Fundamentals of Land Ownership,

Land Boundaries, and Surveying

G J Donnelly

About the Paper

This paper has been prepared as an introductory paper to provide a general

overview of key matters related to the ownership of land, and the boundaries
which define the limitations of that ownership. The role of surveyors in the
determination of land boundaries is also reviewed.

It has been commissioned by the Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and

Mapping (ICSM) to provide a guide for students and members of the general
public who have an interest in the subject.

It is not a source of legal advice, nor is it intended as a complete and/or absolute

treatise of the subject.
 Contents

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Concepts of Land and Land Ownership

3.0 Land Boundaries

4.0 Surveyors and Surveying

5.0 References and Websites

6.0 Acknowledgements

7.0 About the Author

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Historical Perspective

The fundamentals of land ownership and land boundaries date back to the
very roots of civilisation and matters relating to possession and control
(“ownership”) of land are well documented in historical records. Indeed,
the territorial control of land has been a fundamental issue in the rise and
fall of empires throughout history (eg the Roman Empire), and has been
the cause of a great number of the world’s wars since civilisation began.

In the centuries BC, the importance of land ownership was focussed on

arable lands used for productive agriculture, and even in those times there
were issues associated with occupation and boundaries – “in 173 BC Lucius
Postumius Albinus, a statesman of the Roman Republic, was sent to
Campania (a region in Southern Italy) to separate the land of the state from
that of private persons, because private land owners had slowly expanded
their boundaries into public lands” (Lucius Postumius Albinus (Consul 173
BC) wiki 2011).

Biblical references to the Land of Israel, and its boundaries, can be found in
Genesis 15; Exodus 23; Numbers 34; and Ezekiel 47 (Land of Israel wiki
2012) and, in fact, the boundaries of the Middle Eastern States have
changed regularly throughout history.

In more modern times we continue to witness wars arising, in part, over

control of territorial boundaries – for example the Six Day War in the
Middle East in 1967 between Israel and Jordan, Egypt and Syria; and the
Bosnian War that took place between April 1992 and December 1995 as a
result of the breakup of Yugoslavia.

1.2 The Relevance and Importance of Land Ownership Systems in a Modern

Society

In recent times, the importance of control of land (and a nation’s offshore

and seabed maritime boundaries) is more likely to be centred on rights of
economic development, and control of important resources such as oil and
fishing rights.

In particular, our land tenure (a manner of possession) system is

fundamental to, and provides investor and community confidence in:

Development planning, and economic growth and sustainability

Social stability through housing and employment
 Financial security in economic development and property markets,
and
Natural resource and environmental management and sustainability

Land Ownership systems also underpin:

Much of government policy making and program delivery

Functions such as taxation, land administration, and electoral
administrative boundaries, and
Land use management and regulation

2.0 Concepts of Land and Land Ownership

The concept of land ownership as Australia and New Zealand understand

and practice it is not universal and there are many other forms of
“ownership” existing in different cultures throughout the world. Many are
quite informal in the way they operate – in fact, our system is very formal
and highly structured by comparison with developing countries.

The system in use in Australia and New Zealand is a comparatively recent

development in world history and is based on “common law” (that part of
law developed over a long period of time by decisions of courts). Other
counties which use common law include Canada, Ireland, United Kingdom
and the United States of America. Common law principles can, however, be
overruled by “Statute Law” which is established by legislative enactments
such as Acts or Regulations.

Land under common law is said to be held in “fee simple”, which describes
a form of ownership that can be held by owners and their heirs
indefinitely.

2.1 The Meaning of “Land”

Land is often referred to as “real property” which, in very basic terms,

means property which is fixed and immovable – as distinct from personal
property which, again in basic terms, means property (as in goods and
chattels) which is not fixed and can be moved.

The general principles of ownership at common law have long been

established in the courts of equity although the concept of extent of
ownership has changed significantly in interpretation from the nineteenth
to the twenty first century. In addition, statutory law continues to place
increasing restrictions on the rights and benefits which would otherwise
accrue with land ownership (Donnelly 1985).
 “At common law, the term “land” when used in relation to a particular
parcel meant the surface of the Earth, the soil beneath the surface to the
centre of the Earth and the column of air above the surface. It included all
things growing on or affixed to the soil, such as trees, crops and buildings.
It also included all the minerals in the soil excepting gold and silver, which
at law belonged to the Crown as royal metals” (Hallmann 1994, 9.1).

This concept in the twenty first century is, however, subject to limitation
by statutory law and comes increasingly under challenge at common law.

As examples, ownership of the air space above the land surface is

qualified by Air Navigation Acts, and unregistered wayleaves and
easements under Electricity Easements Acts. Apart from these, and other
similar statutory exceptions, the surface owner does own the airspace
above their land in the sense that, subject to building regulations, they are
fully entitled to extend their occupation of the air, by building hi-rise
developments for example. However, judgements in recent cases are
interpreted to mean that an owner's rights extend only so far as is
necessary for the ordinary use and enjoyment of their land.
It should also be noted that “in all States (of Australia) there are statutory
definitions of “land” which lay down the meaning to be ascribed to the
term where it occurs in Acts of Parliament. These definitions do not
materially interfere with the common law meaning except with regard to
its use in Acts dealing with specific subjects. For example, an Act which
regulates mining would naturally introduce substantial qualifications on
the rights of an owner of land to take minerals from it” (Baalman 1979, p.
95).

“Ownership also involves a significant element of possession (refer

Possessory Title), and…..it can be stated that ownership of the land
surface extends just so far in each direction upwards or downwards
vertically as the owner is able to bring and retain under their effective
control” (Donnelly 1985).

2.2 “The Cadastre”

The concept of “the cadastre” is either unknown or not understood by the

population at large – it is, however, a vital tool used by professionals
involved in land and land related dealings.

In plain English, a cadastre is an official register showing details of

ownership, boundaries, and value of real property in a district, made for
taxation purposes (Collins English Dictionary 1979).
 A cadastral map displays how boundaries subdivide land into units of
ownership.

The cadastre is used as the foundation for dealings in:

Land valuation and taxation

Land registration and land transfers
Land use planning
Sustainable development and environmental protection
Mapping
Management of leases and licences
Electoral boundary determinations, and
Other land based administrative purposes

Digital Cadastral DataBases (DCDB’s) are the modern versions of “the

cadastre” and provide spatial views of land parcels. Although they are
based on original paper plans, records and maps the database information
has been digitised by computer to deliver maps showing digital
coordinates of land parcels, as well as a great deal of supplementary
information related to the land.

2.3 Systems of Ownership and Registration

Over history, many forms of land ownership (ie ways of owning land) have
been established.

Land tenure can be defined as the mode of holding or occupying land

(Burke 1976, p.323).

Land tenure systems dealing with ownership of land in Australia and New
Zealand include:

General Law (or “Old System”) Title

Torrens (or “Real Property”) Title
Strata Title
Native and/or Maori Title, and
Possessory Title

In Australia and New Zealand, land is predominantly held under the

Torrens Title system, although remnants of Old System Title (Deeds of
Conveyance) still remain. All land in the Australian Capital Territory is
leasehold (effectively Torrens freehold) and much of the Northern
Territory is held under Crown lease. Native/Aboriginal Title and Maori Title
are recognised as separate forms of ownership by both Acts of Parliament
and the Courts of the land. Crown Land is “remaining” land which has not
been allocated and is still held by the Crown.
2.4 General Law Title

Land originally granted by the Crown was subsequently held and dealt with
under the English general law system of tenure through the issue of a deed
of conveyance. All subsequent dealings with the land required verification
of the validity of the deed under transfer by searching (at each and every
transaction) the previous chain of history of the deed for a period of up to
30 years preceding the transfer to ensure there was proof of a good root of
title and that there were no legal impediments to the effectiveness of the
deed transfer.

Whilst this system operated well enough in the early days of settlement
when transactions were simple and few in number, it was soon realised
that there was no guarantee that all the interests in the land had been
uncovered through recordings and/or searching, and that previous defects
and deficiencies could easily pass to a new owner.

Soon after, Registries of Deeds were established under Acts of Parliaments

to protect purchasers and mortgagees through registration of all
conveyancing transactions at a single State controlled repository, and thus
simplifying searching of land records for further dealings with land
parcels.

However, it was quickly realised that, in a quickly expanding country, there

was a need for still greater surety and protection of the parties involved in
land dealings, and that further simplification of the land tenure system
was required.

This led to the development of the Torrens system of title which is still in
place today.

2.5 Torrens Title

The Torrens system of land title was devised by Sir Robert Torrens in
South Australia in 1858, and was actually based on the shipping register of
Lloyd’s of London.

Its key feature is that it captures all interests in a property, including

transfers, mortgages, leases, easements, covenants, resumptions and other
rights in a single Certificate of Title which, once registered with the State
by a Registrar General or Recorder of Titles, is guaranteed correct by the
State.

In other words, the register is conclusive evidence of ownership. This is

known as the principle of “Indefeasibility of Title”. Thus, there is no need
 to search behind or beyond the Certificate of Title to ensure proven
ownership of the land.

It should be noted however, that the State guarantee of ownership does

NOT extend to the boundaries of the land shown in a title being correct.

2.6 Strata Title

“Strata Title is a form of ownership devised for multi-level apartment

blocks and horizontal subdivisions with shared areas. The ‘strata’ part of
the term refers to apartments being on different levels, or “strata”. …Strata
Title Schemes are composed of individual lots and common property. Lots
are either apartments, garages or storerooms and each is shown on the
title as being owned by a Lot Owner. Common Property is defined as
everything else on the parcel of land that is not comprised in a Lot, such as
common stairwells, driveways, roofs, gardens and so on” (Strata Title wiki
2012).

2.7 Native and Maori Title

In Australia, native title is a common law concept that recognises

“Aboriginal people have property rights and interests in land arising from
traditional law and custom. The traditional relationship to land is dual in
character, having spiritual and material dimensions” (Rigsby 1999).

Prior to this recognition, it was generally recognised that, at the time of

British settlement, the doctrine of terra nullius prevailed - that is, Australia
was a “land belonging to no one”. This was rejected by the High Court in
1992 where it was held that Australia recognises a form of native title, to
be determined in accordance with Indigenous law and custom (Mabo v
Queensland No. 2).

The rights to native title have also been enshrined in Acts of Parliaments,
both Federal and State.

For native title to exist in a particular area today, a number of conditions

have to be satisfied (van Hattem 1997).

“When the Crown acquired sovereignty over the claimed area, which
happened at different times in different parts of Australia, there had
to be an identifiable group of Aboriginal people inhabiting the
claimed area, with traditional laws and customs giving rise to native
title rights at that time
 There must be an unbroken chain of inheritance or succession, in
accordance with traditional Aboriginal laws and customs, from the
original native titleholders to the present day claimants
The Aboriginal laws and customs giving rise to the native title rights
must have been observed and recognised continuously during that
period, and
There must not have been an event that had the effect of
extinguishing the native title rights, such as a valid freehold grant, or
valid extinguishing legislation”

In New Zealand, a totally different scenario unfolded following British

settlement, in that the British Crown decided to treat with the Maori people
to obtain sovereignty of the country and in February 1840 signed the
Treaty of Waitangi which (LINZ undated):

“Ceded to the Crown of England all the powers of sovereignty

exercised by the chiefs of the tribes of New Zealand
Guaranteed to the Chiefs and tribes of New Zealand, and to the
respective families and individuals thereof, the full exclusive and
undisturbed possession of their lands and estates, forests, fisheries
and other properties which they may collectively or individually
possess, so long as it is their wish and desire to retain the same in
their possession, and
Gave the Maori people all the rights and privileges of British subjects

With the signing of the Treaty, two systems of land law confronted
each other – the English system and the indigenous Maori system.
This created difficulties in land dealings and the transfer of land,
particularly as European settlement increased and settlers
demanding land sought to buy it from Maori owners. This led to a
series of disputes in the 1850’s, and the establishment of the Maori
Land Court in 1865 to deal with disposal and transfer of traditional
Maori lands. Today, the English land law system prevails but not
exclusively – the indigenous Maori system has not disappeared
entirely”.

2.8 Possessory Title (Adverse Possession)

“Possession is prima facie evidence of ownership. “Possession is nine-

tenths of the law” means that possession is good against all the world
except the true owner” (Burke 1976, p. 257).

At common law, ownership may be claimed by an adverse occupier against

the true owner of the land (limited to the land actually possessed and not a
greater area held under the same title). The true owner is said to have been
dispossessed and their rights of ownership are extinguished.
 For any claim to be successful there are a number of basic requirements.
There must be clear and irrefutable evidence that:

“The possession was open, not secret; peaceful, not by force; and
adverse, not by the consent of the true owner” (Hallmann 1994, 9.51)
Actual possession of the property occurred for the required
statutory period governed by the relevant statute of limitations
(varies but generally accepted as 12 years), and was exclusive and
uninterrupted
The occupant exercised all the rights of a true owner, for example
through the payment of due rates and taxes, and by making
improvements to the land or by cultivation or construction of
enclosures, and so on.

Claims for adverse possession against the Crown are more limited and
complex, and run over much longer periods of time (30 – 60 years,
depending on the circumstances of the possession). In some cases there
can be no adverse possession against the Crown, for example in the case of
crown reserves or reserved roads.

2.9 Freehold vs Leasehold Ownership

Although the vast majority of land in Australia and New Zealand is held
under freehold tenure, leasehold tenures does exist, that is “ownership” is
held as a lease over a number of years.

The best example is in the Australian Capital Territory where all land is
held under leasehold title (generally as a 99 year lease) but is effectively a
Torrens freehold title.

In other States, particularly the Northern Territory, pastoral leases and

other forms of Crown leases form part of our land tenure system and are
quite common.

2.10 Co-ownership of Property

“Where two or more persons own the same property at the same time they
are said to be co-owners…..the different forms of ownership are said to be
joint tenancy and tenancy in common” (Baalman 1979, p. 133).

A joint tenancy is where land is held by more than one owner and there is
a right of survivorship, ie if one owner dies that owner’s interest in the
land passes to the survivor(s) as a right in law – the deceased owner’s
interest in the property evaporates and cannot be inherited by their heirs.
 This is the most common form of co-ownership between husband and
wife, or parent and child, where parties want ownership to pass
immediately and automatically to the survivor. Sale of property held under
joint tenancy requires the joint consent of all parties.

Tenancy in common is where ownership of a property is held by owners

who each have separate and distinct shares of the same property (generally
in equal shares), but there is no right of survivorship, and an individual
owner’s interest is capable of passing by inheritance to their heirs. Tenants
may, subject to the agreement under which the property is held, sell or
otherwise deal their particular share without the consent of the other
tenants. This form of ownership is most common where the co-owners are
not married or have contributed different amounts to the purchase of the
property. The assets of a joint commercial partnership might be held as a
tenancy in common.

2.11 Ownership Rights and Obligations

“Ownership implies the right to exclusive enjoyment of a thing, and can be

either “absolute” (the right of free and exclusive enjoyment, including the
right using, altering, disposing of or destroying the thing owned) or
“restricted” (ownership limited to some extent, - which is the situation
with land since it cannot be destroyed).
Ownership is always subject to the rule that a person must use their
property as not to injure their neighbour” (Burke 1976, p. 243).

An owner in fee simple is entitled to use it in any manner they please,

subject only to (Baalman 1979, p. 98):

(i) their obligations towards neighbours and the public;

(ii) any condition which may have been imposed in the Crown grant;
(iii) obligations entered into by express agreement with others; and
(iv) restrictions and qualifications imposed by legislation

2.12 Relevance of Property Boundaries to Ownership

Marked boundaries are prima facie evidence of the legal extent of

ownership of property and may be marked by natural boundaries, survey
pegs, or enclosed occupation such as fences, hedges or walls.

However, occupation, and described measurements of the ownership, can

often be misleading, what is really required is to determine the true nature
of the boundary – “what the boundary is, and where it is located” – and for
this, the services of a Registered Surveyor is required.
 Determination of property boundaries is ultimately a matter for judgement
by the Courts – the surveyor’s role is that of an expert witness capable of
discovering all evidence relating to the location of the boundary.

Property boundaries are dealt with more fully in the following section.

3.0 Land Boundaries

3.1 Kinds of Boundaries

Boundaries can be classified at many levels – they may be international (as

between countries); national (as between states of a country); regional (as
between regions of a state); local (as between localities of a region or local
government) or, as in the context of this paper, individual boundaries
separating the land parcels of subdivided land.

Boundaries between countries and states are more commonly referred to

as borders, and may be either natural (eg seas, rivers or lakes) or artificial
(eg defined by geographic lines of latitude and longitude). Borders serve
political, legal and economic purposes in the separation of the jurisdictions
of the abutting countries.

Other kinds of boundaries include maritime boundaries which define the

exclusive rights of a country or state over the resources of oceans
adjoining the land of the country – “in Australia a 3 nautical mile limit of
coastal waters; a 12 nautical mile limit of the territorial sea, 24 nautical
mile Contiguous Zone; and a 200 nautical mile limit of the Australian
Exclusive Economic Zone” (Geoscience Australia, 2011). Maritime
boundaries may also exist for specific purposes such as marine parks and
fishing zones, and

“administrative boundaries” which are based on cadastral maps and used

for political and governmental administrative purposes – for example
electoral boundary divisions, or for censuses taken periodically for
planning and future development of a country at a national or regional
level.
3.2 Definition of Boundaries of Land Parcels

Boundary lines (also commonly called property lines) define the extent of
the legal limits of ownership of any parcel of land.

At common law, the rule of “marks (monuments) before measurements”

prevail in the definition of a boundary.

There is also a presumption at common law that where land is described as

being bounded by a road, ownership extends to the middle of the road (the
ad medium filum viae rule), unless there is a clearly defined intent to the
contrary.

If the description of a boundary is ambiguous or otherwise uncertain or is

in conflict with the occupations, courts may settle the position of the
disputed boundary.

Courts have established precedents granting priorities of weight where any

two or more of the following boundary features present conflicting
evidence in the determination of a true boundary position.

These are in order of priority (Hallmann 1994, 13.13):

“Natural boundaries (eg rivers, cliffs)

Monumented lines (boundaries marked by survey or other defining
marks, natural or artificial)
Old occupations, long undisputed
Abuttals (a described “bound” of the property eg a natural or
artificial feature such as a street or road)
Statements of length, bearing or direction (“metes” or measurements
in a described direction)

This ranking order is not rigidly adhered to; special circumstances

may lead a court at times to give greater weight than normal to a
feature of lower rank”.

Subject to any evidence to the contrary, courts have consistently ruled in

favour of long, acquiescent and undisturbed occupation dating to the time
of survey as the most convincing evidence of a boundary between
properties.

Further, it is a fact of law that where a property is described by “metes and

bounds” ie both measurements and a feature which describes the extent of
ownership, the described bounds (abuttals) take priority over the stated
measurements.
 Strata title boundaries are specifically defined by the strata title plan and,
commonly, are the centre of the walls, floor and ceilings enclosing a lot.

The actual location of any boundary is subject to the evidence of an on-

ground assessment of the facts pertaining to the matter, and is best
undertaken by a Registered (or Licenced) Surveyor. (refer also Boundary
Disputes and Judicial Determination)

3.3 The Nature of Boundaries

Generally, boundaries of land are fixed and do not move, although the
interpretation of the location of the boundary can be difficult and
professional judgements may vary in the interpretation of the evidence of
the location.

The situation with regard to “natural” boundaries formed by seas, lakes,

rivers etc is more complex in that such boundaries are said to be
ambulatory. Ambulatory boundaries cannot be marked on the ground and
are not fixed in one place but can change position over time through slow
and imperceptible accretion or erosion of the described feature.

Different rules of interpretation of the definition of natural boundaries

apply, depending upon:

whether the boundary adjoins tidal or non-tidal waters

the existence or otherwise of Crown reserves
the determination of high or low water mark, or the water’s edge
the definition of a river bank and, perhaps more importantly
whether or not changes in the situation were slow and imperceptible
over time, or sudden as in the change of course of a river caused by
flooding or deviation.

In future years, there will no doubt be great interest in the impact of

climate change on sea level, and the subsequent effect on boundaries
bordering those waters.

It should also be noted that there is a presumption at common law that

where land is described as being bounded by a non-tidal river or stream,
ownership extends to the middle line of the water (the ad medium filum
acquae rule), unless there is a clearly defined intent to the contrary.
3.4 Home Boundaries

The extent of the boundaries of home ownership are subject to the same
rules described in the Definition of Boundaries of Land Parcels.

Where a new subdivision is under development, the primary indicators of

land boundaries will be the survey marks placed by a Registered Surveyor
for that purpose.

In a developed subdivision the primary indicator of boundaries will most

likely be fences, however caution should be taken to confirm that they are
truly located and are not subject to encroachment by the owners of
adjoining lands.

Caution is also advised when checking measurements of land on the

ground, as distances shown on survey plans and land titles are always
stated as horizontal distances which are always subject to adjustment for
any slope of the land itself.

It is not safe to rely on results from hand-held Global Positioning System

(GPS) devices as these do not necessarily give the same coordinates as a
local system, and vary in accuracy and repeatability of measurements, nor
should digitised coordinates derived from Digital Cadastral DataBases be
relied upon as the “best evidence” of the location of boundaries.

The only sure way of knowing where true boundaries lie is to engage the
services of a Registered Surveyor and, given the investment any owner
makes in home purchase or building, is makes great sense to do this.

3.5 Boundary Disputes and Judicial Determination

Boundary disputes can occur at many different levels – they may be

international border disputes (often leading to wars between nations);
national border determinations between states; regional boundaries
between the localities of a region; or, as in the context of this paper, a
dispute between the owners of adjoining lands.

Boundary disputes generally arise because of one landowner’s lack of

consideration for the owners of neighbouring land. Disputes between
residential neighbours are more likely to be about access issues, or the
location and/or type of boundary separating the land parcels and, although
not common, still provide much angst between the aggrieved parties (and
great expense!).
 As previously indicated, where a dispute exists, a Surveyor is not the final
arbiter of boundaries which are under dispute between owners. This role
falls to the courts of the land.

The Surveyor’s role in these matters is one of fact-finder and expert

witness, providing the evidence of what has gone on before, upon which
the courts will make their judgements.

3.6 Some Interesting Cases

Land law is recognised as one of the more “static” branches of law, and
consequently there are relatively few recorded disputes over the
boundaries of land in Australia. Much of the law related to the subject has
been determined from decisions in other countries with a similar legal
history and system to ours, including New Zealand, England, Canada and
the United States of America.

Nevertheless, history has provided some interesting cases worthy of record

here, particularly in relation to state borders (Geoscience Australia 2010;
New South Wales – Victoria Border Guidelines 1993):

The definition of where state and territory boundaries lie has been
constantly reviewed, sometimes causing great contention. Although
most Australian borders were defined in letters of patent in
meridians, determining the physical ground position that
corresponds with those meridians has never been easy…surveyors
had a difficult job to do…Given the possibility of discrepancies,
border disputes have occurred between several states. Generally
speaking, rulings have upheld the position of borders with
established physical references or property lines. This is despite the
advent of technologies which allow modern surveyors to accurately
plot their location as originally described in the letters of patent for
the formation of specific states. As a result, few state borders are
actually where they were originally intended, or as simple as a
straight line marked by a meridian of longitude – as an example, the
Western Australia–South Australia–Northern Territory border
(Surveyor General’s Corner) is marked by two monuments (in 1968)
approximately 127 metres apart at the junction of the boundaries.

Probably the most famous case is the determination of the state

boundary between South Australia and Victoria. The border was
established in 1836 by imperial letters patent as the 141st degree
meridian of longitude, but due to human error by numerous
explorers and surveyors was marked on the ground in a position
4.03 kilometres west of the specified geographic location. After a
protracted legal dispute lasting more than 75 years it was finally
ruled by the Privy Council that the line erroneously marked was such
to have established that line as the legal boundary between the two
States South Australia v. Victoria (1914).

The Murray River also provides a backdrop to a number of cases

arising from the nature of the border description between Victoria
and New South Wales, and also between Victoria and South Australia.

Since 1851, the border between Victoria and New South Wales has
officially been the top of the bank of the southern side (ie none of
the river is actually in Victoria). However, this boundary definition is
as muddy as the waters of the great river itself, due to river course
changes and modification of some of the river banks, and has been
the cause of many arguments and debates between those states.

As an example, in 1859 NSW claimed the pastoral leases of Pental

Island near Swan Hill on the grounds that the island lay to the north
of the watercourse of the River Murray. In 1872 the case was decided
in Victoria’s favour when the Privy Council maintained that the main
watercourse, being the channel of greatest discharge of the Murray,
was to the north of the island.

The confusion over determination of the boundary between NSW and

Vic. has been such that “Guidelines for the Determination of the
State Border Between New South Wales and Victoria Along the
Murray River” were issued jointly by the Surveyor-Generals of both
states in 1991, “to assist surveyors to determine land boundaries
which form part of the State Border along the Murray River”.

In another rather unusual case dealing with boundaries and

jurisdiction between states Ward v the Queen (1980) 142 CLR 308,
the High Court considered if a murder on the Murray occurred in
Victoria or New South Wales. The shot was fired from Victoria (from
the top of the riverbank); the victim was at the water’s edge on the
Victorian side of the river.
The border of NSW was the River Murray (its south side) – the High
Court held that it ended at the top of the river bank, which meant
that Ward’s victim died in NSW. The High Court considered that the
terminatory theory of crime determined jurisdiction, and that meant
Ward’s murder conviction in the Victorian Supreme Court was set
aside!
Photos by the author of the NSW/VIC Boundary at Echuca Wharf
4.0 Surveyors and Surveying

4.1 What Surveyors do

Surveying is the science of the accurate determination of the relative

positions of points above, on, or below the earth’s surface for the planning
and efficient administration of the land, the sea and any structures
thereon.

There are a number of different branches of surveying, all of them to do

with measurement of the earth’s surface in one form or another:

Land (or cadastral) surveying, which deals with the determination of

land boundaries for legal purposes and land ownership
Geodetic surveying, which is concerned with very high precision
measurement of the earth’s surface for the determination of
geographic meridians of latitude and longitude
Topographic surveying, which refers to the mapping of the earth’s
surface by aerial, photogrammetric or ground surveys, or a
combination of these methods
Engineering surveying, which means the location, design and
construction of engineering works and installations
Hydrographic surveying, which consists of the preparation of
nautical charts and maps of the marine environment and seabed,
and
Mining surveying, which pertains to above-ground open cut mines,
and below-ground mines and tunnels

For the purposes of this paper, the primary focus is on land surveying.

4.2 Evolution of Surveying and Surveying Technology

The history of surveying dates back to ancient times, with a recorded land
register in Egypt in 3000BC and re-establishment of farm boundaries
following floods of the Nile River and construction of the Great Pyramid of
Giza all recorded about the same era.

Under the Romans, land surveyors were established as a profession and

they established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire
was divided, such as a tax register of conquered lands (300AD).

Biblical references to land boundaries and landmarks can be found in

Deuteronomy 19.14 and 27.17; Proverbs 22.28 and 23.10; and Job 24.2
In the 18th century in Europe, a method of surveying known as
triangulation, which relied on the measurement of angles, was used to
build a hierarchy of networks to allow point positioning within a country.

In the early days of British settlement in Australia and New Zealand “much
of the survey work undertaken to open up the country and provide land
holdings to settlers was carried out using Gunter’s chains, measuring
wheels, circumferenter, Kater’s compass and even pacing where
approximation sufficed. … so long as the corners of the land were clearly
staked and marked by the surveyor, the accuracies of measurement and
direction were left to chance” (Hallmann 1994, 2.3)

Over time, the Gunter’s chain was replaced by steel bands and invar tapes,
and later by Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) equipment, and
subsequently Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, each in turn being
capable of improved efficiency and greater accuracies of measurement
than preceding forms. Likewise, compasses were replaced by transits, later
theodolites and then Total Stations which combined angular and distance
measurement in a single survey instrument.

In all of these situations, the status of measurements of preceding times

were undermined by alternative forms of evidence of “what the land
boundary was intended to be, and where it was intended to be located” –
measurements and mathematics do not provide the correct answers!

The following picture shows some of the historic surveying instruments

from times long past:
 (Tableis of Surveying, 1728 Cyclopedia)

4.3 Control of Surveying Standards and Survey Quality

The practice of land surveying is governed in both Australia and New

Zealand by legislation, regulations and by-laws which control not only the
activities associated with land surveying (including standards and accuracy
of surveys), but also the qualifications and professional experience
necessary to become a Registered Surveyor. Without this registration, a
person is not entitled to hold themself out to be authorised to undertake
surveys for dealings in land boundary matters.
 When a Registered (or Licenced) Surveyor determines the location of a
boundary for their client they are also effectively determining the
boundary of the neighbouring land. For this reason such Surveyors are
said to be ‘agents of the Crown’ and have dual obligations both to their
client and to the integrity of the cadastre. The system of registration (or
licensing) of Surveyors ensures they meet these obligations.

The administration of the Acts and Regulations is a joint function of state

and territory Surveyors-General (or their named equivalents) who act in
the interests of the Crown (maintenance of the register of surveyors,
investigation of survey errors and their correction, and monitoring of
surveyors’ work performance through periodic audit), and Surveyors
Boards who are elected for the certification of qualifications of surveyors
to become registered, and the professional conduct of surveyors in the
undertaking of surveys and their ethical dealings with clients. This
includes hearing of complaints against surveyors and dealing with charges
where warranted.

4.4 Using a Registered or Licensed Surveyor

There are many reasons to call on the services of a Registered Surveyor or

survey firm, for instance:

Advice on all matters related to land, land rights and land dealings
Identification of boundaries when purchasing property
Location of boundaries required for any other purpose
Advice on the processes of land development and land administration
Preparation of subdivision proposals
Pegging out of the lots of a subdivision, and the supervision of
subdivision works and services
Dealing with planning approval appeals, and
Dealings with strata ownership and boundaries

4.5 Finding a Registered Surveyor

Initially, the local Yellow Pages of the phone directory makes a good
starting point to find surveyors or, alternatively, a web search of the
Internet will turn up details of surveyors in the local area, together with a
description of the services they provide.

Word-of-mouth experiences of people who use, or have used, surveyors

may also be useful in selecting a surveyor in a local area.
4.6 Becoming a Registered Surveyor

Becoming a Registered Surveyor initially requires an undergraduate

university degree primarily related to surveying (these days may be called
surveying; spatial science; geomatics; or something similar).

This is followed by prescribed training and work experience under the

supervision of a Registered Surveyor and in accordance with a Surveyors
Board Professional Training Agreement, and the undertaking of prescribed
examinations conducted by the Boards in each state or territory.

On successful completion of the examinations, a candidate is then

accredited by the Surveyors Board as being proficient in the practice of
land surveying, and is entitled to become registered (or licenced) to act as a
land surveyor, under the register held by the Surveyor-General in each
state or territory.

4.7 Professional Surveying Bodies

The peak governmental body which looks after national interests in

surveying and mapping is the Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying
and Mapping (ICSM), with representatives from the Australian Government
(Geoscience Australia); the States and Territories of Australia, New Zealand,
and Australian Defence.

The Surveying & Spatial Sciences Institute (SSSI) is Australia’s peak body
representing the interests of surveying and spatial science professionals,
combining the disciplines of land surveying, engineering & mining
surveying, cartography, hydrography, remote sensing and spatial
information science. It was incorporated in 2003 after a merger with the
Institution of Surveyors Australia (ISA). SSSI has Divisions in each state and
territory.

In New Zealand the peak body representing surveyors is the New Zealand
Institute of Surveyors (NZIS).

4.8 Dealing with Complaints and Disputes

In New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria, the Surveyor–

General (or an equivalent statutory officer) has the power to consider
appeals to resolve disputed or conflicting surveys. In all other states and
New Zealand, these matters need to be resolved by either an
Administrative Appeals Tribunal or a court of law.
If agreement between the parties to any boundary dispute cannot be
reached, then any of the parties have a common law right to take the
matters before a court for resolution of the issue.

Complaints against surveyors can be referred to a Surveyors Board and,

where proven, can result in disciplinary action against the surveyor as
determined by the Board.

A surveyor’s client also has protection through consumer protection

legislation (national and state) with regard to misleading or deceptive
conduct, negligence, and warranties for services (including professional
advice).
5.0 References and Websites

5.1 References

Baalman, John 1979, Outline of Law in Australia (4th edition by GA Flick),

The Law Book Company Australia.

Burke, J 1976, Osborn’s Concise Law Dictionary, Sweet and Maxwell

London.

Collins English Dictionary, 1979, Collins Dictionary of the English Language

(2001), Wm. Collins Publishers Pty. Ltd. Sydney Australia.

Donnelly, GJ 1986, Highways in Tasmania, The Australian Surveyor Vol. 33,

No 4.

Geoscience Australia, 2010, State and Territory Borders, Australian

Government 18 November, viewed 10 February 2012
http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/state-
territory-borders.html

Geoscience Australia, 2011, Australia’s Jurisdiction, Australian Government

23 August, viewed 7 February 2012
http://www.ga.gov.au/marine/jurisdiction/australia.html

Hallmann, F 1994, Legal Aspects of Boundary Surveying in New South

wales, (2nd edition by FK Ticehurst), The Institution of Surveyors Australia
Inc New South Wales Division Sydney Australia.

LINZ (undated), What is Maori Land ?, unpublished training notes issued by

Land Information New Zealand, Wellington New Zealand

New South Wales – Victoria Border Guidelines 1993, Guidelines for the
Determination of the State Border Between New South Wales and Victoria,
issued by the Surveyors General of New South Wales and Victoria.

Rigsby, Bruce 1999, Aboriginal people, spirituality and the traditional

ownership of land, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol 26 Iss:
7/8/9, pp. 963 – 976.

van Hattem, Peter 1997, Demystifying Native Title, Murdoch University

Electronic Journal of Law, Perth Western Australia, viewed 4 February 2012
http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v4n3/vanh43.txt
 Wiki
Lucius Postumius Albinus (Consul 173 BC) wiki 2011, article 4 November,
viewed 10 February 2012
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Postumius_Albinus_(consul_173_BC)

Land of Israel, wiki 2012, article 12 February, viewed 14 February 2012

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_Israel

Strata title, wiki 2012, article 24 January, viewed 4 February 2012

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strata_title

5.2 Useful Websites

The following websites are either useful for further information, or at least
interesting for other reasons:

Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping (ICSM):

www.icsm.gov.au
(provides links to State and Territory, and New Zealand land and surveying
authorities)

Surveying and Spatial Sciences Institute (SSSI): www.sssi.org.au

Institute of Surveyors New Zealand (ISNZ): www.surveyors.org.nz

International Federation of Surveyors (FIG): www.fig.net

Geoscience Australia: www.ga.gov.au

Australia’s state and territory borders:

www.heritageaustralia.com.au/magazine.php?article=393

Indigenous land rights and native title:

www.dfat.gov.au/facts/indigenous_land_rights.html

Adverse Possession (wiki): http://en.wikipedia.org/Adverse_possession

Surveying Career Information:

www.smicnsw.org.au
www.alifewithoutlimits.com.au

Surveying Education (Guide for School Leavers):

www.gooduniguide.com.au/School-Leavers/Fields-of-Study/Surveying
Australian and New Zealand Universities offering degree courses in
Surveying that are accredited by Boards of Surveyors with responsibility
for training and accreditation in Land Surveying:

University of Newcastle
http://www.newcastle.edu.au/

University of New South Wales

http://www.unsw.edu.au/

University of Melbourne
http://www.unimelb.edu.au/

RMIT University
http://www.rmit.edu.au/

University of Tasmania
http://www.utas.edu.au/

University of South Australia

http://www.unisa.edu.au/

Curtin University
http://www.curtin.edu.au/

Queensland University of Technology

http://www.qut.edu.au/

University of Southern Queensland

http://www.usq.edu.au/

University of Otago, New Zealand

http://www.otago.ac.nz/
6.0 Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank the following for their assistance in the
development of this project, and contributions to the preparation of the
paper:

Dr Jon Osborn, School of Geography and Environmental Studies, University

of Tasmania for his encouragement and support, and guidance and review
in the development of the project and preparation of the paper

Bill Hirst, Surveyor-General, ACT Planning & Land Authority for review
and suggestions for improvement of the paper

Don Grant, Surveyor General, Land Information New Zealand for

information and data related to New Zealand, and

Peter Murphy, Surveyor-General, and John VanderNiet, Program Manager

Cadastral Standards, Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water &
Environment Tasmania for information, records and other data relative to
the preparation of the paper
7.0 About the Author
Gus Donnelly qualified as a Registered Surveyor in 1966 and in the subsequent
years to 1990 gained a wide range of professional experience in State Government,
Federal Government and the private sector.

He completed a Graduate Diploma in Professional Management (Tas. State Institute

of Technology, now UTas) in 1985.

He was appointed as Chief Surveyor, Department of Main Roads (more lately

Department of Infrastructure, Energy & Resources) in May 1986, and then Manager
Survey and Property in the then Dept. of Transport & Works (DIER) in May 1991.

From September 1993, his career switched to management roles in Quality and
Continuous Improvement, Road Maintenance and then Project Management.

He retired from full-time Government employment in December 2000 and set up a

consultancy in Facilitation and Project Management.

Gus has played a major professional role in surveying over a number of years
including:
 President of the Tasmanian Division of the Institution of Surveyors Australia in
1987-88
 Member of the Land Surveyors Board 1983–1991
 Member of the Board of Studies, and the Survey Industry Consultative
Committee at the University of Tasmania 1985–1991.
 Federal Councillor of the Institution of Surveyors, 1991–1994.

He was elected as a Fellow of the Institution of Surveyors in 1989.

Other roles include:

 Facilitation and reporting the transfer of the Surveyors Board from Government
to ISA in Tasmania in 2004, and
 Facilitation and reporting of an ICSM Cadastral Reform Workshop in April 2008

Publications include:

“Highways in Tasmania", a paper dealing with legal aspects of the creation and
ownership of highways in Tasmania, the rights and restrictions of land ownership
and specific applications to highways and adjoining lands published in the "The
Australian Surveyor" – December, 1986 (vol. 33 No. 4).