Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 10 No. 2 (2018) p.

208-228

Influences of Environmental Conditions to Phytoconstituents in Clitoria

ternatea (Butterfly Pea Flower) – A Review
Nadzirah Jamil1, Mohd Naqiuddin Mohd Zairi2, Nur A’in Mohd Nasim1, Furzani Pa’ee1,3*
1
Department of Technology and Natural Resources, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Technology, Universiti
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 84600 Pagoh Educational Hub, Muar, Johor, Malaysia
2
Alfa Training & Services PLT, Johbase City Square, Jalan Lambak, 86000 Kluang, Johor, Malaysia
3
Centre of Research for Sustainable Uses of Natural Resources (CoR-SUNR), Faculty of Applied Sciences and
Technology, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 84600 Pagoh Educational Hub, Muar, Johor, Malaysia

Received 30 September 2017; accepted 1 July 2018; available online 1 August 2018

Abstract: Extreme environmental conditions will consequently become a disturbance on all phases of plant
growth. Malaysia is one of the developing countries that face challenges of extreme environmental conditions
from climate change such as water availability and soil salinity. In response to global climate change, plants
are trying to survive through several adaptation mechanisms. Clitoria ternatea or also known as Butterfly pea
flower is a potential plant that can tolerate different environmental parameters. Besides, C. ternatea contains
essential phytochemical compounds for pharmaceuticals, textile, medicinal and food industries. C. ternatea
is originated from tropical Asia countries and it is widely available in the Asian region. Butterfly pea flower
has attractive petal colours due to the presence of its bioactive compounds. C. ternatea is claimed as curing
various ailments and has great antioxidant activity due to their bioactive compounds such as anthocyanins,
alkaloid, steroid, tannin, reducing sugars and flavonoid. Clitoria ternatea has been evaluated as a potential
medicinal plant, such as antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and prevent from cardiovascular damage.
Meanwhile, by varying different environmental parameters, the adaptations of phytochemical in C. ternatea
is expressed variously. Hence, this paper reviews the physiological effect of growth conditions on Clitoria
ternatea and its effect on the production of beneficial phytoconstituents.

Keyword: Clitoria ternatea; Butterfly pea flower; environmental impacts; phytoconstituents; climate change;

1. Introduction that is in the Fabacaeae family. C. ternatea

classified as kingdom Plantae, phylum
The physiological processes in plants Tracheophyta, class of Magnoliopsida and a
during stress and the adaptation of plants family of Fabaceae. Morphologically, C.
towards extreme environments may alter the ternatea is a herbaceous perennial legume and
metabolite profiles. The naturally occurring can vary with different growing conditions. The
secondary metabolites in plants, including plant is a native to Zimbabwe, Ghana, Guinea,
various elicitors, may overcome the stress Malaysia and Indonesia. However C. ternatea
conditions. The local geoclimate-, and external has been introduced to tropical Australia,
conditions such as water, soil aeration and soil America and South Africa [3]. Since Clitoria
fertilizer affect the composition of bioactive ternatea is widely spread over many countries,
compounds. Malaysia is rich in species it is also known by many common names. For
diversity and hosts approximately 12,500 Malaysia it is ‘bunga telang’, while in Konkani
species of flowering plants and 185,000 species it is ‘shankha pushpa’ and ‘gokarna’ [4] blue-
of fauna, which are endemic to tropical forestry pea, cunha (Brazil), pokindong (Philippines),
in the region [1]. Clitoria ternatea is kordofan pea (Sudan), Kokkattan (Tamil),
moderately resistant to abiotic stress regardless Aparajita (Bengali) and also Aparajit in Hindi
of its beneficial phytoconstituents that could be [5].
applied in the industrial sector. In Ayurveda medicine, Clitoria ternatea is
Clitoria ternatea is a tropical flower that is considered as a nootropic herbs (Medhya-
widely found growing in gardens and also in the Rasayana) comprising herbs such as Conscora
wild. Clitoria ternatea is also known as decusata (Gentianaceae), Evolvulus alsinoides
butterfly pea and blue pea in various countries (Convolvulaceae) and Convolvulus pluricaulis
[2]. C. ternatea is very easy to grow and (Convolvulaceae).
maintain. Butterfly pea flower is a plant species
__________________________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
2018 UTHM Publisher. All right reserved.
e-ISSN: 2600-7924/penerbit.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/jst
Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 10 No. 2 (2018) p. 208-228

Ecologically, the butterfly pea flower antioxidant properties compared to other

commonly prefers full sunlight, however flowers and medicine elements. In ancient
sometimes partially shaded is more favourable. human civilization, Clitoria ternatea has been
Seeds can be germinated by soaking them in used to treat neurological disorders [17].
water overnight [6]. Germination occurs within Besides that, anthocyanin pigment from
1-2 weeks while flowering occurs within 4 Clitoria ternatea also showed anti-viral, anti-
weeks. The propagation for Clitoria ternatea inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-allergic, and
includes the stems which are fine twinning as it anti-microbial properties, prevent diabetes,
can grow to 3 m long. Other than that, the leaves protect the cardiovascular system from damage
are pinnate with 7 leaflets. Leaflets are nearly and many more health benefits [18]. Their
orbicular or ovate 3 cm wide (max) and 5cm stability in colour and antioxidant properties are
long (max) [7]. influenced by several varying environmental
The flower can either be single or paired parameters, including light, pH, moisture
with colour ranging from white, mauve, light content, fertilizer, soil aeration, and
blue to dark blue and the size is 9 mm long [8]. temperature. Due to the environmental standard
Pedicles can grow to 4-9 mm long and imposed by pollution control and biodiversity
bracteoles are around 12 mm long, broadly policy of various countries in response to
ovate or rounded. The campanulate calyces can allergic reactions and toxin in synthetic dye, a
grow to 2.2 cm long (max). The flower lobes natural dye from Clitoria ternatea can be used
can either be oblong or triangular where it can as a colouring agent for making products.
grow up to 1cm long and is acute or acuminate Moreover, there has been a research
[9]. Besides that, the standard flower is 2-4 cm suggesting that anthocyanin helps in protecting
wide funnel-shaped, rounded or with notched the cell, as an anti-ageing agent, protects cell
apex, and can reach to 5.5 cm long. damage and promoting healthy eyes [19].
The pods of Clitoria ternatea is flattened Therefore, in realizing the many benefits of C.
and is linear-oblong with size 4-13 cm long, and ternatea to humans, it is very important to
0.9-1.2 cm wide [10]. Butterfly pea flower pods investigate the phytochemicals of the plant by
have thickened margins and pale brown in varying several parameters for better quality.
colour. When in dry conditions, Clitoria The production of phytoconstituents in
ternatea will dehiscence. Each pods has 6-10 C.ternatea can be controlled by changing the
seeds. The seeds are 5-7 mm long and 3-4 mm environmental condition.
wide which is often mottled, brown and shiny
[11]. Moreover, it adapts easily to a wide range
of different types of soils with different pH.
It has been reported that butterfly pea
flower plays an important role in nervine
medicine as well as improving brain system and
boosting memory [12]. In terms of C. ternatea
as a medicinal plant, the whole part of the plant
is beneficial for medical treatment. The juice
extract from the flowers of C. ternatea has been
reported to cure skin diseases and insect stings
[13]. The roots are used to treat inflammation,
burning sensation, in ophthalmology, amentia,
asthma, ascites and hemicranias [14]. In
addition, the stem, root and flower of C.
ternatea are recommended for the treatment of
animal sting, such as snakebite or scorpion in
India [15].
The flower of C. ternatea resembles a
conch-shell is said to be good for treatment of Fig. 1 Blue flower of Clitoria
mental illness (Masasika Roga) [16]. Butterfly ternatea
pea flower contains high amounts of
anthocyanin pigments. Many evidences
indicate Clitoria ternatea to be rich in

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2. Water mainly in old leaves that causes reduction of

yield and plant death [22, 24].
Exposure to drought is a very common The impact of soil salinity includes
problem in Malaysia, which will lead to cellular complex interactions in morphological,
dehydration. It will cause osmotic stress and physiological and biochemical process such as
removal of water from the cytoplasm to the seed germination, plant growth, water and
vacuoles [20]. Research has stated that Clitoria nutrient uptake. Nevertheless, salinity may
ternatea is drought sensitive, where the study reduce the economic growth as well as
measures plant shoot and root lengths [21]. agricultural productivity and causes soil
Maximum germination has been observed at erosions [25].
42.5% during drought stress while the control The germination, vegetative growth and
is 56.25%. Meanwhile, the minimum shoot reproductive development may change since
length showed 4.9 cm in stress, and 6.4 cm in soil salinity possesses ion toxicity, osmotic
control. The evidence revealed that in water stress and deficiency of nutrient and limit water
shortage C. ternatea reduced its germination uptake from soil. Moreover, plants may take up
percentage and shoot length in comparison to improper balance of nutrients they need for
control. healthy growth under saline conditions. The
rate of germination parameters, the length of
3. Soil Salinity shoot and root, and the dry weights of the fresh
shoot and the root of some forage cultivars is
Salinity has become the most extreme influenced by the levels of salinity [26].
environmental factor where it may limit the On top of that, Clitoria ternatea has been
crop production of plants. Plus, high shown as moderately tolerant in salt stress [27].
concentrations of salinity in soil will be For instance, C. ternatea shows a positive result
sensitive to some plants. Most regions in the in sodium chloride, NaCl concentration of
world recently has experienced climate change 0.5%, 1.5%, 2.5% and 3.5%. However, at 4.5%
as the soil exposed to water become less from of salinity, it showed a negative result.
time to time, which leads to the increase in soil Therefore, under saline environments this
salinity. Consequently, salinity stress is legume would be tolerant to salt moderately.
becoming a major limiting factor to agricultural Research has been carried out to compare
sector, primarily in Malaysia as it experiences plant Centrosema pubescens, Macroptilium
equatorial climate. atroperpureum and Clitoria ternatea under
A wide range of strategies and adaptation salinity tolerance during germination and early
are needed to cope with this impact, to increase seedling growth (28). The seeds from each
the resource management to overcome the plant have been inoculated with salinity by
salinity stress. The agricultural area might mixing the different salts like NaCl, Na2SO4,
become arid or semiarid as they are affected by MgCl2 and CaSO4 and the control. It has been
saline conditions due to climate change. Many reported that M. atroperpureum was
irrigated areas use brackish water which also moderately tolerant than C. ternatea and C.
affects salinity. At the same time, plant pubescens under salt stress [28].
production may vary in arid lands, where Besides that, research had been done
adverse conditions including salinity and previously by using mutant Clitoria ternatea on
limited water affect the development of plant salinity stress and the outcome showed that the
growth. mutant C. ternatea exhibited highest tolerance
The response of plants towards salinity has to 130 mM NaCl treatment, whereas the normal
been revealed in two phases; first is the C. ternatea exhibited highest susceptibility at
occurrence of shoot ion-independent, within seedling stage in salinity stress [23, 29].
minutes to days and has thought to be related to On the other hand, in plant cells oxidative
Na+ sensing and signaling [22]. In the first stress was induced by salinity via the generation
phase, the effects of salinity cause stomatal of reactive oxygen species (ROS). There is
closure and inhibition of leaf expansion [22, evidence to show that Clitoria ternatea
23]. However, during the second phase, the ion- potentially increased their quality, yield and
dependent response to salinity, involves build- nodulation in organic fertilizers as compared to
up of ions in the shoot to toxic concentrations, inorganic fertilizer under saline environment
[30]. Clitoria ternatea (Butterfly pea flower)

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plant was grown in arid saline environment and of shade-cloth above the plants [33]. However,
treated with composted organic fertilizer it can be increased by placing the surrounding
(poultry and cow manure) and inorganic plants with white or bright material.
nutrients (NPK) in Saudi Arabia [30]. Thus, it
was shown that arid and saline soil could be 5. Temperature
enriched using composted organic fertilizer.
The productivity and development of the
4. Light plant is influenced by temperature for both the
cool-season and the warm-season crops. Other
In terms of the photosynthesis system, than that, temperature is also a key factor for the
light has become the main energy source and development of the plant. If the temperature is
may trigger structural differentiation and too low or too high for a warm-season crop, this
growth in plants. The growth and will hinder the growth of fruits. Extreme
differentiation of plant cells, tissue, organ temperatures might prevent pollination and the
cultures and morphogenesis are influenced by plants become unviable.
the light quality, quantity and photoperiod [29]. Besides, plants survive and grow best at
Besides, the development of plant growth is optimum temperatures within their varied
influenced by the light quality, referring to range. The range might be wide for some
wavelength and colour that reaches plant species and narrow for other species [34].
surface [30]. As such, light sources such as However, plants can only survive when the
high-pressure sodium, fluorescent, temperature allows them to bring about
incandescent and metal-halide lamps have been chemical reactions. The temperature stress has
used for plant cultivation. become a major problem to many scientists as
However, these types of sources may climate changes have a potential of contributing
promote low quality growth due to its to agricultural impacts [35].
wavelengths being located outside the Furthermore, unfavourable temperatures
photosynthetically active radiation spectrum may cause poor development and stunted
[31]. Gallium-aluminium-arsenide light growth of the plant. Usually temperatures have
emitting diode (LED) lighting systems have been correlated with the length of day l to
better light sources than those conventional manipulate the flowering of plants [36].
light sources. Furthermore, with their ability to Besides, in terms of respiration, the higher the
control spectral composition, durability, small temperature, the higher the rate of respiration
size, wavelength specificity and photon output [37]. Corresponding to the increasing in
which correlates with electrical input current, respiration, the products of photosynthesis has
these solid-state light sources might be ideal for also rapidly increased. Besides that, low
plant lighting designs, contributing to optimal temperatures may result in poor growth as well
production and enhancing the plant metabolism as the decrease in the rate of photosynthesis.
and morphology [32]. Therefore, this results in lower yields since the
Plants survive on the amount of light growth of plant is slowed.
within a range that they can tolerate. As
mentioned earlier, the light sources have three 6. Soil pH
principal characteristics that affect plant
growth, namely, duration, quality and quantity. All plant species need nutrients which are
Light quantity refers to the intensity of sunlight greatly affected by the soil pH. Certain
and total amount of light that the plant receives, nutrients required for growth are taken up by
usually maximum in the summer and minimum the plant roots. By measuring the acidity or
in the winter season. alkalinity of the soil, the ability of plant roots to
As the plants use sunlight to produce food, take up nutrients can be determined. Besides,
hence the more sunlight a plant uptakes, the plants grow at their best in neutral soils with pH
higher the ability for the plant to produce food 7.0. However, some of the plant species might
via photosynthesis. Likewise, when the plant grow well in soils with pH 6.0 or below.
receives less sunlight (usually on cloudy or The acidity of the soil can be changed by
rainy days), it will decrease the photosynthetic using lime and any materials that contain
processes. The light quantity might be sulphates in order to lower the soil pH.
decreased in a garden or greenhouse by the aid Moreover, soil pH greatly affects the solubility

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of minerals and nutrients. The solubility of 8. Soil Aeration

many trace elements is influenced by pH and
only soluble forms of micronutrients are taken Besides soil moisture, soil aeration is
up by plants [38]. Iron compound is not soluble needed for the growth of plants. In order to live,
and are often present in high pH soil. everything in nature needs oxygen, hence soil
Highly acidic soil (pH 4.0 to 5.0), contains aeration will allow oxygen and any vital
high concentrations of iron, aluminium and nutrients to reach the plant roots. Moreover, soil
manganese which is toxic to the growth of aeration benefits plants because enough
plants [39]. Hence, soil pH ranging from pH 6.0 quantity of oxygen is supplied to the roots and
to pH 7.0 promotes the best availability of plant the quick removal of carbon dioxide from the
bioactive compounds and nutrients. Some soil creates a healthy plant growth [44]. On the
plants such as blueberries and conifer trees other hand, if supply of oxygen is insufficient,
tolerate strong acid soils and grow well in them the growth of plant will slow down as carbon
[40]. dioxide is accumulated in the plant roots.
On the other hand, if the soil is alkaline If the soil aeration is insufficient, root
with higher pH range, it will cause low nutrient development becomes abnormal as is most
to those plants and eventually lead to mortality. notably seen in the shape of the roots.
Other than that, the acidity of soils also has an Insufficient aeration in the root system causes
influence on the activity of microorganisms poor penetration and subsequent development
which decompose organic matters [41]. These of the roots, resulting in insufficient amount of
microorganisms (such as bacteria) are nutrient being absorbed from the soil [45].
prevented from breaking down these organic Other than that, the presence of microorganisms
matter thus, preventing the release of nutrients in the soil will also increase due to the presence
and nitrogen. of oxygen for the metabolism and respiration
process of these microorganisms. The most
7. Soil Moisture important activity of the microorganisms is the
decomposition of organic matter. Hence, if the
Soil moisture content is the amount of oxygen in the soil is lacking, it will slow down
water in the soil. The response of plant growth the rate of microbial activity.
to soil moisture content, usually in agricultural As mentioned earlier, soil moisture is
areas, is of significance to the farmers. The closely related to soil aeration, thus the
development of the plant and its subsequent decomposition of organic matter by the
survival also depends on the presence of abiotic microorganism plays the same role in affecting
and environmental factors. Furthermore, the growth of plant. Furthermore, insufficient
moisture content plays an important role in the amount of oxygen in the soil due to poor
germination of seed in plant [42]. If dry aeration will result in the formation of the toxic
conditions occur in the soil within six days of substances, such as carbon dioxide gas and
planting, the seeds of the plant might not ferrous oxide in the soil [46]. Furthermore, with
survive, hence no crop will be established from poor soil aeration, it is found that plants exhibit
the seed. water and nutrient deficiency affecting the
In addition, the availability of water is bioactive compounds present in that plant. This
essential for the turgidity of the cell for growth will lead to the development of diseases.
and enlargement. The amount of water used by
the crop depends on the plant morphology and 9. Soil Fertilizer
wind speed. Besides, different plants need
different amounts of water [43]. Soil moisture Plant nutrients are essential for crop
content is also correlated with weather production and soil fertility. Various types of
conditions, either in summer or winter. Some fertilizers are added to crops to enhance the
species tolerate drought during summer such as capability to produce sustainable agriculture.
Clitoria ternatea. On the other hand, some Chemical, organic and biofertilizers are widely
plants need a continuous supply of moisture to used and these types of fertilizers possess their
grow well such as Oryza sativa or also known own advantages and disadvantages to crop
as Asian rice. growth.
Chemical fertilizer is a non-organic
fertilizer which mainly consists of phosphate,

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nitrate, ammonium and potassium salts to stimulating compounds in seaweed and

increase agricultural activities efficiency [47]. seaweed-derived products has made it useful in
Besides, chemical fertilizers present several the crop production system [51]. Unlike
advantages to plants such as its nutrients are chemical and organic fertilizer, biofertilizers do
immediately available to plants, the price is not directly supply any nutrients to plant but
cheap compared to the organic fertilizer and it they are cultures of beneficial bacteria and
is synthetically made to contain high amounts fungi.
of nutrients [48]. Thus, chemical fertilizer Several main microorganisms that are used
provides a direct and quick effect to plant as biofertilizers are rhizobia [52], azotobacters
growth. and azospirillum [53], phosphate-solubilizing
However, overuse of chemical fertilizer bacteria (PSB) [54], vesicular arbuscular
can produce negative effects on fertilizer mycorrhiza (VAM) [55] and plant growth
efficiency. Over application of chemical promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) [56].
fertilizer can result in the pollution of water Moreover, PGPR is a type of bacteria that are
resources, crop susceptibility to disease attack, commonly used to promote plant growth. These
reduction in soil fertility and acidification or beneficial bacteria or rhizobacteria can
alkalization of the soil [48]. Therefore, these influence the plant growth through direct and
negative effects cause an irreparable damage to indirect mechanism.
the overall plant system. Directly, these rhizobacteria can stimulate
The use of organic fertilizer has been given plant growth through stimulation of root
more consideration as the continuous use of growth, rhizoremediation and act as
non-organic fertilizer create potential biofertilizer. Meanwhile, rhizobacteria can also
environmental pollution. Furthermore, the promote growth indirectly by reducing the level
advantages of using organic fertilizer are the of disease and inducing systemic resistance
nutrient supply is more balanced and slowly [57].
released. Thus, it contributes to the residual
pool of organic nitrogen (N) and phosphorus 10. Phytoconstituents
(P) and reduce N leaching loss and P fixation.
Besides, organic fertilizers can also suppress Clitoria ternatea contains high nutritional
several plant diseases, increase root growth and value of primary metabolites in different parts
intensify soil biological activity [48]. of the plant. The leaves containe30 % of crude
Therefore, more organic fertilizers are needed protein and 14 % of crude fibre [58]. The plant
to meet the demand of plant nutrients [49]. seeds contain 20 % of carbohydrates, 7 % of
The sources for organic fertilizer can be lipid and 3 % of total ash. These primary
from the animal and human manure [50] and metabolites are important as precursors or
vegetable compost. However, due to the pharmacologically active metabolites in
naturally occurring content in the organic pharmaceutical compounds. The high level of
fertilizer, it makes the fertilizer to be highly protein in the plant is used to isolate protein
variable in terms of its nutrient composition. base bioactive compounds. Additionally, the
Moreover, organic fertilizers are also content of fatty acid in C. ternatea includes
comparatively low in nutrient content and the stearic acid, linolenic acids, palmitic acid and
rate of nutrient release is slow. Another obvious oleic acid [59].
disadvantage of organic fertilizer is the increase As such, many researches are done on
of heavy metals in soils specifically Cadmium bioactive compound and crude extraction
(Cd), lead (Pb) and Arsenic (As). The lead and which has a potential benefit to replace
arsenic concentrations were found to be synthetic components with natural and effective
increased dramatically in comparison to antioxidants. Moreover, the plants present a
cadmium concentration in wheat [50]. great alternative in producing health
Biofertilizer is produced through a simple supplements and therapeutic products in many
technology and low cost of installation as parts of the world including Malaysia and other
compared to chemical fertilizers. Seaweed is a Asian countires [60].
growing and widely available resource that is Phytochemical screening showed active
utilized as a source of food, industrial raw secondary metabolites present in C. ternatea.
materials and botanical applications. In All parts of the plant body has synthesized
addition, the presence of many plant growth- many bioactive components such as from the

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flower, root, stem, seeds, bark and leaves. It has Also, alkaloid can become an
been reported that C. ternatea has major antidepressant agent. The plant-based alkaloid
phytoconstituents such as taraxerone and has been consumed as a significant clinical
taraxerol [61]. The phytochemical analysis of efficacy in placebo-controlled studies in
C. ternatea on different plant parts has been patients of bipolar and unipolar depression [66].
confirmed for the presence of tannins, resins, In addition, herbs-isolated alkaloid exhibit
steroids, flavonoids, saponins, triterpenoids, antimetastasis and antiproliferation in both in
anthocyanins, xanthenes and many more [62]. vivo and in vitro types of cancer. Camptothecin
The flower parts contain great natural and vinblastine, alkaloids have been completely
antioxidants including flavonoids, anthocyanin, and successfully developed into anticancer
flavonol glycosides, phenolic acids and drugs and have been used to help patients with
procyanidins. Other sources reported that petal cancer. The consumption of alkaloid to fight
of C. ternatea contained flavonol glycosides, against cancer and as an anticancer agent has
eight anthocyanins (ternatins C1, C2, C3, C4, become very promising [67].
C5 and D3 and preternatins A3 and C4), Moreover, the reserpine, an alkaloid, has
delphinidin-3, 5-diglucoside, kaemphferol [30]. been consumed to treat hypertension.
These phenolic antioxidants acts as a resistance Resperine, the antihypertensive agents were
to cancer due to their protective chemical introduced into hypertensive rats. After the
components. onset of hypertension, the rat was treated with
The phenolic antioxidants or also known reserpine. The blood pressure and prolyl
as phytochemicals have been shown to hydroxylase activity were decreased. Thus, the
scavenge radicals in a dose-dependent manner treatment of reserpine is an effective alternative
and favourable as therapeutic drug for free and treatment to diminish and decrease the
radical pathologies [63]. Eventhough many arterial hydroxylase activity of hypertension
possible constituents of C. ternatea’s have still [68].
not been discovered, those that have been are On the other hand, quinidine, an alkaloid
proving to be effective worldwide. has been used as an antiarrhythmic agent. 25
patients with Brugada syndrome have been
Alkaloid treated with quinidine. Quninidine has
prevented the ventricular fibrillation for 88%,
Alkaloid is considered as one of the 22 out a 25 patients. The quinidine has been
phytochemical compound that is found in administered for 6 to 219 months to 19 patients
Clitoria ternatea. In terms of bioactive and none of the patients has the arrhythmia.
compounds, it was revealed that alkaloids Thus quinidine has the ability to become a vital
strongly inhibit lipid peroxidation whereas and significant alternative to deal with the
isolated tissues were induced by its antioxidant arrhythmias [69].
activity [64]. Even though some studies have Symptomatic and asymptomatic infections
been done on the application of the alkaloid are caused by human protozoal pathogens and
constituent of c. ternatea, it has nit been put to affect all humans. Emetine also an alkaloid, has
clinical use. The phytochemical analysis of C. been used to treat and help patients with
ternatea showed the presence of alkaloid protozoal infection [70].
among the other constituent. There are Alkaloids have been used for the
possibilities of alkaloid presence which might Alzheimer’s disease. Physostigmine alkaloid
produce and provide similar effects. treatment towards patients has suggested that
The alkaloid has been consumed to treat the treatment improved and helped the
tissue damage for centuries. The crude alkaloid constructional disability in some of the
has been tested using animals to obtain possible Alzheimer’s cases. The hypothesis of central
mechanisms. The abdominal constrictions were cholinergic potentiation could be supported as
significantly reduced, paw licking time is the treatment might be another piece of
increased and significant increase in latency (P evidence to improve and ameliorate some of the
≤0.05) was observed by the alkaloid treatment. Alzheimer’s diseases impairment [71].
Thus, the alkaloid has the ability to become a Besides, quinine, another alkaloid has
significant and important analgesic potential been consumed as an antimalarial activity. The
through inhibition of peripheral nervous system quinine content in plant extract has a vital
[65].

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potential as an antipyretic and antimalarial spinal stenosis, radiculopathy, diskspace

activities with no cytotoxicity in vitro [65]. narrowing, annular tears, spondylosis,
spondylolisthesis, and postlaminectomy
Steroid syndrome might have the opportunities to be
treated with the ESI [77, 78].
As described earlier, steroid compounds In addition, steroids have been used in
have been found to be present in Clitoria traumatic spinal cord injuries.
ternatea which correlates to sex hormones. The Methylprednisolone, a steroid is used in the
steroidal compounds are of interest to first eight hours of their injuries. After six
pharmaceuticals due to their capability as sex months, the treated patients have a significant
hormones [72]. Besides, postoperative pain, improvement compared to patients who were
postoperative and postdischarge nausea and placebo-treated in motor function (neurological
vomiting may be decreased due to the change scores of 16.0 and 11.2, P =0.03)
consumption of the steroids. It also induce a neurological recovery. Thus, the
sense of well-being and stimulate appetite [73]. methylprednisolone, steroid might be an
Even though some studies have been done alternative to improve neurologic injuries and
on the application of the steroid constituent of to treat acute traumatic spinal cord injuries [79,
C. ternatea and not many have been put to 80].
clinical practice, the phytochemical analysis of Moreover, steroids have been used in
the C. ternatea showed the presence of steroid. hyperactive airways. The intranasal aqueous
There are possibilities of steroid presence in the beclomethasone dipropionate, steroids is used
C. ternatea that might produce and provide as a treatment for allergic rhinitis and asthma.
similar effects. Global rhinitis symptom scores (p= 0.05)
Moreover, glucocorticoid, biological significantly reduced by intranasal
active synthetic derivatives of corticosteroids beclomethasone dipropionate after 4 weeks of
has a physiological effect on metabolism. the treatment. Morning asthma tended to
Gluconeogenesis will occur by increasing the decrease (p=0.07) and evening asthma
blood glucose concentration in the liver significantly decreased for week 2 and 3, (p =
stimulated by the glucocorticoid cortisol, an 0.001, p = 0.02) by the treatment of intranasal
essential regulator of lipid, protein, beclomethasone dipropionate. Thus, the
carbohydrate and nucleic acid metabolism. The treatment of steroids can reduce and decrease
oxidation of fatty acids in cells and the the bronchial hyperactivities and help to
mobilization of fatty acid from adipose tissue improve asthma symptoms [81].
are promoted by glucocorticoid cortisol [74]. Steroid too, have been consumed and used
Furthemore, the steroid might be consumed in Post Intubation Laryngeal Oedema. An
during perioperative period of patients intraluminal polypoid lesion was observed at
suffering from hypoadrenocorticism. It is used the site of the cuff of the endotracheal tube of a
to treat one of the vital stress response patient suffering from a progressive tracheal
components in our [75]. stenosis disease. A treatment of
Sex steroids play an essential and crucial beclomethasone inhaler cured the disease
role on the adverse effect of hormone within 5 days of treatment. Thus, the systemic
deficiencies in young and old, men and women, steroid may be beneficial to the early post-
and in the maintenance of bone health. The intubation tracheal stenosis [82].
clinical management of osteoporosis might be The corticosteroid contributes towards
improved when the bone is treated with the sex anti-inflammatory action by the inhibition of
steroid [76]. the arachidonic acid by the cells [83]. The
Furthemore, steroids have been used for steroid affects a collagen deposition and growth
the Epidural Steroid Injection, ESI to cure and factor in wound healing by decreasing
treat patients with back pain. The affected nerve hydroxyproline content in the tissue and TGF-
root will be provided with some relief by the B and IGF-I in the level of wound fluid [84].
ESI. Besides, ESI is also introduced as therapy
to patients suffering from lumbar disc disease, Reducing Sugars
as an effective alternative towards surgical
treatment. Additionally, patients with spinal The presence of reducing sugar in the plant
pathology, for example, vertebral fractures, showed the ability of bioactive compound as

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Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 10 No. 2 (2018) p. 208-228

anti-diabetic. Other sources reported that presence of these phytochemicals indicate the
extracts of Clitoria ternatea leaves and flowers potential of the plant as a medicinal plant. The
possess an essential antidiabetic, antioxidant medicinal plants today can be considered as
and anti-inflammatory activity [85]. potential sources of antioxidant compounds
[92]. Therefore, plant C. ternatea deserves
Tannin attention due to their phytoconstituents.

Clitoria ternatea too has been reported to Flavonoid

contain tannin compound. The presence of
tannin and terpenoids are indicated for anti- Flavonoids have been indicated as having
inflammatory activities and analgesic. Other antioxidative activity, scavenge free radical,
than that, tannin compound was related to faster anti-inflammatory, anticancer,
healing of wounds and swollen mucous hepatoprotective, antiviral activities and
membrane [86]. In addition, the secondary prevent any coronary heart diseases. The
metabolites of C. ternatea such as tannin and biological functions in flavonoids include
flavonoid act as defence mechanism against protection against ulcers, viruses, tumors,
insects and microorganisms. platelet aggregation, inflammation, allergies
Phytochemical analysis of crude extract of and microbes [93]. Besides, in terms of plant
the C. ternatea showed the presence of tannin system, flavonoid stands for growth regulators
among the other constituents. Tannins are and assists in repelling oxidative stress. Natural
found to produce anthelmintic activities. The sources of phytochemical flavonoid possess a
presence of tannin in C. ternatea crude extract variety of advantages, for instance as dietary
might produce and provide similar effects. The element in promoting health. In addition, the
free proteins within and in the gastrointestinal fruits and vegetables that contained flavonoids
tract can be bound by tannin to exert are thought to have high antioxidant capacity by
anthelmintic effects of the tannins. in vivo and in vitro system [94].
The possible mechanisms of tannin’s Some of the researches reported that
actions are, firstly, uncoupling oxidative flavonoids are able to activate human protective
phosphorylation to interfere with energy enzyme systems. Moreover, studies have
generation. Secondly, the tannins may interfere suggested that flavonoids protect against
with glycoprotein of cell surface and lastly, the infectious degenerative diseases, viral and
tannins can bind to free proteins in parasites’ bacterial diseases and other age-related diseases
glycoprotein on the cuticle or in gastrointestinal [95]. Since flavonoids play a part in the defence
tract of host animal and cause death. system, it can also act as secondary
Anthelmintic activities were significantly antioxidants.
determined with the extract of Clitoria Furthermore, flavonoids comprising of
ternatea’s root and leaves [87, 88]. very effective antioxidants such as flavonols,
Tannins obtained from C. ternatea plant chalcones, flavones, flavonones and
inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO) which isoflavones are found in a large group of
might lead to antidepressant activity, hence naturally occurring plants [96]. Other classes of
increasing the dopamine and norepinephrine phenolic compounds and flavonoids are
levels in the brain. Thus, C. ternatea might important phytochemicals [97].
serve to have a crucial and important role as a
resource for psychotherapeutic agent for mood Anthocyanins
disorders and depression [89].
Terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, C. ternatea was also identified as having
alkaloids and anthraquinones are secondary phytochemical compounds as the flower
metabolites shown in vitro to have contains a deep blue colour that consists of
antimicrobial properties. These bioactive anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are a Greek word
compounds such as phenols, tannins and which refers to ‘anthos’ meaning flower, while
flavonoids act as antioxidant, anti-microbial, ‘kyanos’ means blue [98]. The word
antihelmintic and anti-diarrhoeal activity [90]. anthocyanin has been used in order to express
On top of that, flavonoid compounds of Clitoria blue pigments of the cornflower Centura
ternatea were found with the presence of cyanus [99]. Apart from that, anthocyanins,
kaempferol-3-neohesperidoside [91]. The present in fruits, roots, leaves and caudices act

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as an alternative for synthetic pigments due to is a natural pigment and a phenolic compound
their physiological functionality [100]. that has a range of colours from orange to blue.
In addition, anthocyanins consist of two At pH 1-2, the colour of the pigment is red, at
distinct patterns such as anthocyanin glycosides pH 3-7, the colour is shown as purple to blue
and sugar free anthocyanidin aglycones [101]. and at pH 8-14, the colour shown is yellow
Since anthocyanidin is insoluble in water and green [108].
unsteady to light, it does not occur in the free However, blue colour solution is shown
state. However, at acidic pH anthocyanin shows favourable from pH 1-12 [109]. The natural
it is positively charged and forms flavylium pigment is safe and non-toxic and it satisfies the
cation (equilibrium form). All of the criteria for consumers in food colours or
anthocyanin structures are based on a single manufacturing industry. Besides, the capability
basic chemical structure, which is flavylium of the phenol structure in gaining free-radicals
ion. There are 17 types of anthocyanins [102]. as antioxidant has been reported to be higher
Some of these include cyanidin (magenta), than vitamin C and E [110].
aurantinidin (orange), delphinidin The stability of the phytochemicals are
(blue/purple), europinidin (bluish red) and influenced by many factors among which are
many more. the structural modifications of hydroxyl groups,
Anthocyanin can occur as a blue, purple environmental factors and storage. Several
and red flavonoid pigment found in the Clitoria different colours will be displayed in this
ternatea flower. Moreover, the colours of photosynthetic pigment, which leads to
anthocyanin change depending on the reading beautiful colorants for the food or
of pH from acid to base [103]. As mentioned manufacturing industries. The purple colour of
earlier, anthocyanins are found in Clitoria Clitoria ternatea indicates the presence of
ternatea petals, are water-soluble and are a anthocyanin compounds. The white petals do
vacuolar pigment. not contain anthocyanin compound.
In addition, anthocyanins belong to the Anthocyanins are in high demand due to their
flavonoid group as it is synthesized through the preventive effect against various diseases
phenylpropanoid pathway. Anthocyanins are [111].
flavourful but odourless as it is derived from These natural compounds in C. ternatea
anthocyanidins by adding sugars [104]. Mostly possess many benefits as it is harmless and
occurring in nature are cyanidin, malvidin, environment friendly. These phenolic
peonidin, delphinidin, petunidin of glycosides compounds as secondary metabolites in plants
[105]. Around 2 % of all hydrocarbons in play a major potential as antioxidants, coming
photosynthesis were converted into flavonoid from natural sources and associated with health
and anthocyanins. Apart from that, it is found benefits. The phytochemicals have several
that blackberries, grapes, blueberries, physiological effects to humans such as
avocados, oranges, sweet potatoes and mangoes preventing platelet aggregation [112]. In some
are rich in anthocyanins [106]. conditions, the bioactive compounds help in
Since anthocyanin acts as an antioxidant, inhibiting oxidative damage of lipid and low
this photosynthetic pigment is water soluble. density lipoprotein [113].
Anthocyanins are water soluble glycosides of Besides that, natural compounds help in
polyhydroxyl and polymethoxyl. The colour of reducing the risk of coronary heart disease and
anthocyanins can vary with the number and cancer [114]. Furthermore, these phenolic
position of hydroxyl groups [107]. compounds contain great in vivo and in vitro
Corresponding to the hydroxyl groups, antioxidant properties, act as metal chelators,
anthocyanin can differ by aromatic acylation, break radical chain reactions and scavenge free
substitution pattern, nature of glycosyl units radicals [115].
and potential aliphatic. Stability of The presence of flavonoids in plants act
anthocyanins will increase by the presence of as guardians in environmental stress, while in
acylation of sugar residues with aliphatic acids. humans, it serves as biological response
The use of many artificial food colouring modifiers. These phytochemicals contain
agents in food, drinks, and cosmetic industries nutrients to help in slowing the aging process
will trigger health problems among consumers and also reducing the risk of critical diseases
over a long period. Therefore, anthocyanin can such as cancer, heart diseases, high blood
be used to replace these artificial colouring as it pressure, osteoporosis, stroke, urinary tract

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Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 10 No. 2 (2018) p. 208-228

infection and cataracts. Moreover, Clitoria Hence, the surrounding tissue is full of blood
ternatea act as therapeutic agents for several due to leaking. These enzymes will be
conditions. neutralized by anthocyanins Thus, antioxidant
Researches on anthocyanins in fruits and activities inside would prevent the connective
plants have increased in the past three or four tissue from continuing damage. With the
decades due to their potential health effects and benefits of Clitoria ternatea in response to anti-
as nutraceuticals. Anthocyanins (a flavonoid ageing and antioxidant properties it can be used
category) were found in one study to have the in anti-wrinkle cream in the cosmetic industry.
strongest antioxidizing power of 150 Due to the environmental standard
flavonoids [116]. The presence of anthocyanin imposed by pollution control and biodiversity
in plant enhances their defence mechanism as it policy of various countries in response to
is very essential in pollination and allergic reactions and toxicity in synthetic dye,
reproduction. a natural dye from Clitoria ternatea could be
Moreover, anthocyanins protect the plant used as a colouring agent for making products.
from UV-light as they contain high Therefore, this will minimize the use of
antioxidants. Anthocyanins assist in reducing chemical coating material in the manufacturing
the risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer and industry.
cognitive decline and are anti-diabetic [117]. In addition, many cosmetic industries
Other than that, anthocyanins are high in use harmful elements in their products,
antioxidants which may lead to improved especially using excessive acid or mercury to
vision in man. Anthocyanin is a strong get effective results. By using natural or organic
antioxidant with its capability in reducing elements in their products, it is better and safer
radical scavenger by glycosylation. However in for the skin. Since the colour of the pigments of
aglycone it decreases the ability of anthocyanin Clitoria ternatea is fascinating and the dye
radical to delocalize electrons. extracts contain antioxidant agents, it could be
The researches have investigated the applied in the cosmetic industry as it is natural
ability of anthocyanins to act as anti-viral, anti- and harmless.
allergic, antioxidant, anti-microbial and anti- Furthermore, C. ternatea has the ability
mutagenic and to prevent diabetes, and to in affecting female reproductive organ. The
improve eye function. The colour of plant has been effective in treating female
anthocyanins depends on the structure of sexual disorders such as infertility, gonorrhoea,
anthocyanins, water activity, pH, light, oxygen to correct menstrual disorders, and as an
and temperature. All these factors influence the aphrodisiac. It can also be used to treat male
stability of pigments. infertility by increasing sperm mobility [120].
Thus, insufficient light may lead to This photosynthetic plant is also effective in
pigment destruction and high temperature can treating piles by using the whole plant paste and
destroy structure of flavylium ion hence, loss of applying it over the swelling, infected and
more colours. The oxidizing reagents such as bleeding area.
vitamin C and peroxides lead to changes of the Other sources reported that the leaves of
colour [118]. Water activity plays an active role Clitoria ternatea contain antibacterial and
in pigment production. The more water the antimicrobial agents [121]. The root extract has
plants take in, the faster the blue of anthocyanin shown beneficial effects on the brain
produced. With antioxidant activities in the hippocampal cell recovery [122]. Besides that,
human diet, many chronic diseases can be the roots of the white flowered plant have been
prevented. used for skin diseases [123]. Moreover,
An anthocyanin will exhibit a wide range anthocyanin is very useful in improving blood
of therapeutic benefits such as reducing the risk flow at the neuro-retinal rim of the optic nerve
of heart disease, anti-carcinogenic activity and and peripapillary retina [124]. Anthocyanin
improving cognitive behaviour [119]. As also acts in improving blood circulation to the
mentioned earlier, anthocyanins act as anti- eye and lead to eye health and function over a
inflammation agent. It has been reported that long term.
anthocyanin is important in the treatment of Butterfly pea is used as a natural food
damaged blood vessel walls. During colouring agent in Malay cooking by extracting
inflammation, connective tissues in capillaries the juice from the flower. It is used to colour
are damaged due to presence of enzymes. glutinous rice for ‘kuih ketan’. In Malaysia it

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Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 10 No. 2 (2018) p. 208-228

is also widely used to colour the food known as 12. Environmental Factors Affecting the
‘nasi kerabu’. In Burma (Myanmar) the flowers Natural Compounds
are dipped in batter and fried. In Thai cuisine
the extract is made into a syrupy blue drink The stability of anthocyanin in Clitoria
known as ‘nam dok achan’ and adding some ternatea corresponds with structural
lime juice to increase acidity [125]. The flowers characteristics of anthocyanin and also
are shredded and added to rice salad in Thai influenced by factors such as temperature, pH,
cuisine. It is also used for making tea, and by light, presence of enzymes, oxygen, metal ions,
adding lemon it turns the colour to purple [126]. sulphur dioxide and phenolic acids [130].
Besides that, the blue concentrate from Recent studies showed that blue Clitoria
Clitoria ternatea applied in hair products ternatea has great thermal stability and
contribute to healthy hair growth. In the capability to withstand high temperature (27̊ C-
Philippines and Kerala (India), young shoots, 45̊ C) for certain food and cosmetic products
pods, flowers and leaves of Clitoria ternatea [131]. It has been stated that anthocyanin of
are eaten as vegetable [127]. An essential Clitoria ternatea has a good potential in being
component in the flower acts as a a functional blue colorant in a variety of food,
hepatoprotective agent which can improve liver cosmetic, food supplement and pharmaceutical
function. products as it contains antioxidant activities
[132].
11. Heavy Metal As the blue Clitoria ternatea has high
thermal stability, the pH is near to neutral. Light
Heavy metal is a toxigenic and poisonous would cause photodegradation of anthocyanin
metallic chemical element with low [133]. Therefore, anthocyanin maintains better
concentrations. There are a list of many heavy when kept in the dark. Some observations have
metals and the most common toxigenic heavy indicated that the chromophore of anthocyanin
metals that bring to a bigger and serious issues is protected from photodegradation by stacking
are lead, mercury, cadmium, and chromium. of the glycosyl or acyl residues [134]. In
Widely used in the cosmetics industries, they addition, Clitoria ternatea has been shown to
are toxic and lead to health issues. reach their stability by using biofertilizers.
It has been reported that consumers using Clitoria ternatea could grow in mercury
cosmetics containing heavy metals face serious sprayed soil and accumulate high amount of
skin conditions after prolonged use of these mercury in leaves [134].
cosmetics. Thus, a lot of research has been As mentioned earlier, the phytochemicals
done to discover new potential of natural of Clitoria ternatea serve as protector or
resources from herbs. This will help to solve the guardian to the plant, thus the mercury induced
growing problems by understanding the oxidative stress was tolerated by this plant via
reactions and mechanisms of the plants towards the hyperactivity of antioxidants as defence
the heavy metals. system.
Nevertheless, Clitoria ternatea could Furthermore, it has been reported that
survive and grow in mercury supplemented other phenolic compounds and flavonoids are
soil, overcoming heavy metal stress through specifically increased when plants are exposed
hyperactivity of antioxidants defence system. to sunlight [135]. Besides that, the protective
C. ternatea showed its capabilities by being compounds including flavonoids tolerate
able to tolerate mercury accumulation in their warmer and drier areas which may lead to
leaves. Mercury induces oxidative stress of C. higher concentrations of these phytochemical
ternatea [128]. The studies between the compounds [136].
activities of antioxidants enzymes with the
influence of mercury exposure indicated that,
estimated on the fresh weight basis, the SOD, 13. Promising Future Prospect
CAT, and POD activities were significantly
increased by the mercury supplemented Natural pigments such as anthocyanins,
exposure [129]. carotenoids and chlorophyll have been used to
colour foods. Commercialization of natural
pigments has increased tremendously due to
their harmless nature and beautiful coloeation

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Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 10 No. 2 (2018) p. 208-228

and is thus used in thrfood industry, besides environmental conditions to assure their
having antioxidant abilities and health benefits. sustainability.
Natural compounds in medicinal plants are also
known to produce more antioxidants Acknowledgement
Antioxidants are able to protect humans against
the damage induced by free radicals acting at The authors would like to thank UTHM
several levels. The traditional Indian diets, such Postgraduate Research Grant (Vot U814) and
as spices, are also rich sources of antioxidants. UTHM Short-term Grant (Vot U652) for
As mentioned before, Clitoria ternatea sponsorship.
has also been indicated as having anti-cancer
properties due to their phytochemical
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