Reservoir models

Somewhat simplified, consist of three parts:

1 a geological model – volumetric grid with

cell/face properties describing the porous
rock formation 1

0.8

0.6

∂t (φbw Sw ) + ∇ · (bw ~
uw ) = bw qw
2 a flow model – describes how fluids flow ∂t [φ(bw So + bg rv Sg )] 0.4

+ ∇ · (bo ~
uo + bg rv ~
ug ) = bo qo + bg rv qg
in a porous medium (conservation laws + ∂t [φ(bg Sg + bo rs So )]
0.2

appropriate closure relations) + ∇ · (bg ~

ug + bo rs ~
uo ) = bg qg0 + bo rs qo
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

3 a well model – describes flow in and out

of the reservoir, in the wellbore, flow
control devices, surface facilities

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Geologic model: sedimentary rocks

Mineral particles broken off by weathering and erosion

Transported by wind or water to a place where they settle and accumulate into
a sediment, building up in lakes, rivers, sand deltas, lagoons, choral reefs, etc

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Geologic model: sedimentary rocks

Ero
De sion
pos
itio
n

Flood plain

Mud
Sand

Gravel

Layered structure with different mixtures of rock types with varying grain size,
mineral type, and clay content

Thin beds that stretch hundreds or thousands of meters, typically horizontally

or at a small angle. Gradually buried deeper and consolidated

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Grids: volumetric representation of the reservoir
The structure of the reservoir (geological surfaces, faults, etc) + well paths

The stratigraphy of the reservoir (sedimentary structures)

Petrophysical parameters (permeability, porosity, net-to-gross, . . . )

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Grids: mimicking geological processes

Deposition

x
z

Erosion

Petrophysics

Deformation

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Governing equations for fluid flow

In its simplest form – two main principles

I Conservation of mass

∂
Z I Z
m dx + F~ · ~n ds = r dx
∂t V ∂V V

m=mass, F~ =flow rate, r=fluid sources

I Darcy’s law:
~u = −K(∇p − ρg∇z)
empirical law for describing processes on an unresolved scale.

Similar to Fourier’s law (heat) [1822], Ohm’s law (electric current) [1827], Fick’s law
(concentration) [1855], except that we now have two driving forces

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Darcy’s law and permeability

In reservoir engineering:
K

~u = − ∇p − ρg∇z
µ
Intrinsic permeability K measures ability to transmit fluids
Anisotropic and diagonal by nature, full tensor due to averaging.
Reported in units Darcy: 1 d = 9.869233 · 10−13 m2

Fluid velocity:
Darcy’s law is formulated for volumetric flux, i.e., volume of fluid per total area per
u
~
time. The fluid velocity is volume per area occupied by fluid per time, i.e., ~v = φ .

Theoretical basis (M. K. Hubbert, 1956):

Darcy’s law derived from the Navier–Stokes equations by averaging, neglecting
intertial and viscous effects

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Single-phase, incompressible flow

Model equations for single-phase flow:

∂(φρ)
K

+ ∇ · ρ~u = q, ~u = − ∇p − ρg∇z
∂t µ
Assume constant density ρ, unit fluid viscosity µ, and neglect gravity g
−→ flow equation on mixed form

∇ · ~u = q, ~u = −K∇p

or as a Poisson equation with variable coefficients

−∇ K∇p = q

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Single-phase, slightly compressible flow

Introduce compressibilities for rock and fluid

dφ dρ
= cr φ, = cf ρ
dp dp
Insert into conservation equation

∂(φρ)  K 
= ∇ · ρ ∇p
∂t µ
  ∂p cf ρ ρ
(cr + cf )φρ = ∇p · K∇p + ∇ · (K∇p)
∂t µ µ

If cf is sufficiently small, so that cf ∇p · K∇p  ∇ · (K∇p), we get

∂p 1

= ∇ · K∇p , c = cr + cf
∂t µφc

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Multiphase flow

Hydrocarbon typically consists of different

chemical species like methane, ethane, Water
propane, etc. Common modelling practice
to group fluid components into phases, i.e.,
Oil
a mixture of components having similar
flow properties.
Grain
Most common phases:
aqueous, liquid, and vapor

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Fundamental physics: wettability

Immiscible phases separated by a infinitely thin surface having associated

surface tension
Water wet Oil wet

Oil
σow

Water
θ θ
σos σws σos
Solid

Contact angle θ: determined by balance of adhesive and cohesive forces

Young’s equation (energy balance): σow cos θ = σos − σws

Water generally shows greater affinity than oil to stick to the rock surface −→
reservoirs are predominantly water-wet systems

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Fundamental physics: capillary pressure

Different equilibrium pressure in two phases separated by curved interface:

2πr σ cos θ 2σ cos θ πr2 gh(ρl − ρa )

pc = pn − pw = 2
= = 2
= ∆ρgh
| πr{z } r | πr
{z }
upward force downward force

θ
θ

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Fundamental physics: imbibition (hydrocarbon recovery)
Imbibition: wetting fluid displaces non-wetting fluid, controlled by the size of
the narrowest non-invaded pore.
Will not follow the same capillary curve −→ hysteresis (cause: trapped oil
droplets, different wetting angle for advancing and receding interfaces)

pcnw

Snr

prim
ary
prim drain
ary age
imb
ibit
ion
Swr pe

Sw

EOR: inject substances to alter wetting properties to mobilize immobile oil, Sor → 1
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Relative permeability

Effective permeability experienced by one 1

krw kro
phase is reduced by the presence of other
0.8
phases. Relative permeabilities
0.6
krα = krα (Sα1 , . . . , Sαm ),
0.4

are nonlinear functions that attempt to 0.2

account for this effect. Notice that
0
X 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
krα < 1
α
1
krw kro
0.8
This gives Darcy’s law on the form
0.6

Kkrα

~
uα = − ∇pα − ρα g∇z 0.4
µα

0.2
= −Kλα ∇pα − ρα g∇z
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

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Wells: flow in and out of the reservoir
5–40 in

2rw

20–200 m

Inflow and outflow take place on a subgrid scale, with large variations in
pressure over short distances.
Solution: use a linear inflow-performance relation


q = J pR − pbh

Here, pbh is flowing pressure in wellbore and pR average pressure in cell

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Wells: analytic subscale model

pa

ra
−4 −2 0 2 4
pbhp

−100 −80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 80 100

Insert into Darcy’s law and integrate from wellbore radius rw to drainage radius
rd at which p = pd is constant:
Z pd Z rd
q K dp dp dr
u=− =− −→ 2πKh =
2πrh µ dr pbh qµ rw r

Solution (volumetric average pressure p = pa at ra = 0.472rd )

2πKh
2πKh

q= pd − pbh =
pa − pbh
µ ln(rd /rw ) µ ln(rd /rw ) − 0.75

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Summary

Geological models: complex unstructured grids

having many obscure challenges
Flow models: system of highly nonlinear parabolic
PDEs with elliptic and hyperbolic sub-character
Well models: subscale models, complex logic,
strong impact on flow
Validation and availability in software

Challenges:
Main point of grid: describe stratigraphy and structural
architecture, i.e., not chosen freely to maximize accu-
racy of numerical discretization
Industry standard: corner-point / stratigraphic grids
Grid topology is generally unstructured, with non-
neighboring connections
Geometry: deviates (strongly) from box shape, high
aspect ratios, many faces/neighbors, small faces, . . .
Potential inconsistencies since faces are bilinear or
tetrahedral surfaces

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Summary
1
krw
0.9
kro Geological models: complex unstructured grids
0.8 krog
k
having many obscure challenges
row
0.7 k
rg
Flow models: system of highly nonlinear parabolic
0.6
PDEs with elliptic and hyperbolic sub-character
0.5

0.4 Well models: subscale models, complex logic,

0.3 strong impact on flow
0.2
Validation and availability in software
0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Challenges:
Delicate balances: viscous forces, gravity, capillary, . . .
Strong coupling between ’elliptic’ and ’hyperbolic’ vari-
ables (small scale: capillary, large scale: gravity)
Large variation in time constants and coupling
Orders-of-magnitude variations in permeability
Parameters with discontinuous derivatives
Path-dependence: hysteretic parameters
Sensitive to subtle changes in interpolation of tabulated
physical data
Monotonicity and mass conservation
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Summary
producer 1 injector

Geological models: complex unstructured grids

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
having many obscure challenges
producer 2 producer 3

Flow models: system of highly nonlinear parabolic

PDEs with elliptic and hyperbolic sub-character
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
producer 4 producer 5
Well models: subscale models, complex logic,
strong impact on flow
0 2000 4000
producer 6
6000 8000 0 2000 4000
producer 7
6000 8000
Validation and availability in software

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Challenges:
prod 7
Near singular radial flow in near-well zone (much larger
prod 3
flow than inside reservoir)
Induce nonlocal connections
prod 6

prod 1 prod 2 Completely different multiphase flow inside wellbore

prod 4, 5 injector
Coupling to surface facilities
Abrupt changes in driving forces
Control strategies with intricate logic which is highly
sensitive to state values
.
.
.

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