INSTITUTE

Va r i e t i e s o f D e m o c r a c y

Democracy for All?

V-Dem Annual Democracy Report 2018
Table of Contents
V-Dem Annual Report 2018

INTRODUCTION Executive summary V-Dem IN A NUTSHELL

A Word from the V-Dem in numbers,
Team Collaborations,
Methodology, and
Historical V-Dem

05 06 08
Section 1
State of the World 2017 – Liberal and Electoral Democracy 16
Section 2
Inclusion is an Illusion 34
Section 2.1 Section 2.2 Section 2.3
Women’s Inclusion Inclusion of Social Political Exclusion
and Access to Power Groups Based on Socio-
Economic Inequality

38 44 52
V-Dem Users V-Dem Publications References
Practitioners, Academic journal
Academics, Students, articles from the
and Museums V-Dem Team

58 60 69
Appendix
Country scores
for 2017

71
V-Dem is a unique approach to
measuring democracy – historical,
multidimensional, nuanced, and
disaggregated – employing state-
of-the-art methodology.
Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) produces the largest V-Dem measures hundreds of different attributes
global dataset on democracy with some 19 million of democracy. V-Dem enables new ways to study
data for 201 countries from 1789 to 2017. Involving the nature, causes, and consequences of democracy
over 3,000 scholars and other country experts, embracing its multiple meanings.

V-Dem is or has been funded by (not in order of magnitude): Development Agency, NORAD/the Norwegian Research Coun-
Riksbankens Jubileumsfond, Knut & Alice Wallenberg Foundation, cil, International IDEA, Fundação Francisco Manuel dos Santos,
Marianne & Marcus Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Aarhus University, the Quality of Government Institute and the
Council, the Mo Ibrahim Foundation, the European Research University of Notre Dame, with co-funding from the Vice Chancel-
Council, the Danish Research Council, the European Union/the lor, the Dean of the Social Sciences, and the Department of Politi-
European Commission, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs-Sweden, the cal Science at University of Gothenburg.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs-Denmark, the Canadian International

This publication has been produced with the assistance of the The views and opinions expressed in this report are those of the
European Union. The contents of this publication are the sole authors and do not necessarily reflect an official position of the
responsibility of the V-Dem Institute and can in no way be taken V-Dem Project or the V-Dem Steering Committee.
to reflect the views of the European Union or any other donor.

Produced by the V-Dem Institute V-Dem Data and Management Team: Joshua Krusell, V-Dem Institute:
at the University of Gothenburg Johannes von Römer, Kyle Marquardt, Farhad Miri, Dan Department of Political Science
Pemstein, Josefine Pernes, Eitan Tzelgov, Yi-ting Wang, Brigitte University of Gothenburg
V-Dem Annual Report Team: Anna Lührmann (Lead Author
Seim Sprängkullsgatan 19, PO 711
and Coordination), Sirianne Dahlum, Staffan I. Lindberg, Laura
Editors: Anna Lührmann, Staffan I. Lindberg SE 405 30 Gothenburg Sweden
Maxwell, Valeriya Mechkova, Moa Olin, Shreeya Pillai, Constanza
Editing/Proof-Reading: John Jennings [email protected]
Sanhueza Petrarca, Rachel Sigman, Natalia Stepanova.
Design: Anders Wennerström, Spiro Kommunikation AB +46 (0) 31 786 30 43
Printing: Response Tryck, Borås. May 2018 www.v-dem.net
Copyright ©2018 by V-Dem Institute. All rights reserved.

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 V-Dem Annual Report 2018 5

A Word from the Team

We are pleased to present our second Annual Democracy Report. John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I Lindberg, Svend-Erik
We are proud and delighted to count you among our readers, and Skaaning, Jan Teorell – and the core group of scholars who are Pro-
we hope that you find the report interesting, timely, and useful. ject Managers, to the global network of Country Experts, Country
Coordinators and Regional Managers. We work with some 3,000
In the 2018 Democracy Report we find that global levels of democ- individuals from almost all the countries in the world in order to as-
racy are still close to an all-time high. However, even though the semble the 19 million data points in the V-Dem datasets. Without
electoral aspects of democracy have improved in many countries our truly experienced and knowledgeable experts providing nu-
in recent years, freedom of expression, media, and civil society are anced, precise, and local expertise, V-Dem would not exist today.
under threat in other parts of the world. The report identifies dis- We would like to extend a big thank you to our Country Experts,
quieting trends in several key countries, such as Brazil, India, Poland, Country Coordinators and Regional Managers!
Russia, Turkey, and the United States.
Even though V-Dem is an academic mission at heart, we always
The V-Dem project is a global collaboration headquartered at the strive to be relevant to the “real world”. Over the past years, we have
V-Dem Institute, Department of Political Science, Gothenburg Uni- had the opportunity to collaborate and engage with many inter-
versity. While more than 3,000 scholars and experts constitute the national organizations, governments, and NGOs, ranging from the
global V-Dem team, the Institute is run by us - a team of 19 people. In World Bank, to the Swedish government, organizations like Bibli-
addition to our aim of producing cutting edge research, we work all otheca Alexandrina, and grassroots groups in Nepal. With our V-
year round employing unique, state of the art techniques to provide Dem Regional Centers around the globe that we are so proud of,
you and other users with global data of the highest possible quality. our outreach activities continue to grow. We look forward to anoth-
er year of fruitful collaboration with our partners around the world.
Over the past year, we have focused on improving and expanding
the vast V-Dem dataset even further – culminating in the release of We also hope that you will also find the series of working papers, the-
version 8. For the very first time, data from ‘Historical V-Dem’ is in- matic briefs, country briefs, and policy briefs available on the website
tegrated – expanding the coverage to 228 years from 1789 to 2017. (www.v-dem.net) helpful to support of democracy in practice.
We are excited that the dataset now includes more than 200 politi-
cal units and over 450 indicators and indices of democracy. We would like to thank everyone who has made, and continues to
make, the V-Dem journey possible.
Team spirit and a collaborative nature are key elements of V-Dem
and the Institute. It permeates all the work we do and all parts of Sincerely,
the team, from the Principal Investigators – Michael Coppedge, The V-Dem Institute Team
6 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

Executive summary
The focus of the V-Dem Annual Democracy Report 2018 is
“Democracy for All?” for two reasons.

First, citizens – not just the territorial unit in which Second, even in democracies, some groups –
they live – are central to democracy. In addition to the women, social groups, and the poor – are systemati-
conventional averages across countries, we therefore cally disadvantaged from access to political power.
analyze liberal and electoral democracy across the We therefore analyze political exclusion by gender,
world weighted by the size of each country’s popula- social groups, and socio-economic status.
tion. This metric captures better how many people in
the world enjoy democratic rights and freedoms. The key findings are as follows.

Global levels of democracy remain high, but autocratization – the decline of

democratic attributes – affects 2.5 billion people and is gaining momentum

 Democracy is still in good standing across the world. Global  Autocratization is now manifesting in a number of large
levels of democracy remain close to their all-time high. countries including Brazil, India, Russia, Turkey, and the United
States.
 For the first time since 1979, the number of countries back-
sliding (24) on democracy is again the same as the number of  Autocratization affects one third of the world’s population, or
countries advancing. some 2.5 billion people. This represents a massive reduction
in the global protection of rights and freedoms.

Multiparty elections continue to improve, but are at

risk of losing their meaning

 Core electoral aspects of democracy continue to improve in  Aspects of democracy that make elections truly meaningful
many countries. are in decline. Media autonomy, freedom of expression and
alternative sources of information, and the rule of law have
undergone the greatest declines among democracy metrics
in recent years. This trend affects both autocracies and de-
mocracies.

Despite gradual advances, inclusion remains an illusion

 Liberal democracies are systematically better than other politi-  Even in democracies, however, some groups – women, minori-
cal regimes at ensuring the de facto ability of all citizens to in- ties and the poor – are systematically disadvantaged in their
fluence the political process – including women, various social access to political power. Political exclusion reduces the scope
groups, and individuals with different socio-economic status. of liberal and electoral democratic rights and freedoms.
 Executive summary 7

Global average levels of inclusion of women and

minority social groups remain stable

 Global average levels of inclusion of women and minority so-  Only 15 percent of the world’s population, or 1.1 billion peo-
cial groups remain stable. ple, live in a society where political power is distributed at
least somewhat equally by gender.
 Several countries have continued to advance in terms of in-
clusion for women.  Half a billion people live in countries with higher levels of ex-
clusion of minority social groups than ten years ago.

Political exclusion due to socio-economic status is

making the rich even more powerful

 Exclusion due to socio-economic status has continuously  Insufficient access to healthcare or education limits the abil-
become more severe since the 1970s. Intensified political ex- ity for political participation for an increasing share of the
clusion now affect poorer groups in countries home to one- population in 16 and 15 countries respectively, while only five
quarter of the world’s population, or almost 2 billion people. (health) and four (education) countries improved.

 Only six countries registered a higher level of inclusiveness

in the distribution of political power by socio-economic sta-
tus between 2007 and 2017, while 14 nations declined signifi-
cantly. The countries with the greatest backsliding are Burun-
di, Mauritania, Iraq, Yemen, and Panama.
8 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

V-Dem in Numbers

5 Indices for A Vast International

Democracy Ideals Collaboration
• Electoral, liberal, • 6 Principal Investigators and 14
participatory, deliberative, Project Managers
and egalitarian democracy • V-Dem Institute with 17 staff
and their component indices • 30 Regional Managers, 170 Country
• 47 mid-level indices and Coordinators
• 350+ specific indicators • 3,000 Country Experts from 177
countries

Dataset Version 8 Publications

• 201 countries with • 66 V-Dem Working Papers
a yearly coverage: 1789-2017 • 26 Country Briefs/Reports
• 12 new indices • 15 Briefing Papers
• 19 million data points • 23 papers published in
academic journals

Outreach
• More than 480 presentations at academic conferences and policy forums
• Over 65 visiting scholars at V-Dem Institute since 2014
• Total dataset downloads: 24,000 times from more than 150 countries
• Users of Online Analysis Tools: more than 40,000 users.
• Website V-Dem.net: 150,000 unique visitors from 195 countries, and
2,360,000 page views
 V-Dem Annual Report 2018 9

V-Dem Methodology: Aggregating

Expert Assessments
Laura Maxwell, Kyle L. Marquardt and Anna Lührmann

V-Dem has developed innovative methods for aggregating

Box M1. Question: Is there academic freedom and free-
expert judgments in a way that produces valid and reliable esti- dom of cultural expression related to political issues?
mates of difficult-to-observe concepts. This aspect of the project
is critical because many key features of democracy are not directly Responses:
0: Not respected by public authorities. Censorship and intimi-
observable. For example, it is easy to observe and code whether dation are frequent. Academic activities and cultural ex-
or not a legislature has the legal right to investigate the executive pressions are severely restricted or controlled by the gov-
when it engages in corruption. However, assessing the extent to ernment.
1: Weakly respected by public authorities. Academic freedom
which the legislature actually does so requires the evaluation of ex-
and freedom of cultural expression are practiced occasion-
perts with extensive conceptual and case knowledge. ally, but direct criticism of the government is mostly met
with repression.
In general, expert-coded data raise concerns regarding compa- 2: Somewhat respected by public authorities. Academic free-
dom and freedom of cultural expression are practiced rou-
rability across time and space. Rating complex concepts requires tinely, but strong criticism of the government is sometimes
judgment, which may vary across experts and cases. Moreover, be- met with repression.
cause even equally knowledgeable experts may disagree, it is im- 3: Mostly respected by public authorities. There are few limita-
tions on academic freedom and freedom of cultural expres-
perative to report measurement error to the user. We address these
sion, and resulting sanctions tend to be infrequent and soft.
issues using both cutting-edge theory and methods, resulting in 4: Fully respected by public authorities. There are no restric-
valid estimates of concepts relating to democracy. tions on academic freedom or cultural expression.

We have recruited over 3,000 country experts to provide their judg-

ment on different concepts and cases. These experts come from al- Pemstein et al. (2018) have developed a Bayesian Item-Response
most every country in the world, which allows us to leverage the Theory (IRT) estimation strategy that accounts for many of these
opinions of experts from a diverse set of backgrounds. We typical- concerns, while also providing estimates of remaining random
ly gather data from five experts for each observation, which ena- measurement error. We use this strategy to convert the ordinal re-
bles us to statistically account for both uncertainty about estimates sponses experts provide into continuous estimates of the concepts
and potential biases that experts may evince, using a custom-built being measured. The basic logic behind these models is that an
Bayesian measurement model. unobserved latent trait exists, but we are only able to see imper-
fect manifestations of this trait. By taking all of these manifest items
We ask our experts very detailed questions about specific con- (in our case, expert ratings) together, we are able to provide an es-
cepts. In addition to being of interest in their own right, experts timate of the trait. In the dataset, we present the user with a best
are better suited to the task of coding specific concepts rather than estimate of the value for an observation (the point estimate), as well
broader concepts such as “democracy.” Box M.1 provides the V- as an estimate of uncertainty (the credible regions, a Bayesian corol-
Dem question on academic freedom as an example. lary of confidence intervals).

As Box 1 makes clear, we endeavor to both make our questions clear The IRT models we use allow for the possibility that experts have
to experts and craft response categories that are not overly open to different thresholds for their ratings. These thresholds are estimat-
interpretation. However, we cannot ensure that two experts under- ed based on patterns in the data, and then incorporated into the
stand descriptions such as ‘somewhat respected’ in a uniform way final latent estimate. In this way, we are able to correct for the pre-
(a response of “2” in Box M.1)—even when ‘somewhat’ is accompa- viously-discussed concern that one expert’s “somewhat” may be
nied by a carefully formulated description. Put simply, one expert’s another expert’s “weakly” (a concept known as Differential Item
‘somewhat’ may be another expert’s ‘weakly’ (a response of “1” in Functioning). Apart from experts holding different thresholds for
Box M.1), even if they perceive the same level of freedom of expres- each category, we also allow for their reliability (in IRT terminolo-
sion in a particular country. Of equal importance, all experts code gy, their “discrimination parameter”) to idiosyncratically vary in the
more than one indicator over time, and their level of expertise may IRT models, based on the degree to which they agree with other
vary, making them more or less reliable in different cases. experts. Experts with higher reliability have a greater influence on
10 V-Dem Methodology: Aggregating Expert Assessments

concept estimation, accounting for the concern that not all experts regions. These estimates are the best to use for statistical analysis.
are equally expert on all concepts and cases. However, they are difficult for some users to interpret in substantive
terms (what does -1.23 mean with regard to the original scale?). We
To facilitate cross-country comparability, we have encouraged coun- therefore also provide interval-level point estimates that have been
try experts to code multiple countries using two techniques. We re- linearly transformed back to the original coding scale that experts
fer to the first as bridge coding, in which an expert codes the same use to code each case. These estimates typically run from 0 to 4, and
set of questions for the same time period as the original country they users can refer to the V-Dem codebook to substantively interpret
coded. This form of coding is particularly useful when the two coun- them. Finally, we also provide ordinal versions of each variable. Each
tries have divergent regime histories because experts are then more of the latter two is also accompanied by credible regions.
likely to code the full range of the ordinal question scale, providing
us with more information as to where an expert’s thresholds are. By Box M.2. Key Terms.
extension, this information also provides us with a better sense of
Point Estimate: A best estimate of a concept’s value.
the thresholds of her colleagues who only coded one of the coun-
Confidence Intervals: Credible regions for which the up-
tries she coded. The second technique is lateral coding. This has per and lower bounds represent a range of probable values
the purpose of gaining a great deal of information regarding an indi- for a point estimate. These bounds are based on the interval
vidual expert’s thresholds by asking her to code many different cases in which the measurement model places 68 percent of the
probability mass for each score, which is generally approxi-
that utilize a wide variety of other experts. By comparing her codings mately equivalent to the upper and lower bounds of one
to those of many other experts, we are able to gain a greater sense of standard deviation from the median.
how she systematically diverges from experts who code other cases; Significant Differences or Changes: When the upper and
lower bounds of the confidence intervals for two point es-
conversely, we also gain information on how those other experts di-
timates do not overlap, we are confident that the difference
verge from her. Both of these techniques provide us with more pre- between them is real and not a result of measurement error.
cise and cross-nationally comparable concept estimates.

Finally, we employ anchoring vignettes to further improve the References

estimates of expert-level parameters and thus the concepts we Marquardt, Kyle L. and Daniel Pemstein. Forthcoming. “IRT Models
measure. Anchoring vignettes are descriptions of hypothetical for Expert-Coded Panel Data.” Political Analysis.
cases that provide all the necessary information to answer a given
question. Since there is no contextual information in the vignettes, Pemstein, Daniel, Kyle L. Marquardt, Eitan Tzelgov, Yi-ting Wang,
they provide a great deal of information about how individual ex- Joshua Krusell, and Farhad Miri. 2018. “The V-Dem Measurement
perts understand the scale itself. Furthermore, since all experts can Model: Latent Variable Analysis for Cross-National and Cross-Tem-
code the same set of vignettes, they provide insight into how ex- poral Expert-Coded Data.” University of Gothenburg, Varieties of De-
perts systematically diverge from each other in their coding. In- mocracy Institute: Working Paper No. 21, 3d edition.
corporating information from vignettes into the model thus pro-
vides us with further cross-national comparability in the concept Pemstein, Daniel, Eitan Tzelgov and Yi-ting Wang. 2015. “Evaluating
estimates, as well as more precision in the estimates themselves. and Improving Item Response Theory Models for Cross-National
The output of the IRT models is an interval-level point estimate of the Expert Surveys.” University of Gothenburg, Varieties of Democracy In-
latent trait that typically varies from -5 to 5, along with the credible stitute: Working Paper No. 1.

Table M.1: Versions of the V-Dem Indicators.

Suffix Scale Description Recommended use

None Interval Original output of the V-Dem measurement model Regression analysis

_osp Interval Linearized transformation of the measurement Substantive interpretation of graphs and data
model output on the original scale

_ord Ordinal Most likely ordinal value taking uncertainty Substantive interpretation of graphs and data
estimates into account

_codelow / Interval One Standard deviation above (_codehigh) Evaluating differences over time within units
_codehigh and below (_codelow) the point estimate

_sd Interval Standard deviation of the interval estimate Creating confidence intervals based on user needs
V-Dem Methodology: Aggregating Expert Assessments 11
12 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

First Release of Historical V-Dem

This year, for the very first time, we release the Historical V-Dem data. The Historical V-Dem
project is a unique data collection effort coding numerous indicators of democracy and
other institutional features dating from the French Revolution and continuing all the way
through to the early twentieth century, covering 91 polities. By including Historical V-Dem,
around 200 of the V-Dem indicators extend as far back as 1789.

Carl Henrik Knutsen, Moa Olin and Jan Teorell

Covers 91 polities from 1789 New indicators

The Historical V-Dem sample includes 14 polities from Africa and In addition to extending existing V-Dem indicators and indices –
the Middle East, 21 from the Americas, 14 from Asia and the Pacific, such as V-Dem’s Electoral Democracy Index; see Figure H.1 – His-
and 42 from Europe. Altogether 91 polities are covered, although torical V-Dem introduces 70 new indicators. These include both
coverage is somewhat lower for most indicators. The integration indicators coded by country experts and many indicators coded
of Historical V-Dem in the V-Dem dataset means that many coun- by research assistants. The new indicators pertain to various in-
tries have data coverage on numerous V-Dem indicators from 1789 stitutional features, some of which were particularly relevant for
to the present. These include all major countries with continuous 19th century polities. For example, as the 19th century was an era
lineage as independent states from the 18th or 19th centuries, but of state building, Historical V-Dem includes new indicators focus-
also some major colonies such as India and Indonesia that are cov- ing on the state and features of bureaucracy, as well as indicators
ered for the full time period. Historical V-Dem also contains several on the support coalitions of political regimes.
additional historical polities that have ceased to exist, for example
Bavaria and the Two Sicilies.
 Historical V-Dem 13

Figure H.1: Electoral Democracy Index (EDI) in France

since the French Revolution, 1789-2017.

1
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
0

1790 1810 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2010

The creation of historical V-Dem/Methodology which are leveraged by the V-Dem measurement model that, to
The Historical V-Dem project started in 2013 and has since acquired the extent it is possible, minimizes coder error and addresses issues
significant human and financial support. A number of research as- of comparability across countries and over time.
sistants from several universities have been involved in coding in-
dicators that did not require the attention of country experts. In The Historical V-Dem team
addition, one or sometimes two highly qualified country experts The Historical V-Dem project is managed from Lund University in
were identified and recruited to code each polity for indicators of a Sweden and the University of Oslo in Norway. The project works
more evaluative nature. The ideal Historical V-Dem country expert in collaboration with the V-Dem Institute at Gothenburg Univer-
has an accomplished academic record of working on the political sity, Aarhus University, Boston University, Harvard University, and
history of the country, identifiable competencies in a broad range the University of Texas at Austin. Jan Teorell (Lund University) and
of political-institutional features and comparative knowledge of Carl Henrik Knutsen (University of Oslo) are the principal investiga-
other countries. The historical country experts conducted their tors on the project.
coding through the V-Dem web-platform, which was customized
for Historical V-Dem’s purposes. The country expert coding started Historical V-Dem is mainly funded through two large research
in December 2015 and is still ongoing to improve the coverage for grants from the Norwegian and Swedish Research Councils.
some countries.

For the V-Dem dataset, released in April this year, the Historical V-
Dem data is merged with existing V-Dem indicators. Hence, many HISTORICAL V-DEM IN SHORT
of the V-Dem indicators now extend back to 1789. In order to en- • Extends existing V-Dem data back to 1789 and adds new
sure comparability of the V-Dem and Historical V-Dem scores, and indicators
that the data from 1789 to 2017 constitute consistent time series, • Includes around 250 indicators of democracy and other in-
several measures have been taken. To indicate one example, His- stitutional features
torical V-Dem experts always code twenty years of history from the • Covers 91 polities
20th century, thus providing “coding overlap” with other V-Dem • Releases data incorporated in the V-Dem V8 dataset
experts. These measures provide valuable pieces of information,
14 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

V-Dem collaborations and events

Gothenburg, Sweden

Notre Dame, USA

Lisbon, Portugal

Lus

“
 V-Dem collaborations and events 15

Tartu, Estonia

Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic

saka, Zambia
16 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

Section 1: State of the World 2017

– Liberal and Electoral Democracy

W
hile the global level of democracy is not changing dramatically, and the
majority of the world’s population lives in a democracy, one third of the world’s
population – 2.5 billion people – live in countries with declining democratic traits.
The most visible feature of democracy – elections – remains robust and is even
improving in some places. Where backsliding occurs, it does so in more obscure ways, such as
by undermining media freedom, freedom of expression, and the rule of law. With continued
decline in these areas, the meaningfulness of elections may also become threatened.

Anna Lührmann, Valeriya Mechkova and Staffan I. Lindberg

How democratic is the world today? When addressing this tional arena in ways that small countries do not. Our dual metric
question, most analyses report on the number or share of coun- approach recognizes the importance of each state, but also each
tries that are democratic, authoritarian, or change. Yet citizens— individual’s rights.
not just the territorial unit in which they live—are central to de-
mocracy. Bhutan’s recent transition to democracy serving 800 000 Democracy in the World 2017
people is laudable but 1.4 billion people still breathe under dicta- The state of the world in terms of liberal democracy 2017 is de-
torship in China. The recent significant declines in liberal democ- picted in Figure 1.1. It is based on V-Dem’s Liberal Democracy Index
racy in India and the United States alone have affected some 1.6 (LDI), where each quintile on the 0-1 scale has been given its own
billion people, while less than 1 million people benefited from the color-code. This is a broad stroke that does not take into account
improvements in Bhutan and Vanuatu. the confidence intervals around each country’s point estimate. Lib-
eral democracy is measured as the existence of electoral democ-
This first section of the Democracy for All? Democracy Report 2018 racy in combination with three additional components: rule of law
analyzes the state of democracy in the world as of 2017. In view of ensuring respect for civil liberties, and constraints on the executive
this year’s theme we introduce a new metric, in addition to conven- by the judiciary, as well as by the legislature.1
tional country average measures: levels of democracy weighted
by the size of each country’s population. These measures better By this measure, as the world map shows, liberal democracy is by
reflect how many people in the world enjoy democratic rights and the end of 2017 still most well-established and remains relatively
freedoms. Furthermore, countries with larger populations typical- strong in portions of the Americas, Europe, Southern Africa, and
ly exert influence over neighbouring countries and in the interna- South-East Asia. The exact ratings and changes over the last ten

Figure 1.1: The State of Liberal Democracy in 2017.

0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

1. The V-Dem Liberal Democracy Index reflects both the liberal and electoral principles of democracy, each of which constitutes one half of the scores for theLiberal Democracy Index
(LDI). V-Dem’s Electoral Democracy Index (EDI) is the first systematic measure of the de facto existence of all institutions in Robert Dahl’s (1971, 1989) famous articulation of “polyarchy” as
electoral democracy. For details about the theoretical and methodological underpinnings of all V-Dem’s democracy indices, see Coppedge et al. (2018b) and Pemstein et al. (2018).
 Section 1: State of the World 2017 – Liberal and Electoral Democracy 17

The term autocratization means democratization in

reverse. It denotes a decline of democratic qualities. Simply
put, regardless whether the country is a democracy or
autocracy, it is becoming worse. We use autocratization and
backsliding interchangeably.

years for all countries are found below in Figure 1.6, and the more tests across the Global South, saw a gradual but steady increase in
detailed statistics across all varieties of democracy are in the Ap- liberal democracy until around the year 2005. Since then, levels of
pendix. But what are the trends and main recent changes in the democracy have been relatively stable across the world.
world?
Notably, however, there is a small decline, although this is within
A Global Trend of Autocratization the confidence bounds, over the past few years. It is particularly
– Except in Africa noticeable for the three regions with the highest average levels
Figure 1 displays the average global level of liberal democracy, of democracy: Western Europe and North America, Latin America
based on 178 countries in the world, from 1972 to 2017, accompa- and the Caribbean, and Eastern Europe. Thus, the autocratization3
nied by confidence intervals capturing the full range of uncertainty trend we are witnessing today seems to occur primarily in the more
associated with the estimates.2 It also depicts the average levels for democratic regions of the world. Yet, that depiction conceals that
each of the regions of the world. The left-hand panel is based on some of the most populous countries are part of this autocratiza-
traditional averages across all countries. It captures the well- known tion trend.
“third wave” of democratization, which began with the 1974 over-
throw of the Estado Novo dictatorship in Portugal. Subsequent dec- Therefore, the right-hand panel in Figure 1.2 displays levels of de-
ades, characterized by the end of the Cold War and frequent pro- mocracy weighted by the size of each country’s population. Cal-

Figure 1.2: Liberal Democracy: Global and Regional Averages

(right panel population-weighted).
1

1
.9

.9
.8

.8
.7

.7
.6

.6
.5

.5
.4

.4
.3

.3
.2

.2
.1

.1
0

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017

World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
Asia−Pacific

2. Following V-Dem’s methodology, “countries” includes semi-sovereign political units like Palestine. The number of 3. Autocratization naturally has a “floor effect” in that extremely
countries in the dataset varies in the chosen period, from 157 in 1972 to 178 in 2017, dependent on the emergence of autocratic countries cannot become much worse, but in principle
new countries and the dissolution of others. For a full account of the political units, see Coppedge et al. (2018d). autocratization can affect countries at any level on the scale.
18 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends

culating the averages in this manner allows us to understand the lation-weighted metric even shows a small increase in the region’s
level of democracy that the average citizen in each region is living level of democracy.
under. First, the levels of liberal democracy and its components are
overall much lower when weighted by population. This reflects the A Growing Challenge
fact that that a number of small states score very high on the LDI, Another way to look at the global development of democracy is
while countries like China with large populations, do not. displayed in Figure 1.3.

Second, the current reversal is much more pronounced when The left-hand panel displays the number of countries experiencing
we take the size of the population into account. The population- significant change over the prior ten years in terms of the LDI, for
weighted estimates show a particularly steep decline in the last each year since 1972. The right-hand panel depicts it weighted by
few years, suggesting that recent trends in autocratization are af- population size.
fecting large portions of the global population. From this perspec-
tive, the global level of democracy peaked around 2004 and in We measure change by taking the difference of the score at time
terms of these point estimates, we now back to the global level of t and time t-10. This ten-year measure is designed to capture both
democracy recorded shortly after the end of the Soviet Union in rapid and gradual change. We report only significant changes, by
1991. The last six years has brought us back 25 years in time. 4
which we mean that the confidence intervals provided in the V-
Dem data do not overlap.5 These confidence intervals can be rela-
In terms of the share of the population enjoying democratic rights tively wide, meaning that our measure is conservative since it is
and freedoms, Western Europe and North America are back to lev- more likely to err on the side of not reporting a change.
els of liberal democracy last seen nearly 40 years ago, and Latin
America some 25 years ago. These are, indeed, worrying findings. The dashed green line depicts the number of countries each year
The only region that does seem to be relatively resilient to the cur- for which there was advancement on the LDI. The solid red line
rent autocratization trend is sub-Saharan Africa, which in the popu- shows the number of countries that experienced backsliding. By

Figure 1.3: Number of Countries with Significant Changes on

Liberal Democracy Index (right panel population-weighted).

80 55%

75
50%
70

65 45%

60
40%
55
Share of World Population

50 35%
Number of Countries

45
30%
40
25%
35

30 20%
25
15%
20

15 10%

10
5%
5

0 0%
1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017

Advancers Backsliders

4. The confidence intervals, or highest posterior densities, that V-Dem brings along from all the baseline country-level indicators, indicate that with some amount of possibility, we could still be
at 2012 levels of democracy in the world. At the same time, these also indicate, with the same probability, that we could possibly already have reversed back to 1978-levels of democracy. While
taking the estimations of uncertainty seriously, we have chosen here, in this report, to focus on the point estimates that are the levels with the highest probability, for the sake of parsimony and
to avoid making the text unnecessarily dense to digest (see methodology section at the beginning of this report).
5. See methodology section at the beginning of this report.
 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends 19

these measures, the height of the third wave occurred between India, the United States, Brazil, Russia, Democratic Republic of Con-
1993 and 1999 when over 70 countries made significant advances go, Turkey, Thailand, Ukraine and Poland. Thus, key countries across
on the LDI each year, while only four to six countries were sliding the democracy-autocracy spectrum are shrinking whatever demo-
back. In fact, this imbalance in favour of democratic advances over cratic space was present. This is one important metric to capture
setbacks has persisted every year to varying degrees since 1978 – what is actually happening: a much larger share of the world popu-
until 2017. lation is experiencing autocratization than the share experiencing
democratization.
There is a clear downward trend in the number of countries mak-
ing democratic advancements since at least 2008. Conversely, the A Majority of the Population Still Live in
number of countries registering significant change towards autoc- Democracies
racy has increased since roughly around the turn of the century. Until now, we have analysed trends based on significant changes
Last year, the number of backsliding countries recorded is the same along the spectrum that V-Dem’s indices and indicators provide.
(N=24) as the number of countries making advancements. This has Another important perspective is qualitative shifts from one type
not occurred since 1979. of regime to another, in particular when such transitions cross the
democracy-autocracy divide. Despite evidence of a trend towards
One aspect that makes this even more worrying is that the popu- autocratization, a majority of the world’s population (52 percent)
lation living in the 24 countries backsliding on liberal democracy still live in democracies, as Figure 1.4 shows6, but only 14 percent in
by 2017 outnumbers the population living in advancing countries. the liberal variety. The largest share, 38 percent, of the world popu-
The share of the world population living in countries experiencing lation, lives in the more limited form of electoral democracy. Never-
an advancement or decline over the same period depicted in the theless, these statistics show that for a majority of people the most
right-hand graph in Figure 1.3 testify to this. common form of rule is still democracy.

During the last two years, there is a striking rise in the share of the The bar for being classified as an “electoral democracy” is reasonable
world’s population living in countries backsliding on democracy. but not exceedingly demanding: holding fairly free and fair multi-
By 2017, one third of the world’s population – or 2.5 billion people – party party elections and an average score on V-Dem’s Electoral De-
lived in countries that are part of a global autocratization trend. The mocracy Index (EDI) above 0.5, reflecting achievement of Dahl’s in-
countries with the largest population exhibiting decline in 2017 are: stitutional prerequisites of democracy to a reasonable extent.7 There
were 56 electoral democracies in the world in 2017. Liberal democra-
Figure 1.4: Share of Population by Regime Type in 2017. cies fulfil a more demanding notion of democracy that also includes
the rule of law and horizontal constraints on the executive. Only 39

♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ countries met this standard in 2017. In total 95 out of the 178 coun-
tries in the V-Dem dataset were classified as democracies in that year.
♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂
In electoral autocracies, elections are held and some political and
♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ civil liberties exist but their meaningfulness is undermined by
government repression, censorship, and intimidation. Another 56
♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ countries had this type of regime in 2017. Countries rated extreme-

♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ly low in terms of democracy, where the chief executive is not ac-

countable to citizens, are classified as closed autocracies. We find

♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ 27 such countries in 2017.

♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂
♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂
♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂
♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂
Liberal Democracy Electoral Democracy Electoral Autocracy Closed Autocracy

6. This builds on the regime-classification by Lührmann et al. (2018). While using V-Dem’s 7. Lührmann et al. (2018).
data, this measure is not officially endorsed by the Steering Committee of V-Dem (only the
main V-Dem democracy indices have such an endorsement).
20 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends

Advancers and Backsliders Among the 17 countries that improved, six closed autocracies have
advanced significantly: Nepal and Bhutan became electoral de-
Where are citizens most likely to experience declines or advance mocracies, and Fiji, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Maldives electoral
in access to democracy, political rights, and civil liberties? Here we autocracies. Tunisia is the only country that transitioned from au-
report the findings for all countries, focusing on states where there tocracy to become a liberal democracy, while eight additional
have been significant changes. We start with the regime perspec- countries advanced to become electoral democracies, including
tive, in which countries are classified as liberal- and electoral de- Guinea-Bissau, Moldova, and Malawi.
mocracies, or as electoral- and closed autocracies. We then look at
more fine-grained changes along the V-Dem indices, focusing on Countries with Significant Changes
significant changes over the last ten years, followed by a look at the in the Past Ten Years
alterations of the past two years. Figure 1.5 plots the changes taking place over the past ten years,
comparing levels of liberal democracy in 2007 to levels in 2017 and
Regime Breakdowns and the more fine-grained V-Dem index for liberal democracy. Labelled
Transitions to Democracy countries are those with significant changes over the past ten years.
Based on the Regimes of the World classification, Table A7 in the Ap-
pendix shows the status and changes in regime type between 2007 There are also a number of countries with significant advances in var-
and 2017 for all 178 countries.8 Looking at changes over the past 10 ious liberal-democratic traits over the past ten years (N=24). These
years, 20 countries have slipped down one category. Among them countries have made significant improvements on the LDI but most
we find four members of the EU lost the status as liberal democ- of these are countries with rather small populations, save Nigeria.
racy to become electoral democracies: Hungary, Poland, Lithuania,
and Slovakia. But three other countries are also downgraded from Yet, a large number of countries register significant and substan-
liberal to electoral democracies: Israel, Mauritius, and South Africa. tive rates of autocratization. We find the world’s most populous de-
mocracies – the United States and India – as backsliders on democ-
Notably, eight democracies broke down over the past ten years racy for the first time in the V-Dem data. They are thus joining other
and are now classified as electoral autocracies: Comoros, Hondu- democracies we registered as backsliders already last year, such as
ras, Iraq, Nicaragua, Tanzania, Turkey, Ukraine, and Zambia. Four Brazil, Hungary, Poland, and Suriname. Several world and regional
countries that used to be electoral democracies are now classified powers are found among the backsliders, which gives additional
as closed: Palestine (West Bank), Syria, Yemen, and Uzbekistan. cause for concern since diffusion is “no illusion.”9 In particular, the

Figure 1.5: Changes on the Liberal Democracy Index, 2007-2017.

1
.9
.8

USA
.7
Liberal Democracy 2017

Vanuatu Suriname
Tunisia
Poland
.6

Georgia Brazil
Bhutan Burkina Faso
Guatemala Hungary
.5

Nepal
Sri Lanka Guyana
Nigeria India
.4

Kyrgyzstan Ecuador
Fiji Macedonia
Gambia Serbia
.3

Zambia
Myanmar Dominican Republic Eastern Europe and Central Asia
Ukraine
MENA
.2

Libya
Western Europe and North America
Nicaragua Turkey
.1

Burundi Latin America and the Caribbean

Yemen Sub−Saharan Africa
0

Asia−Pacific
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
Liberal Democracy 2007

Note: Countries above the diagonal line have improved from 2007 to 2017. Countries below the
diagonal line have declined. Only countries with significant changes are labeled.

8. Lührmann et al. (2018). 9. Coppedge (2018).

 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends 21

Table 1.1: Main Advancers and Backsliders,

Past Two Years.

BACKSLIDERS

Change LDI 2017LDI 2015

Brazil -0.19 0.57 0.76
Poland -0.19 0.60 0.79
Turkey -0.16 0.12 0.27
Croatia -0.13 0.55 0.68
Romania -0.12 0.49 0.61
United States -0.12 0.73 0.85

ADVANCERS

Change LDI 2017LDI 2015

Burkina Faso 0.20 0.50 0.30
Gambia 0.19 0.30 0.11

Note: The table displays only countries with significant (without overlapping
confidence intervals) and substantively relevant changes (more than 0.1
difference on the LDI scale).

United States’ decline combined with an explicit denunciation of people participated in peaceful and competitive multi-party elec-
democracy as a foreign policy priority by the Trump administra- tions in November, 2015. Burkina Faso’s rating on the LDI has now
tion does not bode well. Three emerging powers among the BRICS reached an all-time high. Gambia’s incumbent autocrat of 23 years,
nations also register significant backsliding – Brazil, Russia and In- President Yahya Jammeh, lost the 2016 elections and eventually
dia. China remains at the end of the autocratic regime spectrum. stepped down in the midst of ECOWAS’s intervention in January
Among the Eastern European countries, Poland and Hungary are 2017. It remains to be seen if the new Gambian government will fa-
key regional power players that are backsliding significantly. cilitate a full transition to democracy.

Countries with Significant Changes Last Ten Years – Overview of All Countries
Over the Last Two Years The last ten years’ developments on the index of liberal democ-
Some of the significant changes displayed in Figure 1.5 have oc- racy for all countries, and taking the confidence intervals into ac-
curred only recently. Table 1.1 presents a list of the countries signifi- count, is provided in Figure 1.6. Here the reader finds every country
cant changes have occurred over the last two years. For example, among the 178 contemporary states V-Dem measures, and their
democratic backsliding in the United States has taken place pri- status as of 2017 compared to 2007. Green country names and dots
marily during these past two years. Turkey continues its descent with confidence interval bars indicate significant advancers, while
into dictatorship with every passing year, but it has now comes red names, dots, and bars designate the significant backsliders.
close to hitting rock-bottom on the scale with a score of 0.12. Bra- The reader should note that a few of the latter are countries at the
zil, Croatia, Poland, and Romania are now at middling levels on the very lowest levels of democratic quality. They are simply extremely
LDI after also suffering from significant declines over the last two undemocratic in all respects with a high degree of certainty, and
years. In Poland, swift and far-reaching constitutional changes have therefore very small substantive changes register as significant. But
reduced checks and balances, affecting in particular the judiciary. 10
there are also some countries, presented in grey because the con-
Similarly, the Romanian government has limited the rule of law and fidence intervals overlap, for which the substantive changes are
individual liberties – allegedly in order to curb corruption. 11
large and those should be noted. Among these we find, for ex-
ample, Greece with the LDI dropping by 0.12 points. However, this
Both two cases of significant democratization over the past two drop is not noted as significant, possibly because V-Dem experts
years are from West Africa – Burkina Faso and the Gambia. In par- disagree about what the economic crisis and subsequent political
ticular, the case of Burkina Faso is remarkable since it shows that au- changes in Greece mean for the quality of democracy. On the oth-
tocratization can be rapidly reversed: In 2014 President Blaise Com- er hand, V-Dem experts agree that media freedom has declined
paore, who had held power since 1987, attempted to modify the in Greece over the last ten years, reflecting the fact that both the
constitutional term limits but was ousted after massive protests. Syriza government and its predecessor have taken measures un-
After a short period of uncertainty and military rule, the Burkinabe dermining media pluralism.12

10. Rohac, Dalibor (2018). 12. OSF (2015).

11. Clark, David (2017).
22 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends

Figure 1.6: Countries by Score on V-Dem’s Liberal Democracy Index (LDI) 2017 and 2007.

Score and Confidence Intervals

Norway ●

Sweden ●

Estonia ●

Switzerland ●

Denmark ●

Costa Rica ●

Finland ●

Australia ●

New Zealand ●

Portugal ●

Belgium ●

Netherlands ●

France ●

Germany ●

Iceland ●

United Kingdom ●

Slovenia ●

Chile ●

Ireland ●

Canada ●

Uruguay ●

Czech Republic ●

Italy ●

Austria ●

Japan ●

Luxembourg ●

Latvia ●

Cyprus ●

Lithuania ●

Slovakia ●

United States of America ●

Jamaica ●

Cape Verde ●

South Korea ●

Spain ●

Mauritius ●

Greece ●

Taiwan ●

Barbados ●

Trinidad and Tobago ●

Vanuatu ●

Argentina ●

South Africa ●

Tunisia ●

Suriname ●

Benin ●

Panama ●

São Tomé and Príncipe ●

Peru ●

Poland ●

Bulgaria ●

Namibia ●

Israel ●

Senegal ●

Botswana ●

Brazil ●

Croatia ●

Georgia ●

Ghana ●

Mongolia ●

Hungary ●

Bhutan ●

Timor−Leste ●

Guatemala ●

Burkina Faso ●

Colombia ●

Liberia ●

Guyana ●

Romania ●

Nepal ●

Mexico ●

Indonesia ●

Malawi ●

Paraguay ●

Sri Lanka ●

Albania ●

El Salvador ●

Seychelles ●

Nigeria ●

Solomon Islands ●

India ●

Lesotho ●

Moldova ●

Bolivia ●

Mali ●

Tanzania ●

Niger ●

Sierra Leone ●

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00

Liberal Democracy index

● 2007 ● 2017 ● 2017 − Advancer ● 2017 − Backslider

 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends 23

Score and Confidence Intervals

Ivory Coast ●

Philippines ●

Ecuador ●

Singapore ●

Montenegro ●

Kyrgyzstan ●

Macedonia ●

Kenya ●

Fiji ●

Mozambique ●

Papua New Guinea ●

Guinea−Bissau ●

Lebanon ●

Hong Kong ●

Serbia ●

The Gambia ●

Somaliland ●

Kosovo ●

Iraq ●

Gabon ●

Pakistan ●

Kuwait ●

Uganda ●

Zambia ●

Morocco ●

Honduras ●

Bosnia and Herzegovina ●

Haiti ●

Madagascar ●

Myanmar ●

Dominican Republic ●

Comoros ●

Togo ●

Armenia ●

Jordan ●

Ukraine ●

Central African Republic ●

Afghanistan ●

Guinea ●

Malaysia ●

Rwanda ●

Zimbabwe ●

Democratic Republic of Vietnam ●

Palestine/West Bank ●

Libya ●

Algeria ●

Bangladesh ●

Zanzibar ●

Mauritania ●

Cameroon ●

Iran ●

Maldives ●

Angola ●

Somalia ●

Kazakhstan ●

Oman ●

Djibouti ●

Egypt ●

Venezuela ●

Belarus ●

Turkey ●

Nicaragua ●

Russia ●

Republic of the Congo ●

United Arab Emirates ●

Ethiopia ●

Sudan ●

Democratic Republic of Congo ●

Thailand ●

Swaziland ●

Chad ●

Laos ●

Qatar ●

Cambodia ●

Cuba ●

Palestine/Gaza ●

Azerbaijan ●

Tajikistan ●

China ●

Burundi ●

Bahrain ●

Equatorial Guinea ●

Uzbekistan ●

Turkmenistan ●

Yemen ●

Saudi Arabia ●

Syria ●

Eritrea ●

North Korea ●

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00

Liberal Democracy index

● 2007 ● 2017 ● 2017 − Advancer ● 2017 − Backslider

24 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends

Which Aspects of Democracy and its components and the EDI and the three components of the
Are at Risk? liberal dimension.

Until now, the analysis has focused on the V-Dem Liberal Democra- The left-hand graph in Figure 1.8 is again based on traditional aver-
cy Index (LDI), which captures both liberal and electoral aspects of ages across countries and it shows that the liberal subcomponents
democracy by joining the Liberal Component Index (LCI) and the measuring judicial constraints on the executive and rule of law al-
Electoral Democracy Index (EDI). The nuanced nature of the V-Dem ready had relatively high global average levels before the “third
data makes it possible to discern unevenness in trends across these wave” of democratization.14 With the third wave starting in 1974,
different traits, down to the level of specific indicators. these improved further. At the same time, this period meant that
the third subcomponent capturing the extent to which legislatures
To help the reader follow this “drilling-down” into the various as- can also constrain the power of the executive, caught up to a sig-
pects of democracy, Figure 1.7 presents the conceptual structure nificant extent. While rule of law seems to have clearly reached the
of the LDI and EDI, their main- and subcomponents, and the indi- highest average levels globally, it is also the subcomponent with
vidual indicators of those subcomponents. the most measurable decline in recent years. The electoral democ-
racy component was, and still is, at significantly lower levels.
The LDI has two main components: the EDI and the LCI. The lib-
eral component (LCI) in turn has three sub-components, while the When weighted by population size, as in the right-hand panel, the
electoral (EDI) has five , each measured by a series of indicators.
13
recent trend of autocratization is more pronounced, in ways simi-
The LDI pattern has already been discussed above and we start the lar to the regional comparisons in the previous section. It seems
analysis here at the next level in the conceptual scheme: the LDI to affect all aspects to some extent but he electoral democracy
and its components and the EDI and the three components of the measure (EDI) in particular, registers a steep downward curve after
liberal dimension. around 2010. It seems that a large portion of the downward trend
in the overall levels of liberal democracy is in fact due to this auto-
The LDI has two main components: the EDI and the LCI. The lib- cratization in the electoral arena.
eral component (LCI) in turn has three sub-components, while the
electoral (EDI) has five13, each measured by a series of indicators. In order to analyze what aspects of the EDI are driving this change,
The LDI pattern has already been discussed above and we start the Figure 1.9. drills down into developments amongst the constitu-
analysis here at the next level in the conceptual scheme: the LDI ent components of the EDI, from 1972 until 2017. As above, the

Figure 1.7: Explanation of Liberal Democracy, Electoral Democracy, and Their Components.

V-Dem Liberal Democracy Index

Electoral Democracy Index Liberal Component Index

Equality before Judicial Legislative

FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
ELECTED CLEAN FREEDOM OF the law and constraints on constraints on
SUFFRAGE AND ALTERNATIVE SOURCES
OFFICIALS ELECTIONS ASSOCIATION individual libert the executive the executive
OF INFORMATION
index index index

1 16 8 6 9 20 5 4
Indicator Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators

13. These capture all the institutional requisites of Dahl’s formulation of polyarchy. 14. See Figure A.2 in Appendix, which illustrates how they have developed over time
See Teorell et al. (2018). and in different regions.
 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends 25

left-hand graph shows the levels of democracy averaged by coun- of magnitude. However, during the 2000s, until the end of the se-
try, while the right-hand graph depicts the levels of democracy ries, the Clean Election Index is the only one for which we register
weighted by the size of the population. a small, but steady, increase on its scores. In short, whatever small
decline we find in the overall levels of electoral democracy on this
The straight averages across countries in the left-hand graph show unweighted metric are due to a small decline in more recent years
that three out of the four subcomponents started with levels be- on freedom of expression in particular. The right-hand, popula-
tween 0.3 and 0.4. Suffrage was already in the early 1970s some- tion weighted metric makes the autocratization trend more pro-
thing of a non-issue. The elected officials index improves steadily nounced after around 2010. In particular, a shrinking space for free-
throughout the period. The big boost in scores in 1992-93 registers dom of expression is particularly obvious in the right-hand graph
in particular for freedom of expression and freedom of association, in Figure 1.9 after 2012. While the subcomponent measuring free-
reaching around 0.7 before a small decline appears at the end of dom of expression also takes a dip, and somewhat later, the elec-
the time series for the latter and a much more marked, steeper de- toral components seems to be hovering around a relatively con-
cline in the former. stant level – or even increase as is the for the Elected Officials Index.
Thus, the decline in the overall EDI measure is to a large degree due
The improvements in the quality of elections (Clean Elections in- to autocratization in the form of reduction of freedom of expres-
dex) during the same period were much more modest in terms sion and alternative sources of information.

Figure 1.8: Trends in

1

1
Liberal Democracy
(LDI) and Its
.9

.9
Components,
1972-2017 (right-
.8

.8

hand, population
weighted).
.7

.7
.6

.6
.5

.5
.4

.4
.3

.3
.2

.2

Liberal Democracy Index (LDI)

Judicial Constraints Index
.1

.1

Electoral Democracy Index (EDI)

Legislative Constraints Index
Rule of Law Index
0

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017

Figure 1.9: Electoral

1

Democracy Index (EDI)

and Its Components
.9

.9

(right-hand,
population-weighted).
.8

.8
.7

.7
.6

.6
.5

.5
.4

.4
.3

.3

Electoral Democracy Index (EDI)

.2

.2

Freedom of Association Index

Share of Population with Suffrage
.1

.1

Freedom of Expression Index

Clean Elections Index
Elected Officials Index
0

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017
26 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends

Changes – by Components of Liberal and improving in only a few. In particular, this concerns the subcompo-
Electoral Democracy nent measuring freedom of expression and alternative sources of
Given the trends discussed above, there is a need to further dissect information that has been affected negatively in 19 countries over
what has happened in the past ten years with the subcomponents the last ten years, while improving in only eleven. The subcompo-
of the liberal and electoral democracy aspects. nents measuring rule of law and freedom of association also regis-
ter more backsliders than advancers.
Figure 1.10 displays the number of countries that have improved or
declined substantially on indices capturing the subcomponents of Since these are key institutional requisites of electoral democracy,
the LCI and the EDI. For subcomponent indices appearing above as Dahl once argued,15 we pursue the disaggregation further to the
the diagonal line, more countries have improved than have de- most precise level of analysis: the individual indicators. Figure 1.11
clined, and the reverse is true for those appearing below the diago- shows the same type of graph as Figure 1.10, comparing 2007 to
nal line. Figure A2 in the online appendix specifies which countries 2017, but displays now the 25 specific indicators that constitute the
have changed on these indices, as well as on additional aspects of components of the EDI. For ease of use, we have coded indicators
democracy. by components.16

Disaggregating the subcomponents reveals additional information All indicators measuring the freedom of expression and alternative
about the ongoing autocratization trend. In particular, it demon- sources of information component, are found below the diago-
strates why it is so hard to detect. Key characteristics of democracy, nal line. All indicators measuring electoral aspects in the index for
such as the Clean Election Index (capturing how free and fair elec- clean elections are either above or very close to the line. In particu-
tions are), and the index measuring the extent to which elected lar, two of the most fundamental indicators related to elections –
officials are actually vested with power on a national level (Elected the extent to which the elections were multiparty in practice and
Officials Index), have improved significantly in a large number of national officials are subject to elections -– record more countries
countries over the last ten years, while declining in only a few. Such improving than declining. The freedom of association indicators
trends give the appearance of robust democracy, particularly to are mostly close to the line with two exceptions found below the
outsiders or when taken on the aggregate level. line that both measure the extent to which civil society can operate
freely from government interference or repression, and one above
Figure 1.10 also show that despite advances in the electoral fac- the line that measures an electoral characteristic.
ets of democracy, less visible changes in rights, freedoms, and the
rule of law are undermining democracy. These important aspects Figure 1.11 thus gives a precise picture of how the current trend of
of democracy are in significant decline in many countries, while autocratization is unfolding, and how some ruling elites go about

Figure 1.10: By Components of Liberal and Electoral Democracy:

Number of Countries with Significant Changes, 2007-2017.
20

Clean Elections
18
10 12 14 16
Number of Countries Improving

Elected Officials

Freedom of Expression

Legislative Constraints Rule of Law

8

Judical Constraints
6

Freedom of Association
4

Suffrage
2
0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Number of Countries Declining

Electoral Democracy Liberal Component

15. Dahl (1971, 1989). 17. For instance, Bermeo (2016) argues that contemporary backsliding is not characterized
16. The Elected Officials index (v2x_elecoff) is an index that is constructed from 16 factual indicators by the disappearance of electoral regimes but by more clandestine strategies such as
that are conditional on each other in a complex formula. See Teorell et al. (2018) for details. manipulations of the media.
 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends 27

pursuing undemocratic agendas. It corroborates findings in some Figure 1.11: By Indicators of Electoral Democracy:
Number of Countries with Significant Changes
of the earlier research on backsliding but provides much greater
2007-2017.
detail.17 The institutions surrounding elections that are emblem-
atic of democracy typically remain in good standing or even im-

35
prove. Elections are very visible events that attract attention, not
Voters’ registry.
only from national groups but also from international media, multi-

30
Elections free/fair
lateral organizations, and other watch-dog institutions. Changes in Election irregularity
El. intimidation

25
electoral institutions and practices also tend to be more verifiable

Number of Countries Improving

Vote buying
than many other aspects of democracy, and there are normally a Multiparty elections

20
number of processes available to conduct such verification. EMB capacity Media censorship
Academic and cultural expression
EMB autonomy Media harras.
Elected Officials Freedom of disc. (m)

15
Election peace Media range CSO repression
By contrast, we find that the most negative developments occur Freedom of disc. (w) CSO entry/exit
Opposition parties aut. Media self−censorship
in ways that are less conspicuous violations. Government censor- Media bias

10
Barriers to parties Media critical
ship of the media and harassment of journalists can occur gradual-
Party ban
ly by relatively obscure means such as inducements, intimidations,

5
and co-optation. These tactics lead naturally to increasing levels Suffrage

of self-censorship and fewer explicit criticisms of the government

0
expressed in the media. The predictable result is a narrower range 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of Countries Declining
of political perspectives in the public sphere, as well as a general
Core Election Indicators Clean Election Index
decline in the freedom of expression. Correspondingly, leaders can Freedom of Association Freedom of Expression & Alternative Sources of Information

incrementally constrain the permitted space for autonomous aca-

demia, civil society organizations, and cultural institutions to impair tion party oversight, compliance with the judiciary, and executive
their abilities to function as pro-democratic actors, while carving respect for the constitution have all declined. Thus, the V-Dem data
out an increasing level of acceptance for such measures. testifies that the principal issue testing the resiliency of American
democracy concerns the role of Congress in holding the execu-
While elections typically occur once every four or five years, these tive responsible for following the constitution and adhering to the
rights, freedoms, and the rule of law are either maintained or com- law. At the same time, we also register some significant negative
promised on an everyday basis. Each step can appear relatively in- changes in the overall fairness of elections, freedom of discussion,
significant. The effects add up and are now apparent in Figure 1.11. and the range of political perspectives in the media.
Critically, the rights and institutions being diminished are the ones
that make electoral processes meaningful and fully democratic. Different Patterns of Autocratization
This is a worrisome set of developments, posing a clear challenge Another important finding in the annual Democracy Report 2018
to the future of democracy. is that there are different patterns of decline in the more demo-
cratic countries compared to the less democratic ones. V-Dem is
The pattern of backsliding in the most populous democracy – In- the first dataset to capture not only liberal and electoral aspects of
dia – exemplifies this trend. We discuss it more in detail at the end democracy, but also to measure the egalitarian, participatory and
of this section. In India, the infringements on media freedom and deliberative components of democracy. The figure below depicts
the civil society activities of democracy following the election of that breadth and provides an overview of which subcomponents
a Hindu-nationalist government have started to undermine the across all the varieties of democracy that register significant chang-
longest-standing and most populous democracy in the Global es – without overlapping confidence intervals – over the last ten
South. Yet, the main indicators of the core electoral aspects of de- years, comparing scores from 2007 to 2017. Countries are sorted,
mocracy do not show significant decline. It remains to be seen if first by Regimes of the World-type, and second, within each cat-
this trend will be reversed in the coming years or if India will de- egory, on how many aspects have changed, from many to few,
scend further into the authoritarian regime spectrum – as during based on the summary scores in the right-most columns. The tint-
their authoritarian interlude from 1975-77. ed colors indicate cases in which the index did not change, but one
or more of its constitutive indicators did.
Following the election of Donald Trump, the United States is now
significantly less democratic in 2017 than it was in 2007 but the pat- The figure enables comparison across categories, from liberal- and
tern is slightly different. The backsliding is mainly found in the liber- electoral democracy to electoral- and closed autocracies, with re-
al components of democracy. Measures of effective oversight and gard to the number of changes that occurred in each and whether
use of the legislature’s power to investigate the executive, opposi- such changes represented advances or backsliding. One can also
18. The picture is only slightly different when looking at the regime categories based on countries’ status in 2007: one third of countries that qualified as liberal democracy in 2007 experienced
significant changes by 2017, compared to 58 percent of electoral democracies, 64 percent of electoral autocracies and 71 percent of closed autocracies.
28 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends

compare within categories to see if countries tended to advance or In short, decline among democracies take place in areas that are
backslide and in which aspects of democracy these changes reg- less visible and that can be derailed significantly before the threat
istered. The figure also provides column summary scores, making to democracy becomes obvious to the extent that other countries
it easy to identify the subcomponents of the different varieties af- and international bodies react. At the same time, degeneration of
fected the most, and the least, by positive or negative develop- the democratic quality in such areas threatens to undermine the
ments over the past ten years, from 2007 to 2017. viability and meaningfulness of core institutions, such as elections
and freedom of association.
Our first observation is that volatility – the number of aspects that
are improving or declining – is overall lower in both democratic In electoral autocracies patterns of autocratization reflect a much
regime categories, than in the two autocratic ones. Democratic more direct, widespread attack on core democratic institutions
countries tend to be more stable. One third of all liberal democ- and freedoms. Freedom of expression and the quality of public
racies record some significant changes, and the same is true for debate are on a downward trajectory in many countries, and this
about half of all electoral democracies. Conversely, some change is also true for freedom of association and the liberal subcompo-
is registered in two thirds of countries in the electoral- and closed nents of democracy. In five countries elections are now significant-
autocratic regime categories.18 ly less free and fair than ten years ago – Burundi, Turkey, Venezuela,
Zambia, and Comoros.
Second, there are only nine countries that have changed signifi-
cantly in more than five areas of democracy during the last ten Among the 56 countries that are classified as electoral autocra-
years. These include developments in Tunisia, Bhutan, Myanmar, cies in 2017, seven of them had qualified as electoral democracies in
and Libya, as well as drastic deteriorations in Burundi, Yemen, Tur- 2007 – Turkey, Ukraine, Nicaragua, Serbia, Comoros, Honduras and
key, Venezuela and Thailand. Somalia also exhibits a high level of Iraq. Hence, these are countries that we can now, unfortunately,
volatility as the textbook example of a fragile state. identify as instances of democratic breakdown. Yet, we should also
note that there are five countries in this regime category with sig-
Most other countries have changed significantly only with regards nificant improvements in several areas, Myanmar, Zimbabwe, Fiji,
to one or two selected aspects, whereas most components are sta- and Gambia. However, on balance there are still many more coun-
ble. For instance, in the United States it is mainly the legislative con- tries with more negative changes than positive, in this regime cat-
straints on the executive that have weakened significantly along egory. The trend of autocratization in the world seems to affect
with the quality of public reasoning. In Greece the main negative electoral autocracies considerably.
developments are in the area of freedom of expression and local
elections, and so on. In sum, most democratic change, whether Even in closed autocracies, some rulers seem to make an attempt
positive or negative, is gradual and affecting only an area or two at at improving the outlook of (mainly legislative) elections, as indi-
a time, even in this medium-term, ten-year perspective. cated by the seven countries with positive significant changes on
subcomponents related to elections. This further illustrates the cur-
A third observation that stands out is that not a single democracy rent trends in the world. Even in countries with among the most
– neither in the liberal nor in the electoral category – has record- authoritarian political systems, rulers try to improve their image by
ed significant decline in the purely electoral aspects of democracy making the symbolic elections look a little more democratic. We
or in freedom of association. These highly visible and symbolically also note that in Uzbekistan, freedom of expression and quality of
important aspects are not affected by the current global trend of deliberation have improved slightly - but remain at very low levels.
autocratization. Rather, positive changes tend to be found in these
aspects. Among liberal democracies most declines are found in Among the more substantial changes, we note that in Yemen, Bah-
the quality of public debates – namely in the United States, Albania rain, and Thailand even the very limited freedom of expression and
and Ghana – and freedom of expression (Greece and Spain). Addi- association is under attack, and the rule of law and quality of de-
tionally, legislative constraints on the executive are evidently under liberation have also declined. However, in this regime category the
stress in the United States, as is the rule of law in Australia. numbers have to be interpreted with care. The confidence intervals
tend to be much narrower for countries in this regime category
In electoral democracies the picture is similar, with five countries than for countries in the other categories. This is simply because
declining in terms of freedom of expression and four on public de- the V-Dem country experts tend to have a high degree of agree-
liberation. Judicial constraints on the executive have declined sig- ment that the situation in closed autocracies scores extremely low
nificantly in Poland, Haiti, Macedonia and Suriname, whereas leg- on most indicators. Thus, with tight confidence intervals around
islative constraints on the executive have improved significantly in point estimates, even small changes become significant, but they
Bhutan and Peru. are not always substantially noteworthy.
 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends 29

Figure 1.12a: Ten-Year Changes in Sub-Components of Democracy by Country.

on
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Inf
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So sion

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Index Change

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e

on ical
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rag

of

lita

be
dA
Negative/Positive

an

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g
le

d
Fre
c

rt
ff

li
Le
C le

Fre

Ju
Ele

Ru

De
(Total)
Su

Eg

Pa
Tunisia 0/9 (9)
United States 2/0 (2)
Albania 1/0 (1)
Australia 1/0 (1)
Austria 0/1 (1)
France 1/0 (1)
Ghana 1/0 (1)
Greece 1/0 (1)
Iceland 0/1 (1)
Ireland 0/1 (1)
Slovenia 1/0 (1)
Spain 1/0 (1)
Sweden 1/0 (1)
United Kingdom 0/1 (1)
Barbados 0/0 (0)
LIBERAL DEMOCRACY

Belgium 0/0 (0)

Canada 0/0 (0)
Cape Verde 0/0 (0)
10/13 (23)

Chile 0/0 (0)

Costa Rica 0/0 (0)
Cyprus 0/0 (0)
Czech Republic 0/0 (0)
Denmark 0/0 (0)
Estonia 0/0 (0)
Finland 0/0 (0)
Germany 0/0 (0)
Italy 0/0 (0)
Japan 0/0 (0)
Latvia 0/0 (0)
Luxembourg 0/0 (0)
Netherlands 0/0 (0)
New Zealand 0/0 (0)
Norway 0/0 (0)
Portugal 0/0 (0)
South Korea 0/0 (0)
Switzerland 0/0 (0)
Taiwan 0/0 (0)
Trinidad and Tobago 0/0 (0)
Uruguay 0/0 (0)
Bhutan 0/6 (6)
Sri Lanka 0/4 (4)
Brazil 3/0 (3)
Croatia 2/1 (3)
Nepal 0/3 (3)
Poland 3/0 (3)
Dominican Republic 2/0 (2)
Guyana 0/2 (2)
India 2/0 (2)
Ivory Coast 0/2 (2)
Romania 1/1 (2)
Bulgaria 0/1 (1)
Burkina Faso 0/1 (1)
Haiti 1/0 (1)
Hungary 1/0 (1)
Liberia 1/0 (1)
Macedonia 1/0 (1)
Malawi 0/1 (1)
Nigeria 0/1 (1)
Peru 0/1 (1)
Senegal 0/1 (1)
Suriname 1/0 (1)
ELECTORAL DEMOCRACY

Vanuatu 0/1 (1)

Argentina 0/0 (0)
Benin 0/0 (0)
Bolivia 0/0 (0)
18/26 (44)

Botswana 0/0 (0)

Colombia 0/0 (0)
Ecuador 0/0 (0)
El Salvador 0/0 (0)
Georgia 0/0 (0)
Guatemala 0/0 (0)
Guinea−Bissau 0/0 (0)
Indonesia 0/0 (0)
Israel 0/0 (0)
Jamaica 0/0 (0)
Lebanon 0/0 (0)
Lesotho 0/0 (0)
Lithuania 0/0 (0)
Mali 0/0 (0)
Mauritius 0/0 (0)
Mexico 0/0 (0)
Moldova 0/0 (0)
Mongolia 0/0 (0)
Namibia 0/0 (0)
Niger 0/0 (0)
Panama 0/0 (0)
Paraguay 0/0 (0)
Philippines 0/0 (0)
Seychelles 0/0 (0)
Sierra Leone 0/0 (0)
Slovakia 0/0 (0)
Solomon Islands 0/0 (0)
South Africa 0/0 (0)
São Tomé and Príncipe 0/0 (0)
Timor−Leste 0/0 (0)
Index Change 0/1 (1) 0/2 (2) 0/8 (8) 0/2 (2) 7/4 (11) 2/3 (5) 4/1 (5) 1/3 (4) 2/1 (3) 5/10 (15) 7/4 (11)
Negative/Positive (Total)

Index Decrease Indicator Decrease Only significant changes – without overlapping confidence
intervals – are displayed. The tinted colors indicate cases where
Index Increase Indicator Increase the index did not change, but one or more of its sub−indicators did.
 30 Section 1: Liberal Democracy – Status and Trends

Figure 1.12b: Ten-Year Changes in Sub-Components of Democracy by Country.

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Negative/Positive

g
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C le

Fre

Ju
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Su

Eg

Pa
(Total)
Burundi 9/0 (9)
Myanmar 0/9 (9)
Turkey 7/0 (7)
Venezuela 5/1 (6)
Kyrgyzstan 0/5 (5)
Gambia 0/4 (4)
Mauritania 4/0 (4)
Zambia 4/0 (4)
Zimbabwe 0/4 (4)
Egypt 2/1 (3)
Fiji 0/3 (3)
Kenya 1/2 (3)
Nicaragua 3/0 (3)
Ukraine 3/0 (3)
Bangladesh 0/2 (2)
Cambodia 2/0 (2)
Guinea 0/2 (2)
Sudan 0/2 (2)
Tajikistan 2/0 (2)
Armenia 0/1 (1)
Comoros 1/0 (1)
Congo 0/1 (1)
Gabon 0/1 (1)
Iraq 1/0 (1)
ELECTORAL AUTOCRACY

Maldives 0/1 (1)

Rwanda 0/1 (1)
Serbia 1/0 (1)
46/42 (88)

Singapore 0/1 (1)

Togo 0/1 (1)
Zanzibar 1/0 (1)
Afghanistan 0/0 (0)
Algeria 0/0 (0)
Azerbaijan 0/0 (0)
Belarus 0/0 (0)
Bosnia and Herzegovina 0/0 (0)
Cameroon 0/0 (0)
Central African Republic 0/0 (0)
Chad 0/0 (0)
Djibouti 0/0 (0)
Equatorial Guinea 0/0 (0)
Ethiopia 0/0 (0)
Honduras 0/0 (0)
Iran 0/0 (0)
Kazakhstan 0/0 (0)
Kosovo 0/0 (0)
Madagascar 0/0 (0)
Malaysia 0/0 (0)
Montenegro 0/0 (0)
Mozambique 0/0 (0)
Pakistan 0/0 (0)
Papua New Guinea 0/0 (0)
Republic of the Congo 0/0 (0)
Russia 0/0 (0)
Somaliland 0/0 (0)
Tanzania 0/0 (0)
Uganda 0/0 (0)
Libya 0/7 (7)
Yemen 7/0 (7)
Somalia 1/5 (6)
Bahrain 5/0 (5)
Thailand 5/0 (5)
Angola 0/2 (2)
Palestine/West Bank 1/1 (2)
Syria 2/0 (2)
Uzbekistan 0/2 (2)
Cuba 0/1 (1)
CLOSED AUTOCRACY

Eritrea 0/1 (1)

Morocco 0/1 (1)
Swaziland 0/1 (1)
21/24 (45)

Turkmenistan 0/1 (1)

United Arab Emirates 0/1 (1)
Vietnam 0/1 (1)
China 0/0 (0)
Hong Kong 0/0 (0)
Jordan 0/0 (0)
Kuwait 0/0 (0)
Laos 0/0 (0)
North Korea 0/0 (0)
Oman 0/0 (0)
Palestine/Gaza 0/0 (0)
Qatar 0/0 (0)
Saudi Arabia 0/0 (0)
South Sudan 0/0 (0)
Index Change 1/1 (2) 1/12 (13) 8/11 (19) 8/3 (11) 12/7 (19) 9/5 (14) 3/6 (9) 6/5 (11) 5/3 (8) 4/7 (11) 10/6 (16)
Negative/Positive (Total)

Only significant changes – without overlapping confidence

Index Decrease Indicator Decrease intervals – are displayed. The tinted colors indicate cases where
Index Increase Indicator Increase the index did not change, but one or more of its sub−indicators did.
 In the Spotlight 31

United States Matthew C. Wilson

Liberal Democracy under Stress

The United States’ ranking on the V-Dem Liberal Democ- in the presence of unconstitutional activities. The U.S. ratings
racy Index fell from seven in 2015 to 31 in 2017. There is are also plunging for the extent to which the executive branch
clear evidence of autocratization on several indicators. respect the constitution, which is one indicator of judicial con-
The lower quality of liberal democracy stems primarily straints on the executive.
from weakening constraints on the executive.
The negative changes associated with executive respect for
V-Dem data indicate that the United States is significantly less the constitution and legislative constraints are congruent
democratic in 2017 than it was in previous years. We can at- with the untempered behavior of the current president and
tribute this decrease to changes that have occurred in the last the unwillingness of the GOP—which controls the legislative
two years—specifically, to weakening executive constraints. branch—to censor him. Some of President Trump’s actions
Figure 1.13 shows how indicators have changed between 2015 in 2017 that exemplify this trend include legally question-
and 2017; labeled variables are those that significantly changed able immigration bans, executive orders to withhold federal
in the past two years. Indicators that fall to below the diago- money from sanctuary cities, expanding the scope of the
nal line have decreased since 2015, while positive changes are presidential pardon, diplomacy by social media, and potential
above the line. Notably, the greatest number of declines—as violations of the Emoluments Clause. Despite the Trump ad-
well as the declines of greatest magnitude—have occurred for ministration’s actions, U.S. legislators appear either unable or
indicators of legislative constraints. This includes the extent to unwilling to take formal actions to prevent them.
which opposition parties exercise oversight, investigatory func-
tions, and the likelihood that Congress or another body would Party loyalties and increased polarization between Democrats
investigate the executive and render an unfavorable decision and Republicans have undermined congressional oversight
functions as Republican leaders so far double down in sup-
Figure 1.13. Aspects of Liberal Democracy in the port of the president. This was made apparent by the House
United States, 2015 and 2017. Intelligence Committee investigation over possible collusion
between the president and Russia, which House Democrats
argued was prematurely ended and shelved. Its conclusion
4

in 2018 illustrated the weakness of opposition party oversight

Freedom of Discussion, men
and the decreased likelihood of Congress investigating and
rendering an unfavorable decision against the executive.
3.5

Freedom of Foreign Movement

Freedom from Torture The other main component of liberal democracy, which
the V-Dem Electoral Democracy Index measures, shows the
Score 2017

United States falling from 8th place in 2015 to rank 32 out of

Free and Fair Elections
3

178 countries in 2017. This decline is largely due to significant

Legislature Investigates decreases in the freedom of discussion and in the fairness of
Executive Respects Constitution elections in the past two years.
Executive Oversight
2.5

Across the last decade, significant declines have also regis-

tered in election intimidation and the range of media per-
spectives provided. Changes in the indicators reflect allega-
tions of election meddling and unlawful election practices in
2

2 2.5 3 3.5 4 the 2016 election, as well as the acuteness of citizen antipathy
Score 2015
toward opposing political views. Electoral integrity in the
Clean Elections Freedom of Association United States has been negatively affected by partisan disa-
Freedom of Expression Rule of Law greements over voting procedures and attempts to control
Legislative Constraints Judicial Constraints
32 In the Spotlight

or suppress voting, as exemplified by challenges to voter ID that the integrity of electoral democracy in the United States
laws and gerrymandering practices that were put before fed- has remained robust despite these threats to election quality
eral courts in 2017 and 2018. and the expression of alternative views.

Party polarization has also resulted in a noticeable lack of Democratic backsliding in the United States is thus largely
confidence among Americans in the media; declarations that confined to constraints on the executive. Figure 1.14 com-
particular outlets constitute ‘fake news’ likely exacerbates this pares the U.S. to other countries by ranking it on opposi-
lack of confidence. The change in values of the overall Elec- tion party oversight, legislative investigation, and executive
toral Democracy Index is not significant, however, suggesting respect for the constitution, all of which have significantly
decreased in the last two years. The figure also shows how
Figure 1.14. United States ranking on select the U.S. ranks on compliance with the judiciary, which is sig-
indicators, 2007-2017. nificantly lower in 2017 than it was ten years ago. For the in-
0 dicators of executive constraints on which the United States
10 6 shows significant decreases, it has fallen below the upper
12 12
17
15 quartile of highest-ranking countries.
20
26
32 In summary, the V-Dem data shows evidence that there
has been a significant democratic backsliding in the United
Rank

40
States which is attributable to weakening constraints on
48
the executive. Electoral democracy remains fairly strong in
55
60 the United States and there is little change in freedoms and
67 the rule of law. The biggest issues testing the resiliency of
72
American democracy concern the ability of Congress and the
80 courts to hold the executive responsible to the constitution.
2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017

Compliance with Judiciary Legislature Opposition Parties

Legislature Investigates in Practice Executive Respect for Constitution

India Shreeya Pillai

The Decline of Democracy in India

The most populous democracy in the world, India, is at leader, the current Prime Minister, Narendra Modi assumed
risk. Its level of democracy has declined significantly office. Described as a hard-line Hindu Nationalist, he and his
over the last decade. The disquieting trend particularly party ran on a campaign promise to revitalise India’s slump-
concerns freedom of speech and alternative sources of ing economy.
information, civil society, the rule of law, and some elec-
toral aspects. However, multiple indicators in the V-Dem Liberal Democ-
racy Index show that this pursuit has come at the expense
Much of these changes have taken place after the Bharatiya of a reduction in the overall quality of India’s democracy.
Janata Party won the parliamentary elections in 2014 and its Figure 1.15 depicts all indicators, with the score for 2007 on
 In the Spotlight 33

Figure 1.15. Aspects of Liberal 2017.4 A hard line Hindu nationalist was arrested in connec-
Democracy in India, 2007 and 2017. tion to her murder but no sentence has been handed down.5

The sharp decline in the V-Dem indicators on Freedom of

Expression − in particular self- censorship and media har-
4

Voters’ Registry assment − reflect the increasingly adverse environment for

Elections free/fair
members of the media.
3.5

Election intimidation

Freedom of Association and Civil Society

Media bias
3

EMB capacity
EMB autonomy The autocratization-process in India has also led to a partial
Score 2017

closing of the space for civil society. The government increas-

2.5

Range of views
Academic/Cultural Expression
Executive oversight
Election peace ingly restricts the entry and exit of civil society organizations
Election irregularity
Freedom from political killings by using a law on foreign funding for NGOs, the Foreign
2

Media critical CSO repression

Transparent laws
Contributions Regulation Act (FCRA). As of 2017, 20,000 CSOs
Media censorship
– mainly working on human rights and environmental issues
– have lost their licenses. After that only 13,000 CSOs remain
1.5

CSO entry/exit
Media harrassment
Vote buying
Media self−censorship
to continue working unconstrained.6 Three UN special rap-
porteurs have urged Prime Minister Modi to repeal the FCRA,
1

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

claiming it is progressively used more to “silence organisa-
Score 2007 tions involved in advocating civil, political, economic, social,
Clean Elections Freedom of Association environmental or cultural priorities, which may differ from
Freedom of Expression Rule of Law those backed by the government.”7 A noticeably large drop
Legislative Constraints Judicial Constraints
in the V-Dem indicators on the ease of entry and exit, and
the level of repression of civil society organizations in India,
reflects the current challenges.
the horizontal axis and the score for 2017 on the vertical axis.
Indicators that are below the diagonal line have declined and These above also illustrate that law enforcement is gradually
indicators above the line have improved in this ten-year peri- becoming less predictable, and that the state fails to effec-
od. Only indicators with significant changes are labelled. Only tively protect its citizens from politically motivated killings.
one indicator – for the quality of the voters’ registry – has A decline in the respective V-Dem indicators reflects these
improved. All others have either stayed the same or declined adverse changes. Other liberal aspects of democracy – such
over the last ten years, and the latter include no fewer than as legislative and executive oversight − remain at a constant,
19 indicators. Several of them measures aspects of how free but relatively modest level.
and fair the elections are, a couple taps into freedom of asso-
ciation but the greatest number are indicators of freedom of Elections in India
expression and alternative sources of information. These are
key institutional prerequisites of electoral democracy accord- Elections in Asia’s oldest democracy have remained free
ing to the famous democracy theorist Robert A. Dahl (1971). and fair and open to multi-party competition. Nevertheless,
We therefore discuss them in the context of India in some several indictors capturing how clean elections are, have de-
further detail. clined. In particular, intimidation and violence have increased
at polling stations. Party agents intimidate, harass and bribe
Freedom of Expression and Alternative Sources of voters, in effect preventing them from casting their votes
Information in India freely. Electoral violence includes deadly attacks against poll-
ing officials and voters on their way to polling stations.
While there are about 12,000 newspapers circulating in In-
dia today, the media is increasingly being censored. Several 1. Human Rights Watch (2017).
2. Reporters Without Borders (2017); The Constitution of India (2017).
newly introduced or more harshly enforced laws hinder free 3. Reporters Without Borders (2017).
speech and encourage censorship. For example, India’s law 4. Reporters Without Borders (2017).
5. The Guardian (2018).
on defamation contains prison sentences of up to two years 6. Human Rights Watch (2017).
and is used to silence critical journalists at an increasing rate.1 7. The Guardian (2016).
8. Foreign Policy (2013).
Moreover, sedition laws that were upheld by the courts in 9. The New York Times (2014).
2016 even allow harsh punishment of people accused of in-
citing “dissatisfaction” – disloyalty and all feelings on enmity –
towards the government.2 Its existence serves as a deterrent
and encourages self-censorship.

Harassment of journalists is also on the rise. Many journalists

have been murdered or threatened for reporting critically on
the actions of the ruling party. Three journalists were killed
in March 2018 alone.3 For example, the editor Gauri Lankesh,
who was a known feminist and critic of the caste system as
well as of the Hindu nationalists, was shot dead in September
34 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

Section 2:
Inclusion is an Illusion

P
olitical exclusion is undermining the relevance of democratic rights and freedoms. After
40 years of mostly steady growth, several egalitarian aspects of democracy are now on
the decline and this trend affects about 2 billion people in the world. As a result, only
one-in-seven people now lives in a society where political power is distributed at least
somewhat equally by gender and socio-economic status. The rich have gained significantly
more power in countries that are home to one-fourth of the world’s population over the past
decade. Among different regime types, only liberal democracies tend to provide consistent
safe-guards for its citizens against exclusion based on structural inequalities.

Even where democracy is advancing, social complexity (Equal Access Index), and access to resources such as education
and competition often produce inequalities that advantage some and health care to the extent that individuals’ political efficacious-
groups over others. Such inequalities affect the extent to which
1
ness is derailed (Equal Distribution of Resources Index). A detailed
groups can participate meaningfully in the political process.2 Thus, description of the measure and a table with country scores can be
democracy risks becoming less legitimate and effective, threaten- 3
found in the Appendix.
ing also the survival or further advancement of democracy.4 Politi-
cal inequality and exclusion are also associated with poverty5 and Figure 2.1 shows the global trends in the egalitarian indices from
violent conflict.6 When exclusion of various groups is severe, de- 1972 to 2017. What is striking in this graph is that after 40 years of
mocracy is undermined as a viable system of rule. It is therefore mostly steady growth, levels of equality have been worsening again
important to consider not only changes in the liberal and electoral over the past five years, slightly less so for Equal Access to Power.
facets of democracy, but also the degree to which the countries in
the world attain the principles of equality and inclusion. When weighted by population (right-hand panel), the egalitarian
indices paint a more pessimistic picture. First, the growth in index
Political inclusion here refers to the ability of all individuals and scores prior to 2010 seen in the unweighted measures (left-hand
groups to influence the political process. Whereas liberal concep-
7
panel) disappears, turning into a decline. The level recorded in
tions of democracy tend to emphasize institutional guarantees 2017 is lower than in 1972 for all of the indices. This is because large
of rights and freedoms in addition to the rule of law, democratic countries such as China have remained politically unequal or have
inclusion emphasizes de facto use of rights and access to power seen growing economic inequality. But it tells us that the positive
across societal groups. Even Dahl’s influential discussion of the
8
development of decreasing inequality displayed in the first graph
prerequisites for polyarchy – the basis for the V-Dem’s understand- is eradicated when we take the size of population into account, and
ing of electoral democracy − calls for a system in which “preferenc- that the positive developments have therefore affected countries
es [ought to be] weighted equally in government.”9 Based on that with a small fraction of the world’s population. Notably, for a large
insight, this section focuses on political inclusion. proportion of the world’s population, the Equal Access to Power
Index has declined substantially in the past five years to a degree
similar to, or even greater than, the Equal Protection Index. Political
The V-Dem Egalitarian Index exclusion is in this perspective on the rise.
The V-Dem Egalitarian Component Index captures whether mate-
rial and immaterial inequalities fundamentally constrain citizens’ Regime Types and Patterns of Inclusion
actual exercise of formal rights and liberties. The measure encom-
10
Figure 2.2 compares levels of Egalitarian Component Index across
passes to what extent differences in socio-economic status, gen- regime categories in 2017.11 Countries labelled above the box are
der, and social group (such as caste, ethnicity, language, race, re- over-performers for their regime type, while countries below it are
gion, religion, or some combination thereof) affect the protection under-performers. The line in the box plot indicates the median
of civil liberties (Equal Protection Index), access to political power level of inclusion for all countries in that category.

1. Young (2000). 2. For an overview of the relationship between inequality and participation, see Sigman and Lindberg (2018). 3. Dahl (1971). 4. Boix (2011); Houle (2009); Svolik (2008).
5. Acemoglu and Robinson (2013). 6. Cederman et al. (2010). 7. c.f. World Bank (2013). 8. This focus on de facto inclusion is central to V-Dem’s principle of egalitarian democracy, see Sigman and
Lindberg (2018). 9. Dahl (1971) our emphasis. 10. Sigman and Lindberg (2018). 11. This builds on the regime-classification by Lührmann et al. (2018; see also section 1 of this report). While using
V-Dem’s data, this measure is not officially endorsed by the Steering Committee of V-Dem (only the main V-Dem democracy indices have such an endorsement).
 Section 2: Inclusion is an Illusion 35

Figure 2.1: Global Trends in Egalitarian Indices, 1972-2017

(right-hand weighted by population).

1
.9

.9
.8

.8
.7

.7
.6

.6
.5

.5
.4

.4
.3

.3
.2

.2
.1

.1
0

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017

Egalitarian Component Index Equal Protection Index

Equal Access Index Equal Distribution of Resources Index

Figure 2.2: Level of De Facto Politically Equality Across Regime Types, 2017.
1.00

Norway Denmark
Luxembourg Netherlands
Belgium Switzerland

Belarus Lithuania Poland

Bhutan
Cuba Hong Kong Hungary
Bulgaria Cape Verde Uruguay
Singapore Mauritius Benin Barbados
Georgia
Suriname Tunisia
Palestine/WB
0.75 Lesotho Slovakia
Togo
BiH Tanzania
Armenia Ghana
Algeria USA
Eritrea Gabon Kyrgyzstan
Montenegro
Vietnam
UAE Kosovo
Albania
Chile
Egalitarianism

Lebanon
0.50
Mexico Colombia

Malawi
Guinea−Bissau

Philippines

Laos Paraguay
Dominican Republic
Azerbaijan El Salvador
Bangladesh Eq. Guinea Guatemala
Syria Tajikistan Afghanistan
Angola Somalia
0.25
Mauritania Chad Haiti

Sudan Cambodia
Egypt

Yemen

South Sudan

Closed Autocracy Electoral Autocracy Electoral Democracy Liberal Democracy

Closed Autocracy Electoral Autocracy Electoral Democracy Liberal Democracy

36 Section 2: Inclusion is an Illusion

In general, democracies fare better in terms of egalitarianism than Regional Trends

autocracies. Notably, almost all liberal democracies score higher on Trends in the Equal Distribution of Resources Index and the Equal
the Egalitarian Component Index than most autocracies, as well as Access to Power Index – two key aspects of the egalitarian compo-
a majority of electoral democracies. Liberal democracies tend to nent index – also vary considerably across regions (Figure 2.3). The
excel in achieving equal distribution of political power across struc- levels have declined on both indices in Eastern Europe and Central
tural inequalities. Hence, when countries backslide from liberal de- Asia since the end of the Cold War. More recent declines on these
mocracy, inclusion may be threatened. indices are most evident in Latin America and Asia. Decline on the
Equal Distribution of Resources Index also registers in Western Eu-
Exceptions to this pattern are Albania, Chile, Ghana, and the Unit- rope and North America, as well as in the MENA region. Sub-Saha-
ed States – countries that are liberal democracies but stand out ran Africa is the only region with continued upward trajectories,
with noticeable low egalitarian scores. Among the liberal democ- most definitely so on the Equal Access to Power Index.
racies, several Nordic and Western-European countries – Norway,
Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, and Germany – have the Regional comparisons also show that the Equal Access to Power
highest levels of egalitarian democracy, as expected. and Equal Distribution of Resources indices do not necessarily main-
tain similar levels within a single region, nor do they change in tan-
That said, there is a large amount of variation among countries clas- dem. In the MENA region, for example, levels of Equal Distribution
sified as closed and electoral autocracies, as well as those classified are considerably higher than levels of Equal Access. The opposite is
as electoral democracies. Countries across regime categories score true in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, where levels of Equal
comparably on the egalitarian component. For example, closed Access tend to be considerably higher than levels of Equal Distribu-
autocracies such as Cuba and Hong Kong, electoral autocracies like tion. These different regional configurations suggest that political
Belarus and Singapore, and Benin, Bulgaria, and Hungary among inclusion (Equal Access) and socio-economic inclusion (Equal Distri-
electoral democracies have largely indistinguishable ratings. bution) are in fact distinct aspects of egalitarian democracy.

At the other end of the spectrum, Guatemala and Haiti are both Additionally, it is clear that the two indices do not necessarily de-
electoral democracies but register very similar levels on the egali- velop together at the same time in the same places. Particularly in
tarian component index to electoral autocracies such as Afghan- the MENA region and in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Equal Access to
istan, Chad, and Tajikistan, as well as Angola, Syria and Somalia Power Index has improved in the last several years while the Equal
among the closed autocracies. Distribution of Resources Index remains stagnant. The improve-
ments in the Equal Access to Power Index may reflect the fact that
The most important take-away is that only liberal democracies more countries have adopted gender quotas and power-sharing
seem to be able to safe-guard their citizens from gross inequalities arrangements between social-groups. However, the distribution of
in the protection of civil liberties, access to political power and the power based socio-economic status has become less substantially
distribution of politically relevant resources, across gender, social equal in recent years. Furthermore, there is little evidence, to sug-
groups, and socio-economic status. gest that such improvements in access to power necessarily lead to

Figure 2.3: Regional Trends in Equal Distribution of Resources Index and Equal Access to Power Index.

East Europe and Central Asia Latin America and Caribbean MENA
1
.8
.6
.4
.2
0

Sub−Saharan Africa West Europe and North America Asia−Pacific

1
.8
.6
.4
.2
0

1972 1982 1992 2002 2012 1972 1982 1992 2002 2012 1972 1982 1992 2002 2012

Equal Access Index Equal Distribution of Resources Index

 Section 2: Inclusion is an Illusion 37

Figure 2.4: Share of Population by Distribution of Political Power, 2017.

100 0.1% 0.2%

3.6%

14.4% 14.3%

26.9%

75
Percent of World Population

60.8%
50 37.5%
72.8%

25

28.8%
20.3%

9.4%

3.3% 3.1% 4.3%

0

Power dist. by gender Power dist. by social group Power dist. by socio−econ group

Monopolized by few groups Somewhat Unequal Equal

Dominated by few groups Somewhat Equal

changes in equal distribution of resources, such as in the provision power distributions are somewhat unequal (61 percent for power dis-
of health and education. tribution by social group, and 61 to 73 percent for power distributions
by socio-economic status and gender). For each of the three catego-
In figure 2.3, we consider three cleavages of particular significance ries, three to four percent of the population live in places where pow-
for power distribution in greater detail: gender, social group, and er distributions are completely monopolized by a dominant group.
socio-economic position.
This means that 5.5 billion people live in countries where women
Power Distributions Are Mostly Unequal are discriminated against when it comes to political rights and free-
Figure 2.4 provides a snapshot of all three of V-Dem’s unique in- doms. States that allow the less wealthy to be partly excluded from
dicators measuring the distribution of political power by gender, the political process account for 4.6 billion people today.
social group, and socio-economic status in 2017. 12
Each indicator
ranges from 0 (monopoly of power by one group) to 4 (roughly Figure 2.4 reveal that men and people in higher income groups tend
equal power distribution between groups). to have a strong hold on political power in countries where 86 per-
cent of the world population resides. Unequal distribution of power
The figure shows that only a very small proportion of the world’s by social group, where one or more social groups have more politi-
population has enjoyed more or less equal distribution of political cal influence than others, affects some 69 percent of the population.
power by gender, social group, and socioeconomic status. Almost
no one lives in societies with equal power by gender, less than four The overall situation is getting worse, not better. By 2017, one-
percent of the population lives in countries where power is distrib- fourth of the world’s population – or almost 2 billion people – lived
uted evenly between social groups, and political equality by socio- in countries where the rich have gained significantly more power
economic status is also virtually non-existent. compared to 2007. The growing inequalities are affecting massive
amounts of people.
Even for the lower bar, “somewhat equal” power distribution, it is
not much better. Only 14 percent of the world population lives in In the subsequent sections we continue to analyze the state of po-
countries achieving this standard for gender, 27 percent for social litical inclusion. The next subsection 2.1 focuses on inclusion by
groups, and about 14 percent of citizens enjoy this regardless of gender, while 2.2 and 2.3 explore whether inequalities in social and
socio-economic status. socio-economic characteristics affect political inclusion. We high-
light the global trends and discuss important changes in specific
The vast majority of the world’s population lives in countries where regions and countries.

12. V-Dem gave the following instructions to its expert coders: “Although political power cannot be directly observed, one can infer that groups possess power to the extent that they: (a)
actively participate in politics (by voting, etc.), (b) are involved in civil society organizations, (c) secure representation in government, (d) are able to set the political agenda, (e) influence political
decisions, and (f) influence the implementation of those decisions. Please consider all these factors when answering the following questions.” V-Dem Codebook V8, p.184.
38 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

Section 2.1: Women’s Inclusion

and Access to Power

F
or the first time in about 70 years, the global level of women’s political inclusion
and empowerment is no longer advancing. At the same time, global gender
equality is not in decline, which means that the recent trend of democratic
backsliding is not affecting women disproportionally.

Sirianne Dahlum and Moa Olin

Democratic freedoms are unevenly distributed between We first examine global and regional trends in the Women’s Po-
men and women in many places. Although women’s political litical Empowerment Index. Second, we look more closely at re-
inclusion and equal access to power is prominent on the global cent changes in women’s empowerment, including differences
agenda, as reflected in the United Nations Sustainable Develop- between countries, and present lists with the top ten advancers
ment Goals for example, many democracies (and autocracies) fail
1
and backsliders. We also examine which aspects of women’s po-
to include women on an equal footing with men in political pro- litical empowerment have been most affected. Finally, we identify
cesses. This subsection analyzes the extent to which democratic countries that have a “gender gap,” in the sense that they under-
components such as elections, civil liberties, and civil society au- perform or over-perform on gender equality relative to their de-
tonomy also apply to women. mocracy level.

We find that although women’s political empowerment has im-

proved dramatically over the past century, stagnated set in over
Figure 2.5: Regional Averages in Women’s the last ten years. However, there is no evidence of a recent back-
Political Empowerment Index, 1900-2017.
sliding on political gender equality. Among the different compo-
1

nents, women’s political participation has changed the most over

the past ten years, with many countries experiencing an increase.
.9

We also show that among the main under-performers on the gen-

der gap are several countries in the Middle East, Japan, and India,
.8

while the over-performers are predominantly post-communist

states.
.7

Women’s Political Empowerment Index

.6

V-Dem’s Women’s Political Empowerment Index builds on a defini-

.5

tion of women’s political empowerment as “a process of increasing

capacity for women, leading to greater choice, agency, and par-
.4

ticipation in social decision-making”.2 Women’s political empower-

ment is a complex concept, and the index seeks to capture differ-
.3

ent aspects by building on three different sub-indices – Women’s

Civil Liberties Index, Women’s Civil Society Participation Index,
.2

and Women’s Political Participation Index. These three indices are

weighted equally in the overall index. The Women’s Civil Liberties
.1

Index includes indicators on freedom of domestic movement, free-

dom from forced labor, the right to private property, and access to
0

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017
justice. The Women’s Civil Society Participation Index includes in-
World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia
dicators on freedom of discussions on political issues, participation
Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America in civil society organizations, and representation among journalists.
Asia−Pacific
Finally, the Women’s Political Participation Index includes indica-

1. UN (2015). 2. Sundström et al. (2015).

 Section 2.1: Women’s Inclusion and Access to Power 39

tors of women’s share in the overall distribution of power, as well powerment during the 1920s and 1930s, but dropped drastically
as the percentage of female legislators. All indices range from zero during World War II, to recover again during the 1950s and 1960s.
to one, where “0” represents a low degree of women’s political em-
powerment, and “1” represents a high degree. Latin America and the Caribbean and Asia-Pacific also improved
gradually and had levels of women’s political empowerment hov-
Global and Regional Trends ering around the global average level until the late 1980s, when
Figure 2.5 illustrates that the global level of women’s political em- Latin America and the Caribbean improved substantially, and are
powerment has advanced substantially since 1900, with most of today at the same level as Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
that improvement occurring from the late 1940s until the mid-
2000s. However, this gradual advancement of women’s political The MENA region with the lowest level of women’s political em-
empowerment stagnated, and levels have been relatively stable powerment in the world throughout most of the period, still im-
for the past ten years. At the same time, there is no evidence sug- proved gradually over the last century, albeit at a somewhat slower
gesting a backlash against women’s political empowerment at the pace than the rest of the world. Sub-Saharan Africa had approx-
global level. Hence, although the first section of this Democracy iamately the same and low level of women’s political empower-
Report 2018 shows evidence of democratic backsliding, this has ment as the MENA region until the 1970s, after which it picked up a
not affected women disproportionately in a negative way. steeper upward trajectory.

All regions of the world experienced significant and gradual im- Which Aspects are Changing?
provements in women’s political empowerment from 1900 to 2017. While Figure 2.5 illustrates developments in the aggregate Wom-
Not surprisingly, Western Europe and North America show a higher en’s Political Empowerment Index, we also want to explore wheth-
level of political empowerment for women throughout the entire er there are differences between the sub-components. For in-
period. Western Europe and North America, Eastern Europe, and stance, is women’s political participation improving more or less
Central Asia while at different levels, developed very similar over than women’s civil liberties? In Figure 2.6, we compare the Wom-
time, albeit with slightly stronger swings in Eastern Europe. Eastern en’s Political Empowerment Index, its three sub-indices and the
Europe also had comparably high levels of women’s political em-

Figure 2.6: Global Averages of Women’s Political Empowerment Index and Its Sub-Indices
Compared to Electoral Democracy Since 1972 (Right-Hand Weighted by Population).
1
1

.9
.9

.8
.8

.7
.7

.6
.6

.5
.5

.4
.4

.3
.3

.2
.2

.1
.1

0
0

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Women’s Political Empowerment Women’s Civil Liberties Women’s Political Empowerment Women’s Civil Liberties
Women’s Civil Society Participation Women’s Political Participation Women’s Civil Society Participation Women’s Political Participation
Electoral Democracy Electoral Democracy
40 Section 2.1: Women’s Inclusion and Access to Power

Electoral Democracy Index, focusing on the more recent period, While two countries have experienced significant decline in share
1972-2017. of female journalists, more than 24 countries have improved. Fig-
ure 2.7 also shows that there is some advancement on indicators
Overall, all three sub-indices have improved gradually since 1972 such as share of female legislators, property rights for women, and
and among them the Women’s Civil Liberties Index the most. power distributed by gender.
While both that measure and Women’s Civil Society Participation
Index stabilized around 2000, Women’s Political Participation Index By contrast, many more countries register a decline (14) in their
continues to improve even during the recent years’ global demo- level of freedom from forced labor than nations advancing (5).
cratic backsliding. Freedom of discussion for women has also declined overall, with
around 22 countries experiencing significant decline on this indi-
When weighting country-states based on population, the im- cator compared to only 13 registering an improvement. The lat-
provements in women’s political empowerment since 1973 appear ter development is in line with a general backsliding in democracy
somewhat more moderate (see Figure 2.6, right-hand side graph). components related to elections and civil society – for both men
Although also the population-weighted level of gender equality and women – in many countries around the globe.
indicates a substantive improvement since 1970, this change may
not be significant (as indicated by the confidence intervals). On the Regressing and Advancing Countries
other hand, the population-weighted measures show little evi- While the graphs presented so far show developments at either
dence of a downward trend in levels of women’s civil society par- the global or regional level, this section compares the recent tra-
ticipation and civil liberties. jectories of different countries. Figure 2.8 plots changes over the
past ten years, comparing levels on Women’s Political Empower-
Disaggregating further, we also consider changes in all the differ- ment Index in 2007 to levels in 2017. Labeled countries are those
ent indicators that constitute the three subcomponent-indices of with significant changes.
women’s political empowerment. There is noteworthy variation
between different indicators of women’s political empowerment, Figure 2.8 confirms that the level of gender equality has been rela-
which adds further nuance to the analysis. tively stable over the past ten years. Only two countries have reg-
istered a significant decline in women’s empowerment from 2007
The most striking finding in Figure 2.7 is the large group of coun- to 2017 - the Maldives and Thailand. Meanwhile, eleven countries
tries that have improved their share of female to male journalists. have improved their level of women’s political empowerment, in-

Figure 2.7: By Indicators of Women Political Figure 2.8: Regressing and Advancing
Empowerment: Number of Countries Registering Countries, 2007-2017.
Significant Changes.

Female journalists
24

1
22

Tunisia
S.Tomé & P.
.9
20

Algeria Bhutan
.8
Women’s Political Empowerment Index 2017

Fiji
18
Number of Countries Improving

Bangladesh
.7

Thailand
16

Myanmar
.6
14

Power by gender Sudan

Freedom of discussion Somalia
12

.5

Maldives
Freedom of domestic movement
Property rights Libya
10

.4

Access to justice
8

Female legislators Saudi Arabia

.3

CSO womens participation

6

Freedom from forced labor

.2
4

.1
2

0
0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
Number of Countries Declining Women’s Political Empowerment Index 2007

Women political participation index Women civil liberties index Eastern Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean
Women civil society participation index MENA Sub−Saharan Africa
Western Europe and North America Asia−Pacific
 Section 2.1: Women’s Inclusion and Access to Power 41

Figure 2.9: Level of Women Political Empowerment Index Across Regime Types, 2017.

New Zealand Norway

Sweden Estonia
Hong Kong Lithuania Bulgaria
Slovakia Guyana
Jamaica
Hungary Poland
Croatia Mongolia Chile
BiH Luxembourg Cape Verde
Kyrgyzstan Belarus Cyprus
Serbia S Korea
Kazakhstan Singapore Ghana
Vietnam Ukraine Tanzania Albania

Morocco Japan

Malawi
Cuba Vanuatu Guatemala
Angola Nepal
Paraguay
Women’s Empowerment Index

Guinea−Bissau

India
Haiti
Lebanon

CAR
Congo Tajikistan

Papua NG
Iran DRC Solomon Islands
Egypt Turkey

Oman
N Korea
Qatar
Saudi Arabia

Yemen

Closed Autocracy Electoral Autocracy Electoral Democracy Liberal Democracy

42 Section 2.1: Women’s Inclusion and Access to Power

cluding Algeria, Bhutan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, and Tunisia. Several of the ad-
vancers are countries in MENA, the region historically lagging behind the rest of
the world when it comes to gender equality (and democracy).

Over-performers and Under-performers

Figure 2.9 visualizes how countries perform in terms of women’s political em-
powerment compared to other countries within the same regime category but
also how regime categories tend to compare to each other.3 Countries posi-
tioned above the box perform better on gender equality than expected given
their regime type, while countries positioned below are under-performers.

Four noteworthy patterns stand out. First, countries with a socialist or commu-
nist past tend to perform better on gender equality than other countries in the
same regime category, probably reflecting the legacy of women’s high degree
of involvement in the labor market in those societies. This applies across both
regions and regime types, from the closed autocracies of Hong Kong, Cuba
and Vietnam, over electoral autocracies of Belarus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and
Kyrgyzstan, to the electoral democracies of Lithuania, Bulgaria, and Hungary.
Beyond the post-communist states, Nepal and Jamaica over-perform on gen-
der among the electoral democracies.

Second, almost all of the under-performers in the group of closed autocracies

are from the MENA region, including Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar. Given
that many of them are harshly autocratic regimes, their underperformance on
gender equality highlights just how poor women’s conditions in these coun-
tries are. MENA countries also appear as under-performers on gender inclu-
sion among electoral autocracies (Egypt and Turkey) and electoral democracies
(Lebanon).

Third, two African countries – Rwanda and Tanzania – stand out as over-per-
formers in gender inclusiveness among the electoral autocracies, reflecting
their embrace of progressive gender policies in recent decades. For instance,
gender quotas in the aftermath of the Rwanda genocide in 1994 guarantee that
30 percent of parliamentary seats are reserved for women. The government
also implemented targeted policies encouraging girls’ education and the ap-
pointment of women to leadership roles (e.g. government ministers and police
chiefs). Today, around 60 percent of parliamentarians in Rwanda are women.

Finally, there is also some variation in gender inclusiveness within the group of
liberal democracies. The Scandinavian countries score the highest, but these
countries are also the most democratic among the full democracies, suggest-
ing that they do not necessarily over-perform compared to their democracy
level. When accounting for the level of democracy, Germany is the main over-
performer in this group. Conversely,

Japan is the worst under-performer among liberal democracies. Its low score
reflects its low proportion of female lawmakers and cabinet ministers, low fe-
male labor participation, and a large gender wage gap. In fact, Japan scores
worse on gender inclusion than inclusive autocracies such as Hong Kong and
Vietnam.

3. This categorization is based on the Regimes in the World regime classification - closed autocracy, electoral
autocracy, electoral democracy, and liberal democracy (see Lührmann et al. 2017).
Section 2.1: Women’s Inclusion and Access to Power 43
44 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

Section 2.2:
Inclusion of Social Groups

S
ince the third wave of democratization in the early 1970s, power distribution
by social groups and social group equality in respect for civil liberties have
advanced in all regions of the world. Yet, over the last five years and coinciding
with the democratic decline reported in the first section of this year’s Democracy
Report, there is evidence of countries backsliding also in terms of inclusion of social
groups. As a result, over half a billion people live in countries with higher levels of social
exclusion than ten years ago.

Laura Maxwell and Constanza Sanhueza Petrarca

To what extent do different social groups have access to pow- metric shows an incremental but steady upturn in the global level
er and enjoy the same levels of civil rights around the globe? In of power distribution by social group, while there is significant re-
this section we examine political inclusion and the protection of gional variation.
rights for social groups. V-Dem defines social groups as being dis-
tinguished by language, ethnicity, religion, race, region, or caste. Western Europe and North America, as well as Eastern Europe and
The first indicator we use in the analysis below is “power distribu- Central Asia, remain virtually unchanged in their level of power dis-
tion by social group.” It evaluates the degree of inclusion in politics tribution by social group from the late seventies up until the past
of all relevant social groups. The second indicator is “social group
1
decade, when there is some variation. The level in Western Europe
equality in respect for civil liberties,” which measures the extent to and North America declined from around 2012, and power has be-
which civil liberties are equally protected for all social groups. Both 2
come slightly more monopolized also in Eastern Europe and Cen-
indicators range from zero to four. Zero corresponds to a complete tral Asia in more recent years.
absence of inclusion and protection, and a score of four indicates
that these social groups are included and protected. By contrast, in Latin America, Asia-Pacific and sub-Saharan Africa
there have been steady gains in the last decades. Considerable im-
The inclusion and protection of social groups and democratiza- provements ensued in Latin America and Asia-Pacific during the
tion have improved in close association during the three waves of third wave of democratization. The most significant improvements
democratization. V-Dem’s Electoral Democracy Index is positively are recorded in sub-Saharan Africa in the early 1990s, coinciding
correlated with power distribution by social groups (correlation = with massive improvements in South Africa after the end of Apart-
0.75) and the equal protection of civil liberties for all social groups heid and the introduction of multi-party elections in a vast major-
(correlation = 0.63) from 1900 to today. ity of countries across the continent. The MENA region lags behind
others despite significant improvements in the period leading up
Distribution of Power by Social Group to and during the Arab Spring.
Figure 2.10 presents the global development, as well as regional
variation, of power distribution by social group from 1972 to 2017. The right-hand side of figure 2.10 shows the global and regional
The left-hand panel is based on unweighted country averages. This averages weighted by population. Compared to the simple coun-

1. Question: “Is political power distributed according to social groups?” Response options: “0: 2. Question: “Do all social groups, as distinguished by language, ethnicity, religion, race,
Political power is monopolized by one social group comprising a minority of the population. region, or caste, enjoy the same level of civil liberties, or are some groups generally in a
This monopoly is institutionalized, i.e., not subject to frequent change. 1: Political power more favorable position?” Response options: “0: Members of some social groups enjoy
is monopolized by several social groups comprising a minority of the population. This much fewer civil liberties than the general population. 1: Members of some social groups
monopoly is institutionalized, i.e., not subject to frequent change. 2: Political power enjoy substantially fewer civil liberties than the general population. 2: Members of some
is monopolized by several social groups comprising a majority of the population. This social groups enjoy moderately fewer civil liberties than the general population. 3: Members
monopoly is institutionalized, i.e., not subject to frequent change. 3: Either all social groups of some social groups enjoy slightly fewer civil liberties than the general population. 4:
possess some political power, with some groups having more power than others; or different Members of all salient social groups enjoy the same level of civil liberties.” Source: Coppedge
social groups alternate in power, with one group controlling much of the political power et al. 2018b, p164.
for a period of time, followed by another – but all significant groups have a turn at the seat
of power. 4: All social groups have roughly equal political power or there are no strong
ethnic, caste, linguistic, racial, religious, or regional differences to speak of. Social group
characteristics are not relevant to politics.” Source: Coppedge et al. 2018b, p184.
 Section 2.2: Inclusion of Social Groups 45

Figure 2.10: Power Distribution by Social Group: Developments by Region

between 1972 and 2017. (Right-Hand panel weigthed by population)
4

4
3.5

3.5
3

3
2.5

2.5
2

2
1.5

1.5
1

1
.5

.5
0

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017

World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
Asia−Pacific

Figure 2.11: Social Group Equality in Respect for Civil Liberties: Developments by
region between 1972 and 2017. (Right-Hand panel weigthed by population)
4

4
3.5

3.5
3

3
2.5

2.5
2

2
1.5

1.5
1

1
.5

.5
0

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017

World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
Asia−Pacific
46 Section 2.2: Inclusion of Social Groups

try averages, it shows more noticeable declines in levels of power America, the population-weighted averages are lower than the
distribution by social group for an increasing share of the world’s simple averages for every year displayed in this plot testifying that
population during the last five years. equality is higher in smaller countries on average. The recent de-
clines in Western Europe and North America are also more pro-
The greatest difference when weighting by population is found in nounced when taking population into account, reflecting mainly
the Eastern Europe and Central Asia region. The largest country in the developments in the United States.
the region drives the sudden drop in the late 1980s – Russia – fol-
lowed by improving levels of power distribution by social group in Interestingly, the situation seems to be the opposite in sub-Saharan
Poland and Ukraine when they democratized. More exclusive poli- Africa. When population weights are taken into account, average
tics dominates the region since then with worsening levels as a re- levels are higher throughout the period, and there is no decline in
sult, pushing the regional average back closer to the world mean. recent years. It seems that in this region, the larger and more popu-
lous countries are better on average than small countries in pro-
Social Group Equality in Respect tecting social group equality in respect for civil liberties.
for Civil Liberties
Figure 2.11 depicts the global average and regional variation of so- Finally, the MENA region appears more volatile when the size of
cial group equality in respect for civil liberties. The left-hand panel populations are taken into account, closely following the trends of
shows a gradual global increase from 1972 to 2012 and a slight neg- the large countries Iraq and Turkey, and more recently, the declines
ative trend in the last five years. The decline is more pronounced in Egypt.
in Western Europe and North America, Eastern Europe and Central
Asia, and MENA. While at different average levels, Latin America, Backsliding and Advancing Countries
sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia-Pacific follow the global trend closely Which countries have changed the most? Figure 2.12 details the
and only very minor declines in the past five years. specific countries in which power distribution by social group and
social group equality in respect for civil liberties advanced or fell
Regional variation in declines in civil liberties for social groups be- back between 2007 and 2017. Countries with labels above the line
come more apparent when population size is taken into account advanced while countries with labels below the line backslid sig-
(right-hand panel in Figure 2.11). In Western Europe and North nificantly. For power distribution by social group (left-hand panel in

Figure 2.12: Power Distribution by Social Group (left panel) and Civil Liberties by Social
Group (right panel): Backsliding and Advancing Countries between 2007 and 2017.
4

Uruguay
Gambia
Greece
Japan

Fiji
Lithuania
Ivory Coast Nigeria
Tunisia
Malawi
3

Algeria
Power distribution by social group 2017

Greece
Civil liberties by social group 2017

Pakistan Botswana
Libya Macedonia
Guyana Sierra Leone
Gambia Mongolia
Burundi
Togo
Fiji Ukraine
2

Myanmar Maldives
Uganda

Egypt

Somalia

Libya Afghanistan
Nicaragua
Zimbabwe
1

Ethiopia
Turkey Turkey
Palestine/Gaza
Haiti
Azerbaijan Dominican Republic

Egypt
Qatar North Korea
0

0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Power distribution by social group 2007 Civil liberties by social group 2007

Eastern Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean
MENA Sub−Saharan Africa
Western Europe and North America Asia−Pacific
 Section 2.2: Inclusion of Social Groups 47

Figure 2.13: Changes in Power Distribution by Social Group and Social Group
Equality in Respect for Civil Liberties, Selected Countries (2000-2017).

Egypt Greece Turkey

4

2000 2005 2010 2015 2000 2005 2010 2015 2000 2005 2010 2015

Power Distribution by Social Group Equality of Civil Liberties by Social Group

Figure 2.12), the number of advancers (eight) and backsliders (nine) substantially after 2012. This reflects disquieting developments fol-
is rather even. Most of the significant changes in either direction lowing the November 2011 elections won by President Mohamed
befell countries that had a highly unequal distribution of power in Morsi and Prime Minister Hisham Qandil forming a government
2007 (below 2). Among them power distribution by social group largely from the Muslim Brotherhood, a period of autocratic ex-
improved significantly in for example the Gambia, Guyana, Libya, cesses, protests, and then a new military overthrow lead by, now
and Tunisia over the past ten years. Below the line, Haiti, Nicaragua, President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.
Turkey, and Zimbabwe are among the backsliders.
Across the Mediterranean in Greece, changes are in the opposite
By contrast, more countries have regressed (16) than advanced (ten) direction compared to Egypt: equality of respect for civil liberties
on social group equality in respect for civil liberties (right-hand pan- improved while power distribution declined. Naturally, Greece
el in Figure 2.12). The majority of the significant improvements oc- started from a higher level than Egypt. The improvement of social
curred in countries with already decent levels of equality in 2007, group equality in respect for civil liberties in the past year coincides
while backsliders are found across the spectrum. The most pro- with the Greek government beginning to include refugee children
nounced improvements were accomplished in Gambia, Greece, into the school system, along with a long-awaited vote in parlia-
Ivory Coast, and Uruguay. Backsliders include Lithuania, Macedonia, ment to begin the construction of an official mosque in Athens.
Malawi and Sierra Leone, while the largest deteriorations occurred However, as shown in Figure 2.13, Greece’s rating on power distri-
in Dominican Republic, Ethiopia, North Korea and Turkey. bution by social group declined significantly after 2012, amid the
debt crisis, an influx of immigration and a parliamentary election.
What is driving the decline of power distribution by social group Nationalist parties like Golden Dawn and Independent Greeks, that
and social group equality in respect for civil liberties? In order to are anti-immigrant and opposed to multiculturalism gained signifi-
shed light on this question, we present two cases where power cant representation in parliament. This reflects a political climate
distribution by social group and protection have developed in op- increasingly hostile to immigrants and ethnic minorities.
posite directions: Egypt and Greece. Furthermore, we discuss the
dramatic upsurge of exclusionary politics in Turkey. Figure 2.13 pre- Finally, Turkey plunges on both aspects after 2012, among many
sents the country trends. other things probably reflecting the crackdown on the Gezi Park
protests, as well as an increase in detention of those that criticize
During the Arab spring, citizens from diverse social groups in Egypt Islam and the government of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, as
became more involved in politics, reflected by a substantial uptick well as the increasingly harsh repression of social minorities includ-
in 2012 of power based on social groups shown in Figure 2.13. At ing the Kurds.
the same time, social group equality in respect for civil liberties fell
48 Section 2.2: Inclusion of Social Groups

Inclusive Democracies? mocracies, and 19 percent immigrated from liberal democracies.

How does social inclusion relate to levels of democracy? In Figure
2.14 we examine the relationship between regime type3 and pow- In terms of the destination countries, liberal democracies stand out
er distribution by social group in 2017. Countries labeled above the as the modal destination for migrants. Liberal democracies collec-
box are over-performers in their regime type category, while coun- tively has been the destination for over half of the total stock of
tries with labels below the box are under-performers. The line in migrant population, Moreover, compared to the proportion of the
the box plot indicates the median level of power distribution by total population that lives in liberal democracies (14 percent), the
social group across all countries in that category. stock of migrant population disproportionately decide to migrate
to the most free regime type, by far.
There is a clear relationship between regime type and the level
of equality in the distribution of power by social group. Even so, It is also notable that migrants leaving liberal democracies only in
within each regime type, there is substantial variation, especially extremely rare cases destinies for less democratic countries. The
among autocracies. As expected, liberal democracies tend to have flows from liberal democracies to any kind of autocracy almost
higher scores on social group inclusion, compared to all other re- never happens.
gime types. Exceptions to this pattern are Austria, Canada, Cyprus,
Greece, and Latvia, which coincides with the presence of far-right Even electoral democracies is a much less favored destination than
populist parties or institutionalized separatist movements. liberal democracies, recipients of 13 percent of the stock of mi-
grants. About half of that flow is from autocracies. A vast majority
Among electoral democracies, we find the under-performers with of migrants leaving electoral autocracies head for another democ-
the lowest power distribution by social group in Haiti, Guatemala racy. Only a smaller share ends up in autocracies.
and the Philippines, registering social inclusion scores lower than
the average closed autocracy. The exception to this overall pattern of pro-democratic favoritism
among migrants, is people leaving electoral autocracies. A slim
Among the autocratic regimes, many under-performing countries, majority of them head for another autocracy, sometimes to the
such as Ethiopia, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, and Turkey have a worse category of closed ones.
history of ethnic conflict. There is also a pattern among the over-
performers in these less democratic settings. Communist and Combining the information about the sending and receiving coun-
post-communist/socialist societies such as Armenia, Belarus, Bul- tries, we find that by 2017, 45 percent of the migrant population
garia, Cuba, Kosovo, Lithuania, Russia, Slovakia, Tanzania, Vietnam, moved to a country that is more democratic than their country of
and Zambia do well in terms of social group inclusion compared to origin, with an additional 35 percent living in a country of the same
other countries of their regime type. regime type. Thus, only 20 percent of all immigrants have moved to a
country of a more autocratic regime type than their country of origin.
Migration and Democracy:
Minorities in the Making? It is notable that more than 13 percent of the stock of migrant pop-
Today, 258 million people live outside of their country of birth and ulation still lives in closed autocracies, though in terms of propor-
this represents a large recent increase – it is 49 percent more than tions this is much less than the global population living in closed
in 2000.4 Thus, it is important to analyze the relationship also be- autocracies (25 percent).
tween migration and democracy. By combining the V-Dem’s de-
mocracy data with bilateral migration stocks,5 we examine the re- However, despite migrating to relatively democratic countries, the
lationship as of 2017. political inclusion of migrants is not guaranteed. Almost 8 per-
cent of migrants live in countries that have experienced significant
Fig. 2.15 displays the regime type of sending and receiving coun- backsliding in terms of social inclusion and protection over the
tries by share of the migratory population. The left side of the fig- past ten years.6
ure depicts countries of origin by regime type and by the propor-
tion of emigrants. The right side shows the destination countries by In addition to democracy, economic factors are naturally impor-
the same parameters. tant for migration patterns. Countries with both higher levels of de-
mocracy and greater GDP per capita typically receive higher shares
By 2017, half of all the stock of migrants are from countries located of migrants.7 European and North American countries − and the
on the autocratic side of the spectrum, one third left electoral de- United States, Germany, and the UK in particular − are home to the

3. As defined by the Regimes of the World measure (Lührmann et al. 2018). 4. UN DESA (2017). 5. The UN bilateral migration dataset measures the stock of migrants between directed pairs of
countries in 2017. The migrant population is defined as the collection of people “who change his or her country of usual residence” (UN DESA 2017). 6. This is nearly identical to the portion of the
global population (7.5 percent) living in countries backsliding on these indicators. 7. We examined the relationship between the Electoral Democracy Index (V-Dem Data Set Version 8), GDP per
Capita (World Bank) and Migration Population in 2017 (World Bank).
 Section 2.2: Inclusion of Social Groups 49

Figure 2.14: Regime Type and Power Distribution by Social Group.

Luxembourg
Vanuatu
Portugal
Italy
Italy
Benin Cape Verde Switzerland
Lithuania Germany
Mali Belgium S Korea
Lesotho

Armenia
Solomon Islands
Tanzania Jamaica
Palestine/WB Comoros Kosovo
Liberia
Mozambique
Togo Slovakia Bulgaria
Senegal

Estonia Austria
Greece
Cuba Belarus Russia
Pakistan Papua NG Latvia
Libya Zambia Cyprus
Power Distribution by Social Group

Morocco Vietnam Trin & Tobago

Hong Kong
Canada
India Chile
Peru Seychelles
Mauritius Croatia

Colombia
Guinea−Bissau

Paraguay

Nicaragua
Zimbabwe
Mauritania Rwanda Philippines

Turkey Guatemala
Turkmenistan Eq. Guinea Haiti
Azerbaijan
Syria
Swaziland Tajikistan
Chad
Sudan

Bahrain
Qatar Ethiopia
South Sudan

Closed Autocracy Electoral Autocracy Electoral Democracy Liberal Democracy

50 Section 2.2: Inclusion of Social Groups

largest proportions. Notably, among closed autocracies, there are It is difficult to disentangle whether democracy or economic de-
several countries with highly developed economies – Saudi Arabia, velopment are the most relevant pull-factors for mass migration
Oman, and Qatar – which are the country of destination for about because more democratic countries also tend to be richer. Never-
two-thirds of those immigrants living in closed autocracies. These theless, the analysis shows that migrants tend to migrate from less
are predominantly economic migrants. to more democratic countries.

Figure 2.15: Share of the Migrant Population by Regime Type for Countries of Origin and Destination, 2017.

Liberal Democracy
(19%)

Percentage of Population to Destination Countries

Percentage of Population from Origin Countries

Liberal Democracy
(52%)

Electoral Democracy
(34%)

Electoral Democracy
(13%)

Electoral Autocracy
(32%)
Electoral Autocracy
(22%)

Closed Autocracy Closed Autocracy

(15%) (13%)

Note: the numbers in parentheses on each side of the plot represent the percentage of the immigrant stock
originating from or residing in that regime type, respectively.

Spotlight:
Limited Freedom of Foreign Movement around The World

Many public authorities restrict the freedom of citizens to travel since 2002, and Sudan, which has implemented restrictions
from and to the country, a practice that is often aggravated by since 1989. Moreover, Laos, Palestine, Yemen, Syria, Uzbekistan,
severe punishment for transgressors and their families. Among South Sudan and Turkmenistan also restrict the freedom of
the worst cases are North Korea, which has imposed restrictions movement of their citizens.
on foreign movement since 1947, Eritrea, with tough restrictions
Section 2.2: Inclusion of Social Groups 51
52 V-Dem Annual Report 2018

Section 2.3: Political Exclusion Based on

Socio-Economic Inequality

P
olitical and economic inequalities threaten to undermine the legitimacy and
effectiveness of democracy (Dahl, 1971). This section shows that socio-economic
inequalities are increasing in many parts of the world in ways that reinforce
democratic backsliding. In particular, recent declines in health and educational
equality, as well as the distribution of power by socio-economic status throughout the
world, give cause for concern.

Valeriya Mechkova, Moa Olin and Rachel Sigman

The politics surrounding socio-economic inequality are Figure 2.16: By Aspects of Socio-Economic
Inequality: Number of Countries with Significant
increasingly more palpable. Anti-elite rhetoric, large-scale populist
Changes, 2007-2017.
movements, and nationalist backlashes to global economic inte-
gration are now commonplace in many countries. These develop-
20

ments put the future of democracy at risk when combined with

18

undemocratic agendas pursued by political leaders.

10 12 14 16
Number of Countries Improving

The liberal perspective, taking center stage in the first part of this Particularistic or public goods
report, emphasizes institutional guarantees of rights and free-
Power by Gender
doms of democracy, such as the right to vote and participate
politically, freedom to express oneself, and legal protections for
Means−tested v. universalistic policy
access to justice. However, the mere guarantee of rights and free- Power by Social Group
8

doms does not mean that all individuals are capable of exercising
Power by Socio−Economic Group
their rights and enjoy the freedoms equally. Lack of economic or
6

Health Equality
Education Equality
social means can prevent people from doing so, and economic
4

inequalities can make less wealthy individuals vulnerable to po-

2

litical domination.
0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
In this section, we therefore focus on the ways that social and so- Number of Countries Declining
cio-economic inequalities augment current trends of democratic
Equal Access Equal Distribution of Resources
backsliding. We explore how inequalities in health, education, and
the distribution of power by socio-economic group have changed
in the last ten years. We find that such inequalities have worsened
in recent years. This suggests that democracy is becoming less and and the four indicators of the Equal Distribution of Resources Index
less accessible to poor people across the world. are displayed in green.

Which Aspects of The largest magnitude of backsliding has affected indicators meas-
Socio-Economic Inequality uring the share of the population whose political efficaciousness is
Have Changed the Most? undermined by educational and health inequalities, and the level
Figure 2.16 reports the number of countries that have advanced of equality in terms of distribution of power by socio-economic
(above the diagonal line) or declined (below the diagonal line) over group. This finding indicates that socio-economic inequalities is a
the last ten years on indicators of socio-economic inequality. The grave concern in a growing number of countries.
three indicators constituting V-Dem’s Equal Access Index are in red
 Section 2.3: Political Exclusion Based on Socio-Economic Inequality 53

Figure 2.17: Global Trends in Education and Health Equality, and Power
Distributed by Socio-Economic Position (Right Panel Population-Weighted).
4

4
3.5

3.5
3

3
2.5

2.5
2

2
1.5

1.5
1

1
.5

.5
0

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017

Health Equality Educational Equality

Power distributed by Socio−Economic Posiiton

The level of equal distribution of power by socio-economic status Figure 2.17, left-hand panel, shows unweighted global over-time
declined significantly in 14 countries, while the number of coun- developments for the same three indicators. By these measures,
tries with positive changes is only six. The countries with the larg- both education and health equality improved gradually but sig-
est increases in inequality on this measure on the past ten years are nificantly from 1972 until the 1990s to then journey slightly down-
Burundi, Iraq, Mauritania, Panama, and Yemen. wards again in recent years. Despite the improvements, the global
averages reach just above the middle of the scale, which corre-
The countries registering the biggest improvements are all emerg- sponds to a situation in which the ability of ten to twenty-five per-
ing from tumultuous periods of political instability: Egypt, Somalia cent of adult citizens to participate is impaired due to poor access
and Tunisia. However, even after the upturns in recent years, the to healthcare and education.
scores for Egypt and Somalia are still in the lower half on the scale
reflecting a situation in which more wealthy people enjoy a domi- The scores on these two measures of equality are even lower when
nant or very strong hold on political power. 1
we look at the scores weighted by population (right-hand panel
of Figure 2.17), and the declines in recent years are also more pro-
A matching concern is unequal access to healthcare and education nounced. In other words, equality tends to be better in smaller
that lead to inability to participate in political activities (such as vot- countries than in more populous ones, and the decline in recent
ing and engagement in political parties). The level of equality in ac- years has affected larger countries more.
cess to healthcare or to education declined significantly in 16 and
15 countries respectively, while progressing in only five (for health) The dissimilarities between country average measures and the
and four (for education). scores weighted by population are the largest for the indicator of
power distribution by socio-economic position. The estimations

1. The scale on this indicator is from 0 to 4, where 0 stands for a virtual monopoly on political power by wealthy people, and 4 corresponds to more or less equally distributed power across
economic groups (see Coppedge et al. 2018b, p. 184).
54 Section 2.3: Political Exclusion Based on Socio-Economic Inequality

Figure 2.18: Regional Trends in Education and Health Equality since 1972.

East Europe and Central Asia Latin America and Caribbean MENA

4
3
2
1
0

Sub−Saharan Africa West Europe and North America Asia−Pacific

4
3
2
1
0

1972 1982 1992 2002 2012 1972 1982 1992 2002 2012 1972 1982 1992 2002 2012

Health Equality Education Equality

weighted by population fall markedly between 1975 and 2017. This Health and Education (In-)Equality
finding again indicates that more populous countries are becom- Figure 2.18 shows that health and education equality are, as of re-
ing increasingly unequal, and that negative change is affecting a cently, declining in all regions, except sub-Saharan Africa where it
large share of the world’s population. has remained stable since the 1980s albeit at a very low level. Asia
and the Pacific, the MENA region, and Latin America and the Carib-
In the next section, we explore these trends in greater detail by bean also have comparatively low levels of health and education
looking at which regions and countries are driving these changes. equality. Eastern Europe and Central Asia have a somewhat higher
level than those other regions but also register the steepest sub-

Table 2.1: All Countries Registering Significant Positive and Negative Changes in
Education and Health Equality, 2007-2017.

Health Equality Education Equality

Ten-year losses Ten-year gains Ten-year losses Ten-year gains

Venezuela -2.03 Swaziland 0.89 Syria -1.21 Eritrea 1.25
Romania -1.47 Namibia 0.85 Central African Republic -1.02 Tanzania 0.98
Turkey -1.31 Eritrea 0.61 Mauritania -0.91 Saudi Arabia 0.96
Sri Lanka -1.14 Oman 0.59 Afghanistan -0.84 Rwanda 0.73
Iran -1.01 Timor-Leste 0.58 Laos -0.82
Libya -0.99 Ukraine -0.78
Mauritania -0.97 Romania -0.76
Cambodia -0.89 Spain -0.71
Burundi -0.85 Bulgaria -0.71
Syria -0.84 Maldives -0.70
Slovenia -0.84 Brazil -0.69
Central African Republic -0.76 Armenia -0.57
Iraq -0.75 Haiti -0.49
Somaliland -0.53 Sudan -0.48
Lithuania -0.46 United States -0.48
Spain -0.45

2. Reuters (2017).
 Section 2.3: Political Exclusion Based on Socio-Economic Inequality 55

stantive decline following the fall of the Soviet Union in the early versely, the countries registering improvements – such as Eritrea
1990s. The highest and most stable levels of health and education and Swaziland – are still found at the bottom end of the index
equality are recorded for Western Europe and North America. because the gains were relatively small. These are also countries
where such improvements mean little since there are few political
Table 2.1 lists all the countries with significant positive and nega- rights and freedoms to begin with.
tive changes in health and education equality over the past ten
years. Of the 16 countries backsliding on health equality between Power Distributed by Socio-Economic Position
2007 and 2017, the decline in Venezuela is the worst. Following an While measures of health and educational equality help us to un-
economic inflation rate of 2,616 percent in 2017, millions of people derstand whether citizens are equally empowered to participate
suffered from severe shortages of food, medicine and healthcare. 2
politically, V-Dem’s measure of power distribution by socio-eco-
Iran, Romania, Sri Lanka, and Turkey have also experienced severe nomic status measures the extent to which poorer groups in socie-
declines in healthcare equality. ty can actually access positions of power or exert political influence.

Educational equality declined significantly in four of the post-com- Figure 2.19 illustrates the global average of power distribution by
munist countries over the last ten years: Armenia, Bulgaria, Roma- socio-economic status as well as the regional developments. While
nia and Ukraine. Yet the biggest declines in education equality are the unweighted global levels (left-hand panel) have remained
found in Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Laos, Mauritania comparable during the last decades, global levels weighted by
and Syria. Only four countries – Eritrea, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia and population (right-hand panel) have decreased substantially since
Tanzania register – positive changes. 1972. More and more people live in nations where the rich have
much more access to political power than poorer people.
In sum, global levels of inequality in terms of education and health
make substantial portions of the world’s population partly incapa- Eastern Europe and Central Asia, hence many post-communist coun-
ble of fully using their political rights and freedoms, even where tries, are driving much of this global decline in power distribution by
these are institutionally guaranteed. Recent backsliding on health socio-economic group, alongside a drastic decline is also evident in
and education equality threaten to further undermine the possibil- Asia-Pacific in recent years and smaller drops in other regions.
ity for individuals to fully exercise their rights and freedoms. Con-

Figure 2.19: Regional Trends in Power Distribution by Socio-Economic Position

(Right-Hand Weighted by Population)
4

4
3.5

3.5
3

3
2.5

2.5
2

2
1.5

1.5
1

1
.5

.5
0

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017

World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
Asia−Pacific
56 Section 2.3: Political Exclusion Based on Socio-Economic Inequality

Notably for Western Europe and North America power distribution Table 2.2: All Countries Registering Significant
Positive and Negative Changes in power distribution
by socio-economic position only shows a decline in the popula-
by socio-economic position.
tion-weighted figure, which reflects a trend of less equal access to
power in large countries like the United States. 

Ten-year losses Ten-year gains

Improvements during the 1980s and 1990s are clearly visible in Lat- Burundi -1.84 Tunisia 0.98
in America and the Caribbean in particular when considering the Mauritania -1.47 Egypt 0.95
Iraq -1.46 Somalia 0.81
population size of countries, but also a substantial drop the last few Yemen -1.10 Venezuela 0.74
years. Panama -1.02 Ecuador 0.69
India -0.85 Greece 0.57
Fiji -0.82
Table 2.2 shows that substantially more countries register losses (14 Iran -0.82
Burma/Myanmar -0.71
countries) than gains (six countries) in access to power by socio- Mali -0.63
economic group over the past ten years. Burundi is the worst back- Bangladesh -0.61
Vanuatu -0.60
slider on this metric. Other countries with a significant and substan- Pakistan -0.58
tial decline in power distribution by socio-economic status include Turkmenistan -0.43
Fiji, India, Iraq, Mauritania, Panama, and Yemen.

The only country over this period that transitioned from an autoc-
racy to a liberal democracy – Tunisia – also saw the largest advance
on power distribution by socio-economic group, but Egypt, Soma- Among electoral democracies, Lithuania, Poland, and several coun-
lia, Venezuela, and Ecuador also register significant increases but tries from Latin America and the Caribbean – Bolivia, Ecuador, Ja-
also from quite low levels. maica, Peru and Suriname – stand out as over-performers in terms
of this indicator of political equality, with scores similar to the av-
Are Democratic Countries More Socio- erage liberal democracy. Conversely, Guinea-Bissau is an outlier,
Economically Inclusive? with scores that match most closed and electoral autocracies, with
Figure 2.20 shows V-Dem’s measure of power distribution by socio- a score indicating that wealthy people enjoy a dominant hold on
economic position across regimes types. There is a clear J-shaped power and even people of average income have little say.
relationship. The median scores for closed and electoral autocra-
cies cluster at lower levels compared to those for electoral and lib- Some electoral autocracies are extreme over-performers (Bela-
eral democracies and between the two latter liberal democracies rus and Venezuela), and compare favorably even to many liberal
score much higher than electoral. However, there is also substantial democracies. Countries such as Bangladesh, Mauritania, Sudan,
variation within all regime types. Tajikistan and Ukraine are on the opposite end of the spectrum.
These countries have highly skewed distributions of political pow-
Notably, liberal democracies tend to be rated at high levels on this er based on socio-economic status, even compared to other elec-
indicator. Substantively, this means that economic stratification toral autocracies.
tends not to translate directly to very unequal political power in
these countries. There are a few exceptions to this pattern, includ- Several closed autocracies undergoing or coming out of recent
ing Albania, Chile, Costa Rica, the United States, and Uruguay. They conflicts are also under-performing with respect to egalitarianism:
are liberal democracies but stand out with substantively lower Angola, Syria and Yemen. Cuba and Libya score far higher on egali-
scores on this indicator compared to other countries in the same tarian democracy than the average in this category.
category. In this group, liberal democracy is coupled with substan-
tially more power accruing to the wealthier part of the population, Some of the former Soviet Republics – Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Turk-
and poorer citizens having real influence only over issues that do menistan and Ukraine – are found at the bottom of the scoreboard
not matter much to wealthy people. in terms of levels of power distributed by wealth and are under-
performers when compared to their level of democracy.
At the other end of the scale, the Nordic countries, alongside The
Netherlands, Belgium, Greece and Germany, have the highest lev- The key conclusion from this section is that while there are excep-
els of inclusion. In these liberal democracies, wealthy people tend tions, liberal democracies tend to provide more or less equal pos-
not to have much more influence over political decisions than sibilities for people of all income groups to access and influence
poorer segments of the population, according to the V-Dem coun- politics.
try experts.
 Section 2.3: Political Exclusion Based on Socio-Economic Inequality 57

Figure 2.20: Power Distribution by Socio-Economic Position across Different Regimes.

Greece
Denmark

Netherlands
Venezuela
Bolivia
Finland
Luxembourg
Libya Belarus Belgium Japan
Sweden
Ecuador

Jamaica Poland
Vanuatu
Eritrea Peru Lesotho
Comoros
Cuba Palestine/WB

UAE Serbia Turkey Lithuania Benin

Power Distribution by Socio−Economic Status

Bhutan Suriname

Malaysia Uganda
Kyrgyzstan
BiH Tanzania
CAR Ghana Barbados
USA
Trin & Tobago
Uruguay

Costa Rica
Chile

Malawi
Macedonia Lebanon Albania
Mexico
Paraguay
Nigeria Guatemala
Haiti Philippines

El Salvador

Guinea−Bissau

Zimbabwe Cambodia
Burundi
N Korea Chad Pakistan
Angola
Syria

Yemen Azerbaijan
Turkmenistan Sudan Bangladesh
Ukraine Mauritania

Tajikistan

Closed Autocracy Electoral Autocracy Electoral Democracy Liberal Democracy

58 V-Dem data users

What do you use the V-Dem data for?

#1: Practitioners
Article 19
ARTICLE 19 joined with V-Dem to launch a unique, authoritative
assessment of freedom of expression and information worldwide
in November 2017. ARTICLE 19 has worked with V-Dem to select 32
indicators out of the 350 measured by V-Dem to provide a rich and
multi-faceted view on the challenges facing freedom of expression
and information globally. These indicators have been aggregated
into five indices based on ARTICLE 19’s assessment of the five defin-
ing elements of freedom of expression, as set out in our Expression
Agenda strategy: Protection of Journalists and human rights de- tributes and 16 sub-attributes of democracy and includes 98 in-
fenders; Media Pluralism and Freedom; Civic Space; Transparency dicators from 14 different sources. The partnership between the
and Accountability; and Freedom of Expression in the Digital Age. Varieties of Democracy Institute and IDEA has been essential for
With V-Dem’s new approach to measuring democracy, the findings the development of the GSoD Indices. V-Dem data is one of the
of our Expression Agenda (XpA) metric reveal the key threats fac- key data sources due to its extensive coverage in terms of coun-
ing freedom of expression and information, enabling us not only to tries, years and indicators. The development of the GSoD Indi-
target our advocacy more effectively, but to measure the impact of ces was guided by Svend-Erik Skaaning, a PI from V-Dem, and our
our work, as well as provide a lobbying tool for our partners around expert advisory board benefitted from the participation of many
the world and a reliable new source of insight for journalists, of the V-Dem experts. I hope that the collaboration between IDEA
activists, and policymakers. and V-Dem on this project can be a source of inspiration to others
as to how the data can be used in different initiatives.
Quinn McKew, Deputy Executive Director, Article 19
Mélida Jiménez, Acting Programme Manager, International IDEA

#2: Academics
Since 2016 we have been engaged in a knowledge transfer project,
in which we aim to illustrate the complex nature of democracy
using the insights gained from empirical research on democracy,
most importantly those provided by the Varieties of Democracy
project and the Democracy Barometer project. Using game devel-
opment as an innovative teaching approach in higher education,
we invited students to become actively involved in the process of
designing a non-digital game about democracy. As a means to il-
lustrate the empirical complexity and normative nature of different
models of democracy, we drew on both the conceptual documen-
tation as well as the data set of the Varieties of Democracy pro-
International IDEA ject. The set goal for the students was to develop a game proto-
International IDEA (IDEA) launched its first Global State of Democ- type that includes both a cooperative element, in which players,
racy report “Exploring Democracy’s Resilience” in November 2017. acting together, need to ensure a minimum level of democracy
The report was also accompanied by the release of “The Global (i.e. electoral democracy) to win the game; as well as a competitive
State of Democracy Indices,” which is IDEA’s first comprehensive element, such that each player should aim to maximize different
democracy measure. The first edition of the Global State of De- aspects of democracy, striving to implement different models of
mocracy Indices (GSoD Indices) measures democracy across 5 at- democracy (majoritarian, consensus, liberal, deliberative, participa-
 V-Dem data users  | 59

tive, or egalitarian). The course led to a two-year teaching project paper in which I compare democratic de-
at the University of Zurich, and the development of game-based velopment in South Africa and Tunisia. Lat-
learning material. er on, I used an aggregated index made
by V-Dem called “Women’s political em-
Dr. Saskia Ruth, German Institute of Global and Area Studies, Dr. Rebec- powerment” in order to test whether the
ca Welge, Freelance Trainer & Demokrative and Robert Lovell, Instruc- number of women in the workforce in a
tional Game Designer country is positively correlated with wom-
en’s political empowerment. However, to
University of Alabama be honest, what I maybe liked the most is
Undergraduate students on my courses on Democratization and that the analysis online tool produces re-
African politics at the University of Alabama have increasingly relied ally good looking graphs!
on V-Dem’s online data analysis tools for depicting cross-time
and cross-country variations in democracy. For instance, during Tove Wikelhult, Program Coordinator, the
fall 2017, students conducted a group presentation on democrat- QoG Institute
ic trends in Latin America and used V-Dem’s electoral democracy
index (variable graph) to depict democratic changes across Latin
America in general, as well as in the individual countries of Brazil, #4: Museums
Argentina, Mexico, Venezuela and Honduras between 1990 and
2017. In the same semester, students on my African politics course The Museum of World Culture in Gothenburg
made use of the clean elections index to explore trends in elec- In the exhibition “Crossroads” at the Museum of World Culture in
tion quality over time for countries in Southern Africa. Although Gothenburg, the audience can explore the Motion Charts provid-
I expose students to several expert-based sources for measuring ed by V- Dem. This enables them to explore how the relationship
democracy, students seem to prefer V-Dem, in part because the between two variables changes over time. For the average visitor
project includes a wide to the museum the tool is quite complicated to fully comprehend,
array of democracy-relat- however, it enlightens the audience as to the complexity of
ed indicators, but also be- democracy. The data serves as a good starting point for explora-
cause of the relative ease tion and ongoing discussions for visiting schools and other groups.
with which students can An extension of the work to include the principles of democracy
manipulate data and gen- is found in the interactive exhibition “demokrativäven” (A weave
erate graphs for presenta- of Democracy) where visitors can choose their “must-have” demo-
tions and research papers. cratic principle that together with others creates a weave of De-
mocracy.
Nicholas Kerr, Assistant
Professor, University of Lina Malm, Exhibition producer, Museum of World Culture
Alabama

#3: Students
Experience with V-Dem data as a student
As a student enrolled on the Political Science Master’s Program at
the University of Gothenburg, I chose to take the “V-Dem-course.” It
was an intensive two months, which consisted of producing papers
and attending weekly seminars. Not only did we get an in-depth
understanding of the theory behind V-Dem, but we were also in-
troduced to the dataset and online analysis tools. The opportunity
to use the V-Dem dataset, and particularly the online analysis tools,
during the V-Dem course, opened up new possibilities for pro-
ducing interesting and trustworthy research material quick-
ly. What was also beneficial was that the data considers almost all
countries across a very long period of time. I used V-Dem data in a
60 V-Dem Publications

Political Regimes and Institutions:

Change and Measurement
sified with a high degree of certainty from those with “upper”
Multiple Measurements, Elusive Agreement,
and “lower” bounds in each category. Finally, a comparison of
and Unstable Outcomes in the Study of disagreements with extant datasets (7%–12% of the coun-
Regime Change. try-years), demonstrates that the RoW classification is more
2018 | Journal of Politics. 80:2, 736-741 conservative, classifying regimes with electoral manipulation
and infringements of the political freedoms more frequently
“This comprehensive analysis of regime change indicators re- as electoral autocracies, suggesting that it better captures the
veals that problems of conceptualization and measurement are opaqueness of contemporary autocracies.”
major reasons why current quantitative research fails to draw
compelling conclusions that foster cumulative knowledge. The
article first proposes the distinction between two forms of re-
gime change—rupture and reform—and discusses the specific
conceptual and measurement challenges scholars encounter
yet largely fail to address when studying either form of change.
Second, the article shows that agreement between indicators
of regime change is low and driven by focal points such as elec-
tions and coups, suggesting that such measures often reflect Anna Lührmann Marcus Tannerberg
notable events instead of regime change per se. This implies
that indicator choice determines the set of cases for causal in-
ference. Finally, a robustness check of nine articles on regime
change published in top journals demonstrates that findings
are often not robust to alternative indicators, implying that indi-
cator choice influences the results of quantitative studies.”

Staffan I. Lindberg

A General Theory of Power Concentration:

Hans Lueders Ellen Lust Demographic Influences on Political
Organization
Forthcoming 2018 | European Political Science Review.
“Why is the exercise of political power highly concentrated in
Regimes of the World (RoW): Opening New some polities and widely dispersed in others? We argue that
Avenues for the Comparative Study of one persistent causal factor is demographic. Populous polities
Political Regimes are characterized by less concentrated structures of authority.
2018 | Politics and Governance 6(1): 60-77. To explain this relationship we invoke two mechanisms: effi-
ciency and trust. The theory is demonstrated with a wide vari-
“Classifying political regimes has never been more difficult. ety of empirical measures and in two settings: (1) cross-country
Most contemporary regimes hold de-jure multiparty elections analyses including most sovereign states and extending back
with universal suffrage. In some countries, elections ensure to the 19th century and (2) within-country analyses focused on
that political rulers are—at least somewhat—accountable states, counties, and localities in the United States.”
to the electorate whereas in others they are a mere window
dressing exercise for authoritarian politics. Hence, regime types
need to be distinguished based on the de-facto implementa-
tion of democratic institutions and processes. Using V-Dem
data, we propose with Regimes of the World (RoW) such an
operationalization of four important regime types—closed
and electoral autocracies; electoral and liberal democracies—
with vast coverage (almost all countries from 1900 to 2016). We
also contribute a solution to a fundamental weakness of extant
typologies: The unknown extent of misclassification due to un- John Gerring Matthew Maguire Jillian Jaeger
certainty from measurement error. V-Dem’s measures of uncer-
tainty (Bayesian highest posterior densities) allow us to be the
first to provide a regime typology that distinguishes cases clas-
 V-Dem Publications 61

Beyond Democracy-Dictatorship Measures:

A New Framework Capturing Executive Bases
of Power, 1789-2016
Forthcoming | Perspectives on Politics.
“This paper attempts to integrate the literatures on authori-
tarian regime types and democratic forms of government.
Kelly M. McMann
We propose a theoretical framework of five dimensions of
executive appointment and dismissal that can be applied in
both more democratic and more authoritarian regimes: the
hereditary, military, ruling party, direct election and confi-
dence dimensions, respectively. Relying on the Varieties of How Much Democratic Backsliding?
Democracy data, we provide measures of these five dimen-
sions for 3,937 individual heads of state and 2,874 heads of 2017 | Journal of Democracy 28(4): 162-169..
government from 192 countries across the globe from 1789 “Democracy is facing challenges across the world, yet sugges-
to the present. After presenting descriptive evidence of their tions of a global crisis are not warranted. Based on data from
prevalence, variation and relationship to extant regime typol- the largest democracy database ever compiled, the Varieties
ogies, a set of exploratory probes gauge the extent to which of Democracy Project (V-Dem), we find that the number of de-
the five dimensions can predict levels of repression, corrup- mocracies worldwide declined slightly from 100 in 2011 to 97
tion, and executive survival, controlling for aspects of democ- today, and 16 countries transitioned to democracy over the last
racy. This leads to generation of a set of original hypotheses ten years, including Tunisia, Nepal, and Nigeria. However, there
that we hope can serve as building blocks for explanatory is a fair degree of volatility. In 2013 alone, five countries transi-
theory. We conclude by discussing some limitations of these tioned to democracy but nine went the other way. Worrisome
novel data.” trends include gradual erosion of freedom of expression and
association in several countries, among them Turkey, Hungary,
Poland, and Brazil.”

Jan Teorell Staffan I. Lindberg

Valeriya Mechkova Anna Lührmann

Measuring Subnational Democracy: Toward

Improved Regime Typologies and Theories of
Regime Change
2018 | Democratization 25(1): 19-37.
“Social scientists and practitioners have been limited in their
work by the paucity of data about subnational institutions Staffan I. Lindberg
and practices. Such data could help scholars refine regime
typologies, improve theories of democratization and regime
change, better understand subnational democracy, and il-
luminate issues of development, conflict, and governance.
They could also enable democracy and development ad-
vocates to design more effective programs and officials to
create better policies. This paper addresses the lack of data
by introducing 22 subnational measures from a new data-
set, Varieties of Democracy. Validity tests demonstrate that
the measures’ strengths outweigh their weaknesses. The
measures excel in covering all subnational levels for most
countries, capturing different elements of subnational elec-
tions, and including a variety of dimensions of elections and
civil liberties. The measures also offer unmatched global
and temporal coverage. The paper demonstrates how these
strengths can provide scholars and practitioners with the
benefits described above.” See More Research Spotlights and V-Dem
Publications on Our Website:
www.v-dem.net
62 V-Dem Publications

The role of political Institutions for

policy outcomes: Environmental
sustainability, peace and growth
insights from environmental political science research, which
Democratization in Conflict Studies: How suggests that CO2 emission models would gain explanatory
Conceptualization Affects Operationalization leverage if moderators gauging political institutions were
and Testing Outcomes considered. We test these theories by estimating the poten-
2017 | International Interactions 43(6): 941-966. tially moderating effects of democracy, corruption, number of
veto points and players, and civil society activity. We find that
“Using the debate over democratization and conflict, we the per capita CO2 elasticity of GDP becomes non-monotonic
demonstrate how the connection between conceptualiza- and diminishing as GDP per capita increases in countries with
tion and operationalization can play a decisive role in testing democratic non-corrupt governments and high civil society
falsifiable hypotheses. We discuss seven different opera- participation. The moderating impact of this political-institu-
tionalizations of regime change based on three different tional configuration is relatively small, suggesting only limited
conceptualizations of democracy. Although we find high support for theories in environmental political science. How-
correlations between different measures of democracy, when ever, the results are robust and add an important specification
they are used to capture regime change, the correlations to the studies in environmental economics that find positive
drop precipitously. In multivariate estimations of the effect of and monotonic GDP-CO2 relationship: the adverse effect of
regime change on a range of conflict variables, we gener- GDP per capita on CO2 emissions is not profound in rich well-
ate widely disparate results, providing no consistent support governed countries with active civil societies.”
that democratization affects conflict. We thus demonstrate
that decisions about conceptualization and subsequent op-
erationalization have decisive impact on the inference we
produce. In contrast, our controls for the effect of institution-
alized democracy consistently show a negative relationship
between joint democracy and conflict. Finally, autocratic
regime change seems to be more robustly correlated with a
range of conflict behaviors than heretofore recognized in this
literature.” Ole Martin Lægreid Marina Povitkina

‘Gimme Shelter’: The Role of Democracy

and Institutional Quality in Disaster
Preparedness
Michael Bernhard Ömer Faruk Örsün 2017 | Political Research Quarterly 70(4): 833-847.
“Natural disasters cause suffering for millions of people around
the globe every year, and as climate change unfolds, the like-
lihood of natural catastrophes is increasing. While weather
shocks such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods are beyond
our control, the governments’ capacity to protect populations
largely determines the degree of human suffering in disasters.
Democracies, with freedom of speech, broad public participa-
Reşat Bayer tion, and representation, are believed to protect their popula-
tions better than nondemocratic regimes. However, demo-
cratic institutions are insufficient for securing protection from
disasters in contexts of corruption, poor planning, and public
administration incompetence. We argue that the effect of de-
Do Political Institutions Moderate the GDP- mocracy on the extent of human suffering in disasters is con-
CO2 Relationship? tingent on the ability of governments to implement their tasks
2018 | Ecological Economics 145: 441-450. or the quality of implementing institutions. We test this inter-
action hypothesis using time-series cross-sectional data from
“Empirical studies of the relationship between GDP per capita the Varieties of Democracy project, the Quality of Government
and country-level CO2emissions tend to focus on the direct dataset, and the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of
effect of per capita GDP growth, rarely taking political institu- Disasters. The results show that more democracy is associated
tions into consideration. This paper introduces theoretical with fewer people being affected by natural disasters only in
 V-Dem Publications 63

settings where institutional quality is high. When institutional

quality is low, more people seem to suffer in democracies than
Economic Development and Democracy:
in authoritarian states.” An Electoral Connection
2018 | European Journal of Political Research
“Scholars continue to debate whether economic develop-
ment affects regime type. We argue that a clear relationship
exists between development and the electoral component of
democracy, but not – or at least less so – between develop-
ment and other components of broader understandings of de-
mocracy. This is so because development enhances the power
resources of citizens and elections provide a focal point for col-
Tove Ahlbom Marina Povitkina
lective action. The theory is tested with two new datasets – Va-
rieties of Democracy and Lexical Index of Electoral Democracy
– that allow us to disaggregate the concept of democracy into
meso- and micro-level indicators. Results of these tests cor-
Party Strength and Economic Growth roborate the theory: only election-centered indicators are ro-
2018 | World Politics 70(2): 275-320. bustly associated with economic development. This may help
to account for apparent inconsistencies across extant studies
“While a large literature suggests an important role for political and shed light on the mechanisms at work in a much-studied
parties in development, this article is the first attempt to layout relationship. Further analysis shows that development affects
and test a comprehensive theory connecting parties to eco- electoral democracy by reducing electoral fraud, election vio-
nomic growth. The authors argue that strong parties broaden lence, and vote buying.”
the constituencies to which policymakers respond and help
politicians solve coordination problems. These features help
to ensure better economic management, public services, and
political stability. And this, in turn, enhances economic growth.
Drawing on a novel measure of party strength from the Varie-
ties of Democracy data set, the authors test this theory on data
drawn from more than 150 countries observed annually from
1901–2010. They identify a sizeable effect that is robust to vari-
ous specifications, estimators, and samples. The effect oper-
ates in both democracies and autocracies, and is fairly stable Carl-Henrik John Svend-Erik
across regions and time periods.” Knutsen Gerring Skaaning

Fernando John Carl-Henrik Jan Michael Staffan I.

Bizzarro Gerring Knutsen Teorell Coppedge Lindberg

Allen Michael Svend-Erik

Hicken Bernhard Skaaning

See More Research Spotlights and V-Dem

Michael Staffan Publications on Our Website:
Coppedge I. Lindberg
www.v-dem.net
64 V-Dem Publications

Elections:
At the Core of Democracy
importance for democratization in sub-Saharan Africa, the
Public trust in manipulated elections: The post-communist region, Latin America and the Caribbean,
role of election administration and media and Asia. For the Middle East and North Africa, the relation-
freedom ship is weaker and less robust. Finally, the results suggest that
2017 | Electoral Studies 50: 50-67. reiterated sequences of multiparty elections are associated
with improvements to liberal and deliberative components
“As multiparty elections have become a global norm, scholars of democracy more so than egalitarian components.”
and policy experts regard public trust in elections as vital for
regime legitimacy. However, very few cross-national studies
have examined the consequences of electoral manipulation,
including the manipulation of election administration and the
media, on citizens’ trust in elections. This paper addresses this
gap by exploring how autonomy of election management
bodies (EMBs) and media freedom individually and conjointly
shape citizens’ trust in elections. Citizens are more likely to ex-
press confidence in elections when EMBs display de-facto au- Amanda B. Edgell Valeriya Mechkova
tonomy, and less likely to do so when mass media disseminate
information independent of government control. Additionally,
we suggest that EMB autonomy may not have a positive ef-
fect on public trust in elections if media freedom is low. Em-
pirical findings based on recent survey data on public trust in
47 elections and expert data on de-facto EMB autonomy and
media freedom support our hypotheses.”

David Altman Michael Bernhard

Nicholas Kerr Anna Lührmann

Staffan I. Lindberg

When and where do elections matter?

A global test of the democratization by Strong States, Weak Elections? How State
elections hypothesis, 1900–2010 Capacity in Authoritarian Regimes Conditions
2017 | Democratization25(3): 422-444. the Democratizing Power of Elections
2017 | International Political Science Review 39(1): 49-66.
“Successive multiparty elections in sub-Saharan Africa are as-
sociated with incremental democratization. Yet tests in other “State capacity may be a crucial factor conditioning the de-
regions are less than encouraging. Non-significant findings mocratizing power of elections in authoritarian regimes. This
on Latin America and post-communist Eurasia, as well as paper develops a two-phase theory considers the different
conceptual criticism regarding the theory’s application in the effects of state capacity on turnover in elections and demo-
contemporary Middle East, suggest that this may be a case cratic change after elections. In regimes with limited state
of African exceptionalism. This article moves these debates capacity, manipulating elections and repressing opposition
forward by posing a comprehensive, global set of tests on is more difficult than in regimes with extensive state capac-
the democratizing effect of elections. We seek to establish ity, rendering turnover in elections more likely in weak states.
the scope conditions of the argument geographically, tem- However, if the new incumbent has limited capacity to de-
porally, and substantively. Although we find a correlation liver public services and make policy changes after coming
between reiterated multiparty elections and improvements to power, sustainable democratic change is unlikely. Hence,
in the liberal-democratic components of electoral regimes state capacity is hypothesized to have a negative effect on
globally since 1900, the relationship is only substantial in the turnover, but a positive effect on democratic change. These
period since the onset of the third wave of democracy. Expe- hypotheses are confirmed in a sample of 460 elections in 110
riences with iterated multiparty elections have substantive authoritarian regimes taking place in the period 1974 to 2012
 V-Dem Publications 65

using the Varieties of Democracy dataset. The findings sug- the differences between incumbent and opposition actors’
gest a need to revisit strong-state-first theories of democra- strategies. We theorize that choices for specific types of ma-
tization.” nipulation are driven by available resources and cost consid-
erations for both incumbents and opposition actors, and are
mutually responsive. We also suggest that costs of manipu-
lative strategies are shaped by the level of democratization.
We test our hypotheses on a time series, cross-sectional data
set with observations for 286 African elections from 1986
to 2012. We find that democratization makes ‘cheap’ forms
of electoral manipulation available to incumbents such as
intimidation and manipulating electoral administration less
Carolien van Ham Brigitte Seim viable, thus leading to increases in vote buying. The future
of democracy in Africa thus promises elections where the
administration of elections becomes better and better but
at the same time vote buying will increase. Not all things go
together, at least not all the time. The future of democracy in
When guardians matter most. Exploring the Africa will mean more money in politics, more patronage and
conditions under which EMB institutional more clientelistic offers thrown around, at least in the short to
design affects election integrity medium term.”
2015 | Irish Political Studies 30(4): 454-481.
“Problems with election fraud and election integrity are of in-
creasing interest in both established and transitional democ-
racies. In many transitional democracies, independent elec-
toral management bodies (EMBs) have been championed as
a key institutional reform measure to successfully strengthen
election integrity. However, empirical findings regarding the
impact of EMB institutional design on election integrity are Carolien van Ham Staffan I. Lindberg
mixed. While regional studies have found a positive impact
of independent EMBs on election integrity in Latin America
and Africa, global comparative studies appear to show that
EMB institutional design is either negatively, or only very
weakly related to election integrity. In this paper, we examine United Nations’ Electoral Assistance:
the effects of EMB institutional design on election integrity More than a Fig Leaf?
using the new Varieties of Democracy dataset and data from 2018 | International Political Science Review.
the International IDEA. We find that the mixed findings on
EMB institutional design are due to the differences between “Between 2007 and 2014 the UN assisted more than one
transitional and established democracies on the one hand, third of all national elections worldwide. Its experts routinely
and regimes with low and high quality of government on the provide substantial technical advice on election manage-
other. The paper concludes with a reflection on results and a ment, logistical support such as the procurement of ballot
discussion of implications of these findings for the debate on papers and financial assistance. However, it remains doubt-
electoral reform in Ireland.” ful if and under which conditions such assistance contributes
to free and fair elections or has a positive long-term impact
on democratization. This study assesses the impact of UN
Electoral Assistance (UNEA) in Sudan, Nigeria and Libya. It
finds that such assistance contributed to election quality in
the presence of regime elites prioritizing electoral credibility
in Nigeria (2011) and Libya (2012). In Nigeria, it seems plausible
that UNEA had a medium-term impact on democratization.
However, if regime elites undermine electoral freedom and
Carolien van Ham Staffan I. Lindberg fairness - as in Sudan (2010) - such positive effects are unlikely.
Furthermore, in such contexts, the involvement of the UN
may legitimize authoritarian practices.”

From Sticks to Carrots: Electoral

Manipulation in Africa, 1986–2012
2015 | Government and Opposition 50(2): 521-548.
“Over 90 per cent of the world’s states currently select their
national leaders through multiparty elections. However, in
Africa the quality of elections still varies widely, ranging from
elections plagued by violence and fraud to elections that are Anna Lührmann
relatively ‘free and fair’. Yet, little is known about trade-offs
between different strategies of electoral manipulation and
66 V-Dem
IN THE SPOTLIGHT  |
Publications

Measuring Democracy:
The V-Dem Methodology and Indices
Making Embedded Knowledge Transparent: The Potential of Direct Democracy: A Global
How the V-Dem Dataset Opens New Vistas in Measure (1900-2014)
Civil Society Research 2017 | Social Indicators Research 133(3): 1207-1227.
2017 | Perspectives on Politics 15(2): 342-360.
“To what extent is direct democracy achieved in current polities?
“We show how the V-Dem data opens new possibilities for To answer this question, I develop an index, Direct Democracy
studying civil society in comparative politics. We explain how Practice Potential, which is applied to 200 polities worldwide.
V-Dem was able to extract embedded expert knowledge to This index results from the aggregation of the scores of four
create a novel set of civil society indicators for 173 countries types of mechanisms of direct democracy: popular initiatives,
from 1900 to the present. This data overcomes shortcomings in popular referendums, obligatory referendums, and authorities’
the basis on which inference has been made about civil soci- plebiscites. This index measures: (1) how easy it is to initiate and
ety in the past by avoiding problems of sample bias that make approve each type of popular vote, and (2) how consequential
generalization difficult or tentative. We begin with a discus- that vote is (if approved). Ease of initiation is measured by: (a) the
sion of the reemergence of civil society as a central concept in existence of a direct democracy process, (b) the number of sig-
comparative politics. We then turn to the shortcomings of the natures needed, and (c) time limits to collect signatures. Ease of
existing data and discusses how the V-Dem data can over- approval is measured by quorums pertaining to: (a) participation,
come them. We introduce the new data, highlighting two new (b) approval, (c) supermajority, and (d) district majority. Regard-
indices—the core civil society index (CCSI) and the civil society ing how consequential the vote is, it considers its decisiveness
participation index (CSPI)—and explain how the individual (whether the decision is binding), and the threat capability of cit-
indicators and the indices were created. We then demonstrate izen-initiated mechanisms of direct democracy as measured by
how the CCSI uses embedded expert knowledge to capture the frequency with which direct popular votes have been used
the development of civil society on the national level in Ven- and approved in the past. Finally, the study tests the validity of
ezuela, Ghana, and Russia. We close by using the new indices the new measure, discussing its strengths and limitations.”
to examine the dispute over whether post-communist civil so-
ciety is “weak.” Time-series cross-sectional analysis using 2,999
country-year observations between 1989 and 2012 fails to find
that post-communist civil society is substantially different from
other regions, but that there are major differences between
the post-Soviet subsample and other post-communist coun-
tries both in relation to other regions and each other.”

David Altman

Going Historical: Measuring Democraticness

before the Age of Mass Democracy
Michael Bernhard Dong-Joon Jung 2016 | International Political Science Review 37(5): 679-689.

“Most studies of democratic developments are limited to the

period after World War II. However, political regimes varied
according to different aspects of democracy long before
the establishment of modern liberal mass democracies. We
come down strongly in favor of collecting disaggregate and
fine-grained historical data on democratic features. Based on
a distinction between competition, participation, and con-
Eitan Tzelgov Michael Coppedge straints on the executive, we discuss previous attempts at his-
torical measurement and address the specific challenges that
pertain to scoring political regimes in, first, the “long 19th
century” and, second, medieval and early modern Europe.”

Staffan I. Lindberg
 V-Dem SPOTLIGHT  | 67
IN THEPublications

Measuring High Level Democratic Principles

Using the V-Dem Data
2016 | International Political Science Review 37(5): 580-593.

“While the definition of extended conceptions of democracy

has been widely discussed, the measurement of these con-
structs has not attracted similar attention. In this article we
Eitan Tzelgov Michael Coppedge present new measures of polyarchy, liberal democracy, de-
liberative democracy, egalitarian democracy, and participa-
tory democracy that cover most polities in the period 1900 to
2013. These indices are based on data from a large number of
indicators collected through the Varieties of Democracy (V-
Dem) project. We present and discuss the theoretical consid-
erations and the concrete formula underlying the aggrega-
tion of indicators and components into high level measures
of democracy. In addition, we show how these measures re-
Staffan I. Lindberg flect variations in quality of democracy, given the respective
ideals, in 2012. In the conclusion scholars are encouraged to
make use of the rich dataset made available by V-Dem.”

Ordinal Versions of V-Dem’s Indices: When

Interval Measures Are Not Useful for
Classification, Description, and Sequencing
Analysis Purposes
2016 | Geopolitics, History, and International Relations 8(2): 76–111.

“In the wake of the Cold War democracy has gained the status
of a mantra. The transition to democracy and its consolidation Michael Coppedge Staffan I. Lindberg
remain key issues in global development today. Yet, uncertainty
persists over why some countries become and remain demo-
cratic and others do not. One of the obstacles to advancement
in the field of democratization studies is the absence of a wide-
ranging database that tracks multifarious aspects of countries’
institutional histories. Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) provides
a new set of 350 indicators of various facets of democracy, 34
indicies of various components building off these indicators,
and five main democracy indices. All indices are interval rang- Svend-Erik Skaaning Jan Teorell
ing from 0 to 1. Based on a conceptual discussion of the nature
of the concept of “democracy,” this articles makes the argument
that for many descriptive purposes, as well as a series of impor-
tant analytical endeavors, interval indices are not particularly
useful (despite their many important advantages). Indices like all
the ones V-Dem produces are thus in need of ordinal versions
allowing for survival analyses, classification of regime catego-
ries, understanding and explaining successful transitions to de-
mocracy, breakdown of democratic regimes, as well as for the
emerging area of sequence analysis. This article then advances
a set of coding rules that transforms the existing, original V-
Dem indices to ordinal indices with three, four and five levels
respectively. Users can determine which level of distinction is
most useful for the research project, or the task of descriptive
representation at hand. For the democracy indices that V-Dem
supplies at the highest level of aggregation, the paper also sug-
gests a classification of the levels into varying regime types.”

See More Research Spotlights and V-Dem

Publications on Our Website:
Staffan I. Lindberg www.v-dem.net
68 V-Dem Publications

Democracy for All:

Inclusion in Political Decision Making
Women’s rights in democratic transitions: A Women’s political empowerment: A new
global sequence analysis, 1900–2012 global index, 1900-2012
2017 | European Journal of Political Research 56(4): 735-756. 2017 | World Development 94: 321–335.
“What determines countries’ successful transition to democ- “The political empowerment of women is a societal process
racy? This article explores the impact of granting civil rights crucial to development and progress. The V-Dem women’s
in authoritarian regimes and especially the gendered aspect political empowerment index (WPEI) provides information
of this process. It argues that both men’s and women’s liberal about women’s civil liberties, civil society participation, and
rights are essential conditions for democratisation to take political participation globally. Spanning from 1900 to 2012,
place: providing both women and men rights reduces an ine- three dimensions of empowerment, and over 170 countries, it
quality that affects half of the population, thus increasing the is among the most comprehensive measures of women’s em-
costs of repression and enabling the formation of women’s powerment available. This paper presents a conceptualization
organising – historically important to spark protests in initial of women’s political empowerment and provides an overview
phases of democratisation. This argument is tested empiri- of the construction of the index and operationalization of its
cally using data that cover 173 countries over the years 1900– three sub-dimensions: Women’s civil liberties, civil society par-
2012 and contain more nuanced measures than commonly ticipation, and political participation. Compared to other indi-
used. Through novel sequence analysis methods, the results ces measuring women’s empowerment, such as the GDI, the
suggest that in order to gain electoral democracy a country GEM, the GII, and the CIRI data on human rights, the V-Dem
first needs to furnish civil liberties to both women and men.” index allows more precise measurement and is superior in
temporal scope and coverage of countries of the Global South.
The paper demonstrates the benefits of this new index and its
sub-dimensions through several empirical illustrations.”

Yi-ting Wang Patrik Lindenfors

Aksel Sundström Pamela P. Paxton

Aksel Sundström Fredrik Jansson

Yi-ting Wang Staffan I. Lindberg

Pamela Paxton Staffan I. Lindberg

See More Research Spotlights and V-Dem

Publications on Our Website:
www.v-dem.net
 V-Dem Annual Report 2018 69

References

This Publication Mainly Builds on the Following Key References

V-Dem Codebook V8 V-Dem Methodology Document V8

Coppedge, Michael, John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I. Skaaning, Svend-Erik, Jan Teorell, Joshua Krusell, Kyle L. Marquardt,
Lindberg, Svend-Erik Skaaning, Jan Teorell, David Altman, Michael Valeriya Mechkova, Daniel Pemstein, Josefine Pernes, Laura Saxer,
Bernhard, Agnes Cornell, M. Steven Fish, Haakon Gjerløw, Adam Natalia Stepanova, Eitan Tzelgov, Yi-ting Wang, and Steven Wilson.
Glynn, Allen Hicken, Joshua Krusell, Anna Lührmann, Kyle L. Mar- 2018. “V-Dem Methodology V8.” Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem)
quardt, Kelly McMann, Valeriya Mechkova, Moa Olin, Pamela Pax- Project.
ton, Daniel Pemstein, Brigitte Seim, Rachel Sigman, Jeffrey Staton,
Aksel Sundtröm, Eitan Tzelgov, Luca Uberti, Yi-ting Wang, Tore Wig,
and Daniel Ziblatt. 2018. “V-Dem Codebook V8.” Varieties of Democ-
racy (V-Dem) Project.

V-Dem Data Set V8

Coppedge, Michael, John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I.
Lindberg, Svend-Erik Skaaning, Jan Teorell, David Altman, Michael
Bernhard, M. Steven Fish, Agnes Cornell, Sirianne Dahlum, Haakon
Gjerløw, Adam Glynn, Allen Hicken, Joshua Krusell, Anna Lüh-
rmann, Kyle L. Marquardt, Kelly McMann, Valeriya Mechkova, Juraj
Medzihorsky, Moa Olin, Pamela Paxton, Daniel Pemstein, Josefine
Pernes, Johannes von Römer, Brigitte Seim, Rachel Sigman, Jeffrey
Staton, Natalia Stepanova, Aksel Sundström, Eitan Tzelgov, Yi-ting
Wang, Tore Wig, Steven Wilson, and Daniel Ziblatt. 2018b. “V-Dem
Country-Year Dataset V8.“ Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project.

Additional References

Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson. 2013. “Why Nations Fail: Cook, Steven. 2014. “Egypt’s War on Honest Language” Foreign
The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty.” New York: Broadway Policy. April 30, 2014.
Business
Coppedge, Michael, Jan Teorell, Svend-Erik Skaaning, and Staffan
Bermeo, Nancy. 2016. “On Democratic Backsliding.” Journal of Lindberg. 2018. “Measuring Polyarchy Across the Globe, 1900-
Democracy, 27, no 3: 5-19. 2017.” Studies in Comparative International Development.

Boix, Carles. 2011. “Democracy, Development and the International Coppedge, Michael, John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan
System.” American Political Science Review 105, no 4: 809-28. I. Lindberg, Svend-Erik Skaaning, Jan Teorell, Vlad Ciobanu, and
Moa Olin. 2018. ”V-Dem Country Coding Units v8” Varieties of
Cederman, Lars-Erik, Andreas Wimmer, and Brian Min. 2010. “Why Democracy (V-Dem) Project.
do Ethnic Groups Rebel? New Data and Analysis.” World Politics 62,
no 1: 87-119.
70 References

Dahl, Robert A. 1989. “Democracy and Its Critics.” New Haven: Yale Scharff, Michael. 2013. “Policing Electoral Violence in India.” Foreign
University Press. Policy. March 21, 2013.
http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/03/21/
policing-electoral-violence-in-india/
Dahl, Robert A. 1971. “Polyarchy.” New Haven: Yale University Press.
Sigman, Rachel, and Staffan I. Lindberg. “Democracy for All:
Darskij, Leonid E., Andrej G. Volkov, Evgenij M. Andreev, and Conceptualizing and Measuring Egalitarian Democracy”, Political
Tat’jana L. Char’kova. 1993. “Naselenie Sovetskogo Sojuza: 1922-1991” Science Research and Methods. Online first:  https://doi.org/10.1017/
Moscow: Nauka. psrm.2018.6, 2018.

Houle, Christian. 2009. “Inequality and Democracy: Why Inequality Sundström, Aksel, Pamela P Paxton, Yi-ting Wang, Staffan I
Harms Consolidation But Does Not Affect Democratization.” World Lindberg. (2017). ”Women’s Political Empowerment: A New Global
Politics 61, no 04: 589–622. Index, 1900-2012.” World Development 94: 321-335

Human Rights Watch. 2017. “World Report 2017: Rights Trends in The Constitution of India 2017, § 124A.
India.”
The Guardian. 2017. “Romania’s Corruption Fight is a Smokescreen
Iosifidis, Petros, and Dimitris Boucas. 2015. “Media Policy and to Weaken its Democracy.” David Clark. January 10, 2017. https://
Independent Journalism in Greece”, Open Society Foundations. www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/10/romanias-corruption-
fight-is-a-smokescreen-to-weaken-its-democracy
Lührmann, Anna, Marcus Tannenberg, Staffan I. Lindberg. 2018.
“Regimes of the World (RoW): Opening New Avenues for the The New York Times. 2017. “India: Election Violence in 2
Comparative Study of Political Regimes.” Politics and Governance 6, Regions Leaves 7 Dead.” April 24, 2014.
https://www.nytimes.
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leaves-7-dead.html.
Pemstein, Daniel, Kyle L. Marquardt, Eitan Tzelgov, Yi-ting Wang,
Joshua Krusell and Farhad Miri. 2018. “The V-Dem Measurement The Guardian. 2018. “Man Arrested over Murder of Indian
Model: Latent Variable Analysis for Cross-National and Cross- Journalist Gauri Lankesh.” March 10, 2018.
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Temporal Expert-Coded Data.” University of Gothenburg, Varieties of theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/10/man-arrested-over-of-
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Reporters Without Borders. 2018. “India: Deadly Threat from Modi’s The Guardian. 2016. “India Accused of Muzzling NGOs by Blocking
Nationalism” https://rsf.org/en/india. Foreign Funding.” November 24, 2016. 
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com/global-development/2016/nov/24/india-modi-government-
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Journalist Gunned down in Bangalore.” 
https://rsf.org/en/news/
india-prominent-woman-journalist-gunned-down-bangalore. UN. 2015. Resolution (70/1), “Transforming Our World: the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development”, UN General Assembly A/
Rohac, Dalibor. 2018. “Hungary and Poland Aren’t Democratic. RES/70/1.
They’re Authoritarian.” Foreign Policy, February 5, 2018. 
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 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017 71

Appendix 1: Liberal
Figure A1.1: Liberal Democracy Index: World and
Regional Averages, 1900 to 2017.

Democracy Index 1

.9

.8

.7

.6

.5

.4

.3
The V-Dem Liberal Democracy Index (LDI) captures both liberal and
electoral aspects of democracy based on the 71 indicators included .2

in the Liberal Component Index (LCI) and the Electoral Democracy

Index (EDI). The EDI reflects a relatively ambitious idea of electoral de- .1

mocracy where a number of institutional features guarantee free and

0
fair elections such as freedom of association and freedom of expres-
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017
sion (see Appendix 2). The LCI goes even further and captures the
World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia
limits placed on governments in terms of two key aspects: The pro-
Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
tection of individual liberties; and the checks and balances between Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
Asia−Pacific
institutions (see Appendix 3).

Figure A1.2: Explanation ofThe V-Dem Liberal Democracy Index

V-Dem Liberal Democracy Index

Electoral Democracy Index Liberal Component Index

Equality before Judicial Legislative

FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
ELECTED CLEAN FREEDOM OF the law and constraints on constraints on
SUFFRAGE AND ALTERNATIVE SOURCES
OFFICIALS ELECTIONS ASSOCIATION individual libert the executive the executive
OF INFORMATION
index index index

1 16 8 6 9 20 5 4
Indicator Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators
72 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017

Table A1: Country Scores for the Liberal Democracy Index (LDI) and all Components Indices

Liberal Democracy Electoral Democracy Liberal Component Egalitarian Component Participatory Deliberative Component
Index (LDI) Index (EDI) Index (LCI) Index (ECI) Component Index (PCI) Index (DCI)
Country Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/-
Norway 1 0.867 0.05 2 0.904 0.05 1 0.973 0.02 1 0.963 0.03 23 0.657 0.01 1 0.987 0.01
Sweden 2 0.863 0.04 3 0.902 0.04 2 0.968 0.02 9 0.921 0.05 30 0.643 0.03  5 0.971 0.02
Estonia 3 0.860 0.04 1 0.913 0.04 9 0.949 0.03 13 0.909 0.06 49 0.604 0.06 20 0.921 0.04
Switzerland 4 0.853 0.05 5 0.897 0.04 5 0.960 0.02 8 0.929 0.03 1 0.876 0.02 4 0.974 0.02
Denmark 5 0.841 0.04 6 0.896 0.04 7 0.954 0.02 2 0.951 0.03 9 0.708 0.02 2 0.977 0.02
Costa Rica 6 0.830 0.04 7 0.888 0.04 12 0.943 0.03 18 0.888 0.05 16 0.680 0.04 7 0.951 0.02
Finland 7 0.827 0.06 10 0.876 0.05 6 0.960 0.02 7 0.930 0.04 29 0.646 0.02 13 0.930 0.04
Australia 8 0.827 0.04 12 0.875 0.04 4 0.960 0.02 32 0.857 0.05 19 0.666 0.03 14 0.928 0.03
New Zealand 9 0.825 0.05 9 0.878 0.05 8 0.950 0.03 22 0.880 0.06 3 0.763 0.03 96 0.666 0.12
Portugal 10 0.821 0.06 11 0.876 0.06 11 0.944 0.03 11 0.917 0.04 35 0.634 0.05 17 0.924 0.04
Belgium 11 0.819 0.06 8 0.886 0.04 18 0.927 0.03 5 0.934 0.04 24 0.654 0.02 11 0.933 0.03
Netherlands 12 0.813 0.05 18 0.860 0.05 3 0.961 0.02 6 0.933 0.04 18 0.673 0.04 9 0.945 0.03
France 13 0.812 0.05 4 0.899 0.05 27 0.897 0.05 15 0.907 0.05 39 0.625 0.05  27 0.899 0.05
Germany 14 0.809 0.05 16 0.863 0.05 10 0.948 0.02 4 0.939 0.03 27 0.652 0.02 6 0.952 0.03
Iceland 15 0.806 0.04 13 0.874 0.04 17 0.929 0.03 12 0.913 0.06 13 0.689 0.03  29 0.892 0.05
United Kingdom 16 0.806 0.05 14 0.873 0.04 16 0.931 0.03 28 0.862 0.06 14 0.684 0.02  40 0.856 0.06
Slovenia 17 0.792 0.06 22 0.856 0.05 13 0.940 0.03 27 0.866 0.06 4 0.758 0.03  37 0.867 0.06
Chile 18 0.787 0.06 15 0.864 0.04 21 0.924 0.04 92 0.631 0.09 47 0.605 0.04 24 0.904 0.04
Ireland 19 0.776 0.06 24 0.843 0.06 15 0.933 0.03 19 0.883 0.05 66 0.575 0.10 8 0.948 0.03 
Canada 20 0.770 0.06 21 0.857 0.05 26 0.903 0.05 35 0.834 0.08 26 0.652 0.02 18 0.922 0.04
Uruguay 21 0.768 0.06 19 0.860 0.05 30 0.892 0.04 41 0.813 0.08 2 0.814 0.03 19 0.922 0.04
Czech Republic 22 0.768 0.05 20 0.859 0.04 28 0.895 0.04 21 0.880 0.07 51 0.602 0.05 62 0.791 0.08
Italy 23 0.765 0.06 28 0.837 0.04 22 0.922 0.03 16 0.898 0.05 5 0.746 0.03 22 0.907 0.05
Austria 24 0.763 0.07 25 0.841 0.07 24 0.918 0.04 20 0.882 0.06 10 0.707 0.02  39 0.866 0.05
Japan 25 0.758 0.05 29 0.832 0.06 20 0.924 0.05 10 0.919 0.04 52 0.600 0.04 16 0.924 0.04
Luxembourg 26 0.757 0.06 17 0.863 0.05 37 0.869 0.04 3 0.949 0.02 99 0.496 0.08 3 0.974 0.02
Latvia 27 0.751 0.06 23 0.849 0.05 34 0.879 0.06 24 0.878 0.05 21 0.659 0.05 58 0.804 0.08
Cyprus 28 0.747 0.07 26 0.841 0.06 29 0.894 0.03 25 0.877 0.06 76 0.560 0.05 43 0.847 0.07
Lithuania 29 0.734 0.05 36 0.798 0.04 14 0.937 0.03 29 0.862 0.06 6 0.729 0.05 52 0.812 0.07
Slovakia 30 0.729 0.05 27 0.837 0.05 39 0.865 0.04 50 0.761 0.07 7 0.724 0.04 102 0.651 0.12
USA 31 0.727 0.06  32 0.822 0.04 33 0.879 0.04  67 0.695 0.09 22 0.659 0.01 94 0.669 0.10 
Jamaica 32 0.722 0.06 30 0.829 0.07 36 0.871 0.04 85 0.649 0.09 46 0.607 0.05 36 0.868 0.05
Cape Verde 33 0.715 0.06 38 0.790 0.06 23 0.919 0.04 40 0.816 0.07 90 0.522 0.07 57 0.804 0.08
South Korea 34 0.713 0.06 37 0.791 0.06 25 0.916 0.03 23 0.880 0.05 50 0.602 0.05 12 0.932 0.04
Spain 35 0.703 0.04 39 0.771 0.06 19 0.925 0.03 26 0.867 0.07 34 0.634 0.03 31 0.891 0.05
Mauritius 36 0.696 0.07 31 0.827 0.05 51 0.829 0.06 43 0.803 0.08 89 0.528 0.08 28 0.895 0.05
Greece 37 0.695 0.08 33 0.816 0.06 45 0.844 0.06 17 0.888 0.05 33 0.638 0.06 21 0.916 0.04
Taiwan 38 0.691 0.06 34 0.800 0.06 38 0.866 0.04 14 0.908 0.05 11 0.704 0.03 32 0.877 0.05
Barbados 39 0.668 0.06 40 0.768 0.06 35 0.872 0.06 44 0.803 0.08 145 0.278 0.04 66 0.763 0.09
Trinidad and Tobago 40 0.647 0.06 43 0.758 0.05 42 0.854 0.06 34 0.841 0.08 83 0.544 0.07 33 0.877 0.05
Vanuatu 41 0.636 0.06  45 0.743 0.07  43 0.854 0.05 65 0.705 0.07 96 0.505 0.08 25 0.904 0.05
Argentina 42 0.631 0.07 41 0.765 0.07 53 0.817 0.06 76 0.676 0.08 40 0.619 0.04 71 0.742 0.09
South Africa 43 0.622 0.06 50 0.730 0.06 40 0.859 0.06 100 0.599 0.08 58 0.587 0.06 35 0.869 0.06
Tunisia 44 0.621 0.06  57 0.702 0.08  31 0.891 0.03  47 0.780 0.08  104 0.484 0.04  10 0.940 0.03 
Suriname 45 0.614 0.05  35 0.798 0.06 68 0.743 0.08  48 0.775 0.08 55 0.594 0.05 56 0.810 0.07
Benin 46 0.612 0.06 52 0.724 0.08 46 0.838 0.06 42 0.803 0.07 44 0.608 0.05 38 0.866 0.06
Panama 47 0.611 0.06 42 0.762 0.08 59 0.786 0.06 58 0.728 0.11 72 0.564 0.06 41 0.856 0.06
S.Tomé & P. 48 0.609 0.07 54 0.714 0.06 41 0.854 0.04 80 0.669 0.10 68 0.569 0.05 55 0.810 0.07
Peru 49 0.603 0.07 46 0.740 0.06 54 0.807 0.05 113 0.560 0.10 15 0.682 0.05 61 0.792 0.08
Poland 50 0.596 0.07  49 0.731 0.06  56 0.803 0.07  31 0.860 0.05 36 0.630 0.06 116 0.575 0.12
Bulgaria 51 0.593 0.05 62 0.676 0.05 32 0.889 0.05 39 0.820 0.06 8 0.710 0.05  63 0.786 0.09
Namibia 52 0.578 0.07 48 0.736 0.07 61 0.770 0.06 77 0.675 0.06 84 0.543 0.07 49 0.819 0.07
Israel 53 0.577 0.06 59 0.693 0.05 47 0.837 0.05 53 0.747 0.09 56 0.593 0.05 67 0.762 0.09
Senegal 54 0.577 0.06 51 0.725 0.07 60 0.782 0.06 55 0.732 0.05 127 0.417 0.06 48 0.822 0.08
Botswana 55 0.576 0.05 55 0.710 0.05 55 0.807 0.05 62 0.713 0.07 71 0.565 0.04 53 0.811 0.08
Brazil 56 0.568 0.05  44 0.749 0.06  74 0.729 0.06  108 0.568 0.11 45 0.607 0.05  104 0.645 0.11 
Croatia 57 0.553 0.05 63 0.669 0.07  50 0.833 0.06 64 0.705 0.07  17 0.678 0.05  82 0.702 0.11
Georgia 58 0.550 0.06  47 0.737 0.08  80 0.716 0.05 46 0.792 0.08 101 0.488 0.07 47 0.826 0.07
Ghana 59 0.537 0.05 69 0.639 0.06 48 0.837 0.06 60 0.717 0.11 132 0.376 0.05 46 0.829 0.07 
Mongolia 60 0.531 0.07 61 0.683 0.06 67 0.752 0.05 52 0.754 0.07 74 0.564 0.05 44 0.847 0.06
Hungary 61 0.522 0.05  73 0.630 0.05  52 0.822 0.05 36 0.830 0.06 31 0.643 0.07 123 0.532 0.14
Bhutan 62 0.521 0.05  77 0.613 0.08  44 0.846 0.04  33 0.847 0.08 54 0.597 0.05  34 0.877 0.06
Timor-Leste 63 0.510 0.06 53 0.715 0.05 89 0.671 0.08 109 0.568 0.09 81 0.545 0.07 78 0.716 0.10
Guatemala 64 0.506 0.06  64 0.669 0.06 75 0.729 0.08 164 0.290 0.09 77 0.559 0.06 112 0.593 0.12
Burkina Faso 65 0.503 0.08  56 0.709 0.07 91 0.661 0.06  101 0.590 0.09 78 0.558 0.05 45 0.833 0.08
Colombia 66 0.492 0.05 70 0.634 0.06 66 0.757 0.06 127 0.473 0.12 28 0.651 0.07 54 0.811 0.07
Liberia 67 0.490 0.05 74 0.625 0.05 64 0.763 0.06 96 0.616 0.11 116 0.469 0.03 84 0.698 0.11 
Guyana 68 0.488 0.07  58 0.696 0.07 90 0.664 0.08 74 0.676 0.08 79 0.552 0.05 106 0.636 0.12
Romania 69 0.487 0.05 60 0.687 0.05 88 0.672 0.07 59 0.722 0.07 61 0.582 0.08 142 0.403 0.13 
Nepal 70 0.484 0.05  76 0.617 0.07  63 0.764 0.06 81 0.667 0.07 113 0.474 0.06  80 0.708 0.10
Mexico 71 0.476 0.06 67 0.648 0.05 79 0.716 0.07 126 0.476 0.07 60 0.583 0.06 70 0.747 0.09
Indonesia 72 0.475 0.04 72 0.632 0.06 76 0.725 0.05 104 0.580 0.09 63 0.579 0.06 30 0.892 0.05
Malawi 73 0.474 0.06 79 0.598 0.09 58 0.788 0.07 133 0.433 0.11 62 0.580 0.06  65 0.766 0.10
Paraguay 74 0.468 0.06 66 0.650 0.07 84 0.680 0.07 156 0.342 0.06 64 0.577 0.08 127 0.495 0.14
Sri Lanka 75 0.465 0.04  71 0.633 0.05  82 0.709 0.06  103 0.586 0.10 67 0.572 0.05  51 0.812 0.07 
Albania 76 0.463 0.05 88 0.551 0.06 49 0.833 0.05 88 0.641 0.10 88 0.531 0.05 136 0.459 0.13 
El Salvador 77 0.459 0.04 65 0.661 0.06 93 0.657 0.04 159 0.306 0.07 92 0.517 0.06 105 0.639 0.11
Seychelles 78 0.452 0.05 85 0.560 0.04 57 0.791 0.05 73 0.677 0.10 147 0.276 0.05 64 0.766 0.09
Nigeria 79 0.451 0.07  81 0.587 0.07  69 0.742 0.07  120 0.520 0.09 41 0.619 0.04 68 0.755 0.09
Solomon Islands 80 0.447 0.05 75 0.620 0.06 83 0.681 0.06 111 0.560 0.11 98 0.501 0.07 101 0.651 0.12
India 81 0.429 0.05  82 0.571 0.07  78 0.722 0.06 110 0.561 0.08 82 0.545 0.07 128 0.494 0.15 
Lesotho 82 0.424 0.05 84 0.562 0.06 85 0.676 0.07 51 0.756 0.08 112 0.474 0.05 93 0.675 0.11
Moldova 83 0.420 0.03 86 0.559 0.06 72 0.732 0.06 86 0.648 0.11 97 0.504 0.07 118 0.560 0.13
Bolivia 84 0.397 0.05 68 0.647 0.07 107 0.564 0.08 70 0.689 0.06 12 0.694 0.05 111 0.606 0.13
Mali 85 0.393 0.06 89 0.547 0.06 86 0.673 0.06 66 0.699 0.09 106 0.481 0.08 60 0.793 0.08
Tanzania 86 0.386 0.04 96 0.493 0.06 70 0.736 0.05 56 0.730 0.07 125 0.431 0.08 76 0.725 0.09
Niger 87 0.376 0.04 91 0.541 0.07 101 0.636 0.05 79 0.672 0.09 20 0.661 0.06 26 0.904 0.05
Sierra Leone 88 0.372 0.05 80 0.589 0.07 108 0.561 0.05 106 0.579 0.09 37 0.629 0.03 23 0.906 0.04
 V-Dem Annual Report 2018 73
 indicates that the country’s score has improved over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
 indicates that the country’s score has decreased over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
SD+/- reports the standard deviation to indicate the level of uncertainty.

Liberal Democracy Electoral Democracy Liberal Component Egalitarian Component Participatory Deliberative Component
Index (LDI) Index (EDI) Index (LCI) Index (ECI) Component Index (PCI) Index (DCI)
Country Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/-
Ivory Coast 89 0.369 0.05 83 0.570 0.07  104 0.585 0.08 94 0.619 0.11 25 0.652 0.05 42 0.850 0.06 
Philippines 90 0.363 0.05 94 0.514 0.05 99 0.647 0.08 146 0.383 0.10 43 0.615 0.05 74 0.727 0.10
Ecuador 91 0.359 0.05  78 0.606 0.09 118 0.519 0.06 61 0.715 0.10 32 0.639 0.06 15 0.924 0.04
Singapore 92 0.357 0.03 107 0.453 0.05 73 0.730 0.07 45 0.801 0.06 167 0.181 0.05 69 0.751 0.10
Montenegro 93 0.352 0.04 110 0.446 0.06 81 0.715 0.07 75 0.676 0.12 48 0.605 0.06 89 0.688 0.12
Kyrgyzstan 94 0.339 0.04  97 0.484 0.06  102 0.634 0.06  69 0.691 0.08 122 0.454 0.08 59 0.804 0.07 
Macedonia 95 0.334 0.05  87 0.556 0.06 117 0.521 0.05  93 0.629 0.07 57 0.588 0.05 83 0.699 0.09
Kenya 96 0.333 0.04 103 0.461 0.04 97 0.650 0.06 128 0.467 0.07 42 0.615 0.05  139 0.424 0.15 
Fiji 97 0.329 0.04  106 0.455 0.05  92 0.657 0.09  98 0.608 0.09 151 0.262 0.06 120 0.546 0.13
Mozambique 98 0.327 0.04 102 0.462 0.04 100 0.642 0.07 118 0.539 0.10 73 0.564 0.07 99 0.655 0.11
Papua New Guinea 99 0.324 0.03 111 0.444 0.04 94 0.654 0.08 144 0.393 0.08 85 0.540 0.06 131 0.482 0.12
Guinea-Bissau 100 0.316 0.04 90 0.543 0.06 119 0.502 0.08 135 0.418 0.10 141 0.287 0.08 153 0.337 0.15
Lebanon 101 0.314 0.04 95 0.512 0.09 116 0.526 0.06 122 0.509 0.07 120 0.454 0.10 95 0.667 0.12
Hong Kong 102 0.310 0.02 125 0.347 0.02 62 0.769 0.06 38 0.825 0.06 148 0.273 0.06 86 0.693 0.09
Serbia 103 0.305 0.04  108 0.452 0.05  103 0.595 0.06  84 0.652 0.10 59 0.586 0.06 72 0.742 0.09
The Gambia 104 0.296 0.03  129 0.326 0.03 65 0.759 0.06  87 0.648 0.10 111 0.476 0.09 73 0.739 0.09 
Somaliland 105 0.293 0.05 98 0.479 0.06 110 0.542 0.07 149 0.362 0.09 95 0.511 0.06 126 0.500 0.14
Kosovo 106 0.292 0.04 100 0.472 0.06 115 0.527 0.08 82 0.659 0.11 126 0.420 0.08 98 0.661 0.11
Iraq 107 0.290 0.04 118 0.396 0.05  106 0.576 0.07 153 0.352 0.09  94 0.512 0.06 121 0.543 0.14
Gabon 108 0.287 0.03 113 0.431 0.04 105 0.578 0.08 71 0.683 0.08 38 0.628 0.05 91 0.685 0.10
Pakistan 109 0.286 0.05 109 0.452 0.06 111 0.541 0.06 160 0.306 0.11 109 0.480 0.07 77 0.722 0.10
Kuwait 110 0.281 0.03 133 0.314 0.02 71 0.734 0.07 91 0.637 0.08 156 0.228 0.06 100 0.652 0.11
Uganda 111 0.279 0.03 121 0.359 0.03 95 0.654 0.06 125 0.486 0.09 65 0.576 0.06 79 0.716 0.11
Zambia 112 0.276 0.03  123 0.350 0.03  96 0.654 0.08  107 0.569 0.08 110 0.479 0.06  108 0.624 0.09 
Morocco 113 0.272 0.02 135 0.303 0.02 77 0.722 0.06 112 0.560 0.07 69 0.566 0.06  50 0.814 0.07
Honduras 114 0.271 0.05 104 0.459 0.04 123 0.489 0.07 154 0.351 0.07 75 0.561 0.06 97 0.663 0.12
Bosnia and Herzegovina 115 0.266 0.02 128 0.338 0.02 98 0.648 0.06 57 0.728 0.08 80 0.548 0.05 88 0.690 0.11
Haiti 116 0.264 0.04 93 0.521 0.06 132 0.418 0.07 171 0.236 0.08 119 0.455 0.08 145 0.369 0.14
Madagascar 117 0.263 0.04 105 0.456 0.05 124 0.485 0.09 147 0.373 0.10 87 0.531 0.09 134 0.465 0.12
Myanmar 118 0.255 0.04  119 0.395 0.07  114 0.534 0.08  130 0.445 0.09  102 0.487 0.07  90 0.688 0.11 
Dominican Republic 119 0.255 0.03  92 0.535 0.06 138 0.375 0.06 157 0.331 0.09  114 0.473 0.07  81 0.706 0.10
Comoros 120 0.252 0.03 101 0.462 0.04 129 0.442 0.07 89 0.640 0.09 70 0.566 0.07 107 0.633 0.12
Togo 121 0.240 0.04  99 0.475 0.06  135 0.390 0.06 54 0.744 0.10 150 0.266 0.07 92 0.683 0.10
Armenia 122 0.239 0.03 117 0.399 0.03 125 0.482 0.06 63 0.712 0.09 105 0.484 0.08  113 0.591 0.13
Jordan 123 0.235 0.02 149 0.250 0.02 87 0.673 0.08 117 0.539 0.10 138 0.302 0.08 110 0.607 0.11
Ukraine 124 0.232 0.03  116 0.399 0.04  126 0.478 0.07  123 0.501 0.07 53 0.599 0.06 87 0.691 0.09
CAR 125 0.232 0.03 115 0.406 0.04 127 0.470 0.07 158 0.331 0.07 154 0.239 0.07 117 0.561 0.13
Afghanistan 126 0.216 0.03 126 0.345 0.03 121 0.495 0.06 166 0.281 0.08 149 0.273 0.07 122 0.537 0.13
Guinea 127 0.214 0.02  112 0.439 0.04  137 0.376 0.05 142 0.401 0.08 134 0.347 0.05 119 0.550 0.15
Malaysia 128 0.210 0.03 132 0.318 0.04 120 0.500 0.09 105 0.579 0.09 108 0.480 0.07 115 0.577 0.12
Rwanda 129 0.205 0.03 141 0.278 0.03  109 0.551 0.08 90 0.637 0.09 107 0.481 0.08 132 0.476 0.15
Zimbabwe 130 0.200 0.03  130 0.325 0.03  128 0.468 0.06 134 0.421 0.09 131 0.385 0.07 129 0.486 0.12
Vietnam 131 0.195 0.02  147 0.259 0.02  113 0.536 0.06  78 0.672 0.10 86 0.537 0.07 109 0.621 0.12
Palestine/West Bank 132 0.190 0.01  151 0.245 0.02  112 0.538 0.04  49 0.769 0.09 100 0.490 0.08 75 0.726 0.11
Libya 133 0.187 0.02  142 0.274 0.02  122 0.493 0.06  116 0.548 0.10 123 0.448 0.08  85 0.695 0.11 
Algeria 134 0.180 0.03 124 0.350 0.04 136 0.384 0.06 68 0.693 0.10 152 0.260 0.05 103 0.647 0.12
Bangladesh 135 0.177 0.02  120 0.360 0.03  140 0.361 0.07 162 0.299 0.09 91 0.521 0.08 135 0.460 0.13
Zanzibar 136 0.172 0.03 136 0.292 0.03 133 0.418 0.08 95 0.617 0.08 136 0.331 0.07 152 0.337 0.13
Mauritania 137 0.158 0.03  114 0.417 0.06 155 0.256 0.06  173 0.232 0.08  133 0.374 0.09 114 0.582 0.16
Cameroon 138 0.154 0.02 131 0.321 0.03 144 0.338 0.05 102 0.587 0.09 157 0.223 0.07 146 0.359 0.13
Iran 139 0.152 0.02 154 0.222 0.02 131 0.435 0.07 129 0.466 0.10 155 0.238 0.07 124 0.531 0.16
Maldives 140 0.150 0.02 122 0.352 0.03 150 0.299 0.06 121 0.509 0.10 118 0.456 0.07  140 0.420 0.14
Angola 141 0.141 0.02 148 0.252 0.03  139 0.363 0.07 169 0.262 0.09 165 0.191 0.07 149 0.344 0.11
Somalia 142 0.138 0.02 161 0.178 0.03 130 0.438 0.08 170 0.258 0.07  130 0.386 0.07 138 0.427 0.15 
Kazakhstan 143 0.131 0.02 150 0.246 0.03 143 0.343 0.05 99 0.600 0.08 158 0.217 0.08 158 0.278 0.11
Oman 144 0.131 0.02 159 0.190 0.02 134 0.391 0.05 97 0.610 0.09 137 0.312 0.06 165 0.188 0.10
Djibouti 145 0.126 0.02 146 0.260 0.03 148 0.309 0.05 119 0.531 0.09 121 0.454 0.08 137 0.454 0.14
Egypt 146 0.125 0.02 155 0.211 0.02 141 0.350 0.07 176 0.176 0.06 146 0.277 0.07 161 0.239 0.12 
Venezuela 147 0.123 0.02 143 0.272 0.03  151 0.286 0.06 114 0.551 0.08  93 0.514 0.07 174 0.117 0.09 
Belarus 148 0.120 0.01 145 0.268 0.03 152 0.281 0.03 30 0.860 0.05 142 0.287 0.08 160 0.241 0.11
Turkey 149 0.119 0.02  127 0.343 0.04  162 0.213 0.05  139 0.408 0.09  117 0.461 0.08 157 0.290 0.12 
Nicaragua 150 0.117 0.02  134 0.307 0.03  156 0.243 0.05  124 0.487 0.11 115 0.472 0.07 151 0.339 0.14 
Russia 151 0.115 0.01  144 0.270 0.02 153 0.262 0.04 115 0.549 0.10 135 0.332 0.07 150 0.341 0.13
Congo 152 0.110 0.02 139 0.281 0.03 158 0.240 0.06 167 0.277 0.09 103 0.485 0.08  144 0.377 0.15
United Arab Emirates 153 0.107 0.02 166 0.152 0.02  142 0.344 0.06 83 0.658 0.08 163 0.193 0.09 130 0.482 0.12
Ethiopia 154 0.107 0.01 152 0.242 0.03 154 0.261 0.04 145 0.389 0.10 144 0.278 0.09 141 0.408 0.12
Sudan 155 0.106 0.02  140 0.279 0.02  159 0.230 0.05 175 0.199 0.07 143 0.285 0.07 159 0.246 0.15
DRC 156 0.104 0.02  137 0.288 0.03 161 0.214 0.05 140 0.407 0.09 124 0.439 0.07 143 0.378 0.17
Thailand 157 0.101 0.01  170 0.142 0.02  145 0.329 0.05  131 0.445 0.10 139 0.301 0.08 168 0.171 0.10 
Swaziland 158 0.100 0.02 165 0.154 0.02 147 0.315 0.07 148 0.367 0.08 129 0.402 0.09 155 0.304 0.14
Chad 159 0.094 0.01 138 0.287 0.03 164 0.186 0.06 172 0.233 0.07 128 0.405 0.11 148 0.347 0.12
Laos 160 0.091 0.03 173 0.096 0.01 146 0.323 0.09 155 0.344 0.08 166 0.181 0.05 167 0.174 0.11
Qatar 161 0.084 0.01 177 0.087 0.01 149 0.303 0.05 141 0.403 0.05 176 0.093 0.02 147 0.359 0.13
Cambodia 162 0.082 0.01  153 0.235 0.02  165 0.183 0.05 174 0.199 0.06 140 0.289 0.07 154 0.323 0.13
Cuba 163 0.081 0.01  160 0.190 0.02  160 0.221 0.04 37 0.828 0.06 169 0.171 0.05 156 0.298 0.11
Palestine/Gaza 164 0.078 0.02 169 0.144 0.02 157 0.240 0.06 137 0.414 0.09 153 0.254 0.06 162 0.228 0.12
Azerbaijan 165 0.067 0.01 157 0.202 0.02 167 0.164 0.04 161 0.303 0.08 164 0.192 0.04 166 0.176 0.10
Tajikistan 166 0.059 0.01  162 0.176 0.01  170 0.150 0.02 165 0.281 0.08 170 0.161 0.03 172 0.156 0.10
China 167 0.058 0.01 174 0.093 0.01 163 0.199 0.05 138 0.409 0.08 172 0.144 0.07 125 0.507 0.12
South Sudan 168 0.058 0.02 164 0.155 0.01 168 0.162 0.05 178 0.085 0.05 160 0.201 0.08 169 0.166 0.10
Burundi 169 0.055 0.01  163 0.159 0.01  171 0.149 0.04  150 0.360 0.07  162 0.195 0.06  164 0.191 0.11 
Bahrain 170 0.054 0.01  171 0.128 0.02  169 0.154 0.05 143 0.397 0.07 174 0.103 0.04  171 0.160 0.11 
Equatorial Guinea 171 0.053 0.01 158 0.195 0.02 174 0.119 0.04 163 0.298 0.08 168 0.177 0.05 170 0.162 0.09
Uzbekistan 172 0.052 0.01 156 0.203 0.02  175 0.111 0.03 132 0.434 0.07 173 0.131 0.04 133 0.466 0.12 
Turkmenistan 173 0.049 0.01  167 0.151 0.01  173 0.130 0.04  152 0.354 0.08 171 0.159 0.03 176 0.070 0.06
Yemen 174 0.044 0.01  172 0.104 0.01  172 0.140 0.05  177 0.131 0.05 159 0.209 0.05  177 0.032 0.04 
Saudi Arabia 175 0.044 0.01 178 0.022 0.01 166 0.171 0.04 136 0.416 0.05 175 0.095 0.04 163 0.198 0.10
Syria 176 0.033 0.01  168 0.147 0.01 176 0.075 0.02  168 0.268 0.10 161 0.195 0.05 175 0.088 0.07
Eritrea 177 0.016 0.00 176 0.088 0.00 177 0.042 0.02 72 0.682 0.08  178 0.032 0.02 173 0.127 0.09
North Korea 178 0.010 0.00 175 0.088 0.01 178 0.019 0.01 151 0.358 0.06 177 0.060 0.03 178 0.026 0.03
74
 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017 75

Appendix 2: The
Figure A2.1: The V-Dem Electoral Democracy Index:
World and Regional Averages, 1900 to 2017.
1

Electoral Democracy .9

Index .8

.7

.6

.5

For several decades, scholars and practitioners alike have depict- .4

ed democracy in the world as though the extant measures really

captured what is meant by the concept “electoral democracy”. Yet, .3

we have all known that they did not. V-Dem is the first system-
1

.2
atic effort to measure the de facto existence of all the institutions
in Robert Dahl’s famous articulation of “polyarchy” as electoral de-
.1
mocracy. The V-Dem Electoral Democracy Index (EDI) captures not
only the extent to which regimes hold clean, free and fair elections, 0

but also their actual freedom of expression, alternative sources of 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017

information, and association, as well as male and female suffrage World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia

and the degree to which government policy is vested in elected Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
political officials (Figure 2.1). Asia−Pacific

Figure A2.2: The V-Dem Electoral Democracy Index

Expanded freedom of expression index

Government censorship Government censorship Harassment of Media self- Media Print/broadcast Print/broadcast
effort – Media effort - Internet journalists censorship bias media critical media perspectives

Freedom of Freedom of discussion Freedom of academic

discussion for men for women and cultural expression

Freedom of association index Share of population with suffrage

Party Barriers to Opposition parties Elections CSO entry CSO Percent of population
ban parties autonomy multiparty and exit repression with suffrage

Clean elections index

EMB EMB Election voter Election vote Election other Election government Election other Election free
autonomy capacity registry buying voting irregularities intimidation electoral violence and fair

Elected officials index

76 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017

Table A2: Country Scores for the Electoral Democracy Index (EDI) and its Main Components

Electoral Democracy Freedom of Association Clean Election Freedom of

Index (EDI) Index Index Expression Index
Country Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/-
Estonia 1 0.913 0.04 10 0.910 0.04 1 0.977 0.01 3 0.973 0.01
Norway 2 0.904 0.05 15 0.905 0.04 4 0.973 0.02 1 0.978 0.01
Sweden 3 0.902 0.04 11 0.910 0.04 3 0.973 0.01 8 0.964 0.02
France 4 0.899 0.05 3 0.926 0.03 14 0.955 0.02 7 0.964 0.02
Switzerland 5 0.897 0.04 5 0.920 0.04 21 0.943 0.03 4 0.970 0.01
Denmark 6 0.896 0.04 4 0.921 0.04 17 0.950 0.03 2 0.975 0.01
Costa Rica 7 0.888 0.04 2 0.926 0.04 9 0.962 0.02 20 0.946 0.02
Belgium 8 0.886 0.04 32 0.887 0.05 8 0.962 0.02 6 0.965 0.02
New Zealand 9 0.878 0.05 9 0.911 0.04 11 0.957 0.02 25 0.939 0.03
Finland 10 0.876 0.05 31 0.889 0.05 10 0.961 0.02 17 0.947 0.02
Portugal 11 0.876 0.06 36 0.884 0.05 2 0.976 0.01 21 0.945 0.02
Australia 12 0.875 0.04 6 0.915 0.04 7 0.963 0.02 24 0.939 0.03
Iceland 13 0.874 0.04 18 0.901 0.04 5 0.965 0.02 23 0.941 0.02
United Kingdom 14 0.873 0.04 12 0.910 0.04 30 0.927 0.04 12 0.955 0.02
Chile 15 0.864 0.04 35 0.885 0.05 6 0.965 0.02 19 0.947 0.02
Germany 16 0.863 0.05 51 0.870 0.05 18 0.947 0.03 5 0.965 0.02
Luxembourg 17 0.863 0.05 23 0.896 0.05 15 0.955 0.02 15 0.953 0.02
Netherlands 18 0.860 0.05 52 0.870 0.05 13 0.957 0.02 16 0.948 0.02
Uruguay 19 0.860 0.05 29 0.890 0.05 12 0.957 0.02 18 0.947 0.02
Czech Republic 20 0.859 0.04 30 0.890 0.05 19 0.947 0.03 29 0.931 0.03
Canada 21 0.857 0.05 47 0.875 0.05 16 0.954 0.03 26 0.937 0.03
Slovenia 22 0.856 0.05 13 0.906 0.04 20 0.946 0.03 47 0.872 0.04
Latvia 23 0.849 0.05 16 0.904 0.04 36 0.912 0.05 27 0.937 0.03
Ireland 24 0.843 0.06 25 0.894 0.05 33 0.922 0.05 10 0.955 0.02
Austria 25 0.841 0.07 39 0.883 0.05 37 0.910 0.04 9 0.956 0.02
Cyprus 26 0.841 0.06 43 0.881 0.06 29 0.929 0.03 22 0.943 0.03
Slovakia 27 0.837 0.05 61 0.851 0.06 23 0.937 0.03 28 0.937 0.03
Italy 28 0.837 0.04 33 0.885 0.06 27 0.932 0.04 31 0.925 0.03
Japan 29 0.832 0.06 17 0.903 0.04 32 0.922 0.04 45 0.877 0.04
Jamaica 30 0.829 0.07 24 0.896 0.05 42 0.871 0.06 14 0.954 0.02
Mauritius 31 0.827 0.05 26 0.893 0.05 31 0.924 0.04 37 0.895 0.04
USA 32 0.822 0.04 1 0.934 0.03 46 0.859 0.06 32 0.911 0.04
Greece 33 0.816 0.06 27 0.892 0.05 24 0.935 0.04 40 0.889 0.04 
Taiwan 34 0.800 0.06 40 0.883 0.05 34 0.916 0.04 41 0.887 0.04
Suriname 35 0.798 0.06 58 0.855 0.06 26 0.932 0.04 64 0.830 0.05
Lithuania 36 0.798 0.04 62 0.849 0.06 35 0.916 0.04 33 0.911 0.04
South Korea 37 0.791 0.06 75 0.827 0.06 28 0.931 0.04 13 0.954 0.02
Cape Verde 38 0.790 0.06 7 0.914 0.04 41 0.877 0.05 49 0.868 0.05
Spain 39 0.771 0.06 65 0.844 0.06 22 0.941 0.03 34 0.905 0.03 
Barbados 40 0.768 0.06 53 0.869 0.05 57 0.799 0.08 30 0.928 0.03
Argentina 41 0.765 0.07 14 0.905 0.04 54 0.823 0.07 44 0.883 0.04
Panama 42 0.762 0.08 46 0.876 0.05 44 0.867 0.06 59 0.839 0.06
Trinidad and Tobago 43 0.758 0.05 34 0.885 0.05 47 0.858 0.07 50 0.863 0.05
Brazil 44 0.749 0.06  45 0.879 0.06 39 0.883 0.05 73 0.803 0.07 
Vanuatu 45 0.743 0.07  37 0.884 0.05 60 0.787 0.09  36 0.899 0.04
Peru 46 0.740 0.06 73 0.835 0.06 40 0.878 0.06 39 0.889 0.04
Georgia 47 0.737 0.08  20 0.899 0.04 66 0.759 0.09 53 0.851 0.05
Namibia 48 0.736 0.07 28 0.891 0.05 62 0.780 0.08 38 0.890 0.04
Poland 49 0.731 0.06  79 0.818 0.07 25 0.934 0.03 106 0.698 0.08 
South Africa 50 0.730 0.06 21 0.898 0.04 59 0.791 0.10 52 0.856 0.05
Senegal 51 0.725 0.07 63 0.847 0.07 67 0.742 0.10 11 0.955 0.02 
Benin 52 0.724 0.08 8 0.912 0.04 63 0.774 0.09 61 0.835 0.05
Timor-Leste 53 0.715 0.05 68 0.842 0.07 43 0.867 0.06 84 0.777 0.06
S.Tomé & P. 54 0.714 0.06 69 0.840 0.06 52 0.830 0.07 60 0.838 0.05
Botswana 55 0.710 0.05 44 0.880 0.05 51 0.831 0.07 68 0.812 0.06
Burkina Faso 56 0.709 0.07 74 0.828 0.07 61 0.781 0.09  35 0.903 0.03
Tunisia 57 0.702 0.08  59 0.853 0.06  65 0.761 0.09  43 0.883 0.05 
Guyana 58 0.696 0.07 22 0.896 0.04 72 0.717 0.10 66 0.823 0.06 
Israel 59 0.693 0.05 102 0.765 0.08 45 0.860 0.05 71 0.809 0.06
Romania 60 0.687 0.05 84 0.812 0.06 49 0.852 0.07  90 0.764 0.06
Mongolia 61 0.683 0.06 55 0.861 0.05 81 0.683 0.11 48 0.870 0.05
Bulgaria 62 0.676 0.05 49 0.872 0.05 64 0.764 0.09 85 0.773 0.06
Croatia 63 0.669 0.07  76 0.823 0.07 38 0.890 0.05 110 0.678 0.08 
Guatemala 64 0.669 0.06 50 0.870 0.05 69 0.723 0.11 72 0.806 0.05
El Salvador 65 0.661 0.06 54 0.862 0.06 82 0.670 0.11 46 0.872 0.05
Paraguay 66 0.650 0.07 64 0.846 0.06 73 0.709 0.11 87 0.766 0.06
Mexico 67 0.648 0.05 80 0.818 0.06 68 0.737 0.10 75 0.800 0.06
Bolivia 68 0.647 0.07 86 0.808 0.07 74 0.705 0.09 82 0.780 0.06
Ghana 69 0.639 0.06 38 0.883 0.05 86 0.645 0.11 51 0.860 0.05
Colombia 70 0.634 0.06 19 0.901 0.04 88 0.639 0.10 65 0.824 0.05
Sri Lanka 71 0.633 0.05  71 0.838 0.07 76 0.699 0.09 86 0.767 0.08 
Indonesia 72 0.632 0.06 104 0.759 0.09 71 0.719 0.09 56 0.850 0.05
Hungary 73 0.630 0.05  90 0.794 0.08 53 0.828 0.08 108 0.690 0.08 
Liberia 74 0.625 0.05 41 0.883 0.05 94 0.583 0.13 54 0.850 0.06
Solomon Islands 75 0.620 0.06 70 0.839 0.07 91 0.616 0.12 58 0.843 0.05
Nepal 76 0.617 0.07  66 0.844 0.06 89 0.636 0.10  74 0.803 0.06
Bhutan 77 0.613 0.08  116 0.659 0.11  50 0.833 0.07  91 0.763 0.07
Ecuador 78 0.606 0.09 109 0.707 0.11 70 0.723 0.10 76 0.794 0.06
Malawi 79 0.598 0.09 60 0.853 0.06 105 0.528 0.12 55 0.850 0.05
Sierra Leone 80 0.589 0.07 88 0.798 0.07 93 0.590 0.10 63 0.830 0.05
Nigeria 81 0.587 0.07  87 0.804 0.09 98 0.566 0.11  42 0.884 0.04
India 82 0.571 0.07  106 0.725 0.10 77 0.698 0.11 123 0.639 0.09 
Ivory Coast 83 0.570 0.07  85 0.811 0.08 79 0.685 0.10  109 0.680 0.08
Lesotho 84 0.562 0.06 42 0.883 0.05 56 0.800 0.09 101 0.713 0.08
Seychelles 85 0.560 0.04 99 0.773 0.08 78 0.694 0.10 105 0.700 0.07
Moldova 86 0.559 0.06 95 0.775 0.08 85 0.651 0.11 103 0.710 0.08
Macedonia 87 0.556 0.06 81 0.816 0.07 80 0.684 0.10 100 0.716 0.07
Albania 88 0.551 0.06 57 0.859 0.06 106 0.526 0.13 98 0.721 0.06
Mali 89 0.547 0.06 92 0.788 0.09 110 0.501 0.12 57 0.848 0.05
 V-Dem Annual Report 2018 77
 indicates that the country’s score has improved over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
 indicates that the country’s score has decreased over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
SD+/- reports the standard deviation to indicate the level of uncertainty.

Electoral Democracy Freedom of Association Clean Election Freedom of

Index (EDI) Index Index Expression Index
Country Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/-
Guinea-Bissau 90 0.543 0.06 96 0.775 0.09 97 0.574 0.11 107 0.695 0.09
Niger 91 0.541 0.07 83 0.813 0.07 109 0.501 0.13 62 0.832 0.05
Dominican Republic 92 0.535 0.06 98 0.773 0.08 100 0.536 0.13 94 0.759 0.07
Haiti 93 0.521 0.06 48 0.873 0.06 121 0.370 0.12 79 0.790 0.08
Philippines 94 0.514 0.05 91 0.789 0.07 111 0.472 0.12 77 0.793 0.07
Lebanon 95 0.512 0.09 103 0.760 0.09 103 0.531 0.12 89 0.764 0.06
Tanzania 96 0.493 0.06 107 0.724 0.08 99 0.550 0.12 117 0.667 0.09
Kyrgyzstan 97 0.484 0.06  122 0.634 0.12 104 0.530 0.12  92 0.762 0.07 
Somaliland 98 0.479 0.06 112 0.699 0.11 102 0.532 0.12 113 0.672 0.09
Togo 99 0.475 0.06  113 0.679 0.10 115 0.454 0.13  81 0.787 0.07
Kosovo 100 0.472 0.06 94 0.777 0.08 92 0.611 0.12 111 0.677 0.08
Comoros 101 0.462 0.04 93 0.784 0.08 117 0.405 0.12  96 0.729 0.07
Mozambique 102 0.462 0.04 72 0.838 0.07 134 0.292 0.11 80 0.788 0.07
Kenya 103 0.461 0.04 77 0.823 0.07 135 0.291 0.13 93 0.760 0.07
Honduras 104 0.459 0.04 67 0.843 0.05 120 0.377 0.12 102 0.712 0.08
Madagascar 105 0.456 0.05 56 0.861 0.06 132 0.302 0.13 78 0.790 0.07
Fiji 106 0.455 0.05  105 0.748 0.08 83 0.654 0.11  137 0.463 0.10 
Singapore 107 0.453 0.05 120 0.640 0.10 48 0.856 0.07 143 0.387 0.12
Serbia 108 0.452 0.05  101 0.765 0.08 107 0.525 0.13 133 0.539 0.09 
Pakistan 109 0.452 0.06 121 0.639 0.12 125 0.358 0.14 83 0.779 0.07
Montenegro 110 0.446 0.06 78 0.818 0.06 136 0.290 0.09 95 0.733 0.08
Papua New Guinea 111 0.444 0.04 89 0.796 0.07 142 0.280 0.12 67 0.814 0.06
Guinea 112 0.439 0.04  100 0.770 0.09  128 0.329 0.13  99 0.719 0.08
Gabon 113 0.431 0.04 97 0.774 0.08 151 0.237 0.12 69 0.812 0.06
Mauritania 114 0.417 0.06 140 0.509 0.14 113 0.460 0.13 120 0.648 0.10 
CAR 115 0.406 0.04 114 0.679 0.11 131 0.302 0.13 104 0.706 0.08
Ukraine 116 0.399 0.04  124 0.606 0.11  122 0.368 0.12 116 0.668 0.08 
Armenia 117 0.399 0.03 110 0.703 0.09 129 0.312 0.11 122 0.643 0.08
Iraq 118 0.396 0.05  133 0.550 0.14 119 0.380 0.12 114 0.671 0.09
Myanmar 119 0.395 0.07  123 0.609 0.12  101 0.536 0.12  129 0.586 0.09 
Bangladesh 120 0.360 0.03  118 0.645 0.11 140 0.282 0.12  127 0.608 0.09
Uganda 121 0.359 0.03 128 0.586 0.10 155 0.213 0.09 97 0.724 0.08
Maldives 122 0.352 0.03 134 0.548 0.12 114 0.455 0.15 141 0.426 0.09
Zambia 123 0.350 0.03  119 0.643 0.11 148 0.246 0.11  125 0.628 0.08
Algeria 124 0.350 0.04 142 0.454 0.13 123 0.360 0.12 126 0.621 0.08
Hong Kong 125 0.347 0.02 108 0.711 0.09 75 0.700 0.11 70 0.811 0.06
Afghanistan 126 0.345 0.03 117 0.648 0.10 156 0.188 0.10 115 0.668 0.09
Turkey 127 0.343 0.04  127 0.599 0.12 96 0.579 0.11  157 0.255 0.07 
Bosnia and Herzegovina 128 0.338 0.02 82 0.815 0.08 87 0.642 0.12 88 0.766 0.07
The Gambia 129 0.326 0.03 130 0.567 0.11 116 0.422 0.15 147 0.342 0.10
Zimbabwe 130 0.325 0.03  111 0.701 0.10 150 0.242 0.12 139 0.441 0.11 
Cameroon 131 0.321 0.03 137 0.518 0.12 154 0.214 0.12 124 0.632 0.08
Malaysia 132 0.318 0.04 125 0.605 0.11 133 0.301 0.12 145 0.361 0.10
Kuwait 133 0.314 0.02 164 0.119 0.06 55 0.806 0.08 119 0.656 0.08
Nicaragua 134 0.307 0.03  148 0.362 0.10  143 0.279 0.10 131 0.559 0.09
Morocco 135 0.303 0.02 115 0.676 0.09 84 0.652 0.11 118 0.665 0.07
Zanzibar 136 0.292 0.03 136 0.535 0.12 159 0.167 0.11 136 0.496 0.10
DRC 137 0.288 0.03 146 0.436 0.12 157 0.179 0.10 130 0.583 0.10
Chad 138 0.287 0.03 135 0.540 0.12 163 0.098 0.08 134 0.523 0.11
Congo 139 0.281 0.03 139 0.509 0.12 160 0.156 0.11 140 0.438 0.12
Sudan 140 0.279 0.02  145 0.438 0.13 126 0.347 0.12  149 0.318 0.10
Rwanda 141 0.278 0.03  155 0.251 0.10 108 0.521 0.14  150 0.315 0.09
Libya 142 0.274 0.02  126 0.603 0.10  171 0.000 0.00 121 0.645 0.07 
Venezuela 143 0.272 0.03  141 0.499 0.12 139 0.283 0.11  144 0.376 0.09 
Russia 144 0.270 0.02 147 0.370 0.10 124 0.359 0.13 151 0.312 0.09
Belarus 145 0.268 0.03 144 0.441 0.10 145 0.258 0.11 148 0.335 0.10
Djibouti 146 0.260 0.03 143 0.453 0.12 146 0.253 0.10 155 0.294 0.08
Vietnam 147 0.259 0.02  169 0.077 0.05 90 0.619 0.13 153 0.298 0.09
Angola 148 0.252 0.03  131 0.567 0.10 147 0.252 0.10  135 0.510 0.10
Jordan 149 0.250 0.02 138 0.509 0.11 112 0.471 0.11 132 0.546 0.10
Kazakhstan 150 0.246 0.03 157 0.215 0.10 137 0.290 0.12 146 0.359 0.10
Palestine/West Bank 151 0.245 0.02  132 0.564 0.13 176 0.000 0.00  112 0.676 0.08
Ethiopia 152 0.242 0.03 154 0.278 0.10 141 0.281 0.11 154 0.298 0.10
Cambodia 153 0.235 0.02  153 0.297 0.11  144 0.258 0.13 156 0.267 0.09 
Iran 154 0.222 0.02 159 0.172 0.09 118 0.390 0.12 138 0.442 0.12
Egypt 155 0.211 0.02 156 0.251 0.11 153 0.231 0.11  161 0.175 0.09 
Uzbekistan 156 0.203 0.02  160 0.167 0.10 130 0.309 0.13 164 0.168 0.07 
Azerbaijan 157 0.202 0.02 150 0.335 0.11 166 0.062 0.05 159 0.214 0.09
Equatorial Guinea 158 0.195 0.02 152 0.306 0.11 165 0.079 0.07 166 0.163 0.07
Oman 159 0.190 0.02 172 0.060 0.04 58 0.797 0.08 167 0.162 0.07
Cuba 160 0.190 0.02  176 0.040 0.03 127 0.346 0.15 173 0.079 0.05
Somalia 161 0.178 0.03 129 0.575 0.11 158 0.175 0.09  128 0.598 0.09
Tajikistan 162 0.176 0.01  161 0.154 0.08  167 0.055 0.05 165 0.167 0.08 
Burundi 163 0.159 0.01  162 0.135 0.08  168 0.026 0.03  171 0.130 0.06 
South Sudan 164 0.155 0.01 151 0.313 0.11 174 0.000 0.00 162 0.170 0.08
Swaziland 165 0.154 0.02 171 0.064 0.05 149 0.243 0.14 142 0.401 0.11 
United Arab Emirates 166 0.152 0.02  167 0.094 0.07 95 0.581 0.14 160 0.185 0.09
Turkmenistan 167 0.151 0.01  174 0.058 0.05 164 0.097 0.09 176 0.034 0.03
Syria 168 0.147 0.01 166 0.097 0.06 172 0.000 0.00  174 0.078 0.05
Palestine/Gaza 169 0.144 0.02 149 0.352 0.13 173 0.000 0.00 152 0.304 0.09
Thailand 170 0.142 0.02  165 0.097 0.07  138 0.288 0.12 158 0.240 0.08 
Bahrain 171 0.128 0.02  163 0.122 0.09  152 0.235 0.11 169 0.136 0.06 
Yemen 172 0.104 0.01  158 0.192 0.08  175 0.000 0.00  170 0.133 0.06 
Laos 173 0.096 0.01 170 0.074 0.05 161 0.138 0.09 175 0.040 0.03
China 174 0.093 0.01 168 0.089 0.06 177 0.000 0.00 163 0.168 0.07
North Korea 175 0.088 0.01 178 0.026 0.02 162 0.136 0.10 177 0.025 0.02
Eritrea 176 0.088 0.00 175 0.049 0.04 178 0.000 0.00 178 0.023 0.02
Qatar 177 0.087 0.01 173 0.060 0.05 169 0.000 0.00 168 0.137 0.06
Saudi Arabia 178 0.022 0.01 177 0.037 0.03 170 0.000 0.00 172 0.124 0.07
78
 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017 79

Appendix 3: The
Figure A3.1: The V-Dem Liberal Component Index:
World and Regional Averages, 1900 to 2017.

Liberal Component 1

Index
.9

.8

In V-Dem’s conceptual scheme the liberal principle of democra-

.7
cy embodiesthe importance of protecting individual and minor-
ity rights against both the tyranny ofthe state and the tyranny .6

of the majority. It also captures the “horizontal” methods of ac-

.5
countability between more or less equally standing institutions
that ensure the effectivechecks and balances between institu-
.4
tions and in particular, limit the exercise of executivepower. This is
achieved by strong rule of law and constitutionally protected civil .3

liberties,independent judiciary and strong parliament that are able

to hold the executive to accountand limit its powers. The three in- .2

dices that capture these dimensions are: the equalitybefore the

.1
law and individual liberties (v2xcl_rol), judicial constraints on the
executive(v2x_jucon), and legislative constraints on the executive
0
(v2xlg_legcon). Taken togetherthey measure the V-Dem Liberal 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017

Component Index (v2x_liberal).

World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia
Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
Asia−Pacific

Figure A3.2: The V-Dem Liberal Component Index (LCI)

Equality before the law and individual liberty index

Rigorous and impartial Transparent laws with Access to justice Access to justice Property rights Property rights for
public administration predictable enforcement for men for women for men women

Freedom from Freedom from Freedom from forced Freedom from forced Freedom of Freedom of foreign
torture political killings labor for men labor for women religion movement

Freedom of domestic Freedom of domestic

movement for men movement for women

Judicial constraints on the executive index

Executive respects Compliance with Compliance with High court Lower court
constitution judiciary high court independence independence

Legislative constraints on the executive index

Legislature questions Executive Legislature investigates Legislature

officials in practice oversight in practice opposition parties
80 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017

Table A3: Country Scores for the Liberal Component Index (LCI) and its Main Components

Liberal Component Equality before the law and Legislative constrains on Judicial constraints on
Index (LCI) individual liberty index the executive index the executive index
Country Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/-
Norway 1 0.973 0.02 2 0.986 0.01 1 0.974 0.02 2 0.983 0.01
Sweden 2 0.968 0.02 6 0.977 0.01 3 0.967 0.02 9 0.963 0.02
Netherlands 3 0.961 0.02 10 0.974 0.02 5 0.965 0.02 7 0.965 0.02
Australia 4 0.960 0.02 39 0.931 0.03  4 0.965 0.02 1 0.985 0.01
Switzerland 5 0.960 0.02 7 0.977 0.01 10 0.946 0.03 4 0.973 0.02
Finland 6 0.960 0.02 8 0.977 0.01 2 0.971 0.02 18 0.948 0.03
Denmark 7 0.954 0.02 1 0.986 0.01 21 0.925 0.04 5 0.971 0.02
New Zealand 8 0.950 0.03 13 0.969 0.02 14 0.935 0.04 3 0.975 0.02
Estonia 9 0.949 0.03 5 0.980 0.01 19 0.931 0.04 13 0.955 0.03
Germany 10 0.948 0.02 3 0.984 0.01 6 0.959 0.03 28 0.909 0.05
Portugal 11 0.944 0.03 4 0.982 0.01 22 0.919 0.04 10 0.963 0.02
Costa Rica 12 0.943 0.03 20 0.964 0.02 8 0.948 0.03 11 0.959 0.02
Slovenia 13 0.940 0.03 21 0.962 0.02 7 0.953 0.03 23 0.929 0.04
Lithuania 14 0.937 0.03 29 0.950 0.02 12 0.942 0.03 19 0.946 0.03
Ireland 15 0.933 0.03 11 0.971 0.01 26 0.899 0.05 8 0.964 0.02
United Kingdom 16 0.931 0.03 25 0.958 0.02 11 0.944 0.03 31 0.900 0.05
Iceland 17 0.929 0.03 16 0.968 0.01 37 0.858 0.07 15 0.952 0.03
Belgium 18 0.927 0.03 17 0.966 0.02 27 0.898 0.06 26 0.913 0.04
Spain 19 0.925 0.03 14 0.968 0.01 35 0.864 0.05 17 0.951 0.03
Japan 20 0.924 0.05 15 0.968 0.02 9 0.948 0.03 43 0.875 0.07
Chile 21 0.924 0.04 36 0.935 0.03 20 0.926 0.04 6 0.969 0.02
Italy 22 0.922 0.03 18 0.966 0.02 17 0.931 0.04 36 0.888 0.05
Cape Verde 23 0.919 0.04 38 0.933 0.03 23 0.918 0.05 21 0.938 0.04
Austria 24 0.918 0.04 12 0.970 0.01 29 0.888 0.06 24 0.925 0.04
South Korea 25 0.916 0.03 35 0.940 0.03 25 0.907 0.05 20 0.938 0.03
Canada 26 0.903 0.05 26 0.956 0.02 40 0.847 0.08 27 0.912 0.05
France 27 0.897 0.05 22 0.960 0.02 32 0.882 0.06 40 0.882 0.06
Czech Republic 28 0.895 0.04 34 0.940 0.03 58 0.800 0.10 38 0.883 0.06
Cyprus 29 0.894 0.03 33 0.941 0.03 39 0.848 0.07 34 0.892 0.05
Uruguay 30 0.892 0.04 23 0.960 0.02 52 0.812 0.09 25 0.922 0.04
Tunisia 31 0.891 0.03  45 0.913 0.04  16 0.932 0.04  44 0.865 0.06 
Bulgaria 32 0.889 0.05 49 0.898 0.04 30 0.887 0.06 32 0.896 0.05
USA 33 0.879 0.04  31 0.943 0.02 62 0.787 0.10  22 0.933 0.04
Latvia 34 0.879 0.06 28 0.952 0.02 65 0.768 0.10 14 0.953 0.03
Barbados 35 0.872 0.06 30 0.943 0.02 75 0.727 0.11 16 0.952 0.03
Jamaica 36 0.871 0.04 60 0.863 0.06 44 0.842 0.08 33 0.894 0.05
Luxembourg 37 0.869 0.04 9 0.976 0.01 15 0.932 0.04 71 0.753 0.09
Taiwan 38 0.866 0.04 19 0.965 0.02 45 0.836 0.08 52 0.819 0.08
Slovakia 39 0.865 0.04 41 0.926 0.03 46 0.828 0.08 41 0.877 0.06
South Africa 40 0.859 0.06 69 0.826 0.06 28 0.891 0.06 37 0.883 0.06
S.Tomé & P. 41 0.854 0.04 37 0.933 0.03 18 0.931 0.04 84 0.702 0.10
Trinidad and Tobago 42 0.854 0.06 42 0.920 0.03 42 0.845 0.09 49 0.836 0.08
Vanuatu 43 0.854 0.05 51 0.894 0.04 36 0.860 0.07 46 0.852 0.08
Bhutan 44 0.846 0.04  61 0.855 0.06 50 0.816 0.08  29 0.907 0.05
Greece 45 0.844 0.06 24 0.958 0.02 38 0.852 0.08 65 0.767 0.10
Benin 46 0.838 0.06 27 0.952 0.02 72 0.738 0.11 54 0.811 0.09
Israel 47 0.837 0.05 59 0.865 0.05 24 0.914 0.04 78 0.721 0.12
Ghana 48 0.837 0.06 43 0.919 0.04 51 0.813 0.08 55 0.810 0.10
Albania 49 0.833 0.05 44 0.917 0.04 33 0.880 0.06 91 0.667 0.11
Croatia 50 0.833 0.06 52 0.885 0.05 56 0.803 0.10 56 0.803 0.10
Mauritius 51 0.829 0.06 53 0.885 0.05 49 0.820 0.08 50 0.831 0.08
Hungary 52 0.822 0.05 40 0.929 0.03 70 0.750 0.10 48 0.837 0.08
Argentina 53 0.817 0.06 68 0.839 0.05 48 0.822 0.09 59 0.778 0.09
Peru 54 0.807 0.05 94 0.738 0.08 13 0.942 0.04  72 0.750 0.11
Botswana 55 0.807 0.05 56 0.877 0.05 53 0.809 0.08 66 0.765 0.09
Poland 56 0.803 0.07  65 0.842 0.06  79 0.713 0.12 81 0.708 0.11 
Seychelles 57 0.791 0.05 66 0.842 0.05 89 0.677 0.13 45 0.858 0.08
Malawi 58 0.788 0.07 91 0.746 0.07 34 0.868 0.06 67 0.764 0.09
Panama 59 0.786 0.06 47 0.905 0.04 59 0.796 0.10 88 0.676 0.12
Senegal 60 0.782 0.06 55 0.878 0.05 68 0.763 0.09 82 0.704 0.11
Namibia 61 0.770 0.06 54 0.883 0.05 102 0.603 0.13 42 0.875 0.07
Hong Kong 62 0.769 0.06 32 0.942 0.02 118 0.484 0.13 35 0.889 0.06
Nepal 63 0.764 0.06 103 0.710 0.08 41 0.846 0.08 70 0.754 0.09
Liberia 64 0.763 0.06 58 0.867 0.06 57 0.803 0.09 73 0.750 0.11
The Gambia 65 0.759 0.06  78 0.804 0.06  113 0.538 0.15  12 0.957 0.03 
Colombia 66 0.757 0.06 98 0.720 0.08 80 0.696 0.13 58 0.780 0.10
Mongolia 67 0.752 0.05 73 0.817 0.06 90 0.672 0.13 75 0.739 0.11
Suriname 68 0.743 0.08  63 0.847 0.06 54 0.805 0.09 98 0.623 0.14 
Nigeria 69 0.742 0.07  83 0.782 0.07 47 0.826 0.08 102 0.593 0.16
Tanzania 70 0.736 0.05 86 0.775 0.07 73 0.733 0.10 60 0.776 0.10
Kuwait 71 0.734 0.07 104 0.706 0.09 63 0.776 0.09 61 0.773 0.10
Moldova 72 0.732 0.06 74 0.813 0.06 101 0.604 0.14 53 0.815 0.09
Singapore 73 0.730 0.07 48 0.902 0.04 81 0.694 0.13 90 0.667 0.12
Brazil 74 0.729 0.06  85 0.776 0.08 94 0.650 0.12 68 0.763 0.11
Guatemala 75 0.729 0.08 111 0.676 0.09 67 0.763 0.10 69 0.757 0.10
Indonesia 76 0.725 0.05 99 0.718 0.09 66 0.767 0.10 63 0.768 0.10
Morocco 77 0.722 0.06 97 0.731 0.08 69 0.752 0.11 80 0.709 0.12
India 78 0.722 0.06 122 0.614 0.10 78 0.715 0.11 74 0.749 0.10
Mexico 79 0.716 0.07 113 0.669 0.09 77 0.722 0.11 64 0.767 0.09
Georgia 80 0.716 0.05 81 0.793 0.08 60 0.792 0.09 101 0.602 0.14
Montenegro 81 0.715 0.07 67 0.840 0.06 106 0.586 0.16 57 0.797 0.10
Sri Lanka 82 0.709 0.06  79 0.800 0.07  129 0.402 0.16 30 0.903 0.05
Solomon Islands 83 0.681 0.06 80 0.799 0.07 107 0.584 0.14 51 0.830 0.08
Paraguay 84 0.680 0.07 84 0.777 0.07 96 0.635 0.13 99 0.616 0.15
Lesotho 85 0.676 0.07 96 0.733 0.08 103 0.596 0.14 47 0.846 0.07
Mali 86 0.673 0.06 106 0.704 0.08 88 0.680 0.11 103 0.590 0.16
Jordan 87 0.673 0.08 90 0.748 0.08 104 0.594 0.14 92 0.654 0.14
 V-Dem Annual Report 2018 81
 indicates that the country’s score has improved over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
 indicates that the country’s score has decreased over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
SD+/- reports the standard deviation to indicate the level of uncertainty.

Liberal Component Equality before the law and Legislative constrains on Judicial constraints on
Index (LCI) individual liberty index the executive index the executive index
Country Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/- Rank Score SD +/-
Romania 88 0.672 0.07 72 0.818 0.07 116 0.515 0.15 76 0.734 0.11
Timor-Leste 89 0.671 0.08 87 0.762 0.08 99 0.606 0.13 93 0.648 0.14
Guyana 90 0.664 0.08 57 0.876 0.05  124 0.438 0.17 87 0.686 0.12
Burkina Faso 91 0.661 0.06  71 0.821 0.06 117 0.491 0.16 97 0.626 0.14
Fiji 92 0.657 0.09  76 0.808 0.06 95 0.642 0.13 112 0.478 0.18
El Salvador 93 0.657 0.04 117 0.653 0.08 91 0.654 0.14 85 0.696 0.12
Papua New Guinea 94 0.654 0.08 101 0.714 0.09 98 0.612 0.14 83 0.702 0.10
Uganda 95 0.654 0.06 120 0.624 0.11 64 0.774 0.09 94 0.633 0.13
Zambia 96 0.654 0.08  93 0.738 0.08 84 0.684 0.12 107 0.536 0.15 
Kenya 97 0.650 0.06 142 0.434 0.10 55 0.805 0.09 62 0.770 0.10 
Bosnia and Herzegovina 98 0.648 0.06 62 0.853 0.05 122 0.459 0.14 100 0.614 0.13
Philippines 99 0.647 0.08 102 0.713 0.08 108 0.581 0.14 86 0.695 0.14
Mozambique 100 0.642 0.07 100 0.718 0.09 114 0.534 0.16 79 0.709 0.12
Niger 101 0.636 0.05 64 0.844 0.06 74 0.730 0.12 127 0.366 0.13
Kyrgyzstan 102 0.634 0.06  108 0.686 0.08 61 0.788 0.09  108 0.533 0.13 
Serbia 103 0.595 0.06  70 0.824 0.06 120 0.475 0.14 113 0.474 0.15
Ivory Coast 104 0.585 0.08 92 0.745 0.08 105 0.589 0.14 117 0.453 0.14
Gabon 105 0.578 0.08 50 0.895 0.05  125 0.438 0.17 120 0.421 0.15
Iraq 106 0.576 0.07 150 0.321 0.09 43 0.842 0.08 104 0.583 0.16
Bolivia 107 0.564 0.08 82 0.792 0.08 128 0.407 0.15 111 0.491 0.15
Sierra Leone 108 0.561 0.05 88 0.755 0.07 97 0.625 0.13 130 0.341 0.15
Rwanda 109 0.551 0.08 114 0.666 0.11 109 0.578 0.14 145 0.226 0.15
Somaliland 110 0.542 0.07 121 0.615 0.11 87 0.681 0.12 131 0.331 0.12
Pakistan 111 0.541 0.06 153 0.308 0.12 85 0.682 0.13 77 0.722 0.11
Palestine/West Bank 112 0.538 0.04  89 0.750 0.08 178 39 0.882 0.06 
Vietnam 113 0.536 0.06  112 0.671 0.10 92 0.653 0.14 134 0.304 0.17
Myanmar 114 0.534 0.08  143 0.432 0.11  111 0.547 0.14 89 0.675 0.13 
Kosovo 115 0.527 0.08 127 0.586 0.11 110 0.572 0.15 105 0.575 0.17
Lebanon 116 0.526 0.06 115 0.665 0.11 112 0.544 0.15 129 0.346 0.15
Macedonia 117 0.521 0.05  77 0.807 0.07 93 0.651 0.12 156 0.129 0.11 
Ecuador 118 0.519 0.06 46 0.906 0.04 123 0.440 0.17 140 0.237 0.15
Guinea-Bissau 119 0.502 0.08 130 0.549 0.10 142 0.266 0.12 96 0.627 0.14
Malaysia 120 0.500 0.09 116 0.660 0.08 131 0.368 0.14 109 0.503 0.15
Afghanistan 121 0.495 0.06 148 0.351 0.12 71 0.740 0.12 118 0.437 0.16
Libya 122 0.493 0.06  173 0.136 0.07 31 0.887 0.06  116 0.457 0.16 
Honduras 123 0.489 0.07 109 0.683 0.09 133 0.354 0.16 124 0.395 0.16
Madagascar 124 0.485 0.09 126 0.592 0.11 126 0.436 0.12 122 0.414 0.17
Armenia 125 0.482 0.06 75 0.811 0.06 135 0.333 0.16 137 0.282 0.15
Ukraine 126 0.478 0.07  128 0.569 0.10  82 0.691 0.12 147 0.187 0.10
CAR 127 0.470 0.07 147 0.352 0.12 86 0.681 0.14 125 0.381 0.15
Zimbabwe 128 0.468 0.06 139 0.451 0.11  83 0.689 0.12  106 0.565 0.13
Comoros 129 0.442 0.07 110 0.681 0.10 144 0.222 0.15 115 0.459 0.17
Somalia 130 0.438 0.08 159 0.293 0.11  76 0.727 0.11 133 0.326 0.14
Iran 131 0.435 0.07 138 0.464 0.12 100 0.605 0.15 143 0.234 0.13
Haiti 132 0.418 0.07 132 0.537 0.11 115 0.529 0.16 151 0.152 0.11 
Zanzibar 133 0.418 0.08 125 0.601 0.09 139 0.305 0.17  135 0.292 0.13
Oman 134 0.391 0.05 124 0.609 0.09 153 0.158 0.11 123 0.403 0.13
Togo 135 0.390 0.06 118 0.643 0.11 130 0.397 0.15 163 0.111 0.10
Algeria 136 0.384 0.06 119 0.633 0.11 145 0.222 0.17 136 0.290 0.18
Guinea 137 0.376 0.05 131 0.545 0.10 137 0.317 0.16 142 0.236 0.11
Dominican Republic 138 0.375 0.06 107 0.694 0.09 164 0.075 0.10 128 0.361 0.16
Angola 139 0.363 0.07 136 0.491 0.11 149 0.168 0.10 110 0.491 0.17
Bangladesh 140 0.361 0.07 140 0.451 0.12 147 0.209 0.15 126 0.368 0.15
Egypt 141 0.350 0.07 166 0.211 0.09 121 0.465 0.15 119 0.432 0.16
United Arab Emirates 142 0.344 0.06 95 0.734 0.10 148 0.178 0.13 159 0.124 0.12
Kazakhstan 143 0.343 0.05 123 0.611 0.10 150 0.164 0.12 144 0.230 0.10
Cameroon 144 0.338 0.05 137 0.477 0.13 134 0.353 0.16 153 0.148 0.11
Thailand 145 0.329 0.05  163 0.265 0.10  169 0.063 0.08  95 0.631 0.14
Laos 146 0.323 0.09 171 0.152 0.07 136 0.321 0.19 114 0.468 0.15
Swaziland 147 0.315 0.07 149 0.341 0.12 132 0.363 0.14 139 0.260 0.14
Djibouti 148 0.309 0.05 133 0.536 0.12 157 0.136 0.10 146 0.219 0.14
Qatar 149 0.303 0.05 144 0.423 0.12 176 0.038 0.06 121 0.418 0.14
Maldives 150 0.299 0.06 154 0.300 0.10 127 0.418 0.14 149 0.165 0.13
Venezuela 151 0.286 0.06 160 0.287 0.09  119 0.476 0.17  171 0.058 0.07
Belarus 152 0.281 0.03 105 0.704 0.09 170 0.061 0.06 172 0.058 0.07
Russia 153 0.262 0.04 135 0.495 0.11 151 0.161 0.13 158 0.128 0.10
Ethiopia 154 0.261 0.04 134 0.516 0.11 159 0.105 0.10 157 0.129 0.12
Mauritania 155 0.256 0.06  158 0.295 0.11  158 0.123 0.11  138 0.261 0.14
Nicaragua 156 0.243 0.05  129 0.565 0.10 165 0.075 0.07  169 0.063 0.08
Palestine/Gaza 157 0.240 0.06 146 0.354 0.12 177 132 0.327 0.15
Congo 158 0.240 0.06 152 0.313 0.10 146 0.219 0.16 161 0.119 0.11
Sudan 159 0.230 0.05 168 0.182 0.08 140 0.298 0.16 150 0.163 0.13
Cuba 160 0.221 0.04 141 0.443 0.11 163 0.076 0.07 160 0.119 0.09
DRC 161 0.214 0.05 172 0.152 0.07 138 0.310 0.16 148 0.181 0.10
Turkey 162 0.213 0.05  157 0.299 0.10  152 0.158 0.13  162 0.113 0.10 
China 163 0.199 0.05 156 0.299 0.09 161 0.092 0.09 154 0.148 0.09
Chad 164 0.186 0.06 161 0.267 0.11 154 0.147 0.13 164 0.103 0.09
Cambodia 165 0.183 0.05 151 0.318 0.10 162 0.091 0.09 155 0.131 0.11
Saudi Arabia 166 0.171 0.04 170 0.160 0.08 168 0.063 0.07 141 0.237 0.13
Azerbaijan 167 0.164 0.04 145 0.358 0.11 160 0.092 0.09 176 0.019 0.03
South Sudan 168 0.162 0.05 174 0.080 0.05 143 0.232 0.13 152 0.150 0.10
Bahrain 169 0.154 0.05 162 0.266 0.12  174 0.044 0.06 170 0.059 0.11
Tajikistan 170 0.150 0.02 155 0.300 0.12 167 0.064 0.06 173 0.056 0.06
Burundi 171 0.149 0.04  167 0.203 0.10  155 0.139 0.12  166 0.086 0.07 
Yemen 172 0.140 0.05  176 0.054 0.03  141 0.279 0.19 167 0.082 0.08
Turkmenistan 173 0.130 0.04  165 0.231 0.10 172 0.048 0.07 165 0.094 0.09
Equatorial Guinea 174 0.119 0.04 169 0.161 0.07 156 0.137 0.12 174 0.038 0.04
Uzbekistan 175 0.111 0.03 164 0.258 0.10 173 0.044 0.05 175 0.021 0.03
82
 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017 83

Appendix 4:
Figure A4.1: The V-Dem Egalitarian Component Index:
World and Regional Averages, 1900 to 2017.

The Egalitarian
1

.9

Component Index .8

.7

.6

.5

The egalitarian principle of democracy measures to what extent all

.4
social groups enjoy equal capabilities to participate in the political
arena. It relies on the idea that democracy is a system of rule “by the .3
people” where citizens participate in various ways, such as mak-
ing informed voting decisions, expressing opinions, demonstrat- .2

ing, running for office or influencing policy-making in other ways.

.1
The egalitarian principle of democracy is fundamentally related to
political participation, as systematic inequalities in the rights and
0
resources of citizens of specific social groups limit capabilities to
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017
participate in the political and governing processes. Therefore, a
World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia
more equal distribution of resources across groups results in politi- Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
cal equality and hence democracy. Asia−Pacific

Figure A4.2: The V-Dem Egalitarian Component Index

Equal protection index

Social class equality in Social group equality in Weaker civil liberties

respect for civil liberties respect for civil liberties population

Equal access index

Power distributed by Compliance

Power distributedwith
by Power distributed by social
gender high court
socioeconomic position group

Equal distribution of resources index

Encompassingness Means-tested vs. universalistic welfare Educational equality Health equality

84 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017

Table A4: Country Scores for the Egalitarian Component Index (ECI) and its Main Components
Egalitarian Component Equal protection Equal distribution Equal access
Index (ECI) index of resources index index
Country Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-)
Norway 1 0.963 0.03 2 0.969 0.02 1 0.978 0.01 2 0.955 0.03
Denmark 2 0.951 0.03 5 0.962 0.03 9 0.949 0.03 1 0.972 0.02
Luxembourg 3 0.949 0.02 1 0.977 0.02 15 0.944 0.03 4 0.952 0.03
Germany 4 0.939 0.03 10 0.953 0.03 16 0.942 0.03 3 0.954 0.03
Belgium 5 0.934 0.04 9 0.955 0.03 5 0.960 0.02 12 0.927 0.05
Netherlands 6 0.933 0.04 24 0.924 0.05 10 0.949 0.03 7 0.947 0.04
Finland 7 0.930 0.04 11 0.951 0.03 14 0.944 0.03 8 0.939 0.04
Switzerland 8 0.929 0.03 16 0.937 0.05 8 0.950 0.03 5 0.949 0.04
Sweden 9 0.921 0.05 19 0.934 0.05 19 0.934 0.04 6 0.949 0.04
Japan 10 0.919 0.04 3 0.967 0.02 3 0.966 0.02 24 0.875 0.07
Portugal 11 0.917 0.04 4 0.965 0.03 38 0.884 0.05 10 0.931 0.04
Iceland 12 0.913 0.06 26 0.909 0.06 2 0.971 0.02 16 0.908 0.06
Estonia 13 0.909 0.06 13 0.944 0.04 6 0.959 0.03 26 0.865 0.08
Taiwan 14 0.908 0.05 15 0.942 0.04 11 0.948 0.03 22 0.877 0.07
France 15 0.907 0.05 28 0.906 0.05 17 0.938 0.04 11 0.928 0.05
Italy 16 0.898 0.05 12 0.945 0.04 33 0.897 0.06 13 0.926 0.05
Greece 17 0.888 0.05 33 0.892 0.07 29 0.907 0.04 9 0.934 0.04
Costa Rica 18 0.888 0.05 18 0.934 0.04 25 0.914 0.04 29 0.862 0.09
Ireland 19 0.883 0.05 6 0.959 0.03 47 0.842 0.07 19 0.888 0.07
Austria 20 0.882 0.06 7 0.958 0.03 22 0.920 0.04 52 0.809 0.10
Czech Republic 21 0.880 0.07 23 0.925 0.05 7 0.953 0.03 33 0.850 0.10
New Zealand 22 0.880 0.06 27 0.907 0.06 27 0.910 0.05 20 0.881 0.07
South Korea 23 0.880 0.05 42 0.851 0.07 4 0.964 0.02 30 0.860 0.09
Latvia 24 0.878 0.05 8 0.956 0.03 41 0.874 0.07 44 0.824 0.10
Cyprus 25 0.877 0.06 30 0.897 0.07 13 0.945 0.03 54 0.806 0.10
Spain 26 0.867 0.07 17 0.935 0.05 40 0.882 0.05 23 0.876 0.08
Slovenia 27 0.866 0.06 25 0.924 0.05 35 0.890 0.05  27 0.864 0.07
United Kingdom 28 0.862 0.06 32 0.894 0.06 31 0.900 0.05 41 0.826 0.09
Lithuania 29 0.862 0.06 43 0.843 0.08 28 0.908 0.04 15 0.912 0.06
Belarus 30 0.860 0.05 35 0.886 0.07 32 0.899 0.05 40 0.828 0.11
Poland 31 0.860 0.05 21 0.930 0.05 46 0.853 0.07 38 0.833 0.10
Australia 32 0.857 0.05 20 0.930 0.05 45 0.855 0.06 35 0.844 0.10
Bhutan 33 0.847 0.08 31 0.894 0.07 20 0.932 0.04 55 0.801 0.11
Trinidad and Tobago 34 0.841 0.08 40 0.856 0.08 37 0.886 0.07 60 0.776 0.13
Canada 35 0.834 0.08 46 0.829 0.09 24 0.917 0.04 47 0.818 0.11
Hungary 36 0.830 0.06 51 0.815 0.09 51 0.818 0.07 34 0.849 0.08
Cuba 37 0.828 0.06 76 0.733 0.14 18 0.937 0.04 46 0.819 0.09
Hong Kong 38 0.825 0.06 54 0.800 0.10 21 0.926 0.04 64 0.757 0.11
Bulgaria 39 0.820 0.06 39 0.862 0.09 65 0.754 0.10 32 0.855 0.09
Cape Verde 40 0.816 0.07 48 0.828 0.10 48 0.834 0.08 42 0.825 0.11
Uruguay 41 0.813 0.08 34 0.888 0.07 49 0.828 0.08 61 0.771 0.13
Benin 42 0.803 0.07 56 0.789 0.10 63 0.756 0.11 17 0.906 0.06
Mauritius 43 0.803 0.08 37 0.875 0.08 30 0.901 0.05 91 0.643 0.17
Barbados 44 0.803 0.08 75 0.739 0.14 34 0.896 0.05 51 0.811 0.09
Singapore 45 0.801 0.06 14 0.942 0.04 23 0.919 0.05 93 0.636 0.18
Georgia 46 0.792 0.08 87 0.698 0.14 39 0.883 0.06 63 0.761 0.13
Tunisia 47 0.780 0.08  22 0.926 0.05 86 0.644 0.14 48 0.818 0.10 
Suriname 48 0.775 0.08 47 0.829 0.09 74 0.713 0.11 43 0.825 0.11
Palestine/West Bank 49 0.769 0.09 68 0.748 0.13 60 0.772 0.10 50 0.812 0.11
Slovakia 50 0.761 0.07 64 0.765 0.11 56 0.788 0.09 53 0.808 0.10
Lesotho 51 0.756 0.08 72 0.740 0.12 79 0.666 0.12 18 0.895 0.07
Mongolia 52 0.754 0.07 58 0.788 0.11 61 0.764 0.10 62 0.763 0.12
Israel 53 0.747 0.09 61 0.770 0.12 57 0.784 0.10 72 0.713 0.13
Togo 54 0.744 0.10 74 0.739 0.14 66 0.748 0.10 58 0.785 0.13
Senegal 55 0.732 0.05 60 0.777 0.12 83 0.659 0.10 49 0.817 0.11
Tanzania 56 0.730 0.07 95 0.646 0.15 76 0.691 0.13 21 0.878 0.07
Bosnia and Herzegovina 57 0.728 0.08 81 0.708 0.13 68 0.735 0.11 82 0.685 0.16
Panama 58 0.728 0.11 62 0.769 0.13 71 0.725 0.11 70 0.720 0.15
Romania 59 0.722 0.07 29 0.898 0.07 98 0.560 0.14  84 0.679 0.16
Ghana 60 0.717 0.11 73 0.740 0.12 101 0.540 0.15 31 0.856 0.09
Ecuador 61 0.715 0.10 109 0.608 0.16 75 0.709 0.12 45 0.824 0.10
Botswana 62 0.713 0.07 83 0.707 0.13 62 0.757 0.10 80 0.694 0.14
Armenia 63 0.712 0.09 59 0.783 0.11 50 0.819 0.08 102 0.604 0.18
Croatia 64 0.705 0.07  93 0.659 0.15 43 0.864 0.07 95 0.634 0.15
Vanuatu 65 0.705 0.07 45 0.833 0.09 116 0.450 0.14 25 0.866 0.09
Mali 66 0.699 0.09 53 0.803 0.13 96 0.581 0.15 59 0.784 0.11
USA 67 0.695 0.09 78 0.728 0.13 89 0.628 0.11 57 0.791 0.11
Algeria 68 0.693 0.10 69 0.747 0.13 54 0.802 0.09 97 0.624 0.17
Kyrgyzstan 69 0.691 0.08 80 0.711 0.14 77 0.677 0.10 76 0.702 0.16
Bolivia 70 0.689 0.06 49 0.822 0.09 121 0.425 0.14 36 0.838 0.09
Gabon 71 0.683 0.08 55 0.794 0.12 82 0.661 0.13 101 0.606 0.18
Eritrea 72 0.682 0.08  86 0.702 0.15 58 0.781 0.10  122 0.525 0.17
Seychelles 73 0.677 0.10 96 0.643 0.16 36 0.887 0.06 120 0.532 0.20
Guyana 74 0.676 0.08 57 0.788 0.12 102 0.539 0.12 67 0.742 0.13
Montenegro 75 0.676 0.12 71 0.743 0.13 52 0.817 0.08 121 0.527 0.17
Argentina 76 0.676 0.08 90 0.670 0.14 85 0.653 0.13 68 0.737 0.15
Namibia 77 0.675 0.06 97 0.640 0.15 84 0.654 0.13 66 0.748 0.15
Vietnam 78 0.672 0.10 38 0.871 0.09 94 0.592 0.16 111 0.579 0.20
Niger 79 0.672 0.09 41 0.852 0.08 114 0.465 0.14 77 0.701 0.13
S.Tomé & P. 80 0.669 0.10 85 0.702 0.13 95 0.588 0.11 65 0.750 0.14
Nepal 81 0.667 0.07 44 0.841 0.09 135 0.357 0.14 39 0.829 0.10
Kosovo 82 0.659 0.11 100 0.631 0.18 88 0.633 0.13 85 0.674 0.16
United Arab Emirates 83 0.658 0.08 107 0.614 0.18 59 0.773 0.08 113 0.560 0.19
Serbia 84 0.652 0.10 103 0.622 0.17 73 0.716 0.10 89 0.651 0.17
Jamaica 85 0.649 0.09 129 0.486 0.17 99 0.557 0.14 14 0.916 0.05
Moldova 86 0.648 0.11 88 0.686 0.12 91 0.619 0.12 90 0.646 0.14
The Gambia 87 0.648 0.10 67 0.750 0.13 87 0.640 0.11 110 0.579 0.18
Albania 88 0.641 0.10 106 0.617 0.16 80 0.665 0.13 78 0.696 0.16
Comoros 89 0.640 0.09 98 0.638 0.16 108 0.515 0.14 56 0.801 0.13
 V-Dem Annual Report 2018 85
 indicates that the country’s score has improved over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
 indicates that the country’s score has decreased over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
SD+/- reports the standard deviation to indicate the level of uncertainty.

Egalitarian Component Equal protection Equal distribution Equal access

Index (ECI) index of resources index index
Country Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-)
Rwanda 90 0.637 0.09 112 0.602 0.17 67 0.744 0.11 119 0.542 0.21
Kuwait 91 0.637 0.08 117 0.582 0.16 12 0.945 0.03 143 0.422 0.18
Chile 92 0.631 0.09 65 0.755 0.13 107 0.517 0.14 98 0.620 0.16
Macedonia 93 0.629 0.07 114 0.586 0.17 70 0.726 0.09 115 0.559 0.19
Ivory Coast 94 0.619 0.11 63 0.768 0.11 129 0.382 0.15 71 0.715 0.15
Zanzibar 95 0.617 0.08 124 0.520 0.17 93 0.598 0.12 79 0.696 0.15
Liberia 96 0.616 0.11 89 0.681 0.16 139 0.343 0.13 28 0.864 0.08
Oman 97 0.610 0.09 120 0.564 0.18 42 0.868 0.06 155 0.340 0.22
Fiji 98 0.608 0.09 66 0.754 0.13 97 0.579 0.13 128 0.484 0.23
Kazakhstan 99 0.600 0.08 113 0.599 0.19 64 0.755 0.09 133 0.466 0.21
South Africa 100 0.599 0.08 50 0.815 0.11 143 0.297 0.15 73 0.710 0.15
Burkina Faso 101 0.590 0.09 36 0.879 0.08 141 0.317 0.15 99 0.618 0.17
Cameroon 102 0.587 0.09 91 0.667 0.13 112 0.493 0.15 118 0.551 0.19
Sri Lanka 103 0.586 0.10 121 0.563 0.15 90 0.622 0.15 103 0.600 0.18
Indonesia 104 0.580 0.09 102 0.623 0.15 111 0.495 0.14 94 0.635 0.14
Malaysia 105 0.579 0.09 139 0.394 0.18 53 0.803 0.08 112 0.573 0.18
Sierra Leone 106 0.579 0.09 119 0.569 0.17 122 0.423 0.13 75 0.704 0.15
Zambia 107 0.569 0.08 52 0.814 0.11 146 0.264 0.13 92 0.640 0.18
Brazil 108 0.568 0.11 116 0.583 0.16 125 0.402 0.16 74 0.710 0.16
Timor-Leste 109 0.568 0.09 79 0.719 0.13 138 0.345 0.16 83 0.683 0.16
India 110 0.561 0.08 77 0.732 0.13 132 0.375 0.16 107 0.593 0.19
Solomon Islands 111 0.560 0.11 82 0.708 0.14 134 0.360 0.14 86 0.664 0.15
Morocco 112 0.560 0.07 70 0.747 0.13 131 0.378 0.14 106 0.596 0.19
Peru 113 0.560 0.10 105 0.618 0.16 130 0.382 0.16 69 0.729 0.14
Venezuela 114 0.551 0.08  92 0.659 0.14 168 0.147 0.12  37 0.837 0.10
Russia 115 0.549 0.10 140 0.392 0.20 69 0.733 0.10 116 0.558 0.16
Libya 116 0.548 0.10 125 0.512 0.19 105 0.521 0.14 87 0.660 0.17
Jordan 117 0.539 0.10 108 0.609 0.16 81 0.664 0.10 145 0.403 0.22
Mozambique 118 0.539 0.10 94 0.652 0.17 152 0.246 0.16 81 0.685 0.16
Djibouti 119 0.531 0.09 104 0.621 0.16 123 0.418 0.15 117 0.551 0.17
Nigeria 120 0.520 0.09 84 0.705 0.14 133 0.371 0.15 123 0.521 0.21
Maldives 121 0.509 0.10 110 0.607 0.16 119 0.442 0.13 127 0.485 0.19
Lebanon 122 0.509 0.07 122 0.532 0.17 100 0.542 0.12 139 0.442 0.19
Ukraine 123 0.501 0.07 142 0.371 0.19 72 0.719 0.09 132 0.475 0.20
Nicaragua 124 0.487 0.11 126 0.504 0.21 104 0.527 0.17 137 0.444 0.23
Uganda 125 0.486 0.09 135 0.428 0.19 118 0.449 0.16 100 0.614 0.18
Mexico 126 0.476 0.07 128 0.493 0.17 127 0.398 0.12 108 0.585 0.18
Colombia 127 0.473 0.12 134 0.428 0.17 115 0.451 0.19 124 0.508 0.19
Kenya 128 0.467 0.07 138 0.400 0.17 120 0.428 0.14 114 0.560 0.18
Iran 129 0.466 0.10 130 0.479 0.16 103 0.530 0.16 153 0.363 0.20
Myanmar 130 0.445 0.09  127 0.497 0.17 151 0.248 0.14 96 0.624 0.15
Thailand 131 0.445 0.10 164 0.203 0.15 110 0.508 0.15 105 0.597 0.16
Uzbekistan 132 0.434 0.07 163 0.206 0.16 78 0.668 0.12 147 0.394 0.19
Malawi 133 0.433 0.11 145 0.369 0.20 140 0.328 0.13 109 0.582 0.18
Zimbabwe 134 0.421 0.09 133 0.447 0.18 126 0.400 0.16 165 0.275 0.21
Guinea-Bissau 135 0.418 0.10 101 0.625 0.15 165 0.168 0.14 148 0.393 0.18
Saudi Arabia 136 0.416 0.05 167 0.185 0.14 44 0.857 0.07 171 0.161 0.14
Palestine/Gaza 137 0.414 0.09 148 0.357 0.20 109 0.510 0.18 157 0.318 0.18
China 138 0.409 0.08 153 0.305 0.17 117 0.449 0.12 146 0.394 0.20
Turkey 139 0.408 0.09  123 0.524 0.17 128 0.385 0.15  159 0.308 0.24
DRC 140 0.407 0.09 147 0.363 0.22 145 0.289 0.11 130 0.482 0.20
Qatar 141 0.403 0.05 172 0.149 0.16 26 0.911 0.05 173 0.148 0.15
Guinea 142 0.401 0.08 115 0.584 0.17 162 0.194 0.13 136 0.449 0.20
Bahrain 143 0.397 0.07 162 0.220 0.19 55 0.800 0.09 170 0.169 0.18
Papua New Guinea 144 0.393 0.08 111 0.605 0.15 174 0.121 0.12 141 0.439 0.22
Ethiopia 145 0.389 0.10 132 0.459 0.19 124 0.417 0.16 166 0.257 0.19
Philippines 146 0.383 0.10 146 0.368 0.22 142 0.310 0.14 140 0.440 0.17
Madagascar 147 0.373 0.10 143 0.370 0.20 175 0.117 0.09 104 0.599 0.16
Swaziland 148 0.367 0.08 141 0.379 0.22 113 0.475 0.15 164 0.285 0.22
Somaliland 149 0.362 0.09 137 0.408 0.22 160 0.196 0.12 131 0.478 0.20
Burundi 150 0.360 0.07  99 0.635 0.16 161 0.194 0.13 163 0.288 0.17
North Korea 151 0.358 0.06 176 0.097 0.12 92 0.599 0.14 149 0.385 0.19
Turkmenistan 152 0.354 0.08 149 0.353 0.19 106 0.517 0.18 176 0.141 0.16
Iraq 153 0.352 0.09  152 0.314 0.23 136 0.355 0.13 144 0.420 0.22
Honduras 154 0.351 0.07 154 0.305 0.18 159 0.208 0.12 125 0.506 0.20
Laos 155 0.344 0.08 151 0.335 0.19 137 0.346 0.16 151 0.382 0.18
Paraguay 156 0.342 0.06 144 0.370 0.19 166 0.164 0.10 138 0.444 0.19
Dominican Republic 157 0.331 0.09  157 0.255 0.19 155 0.232 0.13 126 0.502 0.18
CAR 158 0.331 0.07 175 0.134 0.14 169 0.143 0.12  88 0.657 0.16
El Salvador 159 0.306 0.07 161 0.227 0.15 153 0.245 0.13 129 0.484 0.21
Pakistan 160 0.306 0.11 169 0.168 0.18 163 0.193 0.13 135 0.455 0.20
Azerbaijan 161 0.303 0.08 118 0.575 0.17 164 0.176 0.14 172 0.159 0.18
Bangladesh 162 0.299 0.09 159 0.230 0.18 150 0.250 0.16 154 0.361 0.21
Equatorial Guinea 163 0.298 0.08 155 0.304 0.17 147 0.262 0.12 156 0.330 0.19
Guatemala 164 0.290 0.09 165 0.201 0.18 157 0.215 0.10 142 0.432 0.23
Tajikistan 165 0.281 0.08 131 0.476 0.22 149 0.257 0.12 178 0.079 0.12
Afghanistan 166 0.281 0.08 168 0.171 0.17 148 0.261 0.13 150 0.383 0.19
Congo 167 0.277 0.09 171 0.153 0.20 144 0.296 0.14 160 0.305 0.17
Syria 168 0.268 0.10 136 0.417 0.18 158 0.213 0.13  175 0.142 0.16
Angola 169 0.262 0.09 170 0.160 0.20 156 0.217 0.11 152 0.382 0.24
Somalia 170 0.258 0.07  156 0.302 0.18  176 0.096 0.08 134 0.456 0.19
Haiti 171 0.236 0.08 166 0.192 0.18 167 0.154 0.13 161 0.304 0.23
Chad 172 0.233 0.07 160 0.228 0.18 154 0.238 0.13 168 0.196 0.18
Mauritania 173 0.232 0.08  150 0.338 0.26 171 0.135 0.11  167 0.199 0.20
Cambodia 174 0.199 0.06 173 0.148 0.13 173 0.123 0.10 158 0.316 0.21
Sudan 175 0.199 0.07 158 0.238 0.20 172 0.134 0.09 177 0.140 0.17
Egypt 176 0.176 0.06 174 0.146 0.14 170 0.135 0.10 162 0.296 0.19
Yemen 177 0.131 0.05 177 0.069 0.11 177 0.079 0.09 169 0.190 0.22
South Sudan 178 0.085 0.05 178 0.052 0.09 178 0.026 0.04 174 0.144 0.15
86 IN THE SPOTLIGHT  |
 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017 87

Appendix 5: The Participatory

Component Index Figure A5.1: The V-Dem Participatory Component
Index: World and Regional Averages, 1900 to 2017.
1

.9

.8

.7

.6

.5

.4

.3
The participatory principle of democracy emphasizes active par-
ticipation by citizens in all political processes, electoral and non- .2

electoral. This principle prefers direct rule by citizens as practicable.

The V-Dem Participatory Component Index (PCI) takes into account .1

four important aspects of citizen participation: civil society organ-

0
izations, mechanisms of direct democracy, and participation and
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017
representation through local and regional governments (Figure
World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia
5.1). Four different V-Dem indices capture these aspects and are the Latin America and the Caribbean MENA

basis for the PCI. Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
Asia−Pacific

Figure A5.2: The V-Dem Participatory Component Index (PCI)

Civil society participation index

Candidate selection- CSO participatory CSO womens

CSO consultation
National/local environment participation

Direct popular vote index Local government index

Local government Local government

Local offices relative power
elected exists

Regional government index

Regional government Regional government

Regional offices relative power
elected exists
88 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017

Table A5: Country Scores for the Participatory Component Index (PCI) and its Main Components

Participatory Component Civil Society Participation Direct Popular Vote Local Government Regional Government
Index (PCI) Index Index Index Index
Country Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-)
Switzerland 1 0.876 0.02 4 0.968 0.02 1 0.679 0.00 21 0.981 0.019 9 0.989 0.011
Uruguay 2 0.814 0.03 23 0.897 0.07 2 0.547 0.00 29 0.973 0.027  5 0.993 0.007
New Zealand 3 0.763 0.03 21 0.906 0.06 4 0.406 0.00 20 0.981 0.019 178
Slovenia 4 0.758 0.03  38 0.864 0.08 3 0.418 0.00 37 0.957 0.043 154 0.000 0.000
Italy 5 0.746 0.03 33 0.880 0.07 7 0.379 0.00 33 0.969 0.031 28 0.965 0.035
Lithuania 6 0.729 0.05 52 0.830 0.09 6 0.389 0.00 3 0.994 0.006 166 0.000 0.000 
Slovakia 7 0.724 0.04 58 0.821 0.10 10 0.332 0.00 4 0.991 0.009 23 0.971 0.029
Bulgaria 8 0.710 0.05  79 0.769 0.12 5 0.395 0.00 35 0.959 0.041  120 0.056 0.025
Denmark 9 0.708 0.02 7 0.960 0.03 37 0.185 0.00 6 0.990 0.010 12 0.985 0.015
Austria 10 0.707 0.02  12 0.946 0.04 31 0.193 0.00 22 0.980 0.020 14 0.982 0.018
Taiwan 11 0.704 0.03 17 0.925 0.05 40 0.179 0.00 9 0.989 0.011 20 0.975 0.025
Bolivia 12 0.694 0.05 50 0.838 0.08 11 0.310 0.00 39 0.953 0.046 59 0.810 0.077
Iceland 13 0.689 0.03  8 0.958 0.03 50 0.154 0.00 25 0.979 0.021 163 0.000 0.000
United Kingdom 14 0.684 0.02  6 0.963 0.03 55 0.135 0.00 76 0.845 0.083 26 0.968 0.032
Peru 15 0.682 0.05 90 0.741 0.13 16 0.250 0.00 28 0.977 0.023 11 0.988 0.012
Costa Rica 16 0.680 0.04 22 0.899 0.06 43 0.174 0.00 36 0.959 0.041 174 0.000 0.000
Croatia 17 0.678 0.05  72 0.792 0.12 12 0.307 0.00 60 0.886 0.112 35 0.930 0.070 
Netherlands 18 0.673 0.04 24 0.895 0.06 39 0.183 0.00 71 0.857 0.128 37 0.917 0.082
Australia 19 0.666 0.03 19 0.914 0.06 46 0.167 0.00 23 0.980 0.020 3 0.993 0.007
Niger 20 0.661 0.06 28 0.888 0.06 38 0.185 0.00 116 0.475 0.025 32 0.949 0.051
Latvia 21 0.659 0.05 62 0.811 0.11 21 0.213 0.00 30 0.972 0.028 151 0.000 0.000 
USA 22 0.659 0.01 1 0.983 0.01 166 0.000 0.00 49 0.928 0.063 1 0.998 0.002
Norway 23 0.657 0.01 2 0.982 0.01 127 0.015 0.00 34 0.965 0.035 31 0.952 0.047
Belgium 24 0.654 0.02 9 0.956 0.03 125 0.017 0.00 2 0.994 0.006 19 0.976 0.024
Ivory Coast 25 0.652 0.05 44 0.851 0.08 18 0.244 0.00 75 0.849 0.123 65 0.679 0.138
Canada 26 0.652 0.02 3 0.973 0.02 128 0.015 0.00 32 0.971 0.029 10 0.988 0.012
Germany 27 0.652 0.02 5 0.967 0.02 145 0.011 0.00 38 0.955 0.045 4 0.993 0.007
Colombia 28 0.651 0.07 88 0.744 0.13 20 0.215 0.00 17 0.984 0.016 22 0.973 0.027
Finland 29 0.646 0.02 14 0.943 0.04 131 0.015 0.00 1 0.996 0.004 86 0.364 0.102 
Sweden 30 0.643 0.03  16 0.937 0.04 107 0.028 0.00 24 0.979 0.021 43 0.884 0.084
Hungary 31 0.643 0.07 119 0.650 0.17 8 0.365 0.00 53 0.920 0.076 33 0.947 0.052
Ecuador 32 0.639 0.06 111 0.674 0.15 9 0.350 0.00 70 0.859 0.129 40 0.900 0.100
Greece 33 0.638 0.06 34 0.877 0.07 28 0.200 0.00 124 0.341 0.170 52 0.850 0.146
Spain 34 0.634 0.03 57 0.825 0.09 68 0.091 0.00 10 0.988 0.012 34 0.939 0.056
Portugal 35 0.634 0.05 63 0.811 0.10 62 0.112 0.00 7 0.989 0.011 150 0.000 0.000
Poland 36 0.630 0.06 107 0.681 0.13 44 0.169 0.00 11 0.987 0.013 49 0.860 0.072
Sierra Leone 37 0.629 0.03 13 0.945 0.04 149 0.009 0.00 42 0.944 0.056 54 0.840 0.160
Gabon 38 0.628 0.05 30 0.884 0.07 100 0.033 0.00 26 0.977 0.023  96 0.209 0.077
France 39 0.625 0.05  48 0.843 0.10 95 0.033 0.00 31 0.971 0.029 27 0.967 0.033
Argentina 40 0.619 0.04 47 0.844 0.10 130 0.015 0.00 57 0.909 0.067 7 0.992 0.008
Nigeria 41 0.619 0.04 27 0.888 0.08 150 0.007 0.00 41 0.945 0.055  15 0.981 0.019 
Kenya 42 0.615 0.05  37 0.866 0.08 57 0.131 0.00 77 0.841 0.134  62 0.760 0.137 
Philippines 43 0.615 0.05 64 0.807 0.10 77 0.070 0.00 65 0.873 0.086 30 0.963 0.037
Benin 44 0.608 0.05 25 0.893 0.07 122 0.020 0.00 45 0.938 0.062 125 0.047 0.029
Brazil 45 0.607 0.05  97 0.725 0.15 63 0.104 0.00 16 0.985 0.015 21 0.973 0.027
Jamaica 46 0.607 0.05 45 0.846 0.09 109 0.026 0.00 12 0.987 0.013 175 0.000 0.000
Chile 47 0.605 0.04 39 0.862 0.08 126 0.015 0.00 47 0.931 0.069 79 0.435 0.159
Montenegro 48 0.605 0.06 76 0.775 0.13 61 0.116 0.00 51 0.927 0.073 177 0.000 0.000
Estonia 49 0.604 0.06 93 0.729 0.14 69 0.090 0.00 15 0.985 0.015 74 0.484 0.016
South Korea 50 0.602 0.05 40 0.860 0.09 103 0.031 0.00 18 0.984 0.016  2 0.996 0.004
Czech Republic 51 0.602 0.05 51 0.832 0.08 87 0.053 0.00 55 0.917 0.071 36 0.927 0.051
Japan 52 0.600 0.04 60 0.813 0.10 136 0.013 0.00 13 0.987 0.013 6 0.992 0.008
Ukraine 53 0.599 0.06 86 0.746 0.12 67 0.096 0.00 52 0.925 0.075 100 0.178 0.078
Bhutan 54 0.597 0.05  41 0.856 0.08 111 0.020 0.00 50 0.928 0.072 57 0.823 0.129 
Suriname 55 0.594 0.05 35 0.874 0.07 117 0.020 0.00 91 0.716 0.222 55 0.834 0.092
Israel 56 0.593 0.05 75 0.781 0.12 140 0.013 0.00 27 0.977 0.023 153 0.000 0.000
Macedonia 57 0.588 0.05 114 0.667 0.15 45 0.169 0.00 19 0.982 0.018 171 0.000 0.000
South Africa 58 0.587 0.06 46 0.845 0.08 114 0.020 0.00 59 0.904 0.096 44 0.879 0.100
Serbia 59 0.586 0.06 134 0.591 0.16 49 0.156 0.00 54 0.920 0.080 29 0.965 0.035
Mexico 60 0.583 0.06 103 0.692 0.15 84 0.055 0.00 8 0.989 0.011 8 0.990 0.010
Romania 61 0.582 0.08 109 0.681 0.14 15 0.251 0.00 99 0.657 0.124 53 0.847 0.147
Malawi 62 0.580 0.06  31 0.883 0.07 134 0.013 0.00 69 0.859 0.130  164 0.000 0.000
Indonesia 63 0.579 0.06 56 0.825 0.10 159 0.000 0.00 67 0.864 0.122 24 0.969 0.031
Paraguay 64 0.577 0.08 135 0.587 0.17 48 0.158 0.00 14 0.987 0.013 17 0.980 0.020
Uganda 65 0.576 0.06 61 0.812 0.11 47 0.161 0.00 105 0.622 0.262 63 0.736 0.174
Ireland 66 0.575 0.10 10 0.953 0.03 25 0.208 0.00 108 0.585 0.308 162 0.000 0.000
Sri Lanka 67 0.572 0.05  55 0.826 0.10  104 0.031 0.00 93 0.708 0.130 46 0.868 0.109
S.Tomé & P. 68 0.569 0.05 92 0.733 0.13 119 0.020 0.00 40 0.945 0.055 25 0.969 0.031
Morocco 69 0.566 0.06  96 0.727 0.12 33 0.189 0.00 109 0.581 0.281  61 0.774 0.141 
Comoros 70 0.566 0.07 130 0.612 0.17 66 0.100 0.00 43 0.942 0.057 13 0.983 0.017
Botswana 71 0.565 0.04 65 0.804 0.11 93 0.037 0.00 81 0.796 0.084  58 0.816 0.109
Panama 72 0.564 0.06 94 0.728 0.13 64 0.100 0.00 44 0.941 0.059  84 0.397 0.091
Mozambique 73 0.564 0.07 66 0.801 0.10 106 0.031 0.00 62 0.879 0.121 148 0.000 0.000 
Mongolia 74 0.564 0.05 67 0.801 0.11 35 0.186 0.00 98 0.672 0.143  71 0.567 0.159 
Honduras 75 0.561 0.06 83 0.759 0.12 81 0.068 0.00 66 0.870 0.106 78 0.438 0.049
Cyprus 76 0.560 0.05 42 0.854 0.09 175 0.000 0.00 79 0.820 0.154 82 0.415 0.085
Guatemala 77 0.559 0.06 91 0.741 0.13 101 0.033 0.00 56 0.915 0.085 156 0.000 0.000
Burkina Faso 78 0.558 0.05 20 0.913 0.06 94 0.033 0.00 87 0.734 0.119 72 0.541 0.085 
Guyana 79 0.552 0.05 80 0.769 0.12 142 0.013 0.00 90 0.730 0.148 48 0.861 0.126
Bosnia and Herzegovina 80 0.548 0.05 110 0.675 0.15 161 0.000 0.00 64 0.873 0.115 18 0.979 0.021
Timor-Leste 81 0.545 0.07 101 0.698 0.15 124 0.018 0.00 46 0.934 0.066  75 0.474 0.026
India 82 0.545 0.07 122 0.638 0.17 177 0.000 0.00 83 0.779 0.079 16 0.980 0.020
Trinidad and Tobago 83 0.544 0.07 82 0.766 0.13 156 0.000 0.00 73 0.854 0.146 161 0.000 0.000
Namibia 84 0.543 0.07 85 0.754 0.13 105 0.031 0.00 88 0.734 0.110 50 0.858 0.117
Papua New Guinea 85 0.540 0.06 117 0.659 0.15 135 0.013 0.00 48 0.929 0.071 41 0.899 0.092
Vietnam 86 0.537 0.07 106 0.683 0.15 121 0.020 0.00 78 0.827 0.112 39 0.900 0.099
Madagascar 87 0.531 0.09 71 0.793 0.11 41 0.177 0.00 103 0.636 0.227  132 0.025 0.021
 indicates that the country’s score has improved over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
 indicates that the country’s score has decreased over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
V-Dem Annual Report 2018 89
SD+/- reports the standard deviation to indicate the level of uncertainty.

Participatory Component Civil Society Participation Direct Popular Vote Local Government Regional Government
Index (PCI) Index Index Index Index
Country Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-) Rank Score SD (+/-)
Albania 88 0.531 0.05 137 0.580 0.18 86 0.053 0.00 5 0.990 0.010 42 0.891 0.106 
Mauritius 89 0.528 0.08 74 0.785 0.11 147 0.009 0.00 72 0.854 0.146 142 0.000 0.000
Cape Verde 90 0.522 0.07 53 0.829 0.09 82 0.063 0.00 95 0.696 0.218 167 0.000 0.000
Bangladesh 91 0.521 0.08 105 0.691 0.13 167 0.000 0.00 68 0.859 0.131 173 0.000 0.000
El Salvador 92 0.517 0.06 120 0.650 0.18 137 0.013 0.00 63 0.877 0.117 152 0.000 0.000 
Venezuela 93 0.514 0.07 150 0.470 0.18 17 0.250 0.00 82 0.789 0.076 68 0.616 0.088 
Iraq 94 0.512 0.06 116 0.663 0.16 79 0.068 0.00 129 0.283 0.124 45 0.876 0.118
Somaliland 95 0.511 0.06 100 0.701 0.14 89 0.042 0.00 84 0.776 0.143 77 0.447 0.053
Vanuatu 96 0.505 0.08 32 0.881 0.07 141 0.013 0.00 102 0.640 0.251 145 0.000 0.000
Moldova 97 0.504 0.07 115 0.666 0.15 53 0.144 0.00 104 0.634 0.193 64 0.679 0.170
Solomon Islands 98 0.501 0.07 125 0.632 0.16 152 0.000 0.00 168 0.000 0.000 51 0.858 0.109
Luxembourg 99 0.496 0.08 15 0.943 0.04 27 0.203 0.00 122 0.378 0.166 144 0.000 0.000
Palestine/West Bank 100 0.490 0.08 112 0.674 0.16 178 0.000 0.00 74 0.850 0.148 159 0.000 0.000
Georgia 101 0.488 0.07 49 0.839 0.09 36 0.185 0.00 118 0.468 0.178  99 0.185 0.092
Myanmar 102 0.487 0.07  140 0.560 0.19  148 0.009 0.00 111 0.525 0.169  38 0.907 0.070 
Congo 103 0.485 0.08  104 0.692 0.17 51 0.151 0.00 96 0.687 0.044  109 0.096 0.060
Tunisia 104 0.484 0.04  18 0.921 0.05  72 0.081 0.00 138 0.196 0.087 76 0.472 0.028 
Armenia 105 0.484 0.08  131 0.602 0.14 54 0.141 0.00 86 0.749 0.165  114 0.085 0.038
Mali 106 0.481 0.08 54 0.828 0.11 96 0.033 0.00 106 0.603 0.187 117 0.077 0.033
Rwanda 107 0.481 0.08 69 0.793 0.10 24 0.211 0.00 119 0.463 0.200  97 0.206 0.079
Malaysia 108 0.480 0.07 118 0.652 0.15 160 0.000 0.00 177 56 0.830 0.125
Pakistan 109 0.480 0.07 149 0.476 0.18 80 0.068 0.00 110 0.538 0.215  47 0.867 0.133
Zambia 110 0.479 0.06  78 0.770 0.12 56 0.133 0.00 113 0.521 0.127  133 0.025 0.022 
The Gambia 111 0.476 0.09 87 0.744 0.13 108 0.026 0.00 121 0.427 0.137 66 0.669 0.168
Lesotho 112 0.474 0.05 36 0.874 0.07 138 0.013 0.00 120 0.455 0.173 73 0.486 0.014
Nepal 113 0.474 0.06  29 0.886 0.07 120 0.020 0.00 112 0.525 0.145  87 0.340 0.129 
Dominican Republic 114 0.473 0.07  102 0.696 0.12 102 0.032 0.00 94 0.704 0.140  83 0.409 0.069
Nicaragua 115 0.472 0.07 128 0.623 0.19 74 0.080 0.00 85 0.764 0.105 176 0.000 0.000
Liberia 116 0.469 0.03 81 0.766 0.11 75 0.079 0.00 123 0.359 0.078 80 0.428 0.057
Turkey 117 0.461 0.08 163 0.306 0.20 13 0.259 0.00 80 0.796 0.197  126 0.041 0.046
Maldives 118 0.456 0.07  159 0.348 0.20  58 0.121 0.00 58 0.906 0.090  98 0.204 0.090 
Haiti 119 0.455 0.08 147 0.484 0.19 174 0.000 0.00 61 0.883 0.117 67 0.667 0.219
Lebanon 120 0.454 0.10 73 0.786 0.11 165 0.000 0.00 107 0.602 0.250 157 0.000 0.000
Djibouti 121 0.454 0.08 121 0.647 0.18 90 0.040 0.00 92 0.710 0.127 93 0.233 0.114
Kyrgyzstan 122 0.454 0.08 95 0.727 0.14 30 0.195 0.00 117 0.469 0.161 121 0.056 0.028
Libya 123 0.448 0.08  126 0.625 0.18  146 0.011 0.00 89 0.730 0.183  170 0.000 0.000
DRC 124 0.439 0.07 153 0.441 0.19 70 0.088 0.00 139 0.192 0.068 60 0.777 0.120
Tanzania 125 0.431 0.08 70 0.793 0.11 129 0.015 0.00 115 0.498 0.164 90 0.301 0.058
Kosovo 126 0.420 0.08 133 0.596 0.17 162 0.000 0.00 97 0.681 0.115 172 0.000 0.000
Senegal 127 0.417 0.06 26 0.889 0.07 52 0.151 0.00 130 0.270 0.104 101 0.176 0.075 
Chad 128 0.405 0.11 124 0.637 0.17 71 0.088 0.00 114 0.511 0.352  110 0.095 0.066
Swaziland 129 0.402 0.09 141 0.559 0.19 133 0.013 0.00 101 0.644 0.142 115 0.083 0.038
Somalia 130 0.386 0.07 113 0.672 0.15 98 0.033 0.00 134 0.223 0.143 81 0.428 0.069
Zimbabwe 131 0.385 0.07 98 0.722 0.16 29 0.200 0.00 135 0.212 0.101 102 0.158 0.078
Ghana 132 0.376 0.05 11 0.948 0.04 110 0.024 0.00 141 0.176 0.106 140 0.009 0.012
Mauritania 133 0.374 0.09 138 0.577 0.17 22 0.213 0.00 127 0.309 0.172 88 0.320 0.135
Guinea 134 0.347 0.05 68 0.798 0.11 78 0.069 0.00 147 0.113 0.074 129 0.036 0.031
Russia 135 0.332 0.07 160 0.334 0.19 85 0.055 0.00 125 0.331 0.137 69 0.597 0.130 
Zanzibar 136 0.331 0.07 136 0.584 0.19 26 0.205 0.00 145 0.130 0.086 168 0.000 0.000
Oman 137 0.312 0.06 161 0.325 0.18 169 0.000 0.00 100 0.655 0.132  119 0.077 0.034
Jordan 138 0.302 0.08 123 0.637 0.16 154 0.000 0.00 133 0.229 0.089 112 0.086 0.056
Thailand 139 0.301 0.08 129 0.614 0.17 164 0.000 0.00 126 0.320 0.133 158 0.000 0.000 
Cambodia 140 0.289 0.07 146 0.484 0.21 173 0.000 0.00 128 0.297 0.127  91 0.280 0.128 
Guinea-Bissau 141 0.287 0.08 99 0.707 0.13 112 0.020 0.00 150 0.090 0.059 105 0.155 0.101
Belarus 142 0.287 0.08 148 0.483 0.18 65 0.100 0.00 143 0.141 0.059  95 0.210 0.104
Sudan 143 0.285 0.07 143 0.525 0.19 118 0.020 0.00 151 0.084 0.045 89 0.311 0.137
Ethiopia 144 0.278 0.09 167 0.243 0.17 139 0.013 0.00 152 0.082 0.061 70 0.580 0.226
Barbados 145 0.278 0.04 43 0.852 0.09 155 0.000 0.00 178 147 0.000 0.000
Egypt 146 0.277 0.07 154 0.429 0.19 23 0.213 0.00 155 0.058 0.054 106 0.120 0.047 
Seychelles 147 0.276 0.05 77 0.774 0.12 143 0.012 0.00 166 0.005 0.008 149 0.000 0.000
Hong Kong 148 0.273 0.06 59 0.819 0.11 170 0.000 0.00 169 0.000 0.000 160 0.000 0.000
Afghanistan 149 0.273 0.07 89 0.743 0.15 115 0.020 0.00 160 0.032 0.046 123 0.048 0.042
Togo 150 0.266 0.07 108 0.681 0.15 88 0.042 0.00 173 113 0.085 0.034
Fiji 151 0.262 0.06 84 0.756 0.12 151 0.007 0.00 172 135 0.023 0.018
Algeria 152 0.260 0.05 152 0.452 0.18 59 0.117 0.00 140 0.179 0.091 118 0.077 0.042
Palestine/Gaza 153 0.254 0.06 127 0.624 0.17 163 0.000 0.00 144 0.134 0.068 143 0.000 0.000
CAR 154 0.239 0.07 132 0.598 0.16 132 0.013 0.00 176 107 0.109 0.066
Iran 155 0.238 0.07 155 0.413 0.19 99 0.033 0.00 136 0.209 0.079 130 0.031 0.029
Kuwait 156 0.228 0.06 142 0.541 0.16 168 0.000 0.00 142 0.151 0.067 146 0.000 0.000
Cameroon 157 0.223 0.07 144 0.515 0.18 116 0.020 0.00 159 0.033 0.034 131 0.028 0.022
Kazakhstan 158 0.217 0.08 151 0.453 0.20 91 0.037 0.00 158 0.036 0.035 108 0.097 0.056
Yemen 159 0.209 0.05  170 0.220 0.17 92 0.037 0.00 137 0.208 0.084 85 0.369 0.106 
South Sudan 160 0.201 0.08 157 0.376 0.21 113 0.020 0.00 162 0.019 0.023 94 0.230 0.116
Syria 161 0.195 0.05 175 0.130 0.14 34 0.188 0.00 132 0.235 0.117 124 0.047 0.030
Burundi 162 0.195 0.06  164 0.288 0.15  60 0.117 0.00 148 0.106 0.070 139 0.011 0.016 
United Arab Emirates 163 0.193 0.09 145 0.502 0.20 157 0.000 0.00 175 138 0.011 0.012
Azerbaijan 164 0.192 0.04 174 0.162 0.16 19 0.218 0.00 156 0.057 0.036 104 0.155 0.071
Angola 165 0.191 0.07 156 0.405 0.19 123 0.018 0.00 174 103 0.155 0.088
Laos 166 0.181 0.05 165 0.264 0.17 176 0.000 0.00 131 0.255 0.119 122 0.050 0.048
Singapore 167 0.181 0.05 139 0.561 0.18 144 0.011 0.00 171 0.000 0.000 165 0.000 0.000
Equatorial Guinea 168 0.177 0.05 171 0.206 0.17 42 0.176 0.00 154 0.070 0.058 136 0.015 0.019
Cuba 169 0.171 0.05 173 0.188 0.20 97 0.033 0.00 146 0.127 0.065 92 0.265 0.112
Tajikistan 170 0.161 0.03 166 0.251 0.16 32 0.193 0.00 163 0.018 0.018 134 0.023 0.027
Turkmenistan 171 0.159 0.03 176 0.091 0.12 14 0.258 0.00 153 0.072 0.037 116 0.079 0.038
China 172 0.144 0.07 158 0.368 0.17 171 0.000 0.00 149 0.106 0.037 127 0.038 0.018
Uzbekistan 173 0.131 0.04 162 0.307 0.18 76 0.073 0.00 161 0.029 0.028 128 0.037 0.037
Bahrain 174 0.103 0.04  168 0.237 0.18 83 0.056 0.00 165 0.008 0.014 155 0.000 0.000
Saudi Arabia 175 0.095 0.04 169 0.231 0.19 172 0.000 0.00 164 0.009 0.012 141 0.009 0.010
Qatar 176 0.093 0.02 172 0.199 0.16 73 0.080 0.00 170 0.000 0.000 169 0.000 0.000
North Korea 177 0.060 0.03 178 0.035 0.06 153 0.000 0.00 157 0.054 0.036 111 0.094 0.050
Eritrea 178 0.032 0.02 177 0.055 0.09 158 0.000 0.00 167 0.004 0.008 137 0.014 0.020
90
 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017 91

Appendix 6: The Deliberative

Component Index

Figure A6.1: The V-Dem Deliberative Component Index:

World and Regional Averages, 1900 to 2017.

.9

.8

.7

.6

.5

.4

TV-Dem Deliberative Component Index (DCI) captures to what ex-

.3
tent the deliberative principle of democracy is achieved. It assess-
es the process by which decisions are reached in a polity. A delib-
.2
erative process is one in which public reasoning, focused on the
common good, motivates political decisions—as contrasted with .1

emotional appeals, solidary attachments, parochial interests, or co-

ercion. According to this principle, democracy requires more than 0

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017
an aggregation of existing preferences. There should also be re-
World Average Eastern Europe and Central Asia
spectful dialogue at all levels —from preference formation to final
Latin America and the Caribbean MENA
decision— among informed and competent participants who are Sub−Saharan Africa Western Europe and North America
Asia−Pacific
open to persuasion.

Figure A6.2: The V-Dem Deliberative Component Index (DCI)

Deliberate Component index

Reasoned justification Common good Respect counterarguments Range of consultation Engaged society
92 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017

Table A6: Country Scores for the Deliberative Component Index (DCI) and its Components

Deliberative Component Reasoned Common Good Respect for Range of Engaged

Index (DCI) justification justification counterarguments consultation society
Country Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/-
Norway 1 0.987 0.01 1 2.902 0.10 10 3.742 0.25 4 4.204 0.32 1 4.933 0.07 2 4.620 0.36
Denmark 2 0.977 0.02 12 2.734 0.24 3 3.851 0.15 3 4.208 0.43 6 4.643 0.35 1 4.663 0.33
Luxembourg 3 0.974 0.02 8 2.797 0.20 13 3.711 0.29 1 4.622 0.29 2 4.785 0.22 39 3.688 0.43
Switzerland 4 0.974 0.02 3 2.873 0.13 50 3.312 0.39 10 3.680 0.36 4 4.738 0.26 6 4.461 0.40
Sweden 5 0.971 0.02 10 2.749 0.23 2 3.903 0.10 18 3.458 0.42 3 4.743 0.23 4 4.469 0.40
Germany 6 0.952 0.03 9 2.758 0.24 36 3.438 0.29 25 3.314 0.33  5 4.663 0.29 18 4.072 0.30
Costa Rica 7 0.951 0.02 6 2.831 0.17 4 3.851 0.15 6 3.829 0.40 24 4.007 0.33 17 4.079 0.42
Ireland 8 0.948 0.03  2 2.886 0.11 106 2.718 0.56 17 3.485 0.47  11 4.302 0.47 15 4.099 0.47 
Netherlands 9 0.945 0.03 62 2.023 0.26 33 3.468 0.33 19 3.428 0.36 7 4.608 0.35 8 4.342 0.37
Tunisia 10 0.940 0.03  51 2.145 0.23  5 3.835 0.16  26 3.311 0.46  15 4.256 0.46  7 4.376 0.44 
Belgium 11 0.933 0.03 16 2.645 0.26 82 2.994 0.63 28 3.254 0.41 8 4.561 0.38 35 3.804 0.42
South Korea 12 0.932 0.04 31 2.399 0.37 34 3.467 0.37 15 3.566 0.45 18 4.135 0.55 11 4.213 0.50
Finland 13 0.930 0.04 20 2.565 0.26 130 2.323 0.52 22 3.340 0.40 16 4.256 0.40 5 4.465 0.41
Australia 14 0.928 0.03 43 2.251 0.25 15 3.691 0.29 14 3.588 0.39 10 4.330 0.44 27 3.883 0.41
Ecuador 15 0.924 0.04 67 1.978 0.29 1 3.932 0.07  41 3.019 0.48  13 4.265 0.55  13 4.186 0.56
Japan 16 0.924 0.04 4 2.866 0.13 43 3.389 0.28 9 3.711 0.35 34 3.798 0.38 43 3.598 0.30
Portugal 17 0.924 0.04 17 2.598 0.35 8 3.775 0.22 8 3.792 0.33 14 4.262 0.48 73 3.183 0.40
Canada 18 0.922 0.04 23 2.535 0.37 16 3.677 0.32 73 2.620 0.70 9 4.391 0.47  16 4.092 0.45
Uruguay 19 0.922 0.04 21 2.563 0.37 53 3.299 0.46 12 3.640 0.63 19 4.111 0.60 19 4.036 0.41
Estonia 20 0.921 0.04 5 2.839 0.16  69 3.133 0.37 51 2.869 0.42 27 3.949 0.49 10 4.217 0.43
Greece 21 0.916 0.04 47 2.184 0.39 60 3.212 0.45 2 4.352 0.48  31 3.838 0.52 37 3.732 0.55
Italy 22 0.907 0.05 25 2.481 0.32 93 2.845 0.52 34 3.079 0.46 12 4.280 0.43 24 3.954 0.52
Sierra Leone 23 0.906 0.04 18 2.567 0.32  96 2.823 0.70  24 3.320 0.47 26 3.966 0.64 14 4.123 0.56 
Chile 24 0.904 0.04 24 2.482 0.33 26 3.556 0.34 46 2.917 0.39  17 4.226 0.42  29 3.871 0.42
Vanuatu 25 0.904 0.05 33 2.384 0.43 97 2.803 0.44 29 3.241 0.50 22 4.034 0.54 22 3.976 0.59
Niger 26 0.904 0.05 40 2.305 0.31 30 3.507 0.48 27 3.270 0.45 25 4.005 0.45 33 3.810 0.44
France 27 0.899 0.05 7 2.805 0.19 31 3.504 0.41 119 1.949 0.56 21 4.045 0.58 32 3.819 0.52
Mauritius 28 0.895 0.05 14 2.660 0.28 128 2.402 0.52  11 3.676 0.43 49 3.490 0.49  26 3.907 0.54
Iceland 29 0.892 0.05 11 2.738 0.26 21 3.642 0.33 63 2.745 0.37 44 3.569 0.42 44 3.597 0.41
Indonesia 30 0.892 0.05 64 2.015 0.23  12 3.715 0.28 16 3.554 0.48 32 3.813 0.50 23 3.968 0.58
Spain 31 0.891 0.05 45 2.243 0.29 11 3.733 0.27 79 2.560 0.59  48 3.506 0.44  9 4.324 0.44
Taiwan 32 0.877 0.05 19 2.565 0.27 89 2.905 0.35 20 3.367 0.43 39 3.679 0.44 41 3.635 0.32
Trinidad and Tobago 33 0.877 0.05 36 2.333 0.31 57 3.228 0.45 58 2.785 0.53 20 4.094 0.58  25 3.942 0.51
Bhutan 34 0.877 0.06 38 2.319 0.29  22 3.642 0.36  5 4.008 0.51  30 3.856 0.62 81 3.019 0.53
South Africa 35 0.869 0.06 15 2.654 0.32 71 3.103 0.37 50 2.877 0.56 36 3.759 0.43 56 3.414 0.40
Jamaica 36 0.868 0.05 42 2.272 0.25 39 3.410 0.35 7 3.810 0.49 69 3.151 0.43  62 3.338 0.45
Slovenia 37 0.867 0.06 28 2.422 0.27 40 3.402 0.43 53 2.837 0.37 38 3.710 0.34 45 3.575 0.41
Benin 38 0.866 0.06 13 2.701 0.25  32 3.470 0.32 71 2.629 0.35  113 2.196 0.33  3 4.470 0.45 
Austria 39 0.866 0.05 29 2.407 0.36 29 3.514 0.37 80 2.551 0.34 41 3.606 0.41 28 3.877 0.37
United Kingdom 40 0.856 0.06 37 2.332 0.25 44 3.388 0.35 37 3.061 0.35 37 3.727 0.36 42 3.613 0.34
Panama 41 0.856 0.06 49 2.166 0.40 83 2.990 0.35 42 3.016 0.45 35 3.778 0.58 38 3.726 0.60
Ivory Coast 42 0.850 0.06  30 2.401 0.33  19 3.664 0.32  70 2.632 0.53 47 3.542 0.41 58 3.385 0.50 
Cyprus 43 0.847 0.07 26 2.467 0.26 104 2.725 0.62 76 2.597 0.45 45 3.558 0.48 48 3.549 0.55
Mongolia 44 0.847 0.06 96 1.619 0.20  79 3.012 0.46 13 3.618 0.39 59 3.241 0.48 12 4.200 0.30 
Burkina Faso 45 0.833 0.08 94 1.633 0.40 64 3.179 0.39  35 3.063 0.43 28 3.940 0.56 55 3.419 0.57
Ghana 46 0.829 0.07  72 1.875 0.25  52 3.300 0.34 93 2.339 0.32  29 3.873 0.42  40 3.681 0.28 
Georgia 47 0.826 0.07 70 1.896 0.24 6 3.810 0.19  30 3.132 0.33 61 3.223 0.34  46 3.573 0.32
Senegal 48 0.822 0.08 46 2.194 0.29 66 3.157 0.52 45 2.924 0.50 58 3.253 0.45 60 3.351 0.36 
Namibia 49 0.819 0.07 60 2.033 0.26 84 2.974 0.42 59 2.785 0.36 42 3.604 0.51 66 3.289 0.42
Morocco 50 0.814 0.07 48 2.177 0.30 23 3.638 0.34  61 2.758 0.38  97 2.607 0.31 63 3.323 0.31
Sri Lanka 51 0.812 0.07  39 2.313 0.29  28 3.515 0.36  57 2.792 0.30  88 2.783 0.46  52 3.491 0.41 
Lithuania 52 0.812 0.07 74 1.865 0.18  9 3.755 0.24 68 2.666 0.31  40 3.613 0.35  64 3.313 0.28
Botswana 53 0.811 0.08 90 1.678 0.18 49 3.312 0.29 36 3.062 0.32 33 3.802 0.53 67 3.282 0.37
Colombia 54 0.811 0.07 58 2.043 0.36  121 2.534 0.68 31 3.127 0.50 52 3.377 0.52  51 3.515 0.34 
S.Tomé & P. 55 0.810 0.07 52 2.134 0.24 85 2.946 0.30 56 2.797 0.35 50 3.419 0.39 70 3.241 0.41
Suriname 56 0.810 0.07 116 1.473 0.33  24 3.591 0.40 83 2.502 0.32 43 3.576 0.51 31 3.862 0.56
Cape Verde 57 0.804 0.08 35 2.347 0.31 7 3.799 0.20 75 2.612 0.33 65 3.210 0.56  106 2.613 0.31
Latvia 58 0.804 0.08 44 2.247 0.30 86 2.942 0.45 69 2.644 0.35 57 3.266 0.38 54 3.439 0.33
Kyrgyzstan 59 0.804 0.07  32 2.394 0.31  80 3.008 0.28 47 2.912 0.47  79 2.925 0.42 75 3.162 0.33 
Mali 60 0.793 0.08 92 1.657 0.29 73 3.086 0.47 87 2.458 0.41 55 3.334 0.45 34 3.804 0.45
Peru 61 0.792 0.08 61 2.024 0.20 41 3.400 0.40 44 2.944 0.43 89 2.747 0.48 65 3.299 0.45
Czech Republic 62 0.791 0.08 73 1.873 0.23 45 3.385 0.48 60 2.776 0.46 67 3.171 0.48  59 3.369 0.35
Bulgaria 63 0.786 0.09 100 1.587 0.20 117 2.580 0.52 90 2.405 0.43 23 4.016 0.38 57 3.405 0.47
Seychelles 64 0.766 0.09 68 1.947 0.25 72 3.097 0.32 21 3.356 0.48 90 2.745 0.47 90 2.851 0.39
Malawi 65 0.766 0.10 82 1.805 0.22  35 3.445 0.45 52 2.864 0.36 76 2.978 0.59 87 2.898 0.44
Barbados 66 0.763 0.09 104 1.555 0.20  135 2.213 0.48  84 2.492 0.44 135 1.693 0.39  72 3.189 0.39
Israel 67 0.762 0.09 85 1.764 0.37 20 3.660 0.34 62 2.746 0.40 92 2.676 0.34 71 3.205 0.48
Nigeria 68 0.755 0.09 69 1.923 0.33 115 2.642 0.27 48 2.903 0.34 74 2.995 0.32 76 3.160 0.31
Singapore 69 0.751 0.10 27 2.443 0.45 27 3.540 0.42 65 2.710 0.59 84 2.844 0.63 119 2.340 0.58
Mexico 70 0.747 0.09 81 1.811 0.20 78 3.030 0.34 49 2.891 0.35 71 3.112 0.44 96 2.763 0.39
Argentina 71 0.742 0.09 75 1.858 0.42 101 2.777 0.51 39 3.036 0.43  107 2.361 0.38 69 3.259 0.41
Serbia 72 0.742 0.09 93 1.649 0.48  113 2.652 0.95 125 1.892 0.45 83 2.844 0.56 30 3.866 0.63
The Gambia 73 0.739 0.09  53 2.119 0.42  108 2.702 0.67 32 3.118 0.39  85 2.811 0.58  100 2.696 0.33 
Philippines 74 0.727 0.10 66 1.983 0.30 18 3.665 0.33 107 2.080 0.41  111 2.236 0.47  50 3.522 0.49
Palestine/West Bank 75 0.726 0.11 22 2.536 0.37 90 2.880 0.95 33 3.116 0.78 103 2.445 0.57 123 2.306 0.57
Tanzania 76 0.725 0.09 97 1.602 0.18 77 3.041 0.25 74 2.616 0.53 53 3.364 0.42 114 2.404 0.44
Pakistan 77 0.722 0.10 149 1.066 0.28 147 2.013 0.71 54 2.822 0.46 73 3.006 0.55 20 4.021 0.65
Timor-Leste 78 0.716 0.10 88 1.692 0.26 46 3.368 0.45 55 2.815 0.34 82 2.853 0.53 98 2.704 0.33
Uganda 79 0.716 0.11 41 2.299 0.25 91 2.864 0.40 94 2.285 0.40 70 3.124 0.46 113 2.413 0.35 
Nepal 80 0.708 0.10 98 1.590 0.25 105 2.721 0.45 99 2.199 0.30 63 3.219 0.47 83 2.990 0.63
Dominican Republic 81 0.706 0.10 107 1.537 0.37 165 1.152 0.71 115 1.972 0.43 75 2.978 0.47 21 3.992 0.62
Croatia 82 0.702 0.11 63 2.021 0.35 127 2.405 0.56 143 1.479 0.48 64 3.217 0.84 85 2.945 0.36
Macedonia 83 0.699 0.09 77 1.846 0.37 58 3.225 0.36 43 2.946 0.42  117 2.133 0.36  79 3.069 0.53
Liberia 84 0.698 0.11  34 2.373 0.35 56 3.263 0.62 85 2.469 0.63 123 2.018 0.71  86 2.909 0.39 
Libya 85 0.695 0.11  118 1.449 0.21  129 2.336 0.37 78 2.565 0.34  51 3.405 0.52  102 2.679 0.38 
Hong Kong 86 0.693 0.09 50 2.150 0.27 141 2.192 0.35 122 1.918 0.32 60 3.231 0.38 92 2.796 0.30
Ukraine 87 0.691 0.09 54 2.102 0.33 14 3.707 0.29 100 2.194 0.29 101 2.521 0.60 111 2.457 0.47 
Bosnia and Herzegovina 88 0.690 0.11 108 1.526 0.44 167 1.098 0.53 64 2.728 0.49 112 2.225 0.62 36 3.778 0.61
 indicates that the country’s score has improved over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
 indicates that the country’s score has decreased over the past 10 years at a statistically significant level.
V-Dem Annual Report 2018 93
SD+/- reports the standard deviation to indicate the level of uncertainty.

Deliberative Component Reasoned Common Good Respect for Range of Engaged

Index (DCI) justification justification counterarguments consultation society
Country Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/- Rank Score SD+/-
Montenegro 89 0.688 0.12 79 1.823 0.25 131 2.316 0.35 88 2.443 0.38 86 2.799 0.44 94 2.768 0.35
Myanmar 90 0.688 0.11  111 1.503 0.20  99 2.783 0.62  23 3.320 0.57  105 2.395 0.32  99 2.697 0.37 
Gabon 91 0.685 0.10 137 1.268 0.42  111 2.674 0.84 95 2.260 0.49 72 3.066 0.50 74 3.166 0.45 
Togo 92 0.683 0.10 56 2.084 0.35 92 2.863 0.43 81 2.536 0.51  62 3.221 0.45 131 1.894 0.25 
Lesotho 93 0.675 0.11 83 1.791 0.19 118 2.573 0.60 142 1.510 0.63 66 3.192 0.49  78 3.105 0.41
USA 94 0.669 0.10  89 1.680 0.17  145 2.110 0.59  109 2.070 0.32  115 2.152 0.35  49 3.533 0.37 
Lebanon 95 0.667 0.12 76 1.854 0.39 109 2.688 0.58  111 2.025 0.56 54 3.349 0.69 126 2.190 0.42 
New Zealand 96 0.666 0.12 57 2.078 0.34 67 3.156 0.41 130 1.792 0.73  102 2.475 0.77 91 2.815 0.58
Honduras 97 0.663 0.12 119 1.447 0.36 144 2.150 0.50 117 1.967 0.33 96 2.608 0.45  53 3.467 0.43
Kosovo 98 0.661 0.11 109 1.519 0.44 75 3.077 0.58 103 2.128 0.56 78 2.936 0.49 107 2.598 0.42
Mozambique 99 0.655 0.11 55 2.098 0.30 51 3.305 0.54 40 3.019 0.46  81 2.859 0.65 104 2.639 0.29
Kuwait 100 0.652 0.11 87 1.709 0.43 81 3.002 0.39 112 1.994 0.32 131 1.833 0.36 61 3.342 0.47
Solomon Islands 101 0.651 0.12 133 1.278 0.39 76 3.044 0.41 97 2.258 0.46 104 2.439 0.33 82 3.014 0.46 
Slovakia 102 0.651 0.12 106 1.544 0.25 132 2.284 0.38 102 2.134 0.45 80 2.924 0.44 89 2.874 0.50
Algeria 103 0.647 0.12 95 1.624 0.35 47 3.365 0.38 120 1.932 0.36 94 2.629 0.39 103 2.664 0.46
Brazil 104 0.645 0.11  113 1.482 0.24  119 2.564 0.40  66 2.689 0.36 68 3.160 0.56  121 2.316 0.51 
El Salvador 105 0.639 0.11 117 1.470 0.19 123 2.461 0.39  108 2.076 0.43 46 3.543 0.57 128 2.130 0.41
Guyana 106 0.636 0.12 112 1.501 0.23 98 2.801 0.30  126 1.877 0.41 56 3.295 0.46  88 2.892 0.40
Comoros 107 0.633 0.12 141 1.220 0.29 151 1.824 0.43 38 3.046 0.45 77 2.938 0.57 120 2.319 0.54
Zambia 108 0.624 0.09  78 1.832 0.25 122 2.496 0.30  127 1.867 0.29  109 2.330 0.37  93 2.780 0.33
Vietnam 109 0.621 0.12 91 1.678 0.29 162 1.264 0.72  82 2.515 0.47 87 2.794 0.49 115 2.402 0.70
Jordan 110 0.607 0.11 115 1.476 0.32 112 2.672 0.53 67 2.681 0.41 120 2.111 0.28 105 2.614 0.34
Bolivia 111 0.606 0.13 114 1.479 0.21  74 3.084 0.54 138 1.559 0.27 140 1.640 0.35 47 3.569 0.36 
Guatemala 112 0.593 0.12 127 1.337 0.26 149 1.873 0.60 114 1.975 0.34 93 2.655 0.50 95 2.765 0.34
Armenia 113 0.591 0.13 126 1.355 0.40 61 3.206 0.37 98 2.201 0.39 136 1.693 0.36 77 3.115 0.41
Mauritania 114 0.582 0.16 80 1.815 0.39 103 2.749 0.63 118 1.957 0.51  110 2.258 0.69 125 2.256 0.57 
Malaysia 115 0.577 0.12 71 1.893 0.31 94 2.842 0.63 104 2.108 0.47 139 1.648 0.46  116 2.393 0.53
Poland 116 0.575 0.12 148 1.102 0.30  48 3.313 0.34 136 1.595 0.48 121 2.086 0.40 68 3.273 0.44
CAR 117 0.561 0.13 132 1.286 0.49 158 1.467 0.76 72 2.628 0.65 98 2.605 0.68 110 2.465 0.64
Moldova 118 0.560 0.13 122 1.408 0.28 124 2.418 0.61 101 2.156 0.36 106 2.367 0.48 124 2.296 0.41
Guinea 119 0.550 0.15 103 1.559 0.35  70 3.114 0.53 105 2.106 0.65 118 2.133 0.61 134 1.842 0.44
Fiji 120 0.546 0.13 101 1.583 0.25  42 3.396 0.48  110 2.062 0.46 134 1.705 0.50 127 2.145 0.62
Iraq 121 0.543 0.14 65 2.005 0.36 152 1.714 0.59 135 1.690 0.52  157 1.188 0.40  80 3.022 0.48
Afghanistan 122 0.537 0.13 159 0.783 0.32 139 2.195 0.83 89 2.437 0.33 127 1.985 0.51 84 2.972 0.36
Hungary 123 0.532 0.14 105 1.548 0.32 146 2.020 0.57  96 2.259 0.28 126 1.988 0.44 143 1.524 0.36 
Iran 124 0.531 0.16 86 1.764 0.53 95 2.835 0.67 91 2.372 0.57 122 2.082 0.57 145 1.416 0.38
China 125 0.507 0.12 102 1.566 0.23  88 2.926 0.26  152 1.255 0.25 128 1.974 0.49 112 2.414 0.57
Somaliland 126 0.500 0.14 153 1.001 0.24 120 2.558 0.53 86 2.461 0.43 114 2.173 0.41 136 1.705 0.43 
Paraguay 127 0.495 0.14 162 0.722 0.28 160 1.365 0.53 116 1.970 0.27 91 2.676 0.42 109 2.543 0.39
India 128 0.494 0.15  128 1.323 0.27  59 3.225 0.37 134 1.713 0.45  95 2.610 0.64  157 1.227 0.45 
Zimbabwe 129 0.486 0.12 134 1.277 0.30 110 2.678 0.39 158 1.032 0.36 100 2.523 0.38 129 2.046 0.42
United Arab Emirates 130 0.482 0.12 147 1.138 0.45 138 2.196 0.89 155 1.168 0.40 99 2.580 0.70 108 2.595 0.75
Papua New Guinea 131 0.482 0.12 129 1.323 0.26 134 2.227 0.45 106 2.100 0.38 124 2.016 0.33 139 1.651 0.38
Rwanda 132 0.476 0.15 123 1.405 0.67 140 2.194 0.83 77 2.595 0.50  133 1.760 0.54 150 1.334 0.58
Uzbekistan 133 0.466 0.12  140 1.261 0.25  17 3.669 0.32  123 1.912 0.29  125 2.003 0.39  151 1.333 0.35 
Madagascar 134 0.465 0.12 110 1.510 0.23 125 2.412 0.47 144 1.477 0.48 146 1.414 0.36 117 2.375 0.51
Bangladesh 135 0.460 0.13 151 1.043 0.29 126 2.408 0.39  150 1.345 0.30 132 1.808 0.30  97 2.736 0.62
Albania 136 0.459 0.13  124 1.395 0.26  143 2.174 0.58 124 1.909 0.55 148 1.394 0.37  130 1.966 0.50 
Djibouti 137 0.454 0.14 120 1.425 0.23 136 2.207 0.66 147 1.415 0.34 142 1.501 0.37 122 2.315 0.38
Somalia 138 0.427 0.15  99 1.589 0.30  166 1.125 0.37  148 1.383 0.42 129 1.941 0.35  141 1.589 0.56 
Kenya 139 0.424 0.15  84 1.789 0.37 102 2.775 0.49 141 1.529 0.43  161 1.101 0.44  140 1.613 0.57 
Maldives 140 0.420 0.14 135 1.275 0.22 54 3.296 0.51  137 1.576 0.36 145 1.448 0.35 142 1.574 0.29
Ethiopia 141 0.408 0.12 144 1.193 0.25  65 3.172 0.43 129 1.849 0.42 137 1.678 0.36 148 1.357 0.30
Romania 142 0.403 0.13  145 1.176 0.33 63 3.194 0.36  145 1.470 0.32  158 1.185 0.37  135 1.798 0.36 
DRC 143 0.378 0.17 146 1.141 0.41 161 1.329 0.57 113 1.976 0.66 108 2.358 0.61 172 0.671 0.30 
Congo 144 0.377 0.15 168 0.531 0.24  159 1.421 0.50 121 1.931 0.47 130 1.881 0.41 132 1.889 0.71
Haiti 145 0.369 0.14 152 1.024 0.38 171 0.941 0.44 160 1.020 0.41  149 1.376 0.44  101 2.682 0.34
Cameroon 146 0.359 0.13 175 0.251 0.12  174 0.729 0.43 132 1.776 0.33 116 2.139 0.46 118 2.346 0.36
Qatar 147 0.359 0.13 155 0.911 0.30 87 2.929 0.35 92 2.350 0.28  155 1.288 0.32 162 1.062 0.33
Chad 148 0.347 0.12 157 0.858 0.27 172 0.900 0.45 133 1.753 0.39 144 1.495 0.35 133 1.881 0.54
Angola 149 0.344 0.11 139 1.263 0.24  116 2.595 0.37 131 1.777 0.32 150 1.376 0.26 163 1.046 0.33
Russia 150 0.341 0.13 150 1.061 0.37  38 3.421 0.44 149 1.356 0.44 168 0.880 0.35  137 1.695 0.51
Nicaragua 151 0.339 0.14  125 1.390 0.28  100 2.780 0.32 156 1.164 0.36 153 1.308 0.39  147 1.401 0.33 
Zanzibar 152 0.337 0.13 130 1.321 0.39 133 2.260 0.78 140 1.541 0.56 152 1.320 0.40 156 1.228 0.45
Guinea-Bissau 153 0.337 0.15 161 0.738 0.34  168 1.038 0.46 139 1.547 0.35 119 2.131 0.54 152 1.326 0.34
Cambodia 154 0.323 0.13 136 1.269 0.23 157 1.517 0.45 157 1.136 0.27 151 1.331 0.32 158 1.184 0.32 
Swaziland 155 0.304 0.14 138 1.265 0.44 153 1.672 0.44 128 1.855 0.34 160 1.156 0.35 165 0.960 0.39
Cuba 156 0.298 0.11 59 2.034 0.30 25 3.581 0.33 172 0.381 0.17 156 1.263 0.30 170 0.687 0.28
Turkey 157 0.290 0.12  142 1.212 0.26 114 2.648 0.46 146 1.439 0.38 169 0.826 0.23  149 1.355 0.36 
Kazakhstan 158 0.278 0.11 131 1.308 0.29 150 1.855 0.43 154 1.195 0.33 171 0.718 0.26 146 1.406 0.32
Sudan 159 0.246 0.15 160 0.743 0.35 170 0.972 0.37 161 0.937 0.39 159 1.165 0.45 138 1.674 0.52
Belarus 160 0.241 0.11 164 0.711 0.37 37 3.434 0.35 163 0.842 0.37 170 0.779 0.37 144 1.444 0.39
Egypt 161 0.239 0.12  143 1.199 0.39  137 2.198 0.50 167 0.689 0.28  164 0.988 0.29  160 1.109 0.46 
Palestine/Gaza 162 0.228 0.12 121 1.416 0.18  62 3.202 0.52 153 1.246 0.44  174 0.495 0.21 171 0.684 0.32 
Saudi Arabia 163 0.198 0.10 156 0.898 0.35 177 0.348 0.20 169 0.558 0.24 143 1.501 0.43 166 0.932 0.34
Burundi 164 0.191 0.11  169 0.460 0.21  163 1.244 0.50 162 0.849 0.34  162 1.088 0.35  153 1.301 0.41 
Oman 165 0.188 0.10 163 0.717 0.32  169 1.020 0.41 168 0.666 0.36 165 0.916 0.27 154 1.291 0.36
Azerbaijan 166 0.176 0.10 170 0.459 0.23 155 1.614 0.42  159 1.024 0.32 154 1.299 0.30 169 0.701 0.41
Laos 167 0.174 0.11 176 0.169 0.13 55 3.274 0.52 170 0.455 0.22 141 1.507 0.35 168 0.721 0.29
Thailand 168 0.171 0.10  154 0.940 0.24  68 3.146 0.50 151 1.312 0.35  172 0.660 0.26  177 0.439 0.24 
South Sudan 169 0.166 0.10 173 0.324 0.14 175 0.728 0.35 165 0.760 0.26 147 1.410 0.47 159 1.175 0.24
Equatorial Guinea 170 0.162 0.09 166 0.686 0.25 173 0.882 0.32 166 0.739 0.35 166 0.907 0.25 161 1.065 0.28
Bahrain 171 0.160 0.11  172 0.380 0.20  154 1.669 0.59 176 0.134 0.12  138 1.656 0.44 155 1.244 0.46 
Tajikistan 172 0.156 0.10 158 0.857 0.25 107 2.710 0.46 174 0.276 0.13  163 1.057 0.31 175 0.474 0.21
Eritrea 173 0.127 0.09 165 0.694 0.29 164 1.162 0.46 173 0.330 0.18 167 0.892 0.31 167 0.757 0.40
Venezuela 174 0.117 0.09  167 0.654 0.26  142 2.175 0.51  171 0.452 0.22  176 0.349 0.17  164 0.987 0.38 
Syria 175 0.088 0.07 171 0.410 0.24 176 0.640 0.28 164 0.772 0.32 175 0.447 0.23  176 0.451 0.20
Turkmenistan 176 0.070 0.06 174 0.281 0.11 156 1.548 0.40 175 0.222 0.12 173 0.558 0.23 173 0.602 0.27
Yemen 177 0.032 0.04  178 0.115 0.08  178 0.064 0.07  177 0.133 0.11  177 0.316 0.16  174 0.543 0.25 
North Korea 178 0.026 0.03 177 0.139 0.09 148 1.901 0.53 178 0.061 0.06 178 0.191 0.10 178 0.181 0.09
94 Appendix: Country Scores for 2017

Table A7: Regimes of the World 2007/2017.

Country 2007 2017 Country 2007 2017 Country 2007 2017 Country 2007 2017
Australia LD LD Namibia ED+ ED Solomon Isl. ED- ED Singapore EA EA+
Austria LD LD Panama ED+ ED+ Tanzania ED-  EA+ Somaliland EA EA+
Belgium LD LD São Tomé and Pr. ED+ ED+ Zambia ED-  EA Sri Lanka EA  ED
Canada LD LD Vanuatu ED+ ED+ Guinea-Biss. EA+  ED- Sudan EA EA
Costa Rica LD LD- Argentina ED ED Kosovo EA+ EA+ Syria EA  CA
Cyprus LD LD Benin ED ED+ Lebanon EA+  ED- Tajikistan EA EA
Denmark LD LD Bolivia ED ED Madagascar EA+ EA+ The Gambia EA EA
Estonia LD LD Brazil ED ED Mauritania EA+ EA Togo EA EA+
Finland LD LD Bulgaria ED ED+ Moldova EA+ ED- Tunisia EA  LD-
France LD LD Burkina Faso ED ED Montenegro EA+ EA Uganda EA EA
Germany LD LD Croatia ED ED Mozambique EA+ EA+ Yemen EA  CA
Greece LD LD- Dominican Rep. ED ED- Seychelles EA+  ED- Zanzibar EA EA
Hungary LD  ED Ecuador ED ED Venezuela EA+ EA Zimbabwe EA EA
Iceland LD LD El Salvador ED ED Afghanistan EA EA Uzbekistan EA-  CA
Ireland LD LD Georgia ED ED Algeria EA EA Kuwait CA+ CA+
Japan LD LD Guatemala ED ED Armenia EA EA Maldives CA+ EA
Lithuania LD  ED Guyana ED ED Azerbaijan EA EA Angola CA CA
Luxembourg LD LD India ED ED Belarus EA EA Bahrain CA CA
Netherlands LD LD Indonesia ED ED BiH EA EA Bangladesh CA  EA
New Zealand LD LD Jamaica ED ED Burundi EA EA Bhutan CA  ED+
Norway LD LD Lesotho ED ED Cambodia EA EA Myanmar CA  EA
Portugal LD LD Liberia ED ED+ Cameroon EA EA China CA CA
Slovenia LD LD- Macedonia ED ED- CAR EA EA Cuba CA CA
South Korea LD LD Mali ED ED- Chad EA EA DR of Vietnam CA CA+
Sweden LD LD Mexico ED ED DRC EA EA Eritrea CA CA
Switzerland LD LD Mongolia ED ED Djibouti EA EA Fiji CA  EA+
Taiwan LD LD Niger ED ED- Egypt EA EA Hong Kong CA CA
Trinidad and Tobago LD LD Paraguay ED ED Eq. Guinea EA EA Jordan CA CA
UK LD LD Peru ED ED Ethiopia EA EA Laos CA CA
USA LD LD Romania ED ED Gabon EA EA Libya CA CA
Uruguay LD LD Senegal ED ED+ Guinea EA EA Morocco CA CA
Cape Verde LD- LD- Serbia ED  EA+ Iran EA EA Nepal CA  ED
Chile LD- LD- Sierra Leone ED ED Ivory Coast EA  ED North Korea CA CA
Czechia LD- LD Suriname ED ED Kazakhstan EA EA Oman CA CA
Ghana LD- LD- Timor-Leste ED ED Kenya EA EA Palest. Gaza CA CA
Israel LD-  ED+ Turkey ED  EA Kyrgyzstan EA EA+ Qatar CA CA
Italy LD- LD- Ukraine ED  EA Malawi EA  ED Saudi Arabia CA CA
Latvia LD- LD- Albania ED-  LD- Malaysia EA EA Somalia CA CA
Mauritius LD-  ED+ Colombia ED- ED Nigeria EA  ED- Swaziland CA CA
Poland LD-  ED Comoros ED-  EA+ Pakistan EA EA+ Thailand CA CA
Slovakia LD-  ED+ Haiti ED- ED- Palestine WB EA  CA Turkmenistan CA CA+
South Africa LD-  ED+ Honduras ED-  EA Papua New G. EA EA UAE CA CA
Spain LD- LD Iraq ED-  EA R Congo EA EA South Sudan CA
Barbados ED+  LD- Nicaragua ED-  EA Russia EA EA
Botswana ED+ ED Philippines ED- ED- Rwanda EA EA

Note:  The countries are sorted by regime type in 2007, and after that in alphabetical order.  They are The sign “-” indicates that taking uncertainty into account, the country could belong to the lower
classified based on the Regimes of the World measure, where LD stands for Liberal Democracy; category, while “+” signifies that the country could also belong to the higher category. The countries
ED - Electoral Democracy; EA - Electoral Autocracy; and CA- Closed Autocracy. that see a movement upwards or downwards from one level to another are displayed in bold.

We incorporate V-Dem’s confidence estimates in order to account for the uncertainty and potential This builds on the regime-classification by Lührmann et al. (2018). While using V-Dem’s data, this
measurement error due to the nature of the data but also to underline that some countries are placed in measure is not officially endorsed by the Steering Committee of V-Dem (only the main V-Dem
the grey zone between regime types.  democracy indices have such an endorsement).
 V-Dem Annual Report 2018 95

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