective of
w e l d i n g process. A higher heat i n p u t w i l l lead to a wider zone w h i c h is more
d e t r i m e n t a l to creep properties t h a n a thinner one.

000
A v e r a g e f o r Heats Tested i n
Unaged Condition

M i n i m r n for Heats Tested

100 Inunaged C o n d i t i o n

• Preaged 50 000 h
B Preaged 75 000 h
T w o Heats
T h e r m a l A g i n g and Temperatures
W e r e the Same and V a r i e d f r o m 482 to 649 °C

-40 -38 -36 -34 -32 -30 -28

log (0-31080/7

F i g . 12 A c o m p a r i s o n of the creep equation predicted r u p t u r e strengths values

and data obtained f r o m tests conducted o n pre-aged material

Fig. 13 indicates the creep r u p t u r e s t r e n g t h as a f u n c t i o n of L a r s o n M i l l e r

Parameter ( L . M . P. ) [ 1 9 ] ：

P = T ( 3 0 + log t)/l 000

where t is the r u p t u r e t i m e i n hours spent at the testing temperature T ( K ) .
I n the case of higher stress and s h o r t t e r m side where L . M . P. values are
s m a l l , creep r u p t u r e occurred i n either the w e l d metal or the base m e t a l ,
depending on the s t r e n g t h balance between w e l d metal and base metal. As
L . M . P increased, e. g. greater t h a n a r o u n d 29. 5 X 103，the creep rupture
location tended to s h i f t f r o m the base m e t a l or w e l d metal i n t o the softened H A Z
f o r the change i n s t r e n g t h balance at the over-all welded j o i n t . H A Z softening
83
 • 550 °C

• • 593/600 °C

O O 650 °C
(Bl) ils

open : ruptured i n H A Z

s o l i d : r u p t u r e d i n w e l d metal or base metal

25 26 27 28 29 30 .31 32 33 34 35

p=r(iogH30)xi0" 3

F i g . 13 Creep r u p t u r e properties of M o d i f i e d 9 C r _ l M o steel w e l d e d j o i n t (SAW)

and 12Cr steel w e l d e d j o i n t ( G T A W ) after PWHT

behavior is probably due to the lack of fine N b and V precipitates coherent w i t h

the m a t r i x i n addition to the fine grained microstructure formed by recovery and
polygonalization of the tempered martensite.
T h e reference [20] uses the creep life assessment method to study the creep
properties of modified 9 C r - l M o steel. I t is shown that the creep damage (t/tr )
(t is i n t e r r u p t e d t i m e , tr is creep r u p t u r e t i m e ) in the base metal corresponds to
the decrease i n hardness. I n the base of the kinetic of the dislocation i n the
creep，the hardness is correlated w i t h creep damage. So the hardness could be a
good measure of the creep damage in the base metal. I n the weld j o i n t s , voids
are formed and g r o w i n the fine grained H A Z region during creep. T h e area
fraction of void and void density are increased w i t h the creep damage. See Fig.
14—15.
T h e creep r u p t u r e occurs at this softest H A Z zone. A s s u m i n g the creep
strain is associated w i t h the void f o r m a t i o n and g r o w t h i n the fine grained H A Z ,
[ 20 ] gives the relationship between void area fraction and creep damage(Fig. 15).
84
 400
O aged,873 K 9 aged,92.3 K

• crept,873 K - 1 2 5 M P a • crept,923 K - 7 6 M P a

22
4 2
o o
A crept,873 K - 1 5 7 M P a A crept,923 K - 9 8 M P a
(A//)SS9UPJBKg ^

o
2

• O •° ©On 〇 • 〇 0
〇 i
8
o
1

• • • • •
• 口 a]
B • • i

I
160
0 20 40 60 80 100
Creep D a m a g e t/tr (%)

F i g . 14 V i c k e r ' s h a r d n e s s of c r e p t base m e t a l
28

• 873 K , 1 0 8 M P a
tr = 5 353 h
6

• 923 K ’ 4 9 M P a
(％ ) POA JO U.210B43CS9J V

" = 7 595h
4
2

•
o

•
.l
g.

20 40 60 80 100
Creep D a m a g e tltr (%)
F

R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n v o i d d e n s i t y a n d t/tr in welded joint

For modified 9 C r - l M o steel, it is shown that both the base metal and
weldment have the best creep r u p t u r e strength.
T h e creep rupture strengths of all weldments are similar to the average
creep rupture strength of the base metal. T h e equation ( 5 ) developed for base
metal is assumed to be appropriated for weldment w i t h a new lot constant Ch，
85
w h i c h is equal to-24. 257. T h i s assumption seemed valid since all failures
occurred at the edge of the H A Z i n the base metal. T h e average creep r u p t u r e
s t r e n g t h of the w e l d m e n t r o u g h l y coincides w i t h the m i n i m u m s t r e n g t h of the
base m e t a l , and is somewhat less t h a n that of the average s t r e n g t h of base
m e t a l , for the reason of a weakened or soft region at the edge of the H A Z ⑴ . A t
593 °C and for 30 000 h , the ratios of average weldment to average base metal
strengths is equal to 0. 84.

JWES [ 2 1 ] (Japan W e l d i n g Engineering Society) researches the creep, fatigue

and creep-fatigue properties of modified 9 C r - l M o steel including weldments
tested i n air and f o u n d that the f o r g i n g material of 550 m m thickness has almost
the same creep r u p t u r e s t r e n g t h and d u c t i l i t y as that of the 25 m m thickness
plate, and creep strength of these materials and their weldments agreed
relatively closely w i t h B o o k e r ' s r u p t u r e equation ( 5 ) . T h e results in [ 2 2 ] are
similar： the creep r u p t u r e s t r e n g t h of the tube is almost the same as that of the
plate and the creep r u p t u r e s t r e n g t h of the weldment is almost the same as that
of the base metal at 500 and 550 °C，and s l i g h t l y lower than that of the base
metal at 600 °C. See Fig. 16.
6. 3 Creep fatigue properties

L o n g t e r m t h e r m a l aging at temperatures results i n a reduction i n the

continuous cycling fatigue and creep-fatigue lives of modified 9 C r - I M o steels [23] ，
as a result of the changes i n the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e during aging. During aging,
N b C carbides disappear and the volume f r a c t i o n of V C carbides reduces, w h i c h
carbides are m a i n l y responsible for the a l l o y ' s strength i n the normalized and
tempered condition. Precipitation of laves phase also occurs d u r i n g aging,
removing M o , w h i c h is a potent solid s o l u t i o n strengtheners and retardant to
dislocation r e c o v e r y / r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n .
T h e fatigue life of the f o r g i n g material is approximately the same as that of
the p l a t e , and the fatigue life of the w e l d metal or weldment is shorter t h a n that
of the base metal T h e life reduction in the weldment is caused by strain
concentration i n the base metal [ 2 1 ] . See Fig. 17-18.
T h e cyclic stress-strain relations for the base metal and w e l d metal are given
Fig. 18 [ 2 1 ] . T h e plate and f o r g i n g material show the same behavior, whereas the
base metal shows a softer behavior t h a n the w e l d metal.
Local strain measurements reveal t h a t the strain range i n the H A Z become
86
 g o oo
o7
g o oo

\
M o d i f i e d 9 C r - l M o steel Base
Weldment
5

metal

•
3

Plate 〇
o
o

Forging A •
2
(Bp-2)
tosis

550 'C

100
600。C

70 Base metal
Weldments
50

10° 102 103 104 105 106

Rupture t i m e t, ( h )

F i g . 16 stress vs. r u p t u r e t i m e of base m e t a l and w e l d m e n t

smaller w i t h increasing cycles, the s t r a i n concentration occurs in the base metal

rather t h a n i n the H A Z . I t is consistent w i t h the experimental results s h o w i n g
that the failure i n the weldments occurred i n the base metal. See Fig. 19 [ 2 1 ] .
Examinations of the effect of strain h o l d position on creep-fatigue life
indicated that for modified 9Cr l M o the compression peak hold gave shorter
lives than the tensile-peak or intermediate h o l d tests. Fatigue life reduction w i t h
hold period for the modified 9 C r - I M o steel are generally smaller t h a n that for
the conventional austenitic stainless steels.
6.4 Toughness
T h e w e l d metal toughness may be t h o u g h t to be irrelevant in assemblies
designed f o r operation i n the temperature range of 500 〜 6 0 0 °C，sinc e this is
definitely far i n excess of the temperature range at w h i c h b r i t t l e fracture could
occur. H o w e v e r , the components may very w e l l also be stressed at ambient
temperature d u r i n g testing or start-up. T o minimise the risk of b r i t t l e fracture
in these s i t u a t i o n s , a m i n i m u m toughness average for weld metal of 47 J at 20 °C
has been introduced i n the European specification E N 1599 ： 1997 [ y ] .
87
 (％)co<1&PS ulBhs
PSOH

102 103 104 105 106

N u m b e r o f cycies to failure N t (cycle)

F i g . 17 L o w - c y c l e f a t i g u e data f o r t h e base m e t a l ,

weldment and weld metal

000
M o d i f i e d 9 C r - l M o steel, 550 °C
86

o o
o o
(Bds)bv 3gc2

W e l d metal
o
o
4

Base metal
o
o
2
Ss9hs

\ Plate
Base W e l d
metal metal
O •
Forging A —

0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

T o t a l strain range A st (%)

F i g . 18 C y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves f o r base a n d w e l d m e t a l s

A s mentioned i n section 4，the chemical composition of w e l d metal has an

i m p o r t a n t influence o n the toughness [ 9 ] . N i c k e l has a great influence o n t h e
toughness： the higher t h e N i content，the higher the toughness. T h i s is caused
by the decrease of t h e A c l temperature towards t h e tempering temperature w i t h

88
 1..2

M o d i f i e d 9 C r - l M o W e l d m e n t , 5 5 0 °C
(o/o)
3
如us
u
'a-
qs
lisOJL

o
.

. 10° 101 102 103 104

N u m b e r o f cycles N (cycles)

F i g . 19 E x a m p l e of measured local s t r a i n behavior of a w e l d m e n t

the increasing N i content. A l t h o u g h the N i o b i u m content is very s m a l l ， i t is

very i m p o r t a n t f o r the creep properties，but has a large effect o n the d u c t i l i t y of
the w e l d joints. T h e N b content should be adjusted at the l o w e r l i m i t at 0. 0 3 %
~ 0 . 0 5 % ( 0 . 0 4 % i n section 4 ) ， w h i c h is an o p t i m u m f o r deposited w e l d metal.
Fabricators strive to m i n i m i z e the d u r a t i o n of the P W H T for economic
reasons. T h i s is done by adjusting the P W H T temperature as h i g h as possible
w h i l e at the same t i m e considering the A c l temperature. Furthermore，PWHT
temperature close to the A c l p o i n t i m p r o v e s the d u c t i l i t y . I t can be seen t h a t the
toughness increases w i t h increased temperatures and h o l d i n g times. For a
P W H T 760 °C，2 hours m i n i m u m s h o u l d be used to assure sufficient toughness
( 4 1 J at 20。C). O n the other h a n d ， i t is possible to achieve a h i g h level of
toughness w i t h l o w e r temperatures using longer h o l d i n g t i m e s ， f o r example，
730 °C f o r 6 h.

T h e w e l d i n g p o s i t i o n also has influence on toughness [ 9 ] . By experience the

best toughness properties are achieved if the weaving technique is used instead of
the usual stringer bead w e l d i n g .
A l t h o u g h the w e l d i n g process has no influence on the creep s t r e n g t h , i t is
significant to impact toughness. T h e highest toughness is n o r m a l l y achieved
89
using G T A W , w h i l e f l u x processes such as M M A and S A W produce lower
toughness values. I t is because of v a r y i n g oxygen content. A n oxygen content of
less than 1 0 0 〜 2 0 0 X 1 0 _ 6 may be reached w i t h G T A W procedures, w h i l e M M A
and S A W w i l l produce typical o x y g e n contents i n the range of 400 〜 8 0 0 X
10- 6 [ 7 ]
.

7. Conclusion
M o d i f i e d 9 C r - I M o is the best candidate for higher service temperature. It
has attractive properties： h i g h creep strength with good ductility, high
resistance to c r a c k i n g , good w e l d a b i l i t y , h i g h t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y and l o w
t h e r m a l expansion coefficient. A s far as selecting o p t i m u m preheat temperature
and suitable P W H T , c o n t r o l l i n g the chemical composition of w e l d m e t a l , good
material properties of m o d i f i e d 9 C r - I M o w e l d m e n t w i l l be obtained.
• T h e N b content in w e l d metal is lower t h a n i n base m e t a l , is l i m i t e d to
0. 0 4 % ~ 0 . 0 8 % ， a n d N i content in w e l d metal is higher i n w e l d metal
t h a n in base m e t a l , up to 1 % . O n the other hand the M n + N i contents
i n w e l d metal is not allowed to exceed 1. 5 % .
• T h e preheat temperature is best to be selected w i t h m u t u a l consideration
of ultimate tensile s t r e n g t h , specific elongation and m a r t e n site content.
• P W H T 760 °C f o r 2 hours m i n i m u m should be used.

Note
T h i s w o r k was performed by Dr. X i a o t i a n L i d u r i n g her visit in C E A
(Cadarache) f r o m A p r i l , 2002 to O c t o b e r , 2002.

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92