Operators

&
Functions
 Operators
 Arithmetic operator
 Logical operator
 Comparison operator
Type Symbol / Keyword Where to use

Arithmetic +,-,*,/ To manipulate numerical

column values, WHERE
clause

Comparison =, !=, <, <=, >, >=, between, WHERE clause

not between, in, not in,
like, not like

Logical and, or, not WHERE clause,

Combining two queries
 Operators

Arithmetic operators +, -, *, /
Operator precedence *, /, +, -

Q. Display a salary increase of $300 for all employees and

displays a new salary+300 column in the output.

A. Select last_name, salary, salary+300 from employees;

Comparison conditions
Comparison conditions are used in conditions that compare
one expression to another value or expression.
=, >, <,>=, <=, <> ,!= and ^=

Q. Display the last name and salary from the employees

table, where the employee salary is less than or equal to
$3000.
A. Select last_name, salary from employees where salary
<=3000;
Other Comparison operator
Between Between two values
….and….
IN(set) Match any of a list of values.
LIKE Match a character pattern
Is null Is a null value

Using the Between condition

Q. Display all the employees from the employees table

whose salary is between $2,500 and $3500.
A. Select * from employees where salary between 2500
and 3500;
IN condition

Use the IN condition to test for values in a list

Q. Displays employee no, last name, salaries and

manager’s employee numbers for all the employees
whose manager’s employee number is 100100,,101 or 201
A. E.g select emp_id, last_name, salary, mgr_id from
employees where mgr_id in(
in(100
100,,101
101,,201
201));
(OR)
Select emp_id, last_name, salary, mgr_id from employees
where mgr_id=
mgr_id=100
100 or mgr_id=
mgr_id=101
101 or mgr_id =201
201;;
LIKE Condition
Use the LIKE condition to perform wild card searches of
valid search string values.
Search conditions can contain either characters or numbers
% - denotes zero or many characters.
_ - denotes one character.

Q. Display the last names and hire dates of all

employees whose first name begins with an S.

A. Select first_name,hiredate from employees where

first_name like ‘S%’;
NULL Conditions
A NULL value means the value is unavailable, unassigned,
unknown, or not applicable.
NULL conditions include the
IS NULL condition and the IS NOT NULL condition.

Q. Display last name, mgr id and commission for all

employees who are not entitled to get a commission
A. Select last_name, mgr_id, commission from
employees where commission is null
null;;
Logical Conditions
And Returns True if both component
conditions are true
OR Returns True if either component
condition is true
NOT Returns True if the following condition
is false
Q. Display the employees who have a job title that
contains the string MAN and earn more than 10,000
A. Select emp_id, last_name, job_id, salary from
employees where salary>=10000 and job_id like
‘%MAN%’;
Q. Display all employees who has a job ID and salary
containing MAN or earns more than $10,000
A. Select emp_id, job_id, salary from employees
where salary>=10000 or job_id like ‘%MAN%’;

Q. Display the last name and job id of all employees

whose job id is not it or cse
A. Select last_name, job_id from employees where
job_id not in(‘it’ , ‘cse’);
Note
The NOT operator can also be used with other SQL
operators, such as BETWEEN, LIKE and NULL.

........where job_id NOT IN (‘ACCOUNTS’ , ‘SALES’);

........ Where salary NOT BETWEEN 1000 AND 5000;
........ Where last_name NOT LIKE ‘%A%’;
……. Where commission IS NOT NULL;
Concatenation Operator

Concatenates columns or character strings to other

columns
Is represented by vertical bars(||)

Select last_name || job_id as “employees” from

employees;
 FUNCTIONS

Single Row Functions

Multiple Row Functions
Single Row Functions

Returns only one value.

Can be used in SELECT command and included in
WHERE clause

Types
Character functions
Numeric functions
Date functions
Conversion functions
 Character Functions
Syntax Description

initcap (char) Changes first letter to capital

lower (char) Changes to lower case

upper (char) Changes to upper case

ltrim ( char, set) Removes the set from left of char

rtrim (char, set) Removes the set from right of char

translate(char, from, to) Translate ‘from’ anywhere in char to ‘to’
replace(char, search Replaces the search string to new
string, replace string)
 Character Function con……

Syntax Description

substring(char, m , n) Returns chars from m to n length

lpad(char, length, special char) Pads special char to left of char to

Max of length
rpad(char, length, special char) Pads special char to right of char to
Max of length
chr(number) Returns char equivalent

length(char) Length of string

 Examples for Character Functions

Function Result
INITCAP (‘oracle software’) Oracle Software
LOWER (‘ORACLE Software’) Oracle software
UPPER (‘Oracle Software’) ORACLE SOFTWARE
LTRIM ( ‘ Oracle’,’ ‘ ) Oracle
RTRIM (‘Oracle’,’e’) Oracl
TRANSLATE('223abcd', '0123abc', 886XYZd
'9786XYZ')
REPLACE('JACK and JUE','J','BL') BLACK and BLUE
Examples for Character Functions

Function Result
SUBSTR('ABCDEFG',3,3) CDE

LPAD('Page 1',15,'*') *********Page 1

RPAD('Page 1',15,'*') Page 1*********

chr(65) A

length(‘oracle’) 6
Numeric Functions:
Syntax Description
abs ( ) Returns the absolute value
ceil ( ) Rounds the argument
cos ( ) Cosine value of argument
exp ( ) Exponent value
floor( ) Truncated value
power (m,n) N raised to m
mod (m,n) Remainder of m / n
round (m,n) Rounds m’s decimal places to n
trunc (m,n) Truncates m’s decimal places to n
sqrt (m) Square root value
Numeric Functions
Function Result
abs (-15 ) 15
ceil ( 11.7 ) 12
cos (0*3.14/180) 1
exp(4) 54.59815
floor(11.7 ) 11
power (2,3) 8
mod (1000,300) 100
round(15.136,2) 15.14
trunc (15.136,2) 15.13
sqrt (9) 3
Date Functions:
Syntax Description
add_months(date,no. of Return the date after adding the
months) number of months
last_day(date) Returns the last date corresponding to
the last day of the month
months_between(date1,date2) Returns the numeric value of the
difference between the months.
round(date, [format] ) Format – ‘day’, ‘month’ , ‘year’
rounded to the nearest format
specified
next_day(date, day) Returns the next date of the day
trunc(date, [format] ) Format – ‘day’, ‘month’ , ‘year’
Day – previous nearest Sunday
Month – start date of the month
Year – start date of the year
SYSDATE Function
SYSDATE is a date function that returns the current
database server date and time.

Select sysdate from dual;

 DATE Functions
Sysdate = 03-AUG-10

Function Result
Add_months(’03-AUG-10‘,3) 03-NOV-10

Last_day(sysdate) 31-AUG-10

Months_between(sysdate,'11-jan-2010') 6.75448066

Next_day('03-AUG-10','wednesday') 10-AUG-10
 DATE Functions
Sysdate = 03-Aug-10

Function Result

Round(sysdate,’month’) 01-AUG-10

Round(sysdate,’year’) 01-JAN-11

Trunc(sysdate,’month’) 01-AUG-10

Trunc(sysdate,’year’) 01-JAN-10
Group Functions:
Result based on group of rows.

Group functions operate on sets of rows to give one result per group
Employees

Dept_id Salary

90 5000
The maximum
Max(salary)
90 10000 salary in the
employees 10000
90 10000 table

60 5000
60 5000
 Types of Group Functions

Syntax Description

count (*), Returns number of rows

count (column name),
count (distinct column name)
min (column name) Min value in the column
max (column name) Max value in the column
avg (column name) Avg value in the column
sum (column name) Sum of column values
 Group Functions Syntax
Select [column,] group_function(column),..
From table
[where condition]
[GROUP BY column];

Q. Display the average,highest, lowest and sum of salaries

for all the sales representatives.
A. Select avg(salary), max(salary), min(salary), sum(salary)
From employees where job_id like ‘%rep%’;
Groups of Data
Divide rows in a table in to smaller groups by using the
group by clause

Employees

Dept_id Salary
D_id Avg(Salary)
10 4000 The average
salary in 10 5000
10 5000 employees
table for each 50 4000
10 6000
department
50 5000
50 3000
Select dept_id, avg(salary) from employees group by
dept_id;