CFD Analysis of Aircraft Wing body Project Report

Abstract

This project was aimed at aerodynamic analysis of an aircraft encompassing the various
factors involved in flying of an aircraft such as the lift and drag forces acting on the wing
and an assessment of the same. Beginning with the wing design and analysis,
requirements were first identified and related concepts were formulated. A literature
survey was then conducted to establish the focus for analysis. A full scale model of YAK-
54 aircraft was chosen and modelled in the designing software package CATIA V5R20.
All the analysis part was done in analysis software package ANSYS 13.0. The
symmetrical wing section of the YAK-54 with wing profile NACA 23015 was imported
in ICEM CFD where a domain was created and the structural meshing of the same was
done with finer mesh at critical regions of the wing and then the meshed geometry was
imported in analysis software package FLUENT. The aircraft was subjected to high
supersonic speed of 450m/s and 900m/s in k-epsilon model and lift and drag forced along
with other details were noted down. Velocity and pressure contour and other important
parameters such as vorticity, density variations etc. were also plotted. The simulation was
performed in steady state conditions. Simulation was also performed in transient state
conditions to capture the shock wave at flow velocity greater than Mach 1. The results
were in close coherence with actual results. This would help to make any modification
required prior to design and manufacture of the aircraft so as to reduce wastages of
resources and money.

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Acknowledgement

We earnestly thank our project guide Associate Professor Dr. Senthil Prakash
M.N. for his indispensable support and guidance throughout the course of the
project without which this project would not have been successful. I would also
like to thank him for his indefatigable patience and his role as a mentor throughout
the course of the project. He guided us, from every aspect, in choosing the project
topics and finding the relevant material. His role as a professor of Fluid Mechanics,
Compressible Fluid Flow and other subjects in the initial semesters helped us to
gain necessary concepts required for this project. Special appreciation also goes to
Jithin sir for his initial guidance and support. We also extend my sincere gratitude
to my friends, Bikram Kumar and Saket Kumar for their invaluable support and
initial guidance with software packages CATIA and ANSYS Fluent.

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Contents

1. Introduction-------------------------------------------------------- 8

2. Literature Review------------------------------------------------- 9-10

2.1 Motivation
2.2 Objective of project
2.3 Previous Work

3. Basic Theory of Aerodynamics--------------------------------- 11-20

3.1 Introduction
3.2 NACA Nomenclature
3.3 Mach Number
3.4 Viscosity
3.5 Reynolds Number
3.6 Aerodynamic Forces
3.6.1 Lift and Drag
3.6.2 Drag and Viscous Effects on drag
3.7 Bernoulli’s Equation
3.8 Continuity Equation

4. Computational Fluid Dynamics--------------------------------- 21-31

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Discretization Methods
4.2.1 Finite Difference Method (FDM)
4.2.2 Finite Volume Method (FVM)
4.2.3 Finite Element Method (FEM)
4.3 CFD procedure
4.3.1 Pre-processing
4.3.2 Solver
4.3.3 Post-processing

4.4 Differential Equations used in CFD

4.4.1 Navier- Stokes Equations
4.4.2 Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes Equations
4.5 Advantages of CFD

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5. Meshing------------------------------------------------------------ 32-35
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification of Meshing
5.2.1 Connectivity based Classification
5.2.2 Element based Classification

6. Software Packages------------------------------------------------ 36-38

6.1 ICEM CFD
6.2 FLUENT

7. Wing Selection and Pre-processing----------------------------- 39-48

7.1 YAK 54 Aircraft
7.2 Geometry standardization
7.3 NACA 23015 Aerofoil
7.4 Solid Modeling of YAK54 Wing
7.5 Modeling of YAK54
7.6 Structured Meshing of Wing in ICEM-CFD

8. Solver Setup for Simulation in ANSYS Fluent--------------- 49-51

8.1 General setup
8.2 Models
8.3 Materials
8.4 Cell Zone Conditions
8.5 Boundary Conditions
8.6 Reference Values
8.7 Solution Methods
8.8 Solution Controls
8.9 Monitors
8.10 Solution initialization
8.11 Calculation Activities

9. Post- processing--------------------------------------------------- 52-57

9.1 Residual Sum
9.2 Graph of Lift convergence History and Number of iterations
9.3 Pressure Contours
9.3.1 Total Pressure
9.3.2 Static Pressure
9.3.3 Dynamic Pressure
9.4 Contour of Velocity Magnitude

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10. Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------- 58

11. References--------------------------------------------------------- 59

List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Cross section of a typical airfoil------------------------------------------------------- 12

Fig: 3.2 Aerodynamic forces on an aircraft---------------------------------------------------- 15

Fig.: 3.3 Pressure forces for an airfoil --------------------------------------------------------- 16

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Fig: 3.4 Variation of lift coefficient Cl with angle of attack α ------------------------------ 17

Fig. 4.1: Algorithm of numerical approach used by simulation softwares ---------------- 26

Fig: 5.1 Example of a 2D analysis domain and its mesh ------------------------------------ 32

Fig.5.2: Structured and Unstructured Meshing examples ----------------------------------- 33

Fig.5.3: 2D Mesh elements ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 34

Fig. 5.4: 3D Mesh Elements --------------------------------------------------------------------- 34

Fig. 5.5: Various types of Meshing ------------------------------------------------------------- 35

Fig. 7.1: NACA 23015 aerofoil ----------------------------------------------------------------- 39

Fig.7.2: NACA 23015 modeled in CATIA V5R20 ------------------------------------------ 41

Fig. 7.3: Wing Section of YAK 54 NACA 23015 Aerofoil --------------------------------- 42

Fig. 7.4: Dimensions of YAK54 (a, b and c) -------------------------------------------------- 43

Fig.7.5: CATIA model of Yak 54 -------------------------------------------------------------- 44

Fig.7.6: Domain formed around wings -------------------------------------------------------- 44

Fig.7.7: Blocking and o-grid created for the domain ---------------------------------------- 46

Fig. 7.8: Association of vertices with points and edges with curves ---------------------- 47

Fig.7.9: Wing Section after structured meshing in ICEM CFD --------------------------- 48

Fig.7.10: Domain after Structured Meshing ------------------------------------------------- 48

Fig.9.1: Simulation in Fluent using Viscous-standard k-e, standard wall function model 52

Fig.9.2: Graph of lift Convergence History vs. No of Iterations --------------------------- 53

Fig.9.3: Contours of Total Pressure------------------------------------------------------------- 54

Fig.9.4: Contours of Static Pressure------------------------------------------------------------ 55

Fig.9.5: Contours of Dynamic Pressure-------------------------------------------------------- 56

Fig. 9.6: Contours of Velocity Magnitude----------------------------------------------------- 57

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1. Introduction

The shape and design of an aircraft wing can dramatically influence how the aircraft flies and
can be controlled. There are several equations that can be used to estimate some of the
derivatives, but not all of them. These equations are just estimations and can be magnitudes off.
Therefore, better methods have to be used before investing millions of dollars on an aircraft.

Wind tunnel tests are a method that results in derivatives that are highly accurate. The problems
with wind tunnel tests are that it is very expensive and can be very time consuming. Also, the
wind tunnel models are scaled down to fit in the tunnel, and this can have a dramatic change on
the results, since the results do not always scale up as easily. Air will flow over a smaller body
differently than a larger body, due to the changes in Reynolds number and other flow
characteristics. Using an experienced wind tunnel expert and a highly accurate tunnel can
minimize these problems, but will be very expensive. Over the past couple of decades computer
simulation has become much more prevalent. Computational Fluid Dynamic software is much
more accurate than it once was and is becoming more user’s friendly, but it still requires an expert to
create a 3-D full aircraft CFD model. The mesh generation for a model can be difficult and requires a
great deal of experience. This software is expensive to purchase, but can be used over and over again.
Also, many different test cases can be run to determine flying qualities in various situations.
Moreover, these programs are easily available to student like us where as wind tunnel tests are not
available everywhere. There are also several different programs that are readily available that can
produce high fidelity results, and some of these programs can be purchased at a reasonable price.
FLUENT is a very high fidelity CFD program, but requires a large amount of experience and time.
The main goal of this research was to use high fidelity CFD programs to conduct aerodynamic
analysis as well as to test the validity of these engineering level programs.

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2. Literature Review

2.1 MOTIVATION

Could India transform to the next level of technology in Aviation? What we need to bring
revolutionary and evolutionary changes to develop safe, affordable and reliable intercontinental
and interplanetary travels? A significant development in aerodynamics could change the way we
think. A lot of work has been done on aerodynamics from our part but still India is lagging
in aviation industry and we are dependent on other nations for supplementing
requirements related to Aviation industry.

“We have been impressed with the urgency of doing. Knowing is not enough; we must apply.
Being willing is not enough; we must do”. Projects of this type and at this level would
definitely enhance the analysis and manufacturing capabilities of Aerospace field in India.

2.2 Objective of project

The goal of this project is to conduct the aerodynamic analysis of fixed wing of an aircraft to
assess the capability and quality of aircraft using Computational Fluid Dynamics as a tool for
calculating lift and drag forces. Aerodynamic performance of any aircraft is governed by
physical laws and principles of fluid flow so, lift and drag forces acting on the aircraft wing can
be calculated by using high fidelity programs such as FLUENT which uses Navier-Stokes
equation for the fluid flow problems. The results can be cross-checked from the available results
from wind tunnel experiments. In this project, ICEM CFD is used for structured meshing of the
domain to get more converged results.

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The main challenge in this project has been the structured meshing of wing in ICEM CFD.
Structured meshing in ICEM CFD required a lot of effort on our part as the meshing has to be
done manually and we needed to work on every detail to get hexahedral elements of the best
qualities. At the same time, modeling in CATIA also required a lot of attention and detail work as
intricate examining and details is required in surface modeling.

2.3 Previous Work

A lot of work has been done on aerodynamics using Computational Fluid Dynamics tool,
ANSYS and FLUENT to assess the capability and quality of flying aircraft.

In a related work, by Benjamin Sweeten, VORSTAB and Fluent was used determine the flying
qualities of YAK-54 and the results were compared from the results of Advance Aircraft Analysis
software. But for this research, unstructured meshing that is computer generated meshing was
used. Also, this research was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master’s of Science. Moreover, only a little work has been done on the study of Computational
Fluid Dynamics at Bachelor’s level in India.

In a work by Chong Sao Ming on “Unmanned Aircraft Vehicle (UAV) Wing Design and
Manufacture” at National University of Singapore, intensive work was done on UAV wing
design and manufacture by using Computational Fluid Dynamics tool Fluent.

In a similar work by Timothy Fry on “Unique Stealth Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Houck
Aircraft Design Program” at University of Dayton, Computational Fluid Dynamics tool was used
to assess the aerodynamic efficiency of Houck Airfoil concept and a 24 inch wingspan prototype
was developed and analyzed.

A detailed work on Computational Fluid Dynamics analysis of Aircraft has been done by so
many researchers with different level of difficulty and intricacy and a lot of journals and papers
have been published in National and International Journals such as American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Magazines, thesis published by scholars and Professors of various Universities etc.

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3. Basic theory of Aerodynamics

3.1 Introduction

Aerodynamics is the branch of dynamics concerned with the study of motion of air and
how it interacts with a solid object in the flow. The study of air flow field enables the
calculations of forces and moments acting on the object and the flow properties i.e. velocity,
pressure, density and temperature changes as a function of spatial position and time.
Earlier people used to do most of the research based on wings of birds, but later on the
studies were more aligned towards studying solid wing profiles as the understanding of the
aerodynamic laws evolved more, it got cleared that for flying, an object does not necessarily
needs flapping wings like birds. In March 1915, The US federal agency, National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was founded, to undertake, promote and institutionalize
aeronautical research. The committee developed aerofoil shapes for aircraft wings. An aerofoil is
the contour of cross section of a wing. As the studies advanced more of the NACA profiles were
defined and worked on.

3.2 NACA Nomenclature

Most of the NACA airfoils are classified among three types: the four-digit, the five-digit,
and the series 6 sections. The meanings of these designations are illustrated by the examples
below.

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Fig: 3.1 Cross Section of a typical Aerofoil

Examples of various types of airfoils based on nomenclature

o NACA 4415

 4 - The maximum camber of the mean line is 0.04c. (First digit)

 4 - The position of the maximum camber is at 0.4c. (Second digit)
 15 - The maximum thickness is 0.15c. (Third and fourth digits)
o NACA 23012

 2 - The maximum camber of the mean line is approximately 0.02c. The

design lift coefficient is 0.15 times the first digit for this series.
 30 - The position of the maximum camber is at 0.30/2 = 0.15c.
 12 - The maximum thickness is 0.12c.

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o NACA 653-421

 6 - Series designation.
 5 - The minimum pressure is at 0.5c.
 3 - The drag coefficient is near its minimum value over a range of lift
coefficients of 0.3 above and below the design lift coefficient.
 4 - The design lift coefficient is 0.4.
 21 - The maximum thickness is 0.21c.

3.3 Mach number

The Mach number is a parameter used as speed reference for categorizing the velocity of
fluid flow stream on the basis of speed of sound in the fluid. It is used to assess whether the
phenomena due to the change in air density-compressibility are important or not, that is to say, if
they are negligible. We define the Mach number as shown in equation and we see that when the
fluid velocity is equal to the speed of sound we have Mach number equal to unity.

If

 M <1; then the flow is subsonic.

 M=1; the flow is sonic.

 M>1; the flow is supersonic.

3.4 Viscosity

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Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear
stress or extensional stress. In other words, Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion
because it’s molecular make up gives it a lot of internal friction. In general, in any flow, layers
move at different velocities and the fluid's viscosity arises from the shear stress between the
layers that ultimately oppose any applied force. Isaac Newton postulated that, for straight,
parallel and uniform flow, the shear stress, τ, between layers is proportional to the velocity
gradient ∂u /∂y, in the direction perpendicular to the layers. In fact, due to the air is a viscous
fluid airplanes can fly. If the air had no viscosity, the fluid layers not travel attached to the wing
surface, and not show the forces that allow the flight.

3.5 Reynolds number

The Reynolds number relates the density, viscosity, speed and size of a typical flow in a
dimension less expression, which is involved in many fluid dynamics problems. This
dimensionless number or combination appears in many cases related to the fact that laminar flow
can be seen (small Reynolds number) or turbulent (Reynolds number largest). From a
mathematical point of view the Reynolds number of a problem or situation is defined by the
following equation:

Where:
V is the mean fluid velocity (m/s)
L is a characteristic linear dimension (m)
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa・s or N・s/m2 or kg/(m・s))
ν is the kinematic viscosity (ν = μ / ρ) (m2/s)
ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3)

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3.6 Aerodynamic forces

Aerodynamic forces are those displayed by the fact of having a body moves at speed
immersed in a fluid. There are the following forces in an aircraft:
Weight, although not strictly an aerodynamic force, Weight of aircraft due to gravity of the
Earth, is always present, and will determine the lift we need to maintain the plane in air. It is
always directed toward the centre of the earth. The magnitude of the weight depends on the mass
of all the airplane parts, plus the amount of fuel, plus any payload onboard (people, baggage,
freight, etc.).
Lift, is the force perpendicular to the direction of the free stream. To overcome the weight force,
airplanes generate an opposing force called lift. The magnitude of the lift depends on several
factors including the shape, size, and velocity of aircraft. -Drag, the drag is defined as the force
component in the direction of the free stream. As the airplane moves through the air, there is
another aerodynamic force present. The air resists the motion of the aircraft and the resistance
force is called drag. Like lift, there are many factors that affect the magnitude of the drag force.
Thrust, is not an aerodynamic force. To overcome drag, airplanes use a propulsion system to
generate a force called thrust.
Drag is the resistance force caused by the motion of a body through a fluid, such as water or air.
A drag force acts opposite to the direction of the oncoming flow velocity. This is the relative
velocity between the body and the fluid.

The figure, reproduced below, shows the aerodynamic forces on an aircraft.

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Fig: 3.2 Aerodynamic forces on an aircraft

3.6.1 Lift and Drag

When there is a fluid moves through the wing, forcing air particles to narrow at the upper surface
of the wing, while the air particles that travel at the lower surface of the wing are expanded. That
effect can be seen from Figure 8. Therefore, the flow velocity is increased at the upper surface
and the pressure goes down. On the other hand, the flow velocity drops at the lower surface and
the pressure grows. The pressure difference between lower and upper surface generates an
Aerodynamic force called lift. In the figure 8, the pressures caused can be seen in red
colour.

Fig.: 3.3 Pressure forces for an airfoil.

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When a stream of air moves over a profile produces a force called aerodynamics. This force is
usually decomposed into two components: Lift and Drag. The lift, L, is the component
perpendicular to the free flow of air, and L is defined by the following the equation:

Where:
ρ is the density of the fluid through which the body is moving.
V is the speed of the body relative to the fluid.
S is the reference area or wing area.
Cl is the lift coefficient.
With the equation is really easy to work out the lift coefficient. The lift coefficient is a number
that aerodynamicists use to model all of the complex dependencies of shape, inclination, and
some flow conditions on lift. This equation is simply a rearrangement of the lift equation where
we solve for the lift coefficient in terms of the other variables. The lift coefficient Cl is equal to
the lift L divided by the quantity: density ρ times half the velocity V squared times the wing area
S.

Fig: 3.4 VARIATION OF LIFT COEFFICIENT Cl WITH ANGLE OF ATTACK α

DRAG AND VISCOUS EFFECTS ON DRAG

The presence of friction in a flow produces two sources of drag:

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1) Skin friction drag Df due to shear stress at the wall.

2) Pressure drag due to flow separation Dp sometimes identified as form drag.

The total drag which is caused by viscous effects is then

D=Df + Dp
Total drag = drag due to skin friction + drag due to separation (pressure drag)

As we know that the skin friction drag is reduced by maintaining a laminar boundary
layer over a surface. Also we know that turbulent boundary layers inhibit flow separation;
hence pressure drag due to separation is reduced by establishing a turbulent boundary
layer on the surface, therefore the equation compromises as

D = Df (less for laminar, more for turbulent) + Dp (more for laminar, less for turbulent)

So it cannot be said in general that either laminar or turbulent flow is preferable. Any
preference depends on the specific application. On one hand, for a blunt body such as
sphere, the drag is mainly due to separation hence turbulent boundary layer reduces the
drag on spheres and is therefore preferable. On the other hand, for a slender body such as
a sharp, slender cone or a thin airfoil at small angles of attack to the flow, the drag is
mainly skin friction drag; hence, laminar boundary layers are preferable in this case .for
in between cases, the ingenuity of the designer along with practical experience helps to
determine what compromises are best.

The total drag D is called profile drag because both skin friction drag and pressure drag due to
separation are ramifications of the shape and size of the body, which is the “profile” of the body.

The profile drag D is the total drag on an aerodynamic shape due to viscous effects. However, it
is not in general the total aerodynamic drag on the body. There is one more source of drag known
as induced drag.

The drag force D exerted on a body travelling though a fluid is given by:

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Where:

ρ is the density of the fluid through which the body is moving.

V is the speed of the body relative to the fluid.
S is the projected cross-sectional area of the body perpendicular to the flow direction
Cd is the drag coefficient.
The drag coefficient can be computed from equation. The drag coefficient is a measure a
dimensional that describes the amount of aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow, used in the
drag equation. Two objects of the same frontal area moving at the same speed through a fluid
experience a drag proportional to its Cd.
In general, Cd is not an absolute constant for a given body shape. It varies with the speed of
airflow (or more generally with Reynolds number). A smooth sphere, for example, has a Cd that
varies from high values for laminar flow to 0.47 for turbulent flow. A dimensionless number used
in aerodynamics to describe the drag of a shape. The drag coefficient, Cd, is independent of the
size of the object and is usually determined in a wind tunnel. The lift generates by an airfoil, and
by extension, the wings will depend on the altitude and speed aircraft, and the lift coefficient
which has our airfoil. There are two different ways to increase the lift: increasing the angle of
attack or speed. Increase the angle of attack causes an increase in the Cl, but this has a limit, as
speed increases, and that from a certain angle, or velocity, the air starts to come off the wing.
When the air begins to travel not attached to the wing, it generates lift. This effect usually begins
at the trailing edge in the airfoils furthest from the fuselage of the plane, and extends to the edge
and the centre of the plane. To explain why these aerodynamic forces are produced we must use
two physical principles: Bernoulli’s principle and continuity equation.

3.7 Bernoulli’s principle

Bernoulli's Principle, also known as the triad of Bernoulli or Bernoulli's equation describes the
behavior of a fluid moving along a streamline. It states that an ideal fluid without viscosity or

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friction, running through a closed pipeline, total energy remains constant throughout its length.
This means an increase in flow speed lead to a reduction of pressure, and conversely, if the flow
speed is reduced the pressure increases.
The Bernoulli equation is given by:

Constant

3.8 Continuity equation

In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation is a mathematical statement that, in any steady state
process, the rate at which mass enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the
system. The differential form of the continuity equation is:

Where ρ is fluid density, t is time, and u is the flow velocity vector field. If density (ρ) is a
constant, as in the case of incompressible flow, the mass continuity equation simplifies to a
volume continuity equation:

Concepts basics of aerodynamics have been explained until now. Next concepts of computational
fluid dynamics are discussed here.

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4. Computational Fluid Dynamics

4.1. Introduction

CFD is one of the branches of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to
solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the millions
of calculations required to simulate the interaction of fluids and gases with the complex surfaces
used in engineering. However, even with simplified equations and high speed supercomputers,
only approximate solutions can be achieved in many cases. More accurate codes that can
accurately and quickly simulate even complex scenarios such as supersonic or turbulent flows
are an ongoing area of research.
The physical aspects of any fluid flow are governed by three fundamental principles:
1) Conservation of Mass (i.e. Continuity Equation)
2) Newton’s second law (force = rate of change of momentum)
3) Conservation of Energy (Energy equation)
These fundamental principles are expressed in terms of basic mathematical equations, which
generally are either integral equations or partial differential equations. CFD is the art of replacing
the integrals or the partial derivatives in these equations with discretized algebraic forms, which
in turn are solved to obtain numerical values for the flow field at discrete points in time and/or
space.

4.2. Discretization Methods

There are three discretization methods in CFD:
1. Finite difference method (FDM)
2. Finite volume method (FVM)
3. Finite element method (FEM)

4.2.1. Finite difference method (FDM)

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A finite difference method (FDM) discretization is based upon the differential form of the partial
differential equation to be solved. Each derivative is replaced with an approximate difference
formula (that can generally be derived from a Taylor series expansion). The computational
domain is usually divided into hexahedral cells (the grid), and the solution will be obtained at
each nodal point. The FDM is easiest to understand when the physical grid is Cartesian, but
through the use of curvilinear transforms the method can be extended to domains that are not
easily represented by brick-shaped elements. The discretization results in a system of equation of
the variable at nodal points, and once a solution is found, then we have a discrete representation
of the solution.

4.2.2. Finite volume method (FVM)

A finite volume method (FVM) discretization is based upon an integral form of the partial
differential equation to be solved (e.g. conservation of mass, momentum, or energy). The partial
differential equation is written in a form which can be solved for a given finite volume (or cell).
The computational domain is discretized into finite volumes and then for every volume the 12
governing equations are solved. The resulting system of equations usually involves fluxes of the
conserved variable, and thus the calculation of fluxes is very important in FVM. The basic
advantage of this method over FDM is, it does not require the use of structured grids, and the
effort to convert the given mesh in to structured numerical grid internally is completely avoided.
As with FDM, the resulting approximate solution is a discrete, but the variables are typically
placed at cell centers rather than at nodal points. This is not always true, as there are also face-
centered finite volume methods. In any case, the values of field variables at non storage locations
(e.g. vertices) are obtained using interpolation.

4.2.3. Finite element method (FEM)

A finite element method (FEM) discretization is based upon a piecewise representation of the
solution in terms of specified basis functions. The computational domain is divided up into
smaller domains (finite elements) and the solution in each element is constructed from the basis
functions. The actual equations that are solved are typically obtained by restating the
conservation equation in weak form: the field variables are written in terms of the basis
functions, the equation is multiplied by appropriate test functions, and then integrated over an

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element. Since the FEM solution is in terms of specific basis functions, a great deal more is
known about the solution than for either FDM or FVM. This can be a double-edged sword, as the
choice of basis functions is very important and boundary conditions may be more difficult to
formulate. Again, a system of equations is obtained (usually for nodal values) that must be
solved to obtain a solution.
Comparison of the three methods is difficult, primarily due to the many variations of all three
methods. FVM and FDM provide discrete solutions, while FEM provides a continuous (up to a
point) solution. FVM and FDM are generally considered easier to program than FEM, but
opinions vary on this point. FVM are generally expected to provide better conservation
properties, but opinions vary on this point also.

4.3. CFD procedure

CFD codes are structured around the numerical algorithms that can be tackle fluid problems. In
order to provide easy access to their solving power all commercial CFD packages include
sophisticated user interfaces input problem parameters and to examine the results. Hence all
codes contain three main elements:
1. Pre-processing.
2. Solver
3. Post-processing.

4.3.1. Pre-Processing
This is the first step in building and analyzing a flow model. Preprocessor consist of input of a
flow problem by means of an operator –friendly interface and subsequent transformation of this
input into form of suitable for the use by the solver. The user activities at the Pre-processing
stage involve:
• Definition of the geometry of the region: The computational domain.
• Grid generation the subdivision of the domain into a number of smaller, non overlapping sub
domains (or control volumes or elements Selection of physical or chemical phenomena that need
to be modeled).
• Definition of fluid properties

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• Specification of appropriate boundary conditions at cells, which coincide with or touch the
boundary. The solution of a flow problem (velocity, pressure, temperature etc.) is defined at
nodes inside each cell. The accuracy of CFD solutions is governed by number of cells in the grid.
In general, the larger numbers of cells better the solution accuracy. Both the accuracy of the
solution & its cost in terms of necessary computer hardware & calculation time are dependent on
the fineness of the grid. Efforts are underway to develop CFD codes with a (self) adaptive
meshing capability. Ultimately such programs will automatically refine the grid in areas of rapid
variation.

GAMBIT (CFD PREPROCESSOR) GAMBIT is a state-of-the-art preprocessor for

engineering analysis. With advanced geometry and meshing tools in a powerful, flexible, tightly-
integrated, and easy-to use interface, GAMBIT can dramatically reduce preprocessing times for
many applications. Complex models can be built directly within GAMBIT‘s solid geometry
modeler, or imported from any major CAD/CAE system. Using a virtual geometry overlay and
advanced cleanup tools, imported geometries are quickly converted into suitable flow domains.
A
comprehensive set of highly-automated and size function driven meshing tools ensures that the
best mesh can be generated, whether structured, multiblock, unstructured, or hybrid.

4.3.2. Solver
The CFD solver does the flow calculations and produces the results. FLUENT, FloWizard,
FIDAP, CFX and POLYFLOW are some of the types of solvers. FLUENT is used in most
industries. FloWizard is the first general-purpose rapid flow modeling tool for design and
process engineers built by Fluent. POLYFLOW (and FIDAP) are also used in a wide range of
fields, with emphasis on the materials processing industries. FLUENT and CFX two solvers
were developed independently by ANSYS and have a number of things in common, but they also
have some significant differences. Both are control-volume based for high accuracy and rely
heavily on a pressure-based solution technique for broad applicability. They differ mainly in the
way they integrate the fluid flow equations and in their equation solution strategies. The CFX
solver uses finite elements (cell vertex numerics), similar to those used in mechanical analysis, to
discretize the domain. In contrast, the FLUENT solver uses finite volumes (cell centered

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numerics). CFX software focuses on one approach to solve the governing equations of motion
(coupled algebraic multigrid), while the FLUENT product offers several solution approaches
(density-, segregated- and coupled-pressure-based methods) The FLUENT CFD code has
extensive interactivity, so we can make changes to the analysis at any time during the process.
This saves time and enables to refine designs more efficiently. Graphical user interface (GUI) is
intuitive, which helps to shorten the learning curve and make the modeling process faster. In
addition, FLUENT's adaptive and dynamic mesh capability is unique and works with a wide
range of physical models. This capability makes it possible and simple to model complex moving
objects in relation to flow. This solver provides the broadest range of rigorous physical models
that have been validated against industrial scale applications, so we can accurately simulate real-
world conditions, including multiphase flows, reacting flows, rotating equipment, moving and
deforming objects, turbulence, radiation, acoustics and dynamic meshing. The FLUENT solver
has repeatedly proven to be fast and reliable for a wide range of CFD applications. The speed to
solution is faster because suite of software enables us to stay within one interface from geometry
building through the solution process, to post-processing and final output. The numerical
solution of Navier–Stokes equations in CFD codes usually implies a discretization method: it
means that derivatives in partial differential equations are approximated by algebraic expressions
which can be alternatively obtained by means of the finite-difference or the finite-element
method. Otherwise, in a way that is completely different from the previous one, the discretization
equations can be derived from the integral form of the conservation equations: this approach,
known as the finite volume method, is implemented in FLUENT , because of its adaptability to a
wide variety of grid structures. The result is a set of algebraic equations through which mass,
momentum, and energy transport are predicted at discrete points in the domain. In the freeboard
model that is being described, the segregated solver has been chosen so the governing equations
are solved sequentially. Because the governing equations are non-linear and coupled, several
iterations of the solution loop must be performed before a converged solution is obtained and
each of the iteration is carried out as follows:
(1) Fluid properties are updated in relation to the current solution; if the calculation is at
the first iteration, the fluid properties are updated consistent with the initialized solution.
(2) The three momentum equations are solved consecutively using the current value for
pressure so as to update the velocity field.

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(3) Since the velocities obtained in the previous step may not satisfy the continuity
equation, one more equation for the pressure correction is derived from the continuity
equation and the linearized momentum equations: once solved, it gives the correct
pressure so that continuity is satisfied. The pressure–velocity coupling is made by the
SIMPLE algorithm, as in FLUENT default options.
(4) Other equations for scalar quantities such as turbulence, chemical species and
radiation are solved using the previously updated value of the other variables; when inter-
phase coupling is to be considered, the source terms in the appropriate continuous phase
equations have to be updated with a discrete phase trajectory calculation.
(5) Finally, the convergence of the equations set is checked and all the procedure is
repeated until convergence criteria are met.

Fig. 4.1: Algorithm of numerical approach used by simulation softwares

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The conservation equations are linearized according to the implicit scheme with respect to the
dependent variable: the result is a system of linear equations (with one equation for each cell in
the domain) that can be solved simultaneously. Briefly, the segregated implicit method calculates
every single variable field considering all the cells at the same time. The code stores discrete
values of each scalar quantity at the cell centre; the face values must be interpolated from the cell
centre values. For all the scalar quantities, the interpolation is carried out by the second order
upwind scheme with the purpose of achieving high order accuracy. The only exception is
represented by pressure interpolation, for which the standard method has been chosen.

4.3.3 Post-Processing:
This is the final step in CFD analysis, and it involves the organization and interpretation of the
predicted flow data and the production of CFD images and animations. Fluent's software
includes full post processing capabilities. FLUENT exports CFD's data to third-party post-
processors and visualization tools such as Ensight, Fieldview and TechPlot as well as to VRML
formats. In addition, FLUENT CFD solutions are easily coupled with structural codes such as
ABAQUS, MSC and ANSYS, as well as to other engineering process simulation tools. Thus
FLUENT is general-purpose computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software ideally suited for
incompressible and mildly compressible flows. Utilizing a pressure-based segregated finite-
volume method solver, FLUENT contains physical models for a wide range of applications
including turbulent flows, heat transfer, reacting flows, chemical mixing, combustion, and
multiphase flows. FLUENT provides physical models on unstructured meshes, bringing you the
benefits of easier problem setup and greater accuracy using solution-adaptation of the mesh.
FLUENT is a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package to simulate fluid flow
problems. It uses the finite-volume method to solve the governing equations for a fluid. It
provides the capability to use different physical models such as incompressible or compressible,
inviscid or viscous, laminar or turbulent, etc. Geometry and grid generation is done using
GAMBIT which is the preprocessor bundled with FLUENT. Owing to increased popularity of
engineering work stations, many of which has outstanding graphics capabilities, the leading CFD
are now equipped with versatile data visualization tools. These include
Domain geometry & Grid display.
Vector plots.

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Line & shaded contour plots.

2D & 3D surface plots.
Particle tracking.
View manipulation (translation, rotation, scaling etc.)

4.4. Differential equation used in CFD

4.4.1 Navier-Stokes equations:

The ''Navier-Stokes equations'', named after Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes,
describe the motion of fluid substances. These equations arise from applying Newton's second
law to fluid motion, together with the assumption that the fluid stress is the sum of a diffusing
viscous term (proportional to the gradient of velocity), plus a pressure term.
The fundamental of almost all CFD problems are the Navier–Stokes equations, which define any
single-phase fluid flow. These equations can be simplified by removing terms describing
viscosity to yield the Euler equations.
The Navier-Stokes equations dictate not position but rather velocity. A solution of the Navier-
Stokes equations is called a velocity field or flow field, which is a description of the velocity of
the fluid at a given point in space and time. Once the velocity field is solved for, other quantities
of interest (such as flow rate or drag force) may be found.
The derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations begins with an application of Newton's second
law: conservation of momentum (often alongside mass and energy conservation) being written
for an arbitrary portion of the fluid.
Navier- Stokes equations in conservation form :-
In x direction as

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Similarly we can write in y and z direction also.

Navier–Stokes equations (general form)

where v is the flow velocity,

ρ is the fluid density,

p is the pressure,

T is the stress tensor,

and f represents body forces (per unit volume) acting on the fluid and

∇ is the del operator.

The Navier–Stokes equations are nonlinear partial differential equations in almost every real
situation. In some cases, such as one-dimensional flow and Stokes flow (or creeping flow), the
equations can be simplified to linear equations. The nonlinearity makes most problems difficult
or impossible to solve and is the main contributor to the turbulence that the equations model.

The nonlinearity is due to convective acceleration, which is an acceleration associated with the
change in velocity over position. Hence, any convective flow, whether turbulent or not, will
involve nonlinearity.

The numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equations for turbulent flow is extremely difficult,
and due to the significantly different mixing-length scales that are involved in turbulent flow, the
stable solution of this requires such a fine mesh resolution that the computational time becomes
significantly infeasible for calculation . Attempts to solve turbulent flow using a laminar solver
typically result in a time-unsteady solution, which fails to converge appropriately. To counter
this, time-averaged equations such as the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS),
supplemented with turbulence models, are used in practical computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

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applications when modeling turbulent flows. Some models include the Spalart-Allmaras, k-ω (k-
omega), k-ε (k-epsilon), and SST models which add a variety of additional equations to bring
closure to the RANS equations.

4.4.2 Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations

The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (or RANS equations) are time-
averaged equations of motion for fluid flow. The idea behind the equations is Reynolds
decomposition, whereby an instantaneous quantity is decomposed into its time-averaged and
fluctuating quantities, an idea first proposed by Osborne Reynolds. The RANS equations are
primarily used to describe turbulent flows. These equations can be used with approximations
based on knowledge of the properties of flow turbulence to give approximate time-averaged
solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations. For a stationary, incompressible Newtonian fluid, these
equations can be written in Einstein notation as:

The left hand side of this equation represents the change in mean momentum of fluid
element owing to the unsteadiness in the mean flow and the convection by the mean flow.
This change is balanced by the mean body force, the isotropic stress owing to the mean

pressure field, the viscous stresses, and apparent stress owing to the fluctuating
velocity field, generally referred to as the Reynolds stress. This nonlinear Reynolds stress
term requires additional modeling to close the RANS equation for solving, and has led to the
creation of many different turbulence models..

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4.5. Advantages of CFD

Major advancements in the area of gas-solid multiphase flow modeling offer substantial process
improvements that have the potential to significantly improve process plant operations.
Prediction of gas solid flow fields, in processes such as pneumatic transport lines, risers,
fluidized bed reactors, hoppers and precipitators are crucial to the operation of most process
plants. Up to now, the inability to accurately model these interactions has limited the role that
simulation could play in improving operations. In recent years, computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) software developers have focused on this area to develop new modeling methods that can
simulate gas-liquid-solid flows to a much higher level of reliability. As a result, process industry
engineers are beginning to utilize these methods to make major improvements by evaluating
alternatives that would be, if not impossible, too expensive or time-consuming to trial on the
plant floor. Over the past few decades, CFD has been used to improve process design by
allowing engineers to simulate the performance of alternative configurations, eliminating
guesswork that would normally be used to establish equipment geometry and process conditions.
The use of CFD enables engineers to obtain solutions for problems with complex geometry and
boundary conditions. A CFD analysis yields values for pressure, fluid velocity, temperature, and
species or phase concentration on a computational grid throughout the solution domain.
Advantages of CFD can be summarized as:
1. It provides the flexibility to change design parameters without the expense of hardware
changes. It therefore costs less than laboratory or field experiments, allowing engineers to try
more alternative designs than would be feasible otherwise.
2. It has a faster turnaround time than experiments.
3. It guides the engineer to the root of problems, and is therefore well suited for trouble-shooting.
4. It provides comprehensive information about a flow field, especially in regions where
measurements are either difficult or impossible to obtain.

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M
5. eshing

5.1 Introduction
The partial differential equations that govern fluid flow and heat transfer are not usually
amenable to analytical solutions, except for very simple cases. Therefore, in order to analyze
fluid flows, flow domains are split into smaller sub domains (made up of geometric primitives
like hexahedra and tetrahedra in 3D and quadrilaterals and triangles in 2D). The governing
equations are then discretized and solved inside each of these sub domains. Typically, one of
three methods is used to solve the approximate version of the system of equations: finite
volumes, finite elements, or finite differences. Care must be taken to ensure proper continuity of
solution across the common interfaces between two sub domains, so that the approximate
solutions inside various portions can be put together to give a complete picture of fluid flow in
the entire domain. The sub domains are often called elements or cells, and the collection of all
elements or cells is called a mesh or grid. The origin of the term mesh (or grid) goes back to
early days of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) when most analyses were 2D in nature. For
2D analyses, a domain split into elements resembles a wire mesh, hence the name.

Fig: 5.1 An example of a 2D analysis domain and its mesh.

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The process of obtaining an appropriate mesh (or grid) is termed mesh generation (or grid
generation), and has long been considered a bottleneck in the analysis process due to the lack of
a fully automatic mesh generation procedure. Specialized software programs (e.g. ANSYS ICEM
CFD) have been developed for the purpose of mesh and grid generation, and access to a good
software package and expertise in using this software are vital to the success of a modeling
effort.

5.2 Classification of Meshing

5.2.1 Connectivity-Based Classification
The most basic form of mesh classification is based upon the connectivity of the mesh:
structured or unstructured.

 Structured Meshes

A structured mesh is characterized by regular connectivity that can be expressed as a two or three
dimensional array. This restricts the element choices to quadrilaterals in 2D or hexahedra in 3D.
The above example mesh is a structured mesh, as we could store the mesh connectivity in a 40
by 12 array. The regularity of the connectivity allows us to conserve space since neighborhood
relationships are defined by the storage arrangement. Additional classification can be made upon
whether the mesh is conformal or not.

 Unstructured Meshes

An unstructured mesh is characterized by irregular connectivity is not readily expressed as a two

or three dimensional array in computer memory. This allows for any possible element that a
solver might be able to use. Compared to structured meshes, the storage requirements for an
unstructured mesh can be substantially larger since the neighborhood connectivity must be
explicitly stored.

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Fig.5.2: Structured and Unstructured Meshing examples

 Hybrid Meshes

A hybrid mesh is a mesh that contains structured portions and unstructured portions. Note that
this definition requires knowledge of how the mesh is stored (and used). There is disagreement
as to the correct application of the terms "hybrid" and "mixed." The term "mixed" is usually
applied to meshes that contain elements associated with structured meshes and elements
associated with unstructured meshes (presumably stored in an unstructured fashion).

5.2.2 Element-Based Classification

Meshes can also be classified based upon the dimension and type of elements present.
Depending upon the analysis type and solver requirements, meshes generated could be 2-
dimensional (2D) or 3-dimensional (3D). Common elements in 2D are triangles or rectangles,
and common elements in 3D are tetrahedra or bricks. As noted above, some connectivity choices
limit the types of element present, so there is some overlap between connectivity-based and
element-based classification.

 2D Meshing

For a 2D mesh, all mesh nodes lie in a given plane. In most cases, 2D mesh nodes lie in the XY
plane, but can also be confined to another Cartesian or user defined plane. Most popular 2D
mesh elements are quadrilaterals (also known as quads) and triangles (tris), shown below.

Fig.5.3: 2D Mesh elements

 3D Meshing

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3D mesh nodes are not constrained to lie in a single plane. Most popular 3D mesh elements are
hexahedra (also known as hexes or hex elements), tetrahedra (tets), square pyramids (pyramids)
and extruded triangles (wedges or triangular prisms), shown below. It is worth noting that all
these elements are bounded by faces belonging to the above mentioned 2D elements. Some of
the current solvers also support polyhedral elements, which can be bounded by any number and
types of faces.

Fig. 5.4: 3D Mesh Elements

Since all 3D elements are bounded by 2D elements, it is obvious that 3D meshes have exposed
2D elements at boundaries. Most of the meshing packages and solvers prefer to club exposed
elements together in what is known as a surface mesh (for the purposes of applying boundary
conditions, rendering meshed domains and visualizing results). A surface mesh does not have to
be 2D, since volume meshes may conform to domains with non-planar boundaries. Many
meshing algorithms start by meshing bounding surfaces of a domain before filling the interior
with mesh nodes (such algorithms are also known as boundary to interior algorithms). For such
algorithms, generation of good quality surface meshes is of prime importance, and much
research has been done in the field of efficient and good quality surface mesh generation. Since
surface meshes are geometrically somewhere between 2D and 3D meshes, they are also
sometimes known as 2.5D meshes.

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Fig. 5.5: Various types of Meshing

6. Software Packages

6.1 ICEM CFD

It is a software package in ANSYS in which both structured and unstructured meshing could be
carried out.

Various steps were followed in ICEM CFD for structured Meshing of the wing.

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1. CATIA model of wing section was saved as an ‘igs’ file and then it was imported in
ICEM CFD.

2. A domain was created around the wind section.

3. Symmetry tool was used for making half the original domain so that it could be messed
with lesser number of elements and nodes to save calculation time. If the domain is too
large, it affects the calculation and meshing capabilities of the computer as well as
simulation in FLUENT. A computer with advanced processing capabilities will be
required for meshing and computing a larger domain.

4. After making domain each part was given a name such as inlet, outlet, and sym for
symmetry and wall for the boundary of the domain so that boundary conditions can be
applied.

5. Then blocking was done to incorporate the wing section to be meshed. Special attention
was paid while blocking since unnecessary blocking could result in complexities and
intricacies.

6. Association of vertices with points and then association of edge with were performed.

Association is done to take the shape of the geometry after blocking.

7. Then O-grid was formed around the wing section.

8. Subsequently, blocks were removed from the wing section.

9. Finally meshing was done and mesh quality was checked out.

10. Adjustment and mesh smoothening operation was carried out to get the better mesh.

6.2 FLUENT

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FLUENT is a commercially sold CFD program that is widely accepted for its high fidelity. The
program has many different capabilities and functions. Both 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional
cases can be tested with laminar, inviscid, or turbulent flow. Depending on the model and flow
type, the designer chooses which flow field type is best. For large models, over 200,000 cells and
a coupled solver, a standard PC with single memory cannot process the model. Super computers
with multiple processors must be used to solve these larger models. The following are the steps
followed to run a FLUENT model.

Step 1: Create a CATIA model and import it in ICEM CFD. Create a domain around the model
and do the structured meshing of the same. It is meshed with medium sized elements as the size
of the mesh will dramatically affect the accuracy of the results and the processing time.

Step 2: Export the mesh into FLUENT.

Step 3: With FLUENT opened, select either 2-D or 3-D, depending on the mesh created in
CATIA. There is also 2ddp and 3ddp. The “dp” stands for double precision, and is more accurate
than just the standard 2d or 3d. Case run time is larger for this method, but the accuracy of the
results is important to the validity of the model.

Step 4: Import the mesh and run a check to see if there are errors in the mesh. The size of the
mesh can also be seen to verify that there are not too many cells to run the test on a standard PC.

Step 5: Choose the type of solver: segregated or coupled. Coupled solver requires much more
computer memory. The solver is the method that the program uses to solve the equations.

 Segregated solver- solves the equations one by one e.g. equation of momentum,
continuity, energy (if compressible flow) and turbulent factor. Then check for convergence.

 Coupled solver- solves the same equations as the segregated solver, but does this
simultaneously instead of one by one.

Step 6: Choose the type of flow: laminar, invisid, or turbulent. If choosing turbulent flow select
the turbulent model to use. It is difficult to determine the most accurate turbulent model without
testing several different ones. The accuracy depends on the mesh shape and flow pattern.

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Step 7: Set the fluid properties and boundary conditions. The fluid properties include but are not
limited to density, viscosity, velocity, wall friction, and much more.

Step 8: Select the solution controls and discretization methods. This depends on the shape of the
body and type of flow. A description of each solution and discretization method should be read
before the designer chooses which one is best for their model. The FLUENT online help menu
should be used for these questions.

 SIMPLE and SIMPLEC are good choices for non-complicated flow problems (such as
laminar flow).

 PISO is used for transient flows.

Step 9: Set the residuals and turn on what parameters are to be monitored. For example, the lift
and drag of the body can be monitored.

Step 10: Iterate until the solution converges. The convergence criterion is determined by setting
the residuals.

These steps can slightly vary from mesh to mesh, but in general these ten steps allow the user to
run a FLUENT model.

Wing selection and

7. Meshing of domain

7.1 YAK-54 Aircraft

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We are selecting YAK 54 aircraft for our project and would work on its wing body.The
Yakovlev Yak-54 is a 1990s Russian Aerobatic and sports competition aircraft designed by the
Yakovlev Aircraft Corporation. It is a development of the single-seat Yak-55M, designed by
Chief Constructor Dmitry Drach and Lead Engineer Vladimir Popov; it first flew 23 December
1993.

7.2 Geometry Standardization

The airfoil of the wing was designed in accordance with NACA 23015 Series. The coordinates
and geometry of NACA 23015 were gathered from University of Illinois Urbana Champaign
Airfoil Data Site- Department of Aerospace Engineering (http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-
selig/ads.html)

Fig. 7.1: NACA 23015 aerofoil

7.3 NACA 23015 Airfoil Co-ordinates

1.0000 ......

1 -0.0016

0.95 0.0112

0.9 0.0204

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0.8 0.0373

0.7 0.0525

0.6 0.0661

0.5 0.0774

0.4 0.0859

0.3 0.0905

0.25 0.0908

0.2 0.0892

0.15 0.0852

0.1 0.0764

0.075 0.069

0.05 0.0589

0.025 0.0444

0.0125 0.0334

0 ......

0 0

0.0125 -0.0154

0.025 -0.0225

0.05 -0.0304

0.075 -0.0361

0.1 -0.0409

0.15 -0.0484

0.2 -0.0541

0.25 -0.0578

0.3 -0.0596

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0.4 -0.0592

0.5 -0.055

0.6 -0.0481

0.7 -0.0391

0.8 -0.0283

0.9 -0.0159

0.95 -0.009

1 -0.0016

100 0

Fig. 7.2 : NACA 23015 modelled in CATIA V5R20

7.4 Solid Modelling of YAK54 Wing

Airfoil NACA 23015 series, modeled in CATIA, was used to design the aircraft wing
according to specifications given below. The fully designed model was saved as a file with
extension ‘.igs’.

Table 3.1 Yak-54 Aircraft Wing Lifting Surface Dimension

S= 1012643 mm2

b= 2668 mm

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ĉ 1.45

λ .46

AR 5.77

cr 560mm

ct 266mm

Fig. 7.3: Wing Section of YAK 54 NACA 23015 Aerofoil

Computed Wing Area =1210376 mm2

7.5 Modelling of YAK-54.

Fuselage was modelled in CATIA and it was assembled with wings as shown below. Since, our
aim was focused to the analysis of wings only, so whole model of Aircraft was not modelled due
to the complexities involved in CATIA modelling.

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YAK 54 Dimensions

Fig. 7.4: Dimensions of YAK54 (a) Front view, (b) Top view

Fig. 7.4: Dimensions of YAK54 (c) Side view

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Fig.7.5: CATIA model of Yak 54

7.6 Structured Meshing of Wing in ICEM-CFD

Various steps were followed in ICEM CFD for structured Meshing of the wing.

1. CATIA model of wing section was saved as an ‘.igs’ file and then it was imported in
ICEM CFD.

2. A domain was created around the wing section.

3. Symmetry tool was used for making half the original domain so that it could be
messed with lesser number of elements and nodes to save calculation time. If the
domain is too large, it affects the calculation and meshing capabilities of the computer

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as well as simulation in FLUENT. A computer with advanced processing capabilities

will be required for meshing and computing a larger domain.

4. After making domain each part was given a name such as inlet, outlet, and sym for
symmetry and wall for the boundary of the domain so that boundary conditions can
be applied.

7.6.1 Domain description

Need for Domain

The domain or air in which aircraft flies is limitless and the variable parameters
are infinite. With the limited human explorations we have to provide similar condition for
testing before going for actual design of the aircraft. We need not to go for actual design
and test it in the air. Hence we add domain to the model. Domain is the virtual
surrounding for the model which resembles to the practical conditions which model is
expected to encounter.

Domain for Aircraft

The model concentrates on two aspects: the boundary conditions and domain
size. It provides base for altering the practical conditions and evaluating the
feasibility. The CFD domain size consists of the fully developed flow region and the
area in which the model is situated. Design Modeller is being used for adding the
domain and naming the faces. A Box type Domain has been created around the
model. The longitudinal length of the model is L=2200 mm. An equal distance of
length L is taken for defining the boundary of domain from the front end and twice
the length (L) has been taken from the rear end. Same length of L is taken above the
surface, below the surface and from both the ends of Wing. Hence Domain is a box
type structure with dimension as 2.8*2.8*5.6 m 3. Now, question arises, why we left
twice the length from the rear end as compared to front end. It is so because flow is
from the front end and the ill effects of flow will be noticed only at the rear end.

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Fig.7.6: Domain formed around wings

5. Then blocking was done to incorporate the wing section to be meshed. Special
attention was paid while blocking since unnecessary blocking could result in
complexities and intricacies

Fig.7.7: Blocking and o grid created for the domain

6. Association of vertices with points and then association of edge with were performed.

Association is done to take the shape of the geometry after blocking.

7. Then O-grid was formed around the wing section.

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8. Subsequently, blocks were removed from the wing section.

Fig. 7.8: Association of vertices with points and edges with curves

9. Finally meshing was done and mesh quality was checked out.

10. Mesh smoothening and adjustment operation was carried out to get the better mesh
elements.

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Fig.7.9: Wing Section after structured meshing in ICEM CFD

Total No of Elements in Wing Section 10552

Fig.7.10: Domain after Structured Meshing

Total Elements 534784 Total nodes 509595

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8. Simulation setup

The meshed domain was imported in ANSYS Fluent and following settings were used for
Simulation:

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8.1 Mesh Scale
CFD General
Analysis of Aircraft Wing body Project Report
Check
Report Quality
Display
Solver Type Pressure Based
Solver Velocity Formulation Absolute
Relative
Time Steady
Transient
Gravity Acceleration X Direction=-9.81 m/s2

8.2 Models Heat Exchanger-off

Multiphase-off
Energy-off
Radiation-off
Viscous- Laminar Inviscid
Laminar
K-epsilon(2 equation)
K- Omega (2 equation)
Transition SST (4 equation)

8.3 Materials( From Material type-Fluid Air(default)

FLUENT database)

Type-fluid Air
8.4 Cell-Zone
Condition
Operating Condition Pressure= 0 Pascal
Gravity=9.81

8.5 Boundary Inlet Velocity Inlet

Conditions
Interior-Solid Interior
Outlet Pressure-outlet
Wall Wall-Shear condition
Wall Solid Wall

8.6 Reference Compute from Inlet

Values
Area = 1 m2
Density 1.225 kg/m3
Enthalpy = 0 J/kg
Length = 1m
Pressure = 0 Pascal
Temperature = 288.16 K
Velocity = 1m/s
Viscosity = 1.7894e-05 kg/m-s
Ratio of Specific Heats = 1.4

8.7 Solution Pressure-Velocity Coupling Scheme- Simple

Methods
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CFD Analysis of Aircraft Wing body Project Report

9. Post-Processing

At the end of solver iteration, the residual sum for each of the conserved variables is computed
and stored, thus recording the convergence history. This history is also saved in the data file.

9.1 Residual sum

The residual sum is defined below.

On a computer with infinite precision, these residuals will go to zero as the solution converges.
On an actual computer, the residuals decay to some small value ("round-off'') and then stop
changing ("level out''). For single-precision computations (the default for workstations and most
computers), residuals can drop as many as six orders of magnitude before hitting round-off.
Double-precision residuals can drop up to 12 orders of magnitude. The simulation was run for
1500 iterations using Viscous-standard k-e, standard wall function model. The solution seemed
to be converged after 200 iterations.

Fig.9.1: Simulation in Fluent using Viscous-standard k-e, standard wall function model

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9.2Graph of Lift convergence History and Number of iterations

Fig.9.2: Graph of lift Convergence History vs. No of Iterations

9.3 Pressure Contours

9.3.1 Total Pressure

The term total pressure may indicate two different quantities, both having the dimensions of a
pressure. The concepts of total pressure and dynamic pressure arise from Bernoulli's
equation and are significant in the study of all fluid flows.

Bernoulli’s equation for incompressible flows can be expressed as:

Where:

 is static pressure,

 is dynamic pressure, usually denoted by ,

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CFD Analysis of Aircraft Wing body Project Report

 is the density of the fluid,

 is the flow velocity, and

 is total pressure which is constant along any streamline.

Fig.9.3: Contours of Total Pressure

 Since, Total Pressure is the sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure, hence it will
remain constant. The green and red contour at both lower and upper surface of the wing
shows that Total Pressure remains constant for a given time.

9.3.2 Static Pressure

In fluid mechanics the term static pressure has several uses:

 In the design and operation of aircraft, static pressure is the air pressure in the
aircraft’s static pressure system.

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CFD Analysis of Aircraft Wing body Project Report

 In fluid dynamics, static pressure is the pressure at a nominated point in a fluid

Fig.9.4: Contours of Static Pressure

 In this contour, blue colour shows lower pressure whereas red colour shows higher
pressure. Since, lower surface has higher pressure and upper surface has lower pressure,
difference in pressure causes lift.

9.3.3 Dynamic Pressure

In incompressible fluid dynamics dynamic pressure (indicated with q, or Q, and sometimes

called velocity pressure) is the quantity defined by:

where:

= dynamic pressure in Pascal,

= fluid density in kg/m3 (e.g. density of air),

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CFD Analysis of Aircraft Wing body Project Report

= fluid velocity in m/s.

Dynamic pressure is closely related to the kinetic energy of a fluid particle, since both quantities
are proportional to the particle's mass (through the density, in the case of dynamic pressure) and
square of the velocity

Fig.9.5: Contours of Dynamic Pressure

Since, velocity of fluid at upper surface of the wing is higher than at lower surface, thus the
dynamic pressure at upper surface is more than the dynamic pressure at lower surface. Here, a
red contour at the upper surface shows higher pressure whereas yellow colour at the lower
surface shows lower pressure.

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CFD Analysis of Aircraft Wing body Project Report

9.4 Contours of Velocity Magnitude

Fig. 9.6: Contours of Velocity Magnitude

It can be noticed from the velocity magnitude distribution that, the velocity of air flowing past an
aircraft wing is higher at the upper surface than at the lower surface. This would provide the
necessary lift force to the wing.
Free stream Velocity of Air = 900m/s

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10. Conclusion

The work included the pre-processing and simulation of Wing body of YAK 54 Aircraft
geometrically based on NACA 23015 Airfoil. Then the results were successfully computed for
lift generated by the wing and the contours of pressure and velocity magnitude has been plotted.

The proposed objectives of the project have been successfully achieved. The area of the wing is
computed and Lift force is correctly calculated. Contours of static pressure, dynamic pressure,
total pressure as well as contour of velocity magnitude has been studied and analyzed. They are
found coherent with the expected phenomena.

Computed Wing Area =1210376 mm2

Net lift Forces Acting on Wing = 3.7422655e+10 N

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CFD Analysis of Aircraft Wing body Project Report

11. References

1. A Project Report on “Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) Wing Design and Manufacture”
submitted by Chong Shao Ming, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National
University of Singapore, 2010

2. “CFD Analysis of UAVs using VORSTAB, FLUENT, AND Advanced Aircraft Analysis
Software” submitted by Benjamin Sweeten, Aerospace Engineering Department,
University of Kansas, 2010.

3. “Developing a Framework for Control of Agile Aircraft Platforms in Autonomous

Hover”, Thesis submitted by Kyle J. Krogh, Master of Science in Aeronautics &
Astronautics, University of Washington, 2009, “YAK 54 Dimensions”

4. John D. Anderson, Jr. Fundamental of Aerodynamics, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill

Education, 2001, “Basic Theory of Aerodynamics”

5. “Computational fluid dynamics. The basics with applications” by Anderson J D. Jr.

1995, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

6. Marzocca, Pier. "The NACA airfoil series" (PDF). Clarkson University. Retrieved
07-03-2009.

7. UIUC Airfoil Co-ordinates Database, Version 2.0 University of Illinois,

http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-selig/ads/coord_database.html

8. “A taxonomy and comparison of parallel block multi-level preconditioners for the

incompressible Navier–Stokes equations”, Research Article “Journal of
Computational Physics”, Volume 227, Issue 3, 10 January 2008, Pages 1790-1808

9. "Man Made Hurricane Tests Full Size Planes" Popular Mechanics, January 1936,
pp.94-95”

10. “Wind Tunnels” Article at “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_tunnel”

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