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91% found this document useful (33 votes)
24K viewsSimplified Reinforced Concrete Design
Structural analysis and design by Oyenuga
Uploaded by
Kenneth EnehCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Simplified |
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
(A Consultant/Computer-Based Approach)
— ENGR. VICTOR 0. OYENUGA —=
HIND, BSc(Hons), MSc(London), DIC, PGD(Comp. Sc.) FNIStructE, FNSE, FNICE, MNIOB
MD/CEO: Vasons Concept Consultants Ltd(Consulting Engineers & ‘Town Planrs),
3, Adegbola Street, Lawanson, Surulere, Lagos.
ASROS LTD
SURULERE, LAGOS. TO
THE OMNISCIENT SPIRIT
The Author and Giver of all Wisdom and Knowledge, the Potentate and
Supreme Structural Engineer who. founded the entire Universe and
suspended it in the Air. First Published in Nigeria by:
ASROS LTD.
Copyright © Victor Olusegun Oyenuga, 2008
All rights reserved. No part of this Publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, e-mailing or otherwise) without the prior permission of the publisher.
First published 1999.
Second Edition 2001.
Revised 2005.
Reprinted 2006, 2007, 2008.
Published by:
ASROS LIMITED
3, Adegbola Street,
Off Anjorin Street,
Lawanson, Surulere,
Lagos, Nigeria.
Tel: (+234 1) 895 4408, 8916777 GSM 0803 323 1985.
|: [email protected]
National Library of Nigeria Cataloguing in Publishing Data
ISBN: 978-36217-3-4 This Book is
Dedicated to the Memory of:
PRoOFESSoR OD. A. Apexora DSc, DIC.
(1932 '- 1999)
Late Professor Emeritus of Structural Engineering,
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria. Foreword; Review and Comments on the First Edition
FOREWORD.
It is an accepted fact,that Engineering is a combination of theory and practice. -The teaching of the
science of engineering is incomplete without the linkage of the theories to practical applications,
especially in design. This book is.a good attempt to expose. its readers to the basic concepts in
reinforced concrete design to BS 8110: Part 1: ,1997 and Part 2:. 1985, which are well linked to
practical design through design and detailing examples. Computer application is introduced at the end
of cach chapter to, make the readers appreciate how computer could aid reinforced concrete elemental
design. ‘ 7
I recommend the book, Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design for all Civil/Structural Engineering,
Building and Architectural Students in tertiary institutions and practicing engineers.
Engr. K. B. Osifala M.Sc,, M-Phil., MNSE, MNIM.
Head, Department of Civil Engineering,
Yaba College of Technology, Lagos, Nigeria.
June, 2001.
BOOK REVIEW
Excerpts of the review from Professor C. O. Orangun (former Professor of Structural Engineering,
University of Lagos, Nigeria, on the occasion of the public presentation of the book).
+». From the contents of the book, it is clear that it will meet adequately the requirements of those at
whom the book is targeted. The book is well written and appropriately titled. ‘There are few editing
errors and this may be attributedto the mathematical nature of the subject matter where both
superscripts and subscripts are used. In my opinion, the presentation of the bending moment diagram
ans some of the structural details could be better. The bidding is good and the cover is attractive.
This is the first book on the subject of structural design published in Nigeria which, in my opinion, has
presented the subject matter extremely well. The book provides a much-needed core text in structural
engineering and should be popular among professional engineers, students and teachers of technology
in Tertiary Institutions.
‘The design calculations are based on data from recent design codes particularly the BS 8110. As it
takes a long time to get design codes changed, the book will be current for a long time to come. The
glossary and subject index will be useful for easy reference.
‘The design and construction of a structure are closely linked; a good design and bad construction can
lead to failure and vice versa. A structural engineer who designs in accordance with the procedure
enunciated in this book and supervises the construction ensuring that the quality of materials used is
good should rest assured that the structure will be safe. .....
Engr. (Prof.) C. 0. Orangun, FNSE, FNIStructE, FAS, FAEng.
Sador Consulting Engineers (Civil/Structural and Construction Engineering Consultants),
Lagos. vi
COMMENTS FROM INSTITUTIONS AND PROFESSIONAL BODIES
Below are some of the excerpts from the review by some statutory bodies, professional bodies and
institutions of higher learning as delivered during the public presentation of the book in December,
1999. a
COUNCIL FOR THE REGULATION OF ENGINEERING IN NIGERIA (COREN)
ssssses The book has.been written from the rich background (theoretical and practical) of the author in
analysis-of structures and design of reinforced concrete, in particular. The various subject treated in the
book are backed with examples that could be easily followed by young engineers and even experienced
designers could use it as quick references. ‘The computer programming will be found useful to the
designers as this is the tool for the next millennium in the development of engineering analysis all over
the world.
This book is highly recommended for practicing civil and structural engineers to be used as reference or
manual in both the design office and construction site activities.
‘The Registrar,
COREN.
COUNCIL OF REGISTERED BUILDERS OF NIGERIA
‘The book is answer to the yearning of both the practicing consultant and the tertiary institution lecturer.
It treats topics of interest for Reinforced Concrete Design for both academic and practicing engineers,
builders, architects and quantity surveyors. The author painstakingly simplified this approaches So that
the reader is not bogged down with a lot of theory. It is an engineering design book per excellence with
lots of practical illustrations and worked examples. It treats topics which are beyond the scope of
undergraduate RC design work in such a way a lecturer is tempted to get them treated at that level.
‘The computer approach incorporated in the treatment of the various topics makes the book a rélevant
text for al time. It is an excellent book which anyone that works with reinforced concrete should aspire
to own.
‘The book meets the requirements for the professional examinations of the Nigeria Institute of Building
(NIOB) and is so endorsed for adoption.
Bidr (Prof) ‘Bayo Olateju (Honourable Commisioner) : :
For: The Registrar.
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT., UNVIVERSITY OF LAGOS. AKOKA, LAGOS.
The book presents a unified view of the processes that are involved in the design of reinforced concrete
structures......Each design is followed by detailed drawings of all the structural elements. The book is
well written. It sufficiently covers the OND and HND programmes and BSc programme in the area of
reinforced concrete structures. The book is also good for practicing Engineers
Prof.'A. S. Adedimila.
Head of Department.
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT., FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC, ILARO, NIGERIA. Pend
sults approach to the: design ‘of’ Various elettients is’ simplé arid “eaSy to follow and each element’
designed is fully detailed. Its comprehensive treatment of staircases, foundation design and other
structures like box culverts and water retaining structure not normally encountered in structural design
textbooks is commendable. It fully deals with the application of computer programs for design and this vii
should help put the Nigerian Engineer in centre stage ofthe use of computer as we approach the new
millennium. y e vy
The book will therefore be useful not only to the Consultant but to all practicing Engineers as well as
Architecture, Building Technology and Civil Engineering Students. It will also be an invaluable aid to
all who teach Structural Engineering Design with special bias for computer aided design. :
A. A. Fayemii,
Head of Department. *
THE NIGERIAN INSTITUTE OF BUILDING
ur opinion of this “overduie”” book on practical reinforced concrete design is that, it combined in one
text-book chapters on theoretical, practical and computer application in reinforced concrete elemental
design.
The book is overdue because itis the first of its kind written by an indigenous writer who is not difectly
in the academies. One could only appreciate the book because of its simplicity and practical
application in the specialized area of structural design.
illennium” to our members and other relevant
In our honest opinion, we recommend this book of the
professionals'in the construction industry. :
Bldr. M. A. Ogunbiyi,
Honourary General Secretary.
THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS, CIVIL ENGINEERING DIVISION (NOW,
THE NIGERIAN INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS)
. Even for a cursory reviewer or reader the all-pervading treasure embedded in the book is eloquent
enough and to that extent it is a suitable handbook. But judge by the comprehensiveness of its
treatment of concrete structure elemental design ‘and the rudimentary approach employed, it is an
indispensable textbook, which all Civil and Building Engineering Students should have.
The book has shown how to take the usual drudgery out of the design of continuous indeterminate
structure through the use of compiiter aid introduced at the end of each’ chapter.........1 have no
reservation in recommending it for use to HIND, BSc., Civil and Building Engineering Students and
practicing Civil and Structural Engineers. °
Engr. J. O-K. Ajayi,
Chairman,
‘THE NIGERIAN INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS,
«st is heart warming to see such a book published and I praise you immensely not only for thinking ©
about it, but also for finding time to get it done. The whole book is based on experience pivoted on
practical designs and details. I have discussed some areas with you I personnaly believe need to be re-
visited.
The book, I also believe, will be useful by Students and Practitioners of Civil/Structural Engineering.
Engr. T. 0. A. Bamgbopa,
President. ACKNOWLEDGMENT.
1 bow my knees before the Most High God, the Omniscient Spirit and the Author and Dispenser of
Knowledge and Wisdom. May His holy name be glorified for the edification of His Church and for the
blessings of humanity.
J will continually appreciate the support, encouragement and prayers of my former Principal Partners,
Engr. Adesola Ayinde Songonuga and Engr. Chief Rasheed Omokayode Shoderu, my Partner, Engr.
Olutade Akintobi Oduyale and my mentor, Dr. Tayo Ogunbadejo. May the true Lord continue to grant
them His immense love, protection and_ | prosperity.
The entire members of staff of Vasons Concept Group, namely, Engr. (Miss) Calister N. Okere, Mr.
John Adebayo, Mr. Olabisi Bello, Mr. ‘Wole Oludipe, Miss Rita Upiopio (who typed most of the initial
manuscripts), Mr. R. Tontonye, Mr. Jimoh Atunde and Miss Adebola K. Fasanya, who lent their
supports during the thick and thin of the writing of this book, for which I will be eternally grateful.
Miss Kate Sule did the original cover design and the efforts put in are highly appreciated.
1 will want to put on records the efforts of my colleagues in the distribution, sales and promotion of the
first edition and the list include; Engr. M. A. Kotun of Lagos State Development and Property
Corporation, Engrs. Kehinde Osifala and Femi Omokungbe of Yaba College of Technology, Engr.
Prof. M. A. Salau of University of Lagos, Engrs. Samuel O. Oliyide, W. O. Buraimoh, A. A.
Omopeloye and R. A. Akinola of Lagos State Government, Engr. Lawrence Akinyemi of Ondo State
Government, Engr. Roberts O. Akinsiku of Federal Ministry of Works, Ondo State, Engr. Oyewole
Oyewunmi of Ogun State Goverment; Engr. Dr. C. U. Nwoji, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka; Engr. Henry Aginam, Department of Civil Engineering, Nnamdi
Azikwe University, Awka, Miss Irene Okhade, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Benin,
Benin City, to mention but a few. May you be continually blessed.
Extracts from British Standards are reproduced with the permission of BSI under licence number
PD/1999/ 0767. Complete British Standards can be obtained by post from BSI Customer Services, 389
Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL, United Kingdom (Tel. UK +020 8996 9001). I am very
grateful for this opportunity.
The patience, prayers and perseverance of my entire family namely, Ayoola Oyenuga (wife); Mrs.
Esther Omotola. Lawal and Miss (Dr.) Elizabeth Oluwakemi Oyenuga (daughters); and Emmanuel
Oludare and Ebenezer Olanrewaju Oyenuga (sons) are noteworthy and they serve as encouragement
and source of inspiration to me. May they be richly blessed. To the Pastors (Pastor E. O. Adeniyi and
J.B. O. Olajide) and Members of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, Ogba, Lagos, I say may the Lord
continue to bless His Church.
ENGR. V. O. OYENUBA, FNSE, FNISTRUCTE.
March 14, 2008 ABOUT THE BOOK
This book written out of experience as a practicing engineer and a lecturer of many years is designed to
‘meet the requirements of:
@ The Student Civil/Structural Engineers and
@ The Civil/Structural Engineers in engineering practice of consulting and contracting.
The book is written primarily in accordance with the philosophy of reinforced concrete design as
‘enunciated in:
=> BS. 8110: Part 1: 1997 and
=> BS. 8110: Part 2: 1995.
Other British Standards publications, such as, B. S. 6399: Part 1: 1984, (for live loads) etc., were
referred to where necessary.
‘The book is meant to be self-supporting and all the necessary design information is supplied as much as
possible. In order to drive home the various points, design examples are given for each element
discussed and these examples are detailed as in practice. Structural analysis using the Clapeyron's
‘Three Moments Equation Method and Hardy Cross Method of Moment Distribution are adopted. The
Hardy Cross Method of Moment Distribution is used in Chapter 9 for the Box Culvert. The author
recognizes the importance of high technology in structural engineering design and being a computer
programmer himself has written computer programs for the various topics discussed in the book.
Compiled versions of the programs are available from the publishers with their operating manuals.
Chapter 11 picked up two buildings -- a) Three Storey Framed building and b) Two Storey building
‘on load bearing walls; and design them completely. Both the architectural and the structural detailing
of the two buildings are enclosed as part of the text.
In order to serve as a quick reference book, Chapter 10 summarizes the various design formulas and
also includes other tables and charts for design.
Wind analysis and analysis and design of tall structures are to be part of the subject of subsequent
volume - Advanced Reinforced Concrete Design.
What is new in this edition?
The derivation of the design equations (analysis of sections) have been included as well as structural
analysis using the Hardy Cross method of Moment Distribution. A new chapter titled Design Resume
has been included to provide a quick reference to all design parameters including design procedures
without full reference to the main text. As much as possible all errors and mistakes noted as well as
suggestions by eminent colleagues have been included.
Enor. V. 0. OvENuaA. Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Ll
12
13
14
1S
16
17
18
Objective of Design
Design Methods
Design Codes and Standards
Design Stresses
Conerete
1.5.1 Cement
1.5.2 Aggregates
1.5.3 Water
1.5.4 Admixtures
5.5 Concrete Mixing
-5.6 Quality Control
-5.7 Water Cement Ratio
Reinforcement
Computer Application
1.7.1 The Computer
1.7.2 Computer Programming using FORTRAN
1.7.3 Program Development
How to Begin
1.8.1 Design Calculations
1.8.2 Detailing
1.9 The Consulting Structural Engineer
1.10 The I: ‘ention of this Book
CHAPTER 2: COMPUTER PROGRAMMING.
21
2.2
23
24
25
‘The Computer System
Programming Languages
FORTRAN Programming
Data Types
2.4.1 Constants
2.4.2 Variables
2.4.3 Arrays (or Subscripted Variables)
Expressions
2.5.1 Arithmetic Expression
2.5.2 Relational Expression 2.6
27
28
29
2.10
211
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.183
2.5.3 Logical Expression
2.5.4 Assignment Statements
Control Statements
2.6.1 GO TO Statement
2.6.2 IF Statements
2.6.3 DO Statement
2.6.4 STOP Statement
2.6.5 CALLE and RETURN Statements
2.6.6 PAUSE Statement
‘Sub-Programs and Function Statement
2.7.1 Intrinsic Functions
2.7.2 Statement Function
2.7.3 Function Sub-Program
2.7.4 Subroutine Sub-Program
Input/Output Statements
2.8.1 READ Statement
2.8.2 WRITE Statement
2.8.3 FORMAT Statements
FORTRAN Structure
2.9.1 Header Statements
2.9.2 Main Body
2.9.3 Closing Statement
Coding
Compilation and Running
Programs in this Book
2.12.1 Input and Output Statement
2.12.2 Enclosed Programs
2.12.3 General
M.S. Excel Programming
Functions and Operators
Application to Reinforced Concrete Design
Limitations
(Other Examples
AutoCAD Software
2.18.1 The Drawing Area and Status Bar
2.18.2 The Command Window
The Pull-Down Menu
2.18.4 - The Toolbars
19
ot
19
2
22
22
2
BEBE
24
25
26
26
2
27
2
27
BBs
31
31
31
888
4l
41
41
xi xii
CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
35
3.6
Introduction
Loading
3.2.1 Dead Load
3.2.2 Imposed Loads
3.2.3 Wind Loads
3.2.4 Factor of Safety and Load Contribution
Beam Analysis
3.3.1 Simply Supported Beams
3.3.4 Moment Redistribution
Deflection
3.4.1 Theory of Deflection
3.4.2 Examples on Deflection
Design Formulas
3.5.1 Design Equations - Bending
3.5.2. Design Equations - Bending and Axial Load
3.5.3. Design Equaations for Flanged Sections
Computer Programs
CHAPTER 4: SLAB DESIGN
41
42
43
44
45
46
‘Types of Slab and Uses
Solid Slabs
4.2.1 Code’s requirements of Solid Slabs
4.2.2 Design of Solid Slabs
4.2.3 Two-way Spanning Slabs
Flat Slab
4.3.1 Code’s Requirements
4.3.2 Design Example
Ribbed Floor
4.4.1 Code’s Requirements
4.4.2 Structural Analysis
4.4.3 Design Examples
Waffle Slab Design
4.5.1 Mould Properties
4.5.2 Analysis
4.5.3 Design Example
Computer Programs
BRRba 8 8
107
13
14
115
1s
12
122
123
123
127 CHAPTER 5: STAIR DESIGN
5.1
5.2
53
5.4
5.5
Functional Requirements of Stairs
‘Types of Stairs
Code’s Requirements
Design of Stairs
5.4.1 Straight Flight
5.4.2 Half-Turn (or 1800) Stair
5.4.3 Cantilever Stairs from Spine Wall
5.4.4 Flight on Spine Beams
5.4.5 Open Well or Quarter-Turn Stair
5.4.6 Spiral Stair
Computer Programs
CHAPTER 6: BEAM DESIGN
6.1
6.2
63
6.4
65
6.6
67
68
Introduction
Codes Requirements and Practical Recommendations
Design
6.3.1 Design Procedures
6.3.2 Design Examples
Worked Examples
Beams Subjected to Torsion
6.5.1 Requirement of the Standard
6.5.2 Torsional Shear Stress
6.5.3 Torsional Reinforcements
6.5.4 Spacing and Type of Links
6.5.5 Arrangement of Longitudinal Torsion Reinforcement
6.5.6 Design Procedure
6.5.7 Design Example
Arcate Beams
Precast Beams
Computer Programs
CHAPTER 7: COLUMN DESIGN
WW
72
Introduction
Column Classifications and Properties
7.2.1 Axial Uniaxial and Biaxial Columns
7.2.2 Braced and Unbraced Columns
7.2.3 Effective Height of Columns
7.2.4 Relative Stiffness
7.2.5 Slenderness Limit
7.2.6 Deflection Induced Moment
“139
139
139
14
vidi
142
143
145
147
149
151
155
163
163
164
165
166
169
170
182
183
183
184
184
184
184
185
188
189
191
201
201
201
201
202
202
203
205
205
Xifi xiv
7.3 Design of Columns
7.3.1 Axially Loaded Columns
7.3.2 Uniaxially Loaded Columns
7.3.3 Biaxially Loaded Columns
7.4 Design of Slender Columns
7.5 Practical Design of Columns
7.5.1 Design Information
7.5.2 Loading
7.5.3 Fixed End Moments
7.5.4 Loading on Columns
7.5.5 Member Stiffness
7.5.6 Moment of Columns
7.5.7 Check of Slendemess of the Columns
7.5.8 Design
7.6 Computer Programs
‘CHAPTER 8: FOUNDATION DESIGN
8.1 Introduction
8.2. Soll Investigation
8.2.1 Field Work
8.2.2 Laboratory Tests
8.3 Types of Foundation
8.4 Loading
8.5 Strip Foundation
8.6 Wide Strip Foundation
8.7 Reinforced Concrete Footings
8.7.1 Isolated Pad Foundation
8.7.2 Combined Pad Footing
8.8 Strap Foundation
8.9 Raft Foundation
8.9.1 Design
8.9.2. Raft Slab Design
8.9.3 Cellular Raft Design
8.10 Displacement Foundation
8.11 Pile Foundation
8.11.1 Pile Cap
8.11.2 Design of Pile Caps
8.12 Computer Program
206
207
210
ai
213
213
213
215
216
219
220
224
221
231
231
231
233
BeBe
241
247
247
22
274
286
287
287
289
290
298 CHAPTER 9: OTHER STRUCTURES
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Retaining Walls
9.2.1 Free Standing Retaining Walls
9.2.2 Design Consideration of Retaining Wall
9.2.3 Analysis of Retaining Walls
9.2.4 Design of Retaining Walls
9.2.5 Counterfort Retaining Walls
9.3 Water Retaining Structures
9.3.1 General Considerations
9.3.2 Swimming Pool Design
9.3.3 Elevated Water Tank Design
9.4 Box Culverts
9.4.1 Loading
9.4.2 Analysis and Design
9.4.3 Design Example
CHAPTER 10: ‘DESIGN RESUME
10.1 Basic Weights
10.2. Reinforcement Information
103. Design Summaries
10.3.1, Slab Design
10.3.2 Beam Design
10.3.3 Column Design
10.3.4 Pad Foundation Design
10.4 Design Charts
CHAPTER 11: SAMPLE DESIGNS
11.1 Three Storey Framed Building
11.2 Two Storey Building
INDEX
305
305
307
307
312
315
320
320
322
329
334
335
336
336
343
343
343
345
348
351
353
354
359
359
401
413
305
305 Xvi CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
R.
conerete and steel. Concrete has considerable crushing strength, is durable, has good fire resistance but
offers little or no strength in tension but fair in shear. On the other hand, steel has good tensile
properties, poor resistance to fire (due to rapid loss of strength under high temperature) and very good
in compression. Thus, a combination of these materials results in good tensile and
compressive strength, durability and good resistance to fire and shear. Concrete on its own is a
composite material of cement, sand, coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed stone) and water. Its good
workability allows it to be easily used in many shapes ranging from bulky dam wall to very thin shell
roof.
inforced concrete is a combination of two dissimilar but complimentary materials, namely
When a simply supported member is loaded, it bends and the bottom is subjected to tension and the top
to compression (see Figure 1.1a). In the case of a cantilever member, the tension is at the top and the
‘compression at the bottom (Figure 1.1b). Since steel is good in tension, the member is reinforced with
steel at the lower part (tension) while the top part (compression) is taken care of by the concrete. Such
a member is called a reinforced concrete member. In addition, since steel is good both in tension and
compression, a member subjected to direct compression can be borne by both concrete and steel.
Typical examples of the former are slabs and beams while that of the latter is column. The method of
combining these materials (concrete and steel) in the most economical way on one hand and safety on
the other hand is referred to as reinforced concrete design. Tension
Figure 1 ‘Compression
: — Compression
(a) Simply Supported Beam (b) Cantilevered Beam
1.1 OBJECTIVE OF DESIGN = ——————_—__—.
A reinforced concrete design must satisfy the following functional objectives:
# Under the worst system of loading, the structure must be safe. etx
@ Under the working load, the deformation of the structure must not impair the? ¢
appearance, durability and/or performance of the structure and
The structure must be economical, that is, the factor of safety should not be too large to
the extent that the cost of the structure becomes prohibitive with no additional major
advantage except for robustness.
These requirements call for good assessment of the intending loads, right choice of materials and sound
workmanship. To ensure these, the various components forming the reinforced concrete and the
conerete itself must pass the various tests as detailed in the controlling code of practice.
The determination of the size of the structural member and the amount of reinforcement required to
enable it withstand the forces or other effects to which it will be subjected is the object of design or
detailed design. Detailed design is, however, only one of the two main parts of structural design, the
other being the primary design. This is the initial planning or arranging of the members so that the
external forces or loads on the structure are transmitted to the foundation in the most economical
manner consistent with the purpose of the structure. This is bore out of experience, from a study of
existing structures and from comparison of alternative designs. 2 Reinforced Concrete Design INTRODUCTION
1.2, DESIGN METHODS
‘The design philosophy of reinforced concrete has gone through various stages of modifications,
‘The major three are:
\ i. The modular ratio method in which the loads are assessed as the working (actual) loads but
1 £ gerinucs limiting the permissible stresses in the concrete and the reinforcement to fraction of their actual
stresses in order to provide an adequate factor of safety. This is guided by CP 114:1957. Some
designs, e.g. water retaining structures, are still being carried out using this method today. This
method is considered as an alternative method and itis also known as the elastic theory method.
trot Shes
ii, The load factor method in which the section is analyzed at failure, the actual strength of a section
being related to the actual load causing failure, with the latter being determined by applying.
factor to the design load. In the load factor method, the ultimate strength of the materials is used in
esse [ecajthe calculation, hence, no variations in materials strength is taken into account; for this reason, it
i ‘cannot be used for the serviceability states of deflection and cracking.
“The limit state method of design, which overcomes many of the disadvantages of the previously
discussed two methods. In this method, the working loads are multiplied by partial factors of
safety and the ultimate materials strengths are divided by further partial factors of safety. With this
‘method, the design of each individual member or section of a member must satisfy two separate
criteria of:
‘¢ The ultimate limit state which ensures that the probability of failure is acceptably low and
@ The limit state of serviceability, which ensures satisfactory behaviour under service (ie.
working) loads. The principal criteria relating to serviceability are the prevention of excessive
cracking, however, with certain types of structure and in special circumstances other limit state
criteria may have to be considered (e.g. fatigue, vibration, durability, fire resistance etc )
‘As earlier mentioned the characteristic loads are multiplied by a partial safety factor for loads, A, , to
obtain the design loads, thus enabling calculation of the bending moments and shearing forces for
svhich the member is to be designed. Thus, if the characteristic loads are multiplied by the value of 2,
corresponding to the ultimate limit state, the moments and forces subsequently determined will
represent those occurring at failure and the sections must be designed accordingly. Similarly, if the
value of A, corresponding to the limit state of serviceability is used, the moments and forces under
service loads will be obtained. In the same vein, characteristic strengths of materials used are divided
by a partial safety factor for materials, 2, , to obtain appropriate design strength for each material.
To avoid rigorous analysis for serviceability limit state, the BS 8110 specifies certain limits relating to
bar spacing, slenderness etc. and, if these criteria are not exceeded, more detailed calculations for
serviceability are unnecessary. Should a proposed design fall outside these tabulated limiting values,
however, the engineer may still be able to show that his design meets the requirements of the standard
regarding serviceability by producing detailed calculations to validate such claim.
1.3 DESIGN CODES AND STANDARDS
This book is written to satisfy the requirements of the B.S. 8110: Part 1: 1997 and Part 2:1985 -
Structural Use of Concrete. Other standards and codes are referred to in the text when used. The
word ‘Code? or ‘Standard? in the context of this book refers only to BS 8110: Part 1: 1997. The
reader ig advised to familiarize himself with the provisions of the Standard. Some of the tables of the
Standard are referred to while very few are reproduced in this book, by permission, to assist the reader. Reinforced Concrete Design INTRODUCTION = 3
In the design of each of the major elements the requirements of the Standard are elucidated as well as
their practical implications.
1.4 DESIGN STRESSES
‘This book is concerned with two materials, namely - Concrete and Rod Reinforcements (steel). The
stee! is either mild steel round bars (R - bars) or high yield steel (high tensile) bars (¥ or T - bars).
Concrete characteristic strength, f, , forms the concrete grade. e.g. Grade 20 has f,, = 20N/mm? and
grade 40 has fe = 40N/mm?, This f, value is also the minimum cube strength at 28 days. St
3.1.7.2 of the Standard specifies minimum of grade 25 for reinforced concrete and grade 15 for li
‘weight aggregate concrete. The engineer is advised here to use grade 20, that is, fey = 20N/mm: for jobs
to be executed by not well-known contractors or by masons, as in rural areas. For higher grade
concrete, the engineer must insist on cube strength tests at 7days, 14days and 28days. The 28" day
value should in no case be lower than the designed f.,.. The engineers can check up BS 5328 for details.
Characteristic strengths of reinforcements are given in BS 4449, BS 4461 and BS 4483. For mild steel
round bars, the characteristic strength is 250N/mm? while for high yield steel is 460N/mm”. Experience
has shown, however, that a value of 410N/mm? is the most appropriate for high tensile bars in this
country. In addition, the Standard allows for a lower value than the quoted characteristic strength to
control deflection (Clause 3.1.7.4). Since mild steel are readily available design should generally be
based on this especially for domestic buildings of one or two suspended floors. When massive use of
stee! reinforcements is envisaged, such as, office buildings, special concrete structures (e.g. stadium)
etc. high yield bars should be recommended. These are no rules and exceptions are permitted.
15 CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite inert material comprising of a binder course (e.g. cement), mineral filler (body)
or aggregates and water. Aggregates on the other hand are two categories of fine (sand) and coarse
(gravel or crushed stone) aggregates. The aggregates are usually graded from fine sand to stones of say
20mm in diameter depending on the job to be executed. There are basically two types of concrete, viz.
(i) Dense concrete and (ii) Light weight concrete
Lightweight concrete can be defined as those weighing less than 1920kg/m? and are made in densities
down to about 160kg/m°. The group of lightweight concrete includes: aerated concrete, lightweight
aggregate concrete and no-fines concrete.
Dense concrete is the most common form of concrete for reinforced concrete work and the average
density is 2400kg/m’.
‘1.5.1 Cement:
The cement commonly used is the general normal setting Portland cement (the colour resembles
Portland stone, hence, the name). Others include rapid-hardening Portland cement, blast furnace
Portland cement, low heat Portland cement, super-sulphate Portland cement and high alumina cement.
‘Super-sulphate cement is used for very corrosive soils while low heat cement is better for massive
concreting ¢.g. dam construction. ‘These other types of Portland cements are the Ordinary Portland
cement with additives. It should be noted that high Alumina cement which is useful for emergency
works where very high early strength is desired (e.g. during war time) is not a Portland cement. The
principal chemical compounds of Portland cement are, tricalcium silicate (3CaOSiO,). dicalcium
silicate (2CaOSiO;), tricalcium aluminate (3CaQAI,05), and tetracalcium alumino ferrite (4CaO
‘Al,03Fe03). The most important of these are the dicalcium and tricalcium silicates. 4 Reitiforced Concrete Design INTRODUCTION
BS 12 that specifies some tests governs the quality of cement. They include fineness test, chemical
composition test, setting time test, soundness test, strength test and heat of hydration test. The details
can be obtained from the BS 12, Cement for concrete work should meet, at least, the minimum
requirements of BS 12.
1.5.2 Aggregates
These are inert filler in.the concrete mixture consisting of between 70-75% by volume of the whole
mixture. Aggregates are categorized as fine aggregates and these include sand and very rarely quarry
‘dust; and coarse aggregate which are gravel and crushed stone. For effective performances aggregates
‘must be.clean, hard, tough, strong, durable and of proper grading. Other types of aggregates especially
for lightweight concrete include: blast furnace slag, broken bricks or blocks, clinker, pumice, foamed
slag, expanded clay, shale and exfoliated vermiculite.
Like cement, aggregates must be tested for quality and the tests include:
({) Test for durability using freezing-thawing test procedure or alternate soaking in NaySOx or
‘Mg SO, solution and
(ii) Gradation test for purposes of controlling workability of the mixed concrete.
1.5.3 Water
The quality of the water used in mixing the concrete must be such that the chemical reactions, which
take place during the setting of the cement, are not impaired. In general, portable water is suitable for
concreting. Thus, the water should be free from impurities such as suspended solids, organic matters
and salts, etc. which may affect the setting of the cement.
15.4 Admixtures
‘These are substances used in cement mortars and concrete for the purposes of improving or imparting
particular properties. ‘The purpose may be to improve on workability, reduce the quantity of water
required, improve durability, retard or accelerate hardening and improve resistance to attack e.g.
sulphate attacks or impart colour e.g. white cement for terrazzo work. In general, admixtures reduce
the concrete strength.
155 Concrete Mixing
Batching of concrete can be either by weight or by volume. For designed mix or for jobs of relative
importance batching by weight is preferred. In batching by volume, the concrete is specified as ratio of
the cement to the sand or the fine aggregate and coarse aggregate. A typical example is 1: 2: 4: or 1:
1%: 3. The higher the quantity of cement in the entire mass the stronger the concrete. Thus, a 1: 1¥: 3
concrete should be of higher quality than a 1: 2: 4 concrete. The mix for a reinforced concrete should
be a minimum of 1: 2: 4. A mixed ratio of 1: 3: 6 can be used in mass concrete e.g. for blinding or for
‘over site concrete. However, concrete should be specified using the characteristic strength, fw.
1.5.6 Quality Controt
Like all other engineering operations, concrete mixed at the site requires special quality control which
should be carried out during preparation, batching, mixing and placing of the concrete mix. The quality
control of concrete should aim at producing a uniform material which provides properties particularly
desirable for the work. ‘The basic reasons for quality control includes ensuring that workmanship does
not fall below a certain specified standard and limiting the overall variations in the quality of the
concrete. Variations in concrete quality are due to a large number of factors which include: variation in Reinforced Concrete Design INTRODUCTION =,
batching, mixing variations, variation in quality of cement, variation in the degree of compaction and
variation in curing. :
After mixing the conerete must be tested for workability either by the Slump Test or by the
Compacting Factor Test. The crushing strength of the concrete is obtained by the cube test method.
The cubes usually 150mm by, 150m by 150mm or 100mm by 100mm by 100mm are adequately
compacted and cured under laboratory conditions. Such ‘cubes are then crushed at the ages of 7days,
1ddays, 21days and 28days and the strengths noted.
1.5.7, Water Cement Ratio
This is the ratio of water to cement by weight. The smaller the ratio of water to the cement (above a
aie ie ivinimam limit) the greater the strength. If the quantity of water is too small it may be
‘noufficient to ensure that the chemical action of the setting cement (hydration) is complete; also the
tnaterials may be t00 dry to be properly mixed or the resulting mixture may be too stiff to be
satisfactorily compacted, If too much water is used there is the tendency for the coarse aggregates 10
Separate from the finer materials during placing (segregation). An average amount of water in
seeMforced concrete is that which results in a water cement ratio of 0.5 by weight. For hand mixing, @
‘water cement ratio of 0.6 is adequate. When the concrete has to be pumped into position the water
Cement ratio may be increased to 0.7. Table 1.1 shows water cement ratio as related to various
exposure condition.
Table 1.1; Water Cement Ratio.
ne ol Water Cement Ratio — By Welght
Thin Section Mass Concrete
1. Regular wetting and drying 045 YT 0.55
2. Normal outside exposure a 0.60
(a) Severe Climate 050 6s
(b) Temperate Climate s
3. Continuously under water 0.55, 0.65
1.6 REINFORCEMENT
Section 7 of BS 8110:Part 1: 1997, specifies that reinforcements should comply with BS 4449, BS
3461, BS 4462 or BS 4483 and that different types of reinforcement may be used in the same structural
ember, Hence, for a beam, the main reinforcement might be high yield bars while mild steel bars are
lised for the links. It may be mathematically cumbersome to use two types of reinforcement as main
bars since their strengths are not the same.
Reinforcement should be kept clean by stacking them off the ground. Prior to usage reinforcements
should be free from mud, oil, paint, loose rust, all which weakens the bond with the concrete. Unless
the bars are rigidly fixed in the correct position the reinforcement may be displaced during concreting,
particularly where the concrete is to be vibrated. Special care should be taken in fixing top tension steel
particularly in cantilevers. The correct amount of concrete cover should be maintained. It is important
fo ensure the correct placing and fixing of all reinforcements before concreting. Should there be any
discrepancies between the bending schedule and the drawings, the design engineer should be contacted. 6 Reinforced Concrete Design INTRODUCTION
1.7 COMPUTER APPLICATION
1.7.1 The Computer
The computer can be defined as an automatic and reliable electronic data processing device
characterized by the use of the stored program concept. Thus, the following attributes are easily seen:
¢ automatic operation; @ electronic device;
stored program concept; © high speed;
@ accuracy and preciseness and @ high memories.
Computers used in structural engineering practice can be defined in the same vein as general purpose,
stored program, and electronic digital computers. Digital means that within the computer, discrete
digits represent numbers, which is in contrast to analog computers where numbers are represented by
continuously varying physical quantities. Digital computers can also represent and manipulate symbols
ther than numbers, such as alphabetic characters or geometric entities. Electronic means that
Clectronic circuits perform the internal operations. Stored program means that for each application the
computer is provided with a sequence of steps or instructions, called the program, which defines the
process of solution. General purpose means thatthe computer is not ult specifically for one type of
pplication so that by using different programs it is capable of solving a wide variety of problems.
‘The computer system can be said to consist of the hardware system and the software system. |The
Hardware system consists of all the physical machines, which include the computer itself (central
processing unit, primary memory, arithmetic and logic unit), the secondary memory system (hard disc,
floppy disc, CD ROM), printers and plotters and video display unit (monitors), Software generally are
programs written for a specific purpose and stored in a secondary storage device for later use. Software
are written in a coded language for the use of the computers. The special languages are referred to as
programming languages and typical examples include FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, C, ALGOL and
PASCAL. FORTRAN, BASIC, PASCAL and C are good for engineering analysis and design.
1.7.2 Computer Programming Using FORTRAN.
FORTRAN, the language discussed in this book means FORmular TRANsiation and by virtue ofits
name is very amenable to mathematical manipulations. The core of the language is summarised in
Chapter 2 ofthis book. The program written in high leve! language are converted to machine language
by converters generally called compilers (for FORTRAN, C, PASCAL etc.). or interpreters (for
BASIC) or assemblers (for Assembly language). FORTRAN uses compilers ‘and a good example is
WATFOR77 or WATFORS7. Program writing generally follows the sequence of execution of the
problem itself as shiown in Example 1.1.
Example 1d:
Wilt a FORTRAN PROGRAM to design a 6m beam simply supported and carrying a uniformly
distributed load of 80 KN/m rum. Take beam size as 450 x 225mm and use fy = 25N/mm? and fy =
410N/mm’.
‘Solution 1.1:
‘The steps to be adopted in solving the above problem include:
(i) Given items: - span (6.0m), load (80kN/m); size (450 x 225mm); concrete stress
(25N/mm?); steel stress (410 N/mm*). We can also adopt a cover of 50mm. Reinforced Concrete Design
2
wi wl
(ji) The bending moment is calculated from M = a and shearing force from V =
7"
(iii) The design for reinforcement will follow K = M/f,bd? and if K < 0.156,
1a=0.5+4(0.25-K/0.9) < 0.95 and A, = Moosty La
(iv) The shear is designed as follows: v= V/bd and 100 As/bd is calculated to obtain ve. (See
‘Table 10.13). If v exceed Ve. Sy (link spacing) is calculated from s, = (0.95 fy Awy/(b (v - ve)
Converting the above into FORTRAN program we have:
PROGRAM BMDSGN
REAL MMT, K, LA
Program for the design of a rectangular beam
Input is via the terminal and output via printer.
OPEN (1, FILE ="CON")
OPEN (2, FILE ="PRN’)
SPAN - beam length, UDL - Beam load, MMT - Beam moment and SHR - beam shear
D-Beam effective depth, B-Beam width, FCU - concrete stress and FY - steel stress,
FYV- steel stress (stirrups).
Read in all the necessary data.
READ (1, *) SPAN, UDL, D, B, FCU, FY, FYV
Calculate the bending moment and shearing force.
MMT = 0.125 *UDL * SPAN **2.0
SHR = 0.5*UDL*SPAN
Cc Carry out all necessary design checks.
25K) (MMT* 1.0E 06)(FCU *B * D ** 2.0)
IF (K LE. 0.156) GO TO 35 .
D D+50.0
GOTO 25
35° «LA 05 + (0.25 - K/0.9) ** 0.5
IF(LA GT. 0.95)LA = 0.95
C Calculate stee! area.
AS = (MMT * 1.0E06)/((0.95 * FY*LA*D)
Check and design for shear.
VS (SHR * 1.0E 03)/(B * D)
STPER = (100.0 * AS)(B * D)
READ(1, *) VC, ASV.
IF (VC GT. VS) GO TO 45
SV = (0.95 *FYV * ASV)(B * (VS-VC))
GOTO SS
45° SV = 300.00
C Write out the results.
55 WRITE(2, 101) ‘MOMENT
101 FORMAT(// A17. 1X, F7.3, AS)
WRITE (2, 102) ‘SHEAR FORCE *, SHR,
102 FORMAT(/AI4, 1X, F7.3, A3)).
WRITE(2, 103) ‘STEEL REQUIRED = ‘, AS, (mm*)’
103 FORMAT(/AI7, 1X, F6.1, AS)
WRITE(2, 104) ‘LINK SPACING = *, SV, ‘mm cle’
ao
anaa
a
MMT, ‘kN.m. 8
Reinforced Concrete Design . INTRODUCTION
104 FORMAT(/ALS, 1X, F4.0, A6/)
WRITE(2,105) ‘FINAL BEAM SIZE IS’, D, ‘BY’, B, ‘mm’
105 FORMAT(V/AI8, 2X, F5.1, 1X, A2, 1X, F5.1, A2)
WRITE(2, 106)"END OF DESIGN OUTPUT"
106 FORMAT(/A20/)
Close the program.
STOP
END
Using the above program to run the beam shown in Figure-1.2, the results are as shown below:
Size 600 x 225mm., feu
Ve = 0.50N/mm? and Ayy
600m,
ON/mm?, fy =410N/mm’, fy =250N/mm?,
57mm, i.e. 10mm diam. Rods.
Results
‘MOMENT = 202.500kN.m.
SHEAR FORCE = 135.000kN.
STEEL REQUIRED = 1039.8 (mm2)
LINK SPACING = 331.mm c/c
FINAL BEAM SIZE IS 600.0 BY 225. 0mm
END OF DESIGN OUTPUT
‘The engineer should read format statement in Chapter 2 to be able to understand the write statements
An engineer should endeavor to write his own program rather than depending on already written
program. A book by the author (obtainable from the publisher of this volume) “TODAY’S FORTRAN
77 PROGRAMMING” is recommended to any engineer who wishes to write programs using the
FORTRAN language. The next section highlights the salient points required for the development of a
program for engineering design.
1.7.3 Program Development.
The use of the computer in arriving at engineering solutions requires that problem solving be separated
into two phases, development, during which the program is generated, and production, involving
repeated use of the program.
(a) Problem Definition: In this phase the computational procedure, the available resources (people,
machine), and all known limitations are used to develop the major functional and conceptual
aspects of the program, including the major input data types, the scope of the program and the
results required,
(b) Program Design: In this phase, three sets of important decisions must be made and they are:
(i) The determination of the computational procedures, like the methods of analysis to be
followed, which may depart radically from the manual methods of analysis due to the use
of the machine, Reinforced Concrete Design INTRODUCTION §=g
(ii) The organization and structuring of the data to be used by the program. This includes the
data to be supplied as input and the expected output.
(iii) The interaction between the program and the intended users. This step is an important
cone and it includes the careful designation and entry of the input data and the layout of the
expected output. A program requiring hours of preparing extraneous data for input and
producing pages of unorganized numerical results would be unpopular.
© Analysis and Development: The next stage is to carefully analyze the design decisions and
procedures in order to determine the best way of decomposing the program into manageable main
programs and subroutines or modules where each module handles an aspect e.g. reading of input
data, calculation of the bending moments etc. The program is then further refined and error
‘messages can be introduced to check some possible mistakes which can be detected. The program
is then tested to ascertain the absence of coding errors, programming or logical errors and
numerical errors produced by incorrect numerical techniques. Test solutions can be compared with
the output from the computer to verify the correctness of the results. This phase will discover
errors which need to be corrected by recycling through the analysis process or even the design and
definition phases. In the test run all possible alternatives (or extreme conditions) provided in the
program should be investigated.
¢ Documentation: As a final phase, the program should be properly documented so as to make it
‘meaningful and useable to the users including the programmer himself. The documentation (as far
as reinforced concrete design is concerned) should consist of the following parts:
i. _A brief application description giving the method of solution, approximations and
limitations involved so that potential users can determine the applicability of the program
to its problem.
5
fi, auser’s manual, describing exactly how the input data are to be prepared, the options (if
any) specified and the interpretation of the results.
iii, an operator’s manual specifying the procedures to be used in running the program on the
computer and
iv. a programmer’s manual describing in detail the methods used and containing flowcharts
and program listings.
¢ Evaluation and Maintenance: A program developed for sensitive and complicated discipline like
reinforced concrete design should be properly evaluated and maintained. By evaluation, it is meant
subjecting the program to careful evaluation by the potential users who will ascertain that the
criteria and objectives of the program have been met and the program will not fail under the two
‘extremes. Such evaluation should, in addition include the response of the program to unreasonable
data input and consequences for mistakes in input data and a way of correcting the mistakes, in
most cases by the termination of the program.
Reinforced concrete design is a dynamic field and perhaps the most dynamic aspect of structural
engineering, hence, the developed program needs to be maintained (updated) for several reasons which
include:
(i) errors, deficiencies etc. can crop up long after.initial development which need rectification.
(ii) changes in procedures or requirements, such as changes in design codes of practice or
analysis methods (relatively rare), may required modifications of the program to make it
useable. 10 Reinforced Concrete Design INTRODUCTION
A Typical Framed Building at Ikeja, Lagos. Reinforced Concrete Design INTRODUCTION 44.
Giii) changes in hardware due to better and more advanced technology and
(iv) additions and extensions may necessitate regular review and update to keep pace with the
level of technology and design code of practice.
In general, program development should follow the above phases and the documentation should be as
complete as possible. Reinforced concrete design packages, in addition, should be fully documented
«and sample runs included in the documentation since errors which may not be obvious can be generated
which in turn could have grave consequences on human lives.
1.8 HOW TO BEGIN
Basically, there two types of buildings as follows:
4). Buildings supported on load bearing walls and
'). Buildings supported on frames, otherwise called framed buildings.
A building supported on load bearing walls is limited to two-storey only, that is, a building with rooms
‘on the ground floor and one suspended floor (1* floor). In addition to the number of storey limitation,
the soil bearing pressure should be in the order of 10OKN/m* or more, otherwise, the building should be
framed. Columns can completely be eliminated in buildings on load bearing walls provided there are
‘enough end bearings for beams that may be required especially at balconies. When such end bearing
‘cannot be guaranteed, then columns should be introduced with pad footings.
On the other hand, a framed building consists of slab carried by the beams which are in turn supported
by the columns. All buildings, irrespective of its soil bearing pressure, over and above two-storey must
be framed since the ground floor walls of such buildings are susceptible to crumbling. The frames
(slabs, beams, columns and foundation) must be completed prior to the erection of any block walls, All
soils with low bearing capacity must have their buildings framed even if it is a bungalow. Offices and
high or medium rise buildings are more often than not framed.
‘The young structural engineer fresh from the University or Polytechnic can design slab, beam, column
and base given the span, load and approximate size of the member. However, identifying these
‘elements in a given architectural plan is, in most cases, very difficult.. This comes with experience and
the following is a good guide on how to begin:
a. Study and grid the architectural drawings and note the number of storey. (Note: Again, a storey
is a space between a floor and roof or between floors. Hence, a bungalow is one-storey building
and a building with rooms in the 1* and 2™ suspended floors is a three-storey building).
b. Carry out enquiries on the soil type to enable you determine whether or not the bililding will be
designed’ as a framed structure or supported on load bearing walls (limited to two storey only).
(Note that under no circumstances should a three-storey building and above be supported by load
‘bearing walls irrespective of the solidity of the'bearing earth). When the soil bearing pressure is in
the order of 100kN/m? and above, the building of not more than two storey (ground floor and one
upper floor) can be supported using load bearing walls provided the blocks are machine made and
with a total number of blocks per bag of cement not exceeding 25; otherwise it should be framed.
©. Based on the outcome of (b) above, design the building as framed building if the number of storeys .
exceed two or the soil pressure is low (below 100kN/m’); otherwise, design as being supported by
load bearing walls, .
v0 kM/m? so
" Yvamed, > 2 Sterey 42 Reinforced-Conerete Design INTRODUCTION
d. Identify the various panels for the slab design bearing in mind that for domestic building, a span of
4.2m and below can economically be designed as a one way-spanning slab.” This becomes
uneconomical when the spans (shorter spans) are longer or the slab load exceeds JLkKN/m?, The
ease of laying the main bars should be one of the criteria to be used in selecting spanning
directions. Obviously, the main criterion should be the shorter span.
€. Identify the position of beams. It is advisable to name beams by their grid numbers e.g. Beam E.
1-4 meaning Beam on grid line E and between grid lines 1 and 4. or Beam 4. A - C. Itis not
‘compulsory that columns especially in a’non-framed building support beams., However, if end
bearing by the adjoining walls cannot be guaranteed, then such beams should be supported on
columns.
f. Identify the position of the columns and refer to them by their grid lines for example, Col. A4,
‘meaning column at the meeting point of grid lines A and 4.
g. Determine the foundation type depending on the type of building and the nature of the bearing
soil. Table 8.4 will be a useful guide.
h. Design the various elements after carefully estimating their loads and reducing them to line
diagrams.
Detail the design. Detailing is the end product of the design and the most important, hence, cannot
‘be under estimated.
1.8.1 Design Calculations:
‘The engineer needs to determine the following before embarking on the design calculations.
a. The concrete grade to be' employed. For domestic buildings in this country it is advisable that
concrete grade not exceeding 20N/mm? be used. However if the Contractor can achieve a higher
grade and such higher grade can be ascertained via cube tests to be regularly performed during the
execution of the job, such higher grade can be used. ‘The engineer should insist on grades not
lower than 25N/mm? for concrete works of value from a good contractor.
1b. The type of steel to be used. For domestic buildings, mild steel round bars may be sufficient with
steel stresses, not exceeding 250N/mm?. Where, however, such domestic clients can guarantee the
supply of high yield high tensile bars, such can be used with stresses (in this country) limited to
410N/mm*,. Where massive reinforcements are expected it may be more economical to use high
tensile bars. Tensile strength above 410N/mm? should be used only if it can be justified by testing
each various sizes of reinforcements supplied to the site.
1.82 Detailing: :
Detailing is the presentation of the design in a diagrammatic form for the purposes of executing the
works. The detailed drawings are what the contractor or builder use on site-and, hence, should be a
complete and true reflection of the design as carried out by the engineer. A very good design but badly
detailed can be catastrophic and the engineer should check very well the detailed drawings after the
draughtsman must have finished working on them. The general notations used in structural detailing
are as follows: on
