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CONSTRUCTION
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TILE FLOORING & MARBLE FLOORING
TILE FLOORING:
Tiles are precast units of pottery, cement concrete or terrazzo. They are manufactured
in various thickness and shapes like square, polygonal etc. Precast terrazzo tiles are
known as mosaic tiles. Mosaic tiles have to be polished after fixing them in their
position.
White glazed tiles, manufactured from pottery clay are used for flooring, W.C,
bathrooms, swimming pools and other sanitary blocks. These tiles do not require any
polishing. Tiled floorings require hard sub-grade with may be in the form o RCC slab or
cement concrete.

ADVANTAGES OF TILED FLOORING:

1. Tile floors are non-absorbent.
2. Tiles floors are very much durable, extremely tough and difficult to crack.
3. It comes in a variety of options.
4. Good looking. The appearance of tile floor is very pleasant.
5 Easy to install.
6. It requires less maintenance.
7. Maintenance is easy.
8. Easily Repairable.
9. Quick work.
10. It is environmental friendly

DISADVANTAGES OF TILED FLOORING:

1. Very costly both in its initial cost as well as in maintenance.
2. Very Slippery when wet.

MARBLE FLOORING:
This flooring is very high class and commonly used in places of worship (temples,
churches, mosques etc) and in public buildings having rich specifications. Marbles are
laid in floors just like other tile floors. The surface off the floor is rubbed and polished

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with the help of power driven polishing machine. Resulting surface of the floor is very
pleasing and smooth.
The size of marble slabs to be used in flooring depends upon the pattern to be adopted.
The slabs for normal works are square or rectangular in shape and their thickness
varies from 20 mm to 40 mm. The flooring is laid on prepared sub-grade of concrete or
RCC slab. In view of high cost of material, use of marble flooring in residential buildings
is normally restricted to areas like kitchen, bathroom entrance etc.

ADVANTAGES OF MARBLE FLOORING:

1. Marble flooring is very durable and can last for ages. It is a heavy stone and can take
heavy loads on it.
2. It has a very smooth finish and when polished, it gives a luminous shine.
3. Marble flooring is scratch resistant as well as fire resistant.
4. It is very easy to clean marble flooring.
5. It is eco-friendly.

DISADVANTAGES OF MARBLE FLOORING:

1. Inserting marbles in floors is very much time consuming hence require only skilled
technicians and laborers.
2. It is very difficult to change/replace marble flooring once installed.
3. It requires a high degree of maintenance.
4. Marble floors are very slippery when wet.
5. As marbles get very cold in winter season, they are not suitable in very cold climate.
6. Marbles are much heavier than other tiles. Require more labors for loading.
7. So much wastage.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRIDGE AND FLYOVER

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRIDGE AND FLYOVER:
Bridge and Flyover can be differentiated depending upon their function, purpose of
usage and the location where it is built.

BRIDGE:
1. The drainage structure which facilitates a communication route for carrying road or
railway traffic across an obstruction or depression with or without water is called a
bridge.

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2.. Bridge is a structure which is built over natural obstructions such as rivers, valleys to
connect two locations separated by these obstructions.
3. Bridges are further classified on the basis of their purpose, lifespan, materials, span
etc.
4. Bridges are used for navigating traffic across the obstruction, to navigate pipelines
and other forms of transport.

FLYOVERS:
1. Flyover is an overpass, a high-level road bridge that crosses over a highway
interchange or intersection.
2. It is a structure which joints two or more points which are separated by accessible
routes or a man-made structure to cut the traffic for faster mode of traveling.
3. They are usually made over road junctions, roads, streets, etc.
4. The name itself suggests that you are flying over a traffic zone.
5. They are usually built for road vehicles.

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WHY STEEL IS USED IN REINFORCEMENT?

WHY STEEL IS USED IN REINFORCEMENT?
The fact which makes it possible to combine steel and concrete is that concrete
contracts on setting in the air and if a steel rod is embedded in a mass of wet concrete,
it will be found that considerable force is necessary to pull out when the concrete is set.
If the steel section is in the form of a plate, although it will resist removal when the
concrete is set, yet it can be knocked off by sharp blows.
In the first case, the concrete grips the still, while in the second it only adheres. The grip
depends upon the strength of concrete used in the work as well as the perfection with
which the concrete has been mixed, placed in position, compacted and cured.
Besides this, the grip also depends upon the condition of the surface of the rod (whether
it is smooth or rough). Specially shaped bars (ribbed bars etc.) have therefore been
introduced from time to time with the object of increasing the grip.
It is on account of the similar coefficient of expansion of the two materials, the superior
bond value of high tensile strength and less cost of steel that’s why steel rods are used
in reinforcement in R.C.C work.

SYSTEM OF PLUMBING IN BUILDING

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SYSTEM OF PLUMBING:
There are four systems of plumbing of drainage work in a building.

1. Single stack system

2. One pipe system
3. Two pipe system.
4. One pipe system partially ventilated.

1. SINGLE STACK SYSTEM:

In this system, only one vertical soil pipe is used. The wastes from all the sanitary and
soil appliances are discharged in the same pipe. The traps of WCs, sinks basins etc are
directly connected to the single stack pipe. In this system there is no separate pipe for
ventilation purpose. This system proves economical as only one pipe is to be provided.
The effectiveness of this system depends entirely on the depth of water seal. No water
seal should be less than 75 mm depth.

2. ONE PIPE SYSTEM:

In this system of plumbing the waste connections from sinks, baths, wash basins and
the soil pipe which is connected directly to the drainage system. Gully traps and waste
pipes are completely dispensed with. But all the traps of wC.s basins, etc are
completely ventilated to preserve the water seal by a separate vent pipe.

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The following precautions should be taken in this plumbing system.

a) All the joints off waste pipes should be air-tight.
b) Each waste pipe should be connected to common stack directly.
c) Vent pipe diameter should not be less than 50 mm.
d) The waste pipe should join the stack, above the soil branch at each floor.
e) All traps should be provided with a deep water seal of not less than 7.5cm.

3. TWO-PIPE SYSTEM:
In this plumbing system, two pipes are installed. W.Cs and urinals are connected to
vertical soil pipe baths, kitchens, basins etc are connected to another separate
vertical waste pipe. Soil pipes and waste pipes are provided with separate vent pipes.
This system thus requires four pipes and hence proves very costly. The soil pipe is
connected to the drain directly but waste pipe should be connected through a
trapped gully.

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4. ONE-PIPE PARTIALLY VENTILATED SYSTEM:

This system is a via media between the one-pipe system and the single stack system.
There is only one soil pipe into which all W.Cs, baths, sinks and wash basins discharge.
In addition, there is a relief vent pipe which ventilates only the traps of W.Cs and urinals.

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The following precautions should be taken to adopt this plumbing system:

a) Like one pipe system, it should be provided with deep water seals, at least 75 mm.
b) The diameter of vent pipe should not be less than 5 cm.
c) The waste pipe should join the stack above the soil branch at each floor.
d) The fall or waste pipe should be continuous and gradual. The slope of the waste pipe
should be between 1 in 12 to 1 in 48.
In India pipe system and sometimes one pipe system partially ventilated are in most
common use. The plumbing system can be made more economical by compact
grouping of fitments in both horizontal and vertical directions.
This implies that if care is taken and ingenuity brought into play when designing the
original building or building to be drained, it is possible to group the sanitary fittings and
other equipment requiring drainage, both in vertical and horizontal planes as to simplify
the drainage system and make it most economical.

CAVITY WALL CONSTRUCTION – PURPOSE AND PRECAUTIONS

WHAT IS CAVITY WALLS?
It is a wall made of two parallel levels of masonry, separated by continuous air space.
Continuous air space is called cavity. Cavity walls consist of three main parts:
1. The outer leat which is the exterior part of the wall.
2. The cavity, the continuous air space.
3. The inner leaf which is the interior part of the wall.

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PURPOSE OF CAVITY WALLS:

The cavity walls are provided for following purposes:

1. DAMP PREVENTION:
Cavity walls eliminate the penetration of moisture from outer leaf to the inner leaf and
thus help keep inside of the building free from dampness.

2. THERMAL INSULATION:
The air in the cavity wall acts as a non-conductor of thermal heat and hence minimizes
the transmission of heat from the external face of the outer leaf to the internal face of
the interior leaf. Thus cavity walls help greatly in the thermal insulation.

3. SOUND INSULATION:
The air in the cavity acts as a cushion for absorbing sound, by adopting cavity walls
buildings may be rendered sound proof as considerable external noise gets absorbed in
the cavity.

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4. EFFLORESCENCE PREVENTION:
As dampness is not allowed penetrate by cavity, the inner wall of the cavity which is
always a load bearing wall is kept free efflorescence effects.

5. ECONOMY:
Cavity walls are found to cost about 20% less than the construction of same thickness
solid wall.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:
As already stated, the cavity walls have two leaves- inner and outer with hollow space in
between them. The width of the cavity varies from 50 mm to 75 mm. The thickness of
the outer leaf wall which is usually non-load bearing is half brick. The two portions of the
wall are connected by wall ties or bonded bricks. metal wall ties are spaced horizontal
intervals of about 0.90 mm and vertical interval of 450 mm. the wall ties should be
arranged in staggered form. The outer wall is always in stretcher bond, but it can be
constructed in other bonds as well, by using brick bats.

PRECAUTIONS IN CAVITY WALLS:

The following precautions should be taken to ensure satisfactory functioning of the
cavity walls:
1. Contact between two leaves should be avoided.
2. The cavity should be kept clear of droppings. This can be done by using a wooden
batten during construction. Temporary openings may be left at the bottom of the cavity
to afford access and removal of droppings.
3. the main horizontal D.P.C must be in two separate widths and the bottom of the
cavity must be at least 150 mm below this.
4. Heads of openings must be protected by damp proofing material. Jambs must not be
solid unless DPC is provided.
5. Deep holes should be formed immediately below the main horizontal DPC over
openings, if necessary.
6. Cavities must be rust proof, capable of preventing rain transmission and easy in
cleaning of mortar droppings.

BAMBOO AS REINFORCEMENT – IS BAMBOO STRONGER THAN STEEL?

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BAMBOO AS REINFORCEMENT:
Bamboo is used as construction material in certain area of different countries. Bamboo
is also used in reinforcement as an alternative to steel. But is it trustworthy using
bamboo in reinforcement? Or is bamboo stronger than steel? Let us discuss below.
Bamboo has great tensile strength (resistance to being pulled apart) than steel and it
can withstand compression better than concrete.
Bamboo has an impermeable protective layer on the outside which protects it from
rotting due to water or moisture.

ADVANTAGES OF BAMBOO IN REINFORCEMENT:

1. Bamboo is extremely strong natural fiber.
2. It has high tensile strength.
3. Due to its hollow structure, it is highly flexible.
4. Lightweight compared to steel.
5. Low cost and environment-friendly.
6. It has great shock absorbing capacity.

DISADVANTAGES OF BAMBOO IN REINFORCEMENT:

The biggest part which discourages the use of bamboo as reinforcement is its
disadvantages.
1. Less durable than steel, cannot be used in permanent structure.
2. Shrinking problems.
3. More prone to environmental degradation and insect attack.
4. Can not be used in cold climate.
5. It does not have longer life compared to steel.
6. Low modulus of elasticity, poor adherence to concrete mix.
7. Due to lower modulus of elasticity, it can crack and deflect more than steel
reinforcement.
From my personal experience, I advise you to use high tensile steel for stable and
permanent structures.

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PROCEDURE TO GET SANCTION OF BUILDING PERMIT FROM THE

LOCAL AUTHORITY

PROCEDURE TO GET SANCTION OF BUILDING PERMIT

FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITY:
Any person intending to construct a house/building or to carry out addition/alteration to
an existing building has to get the building plan sanctioned by the local authority.
The type and scale of different drawings and the prescribed forms together with the
other information which is required to be submitted to the local authorities can be
obtained in the book of building bye-laws.
The building department of local authority scrutinies the plans in detail to ensure that the
scheme contained in the drawings complies with the various requirements of the bye-
laws. In case, during scrutiny it is observed that there are some violation bye-laws, such
violations are recorded in the form of objections and conveyed to the applicant.
The plans are sanctioned only after the objections have been removed and drawings
modified. A complete set of approved drawings along with the sanction letter is handed
over to the applicant for taking up the construction of the building at site.
The construction of building to be carried out in accordance with the sanctioned building
drawings. If during the construction of building, substantial departure from sanctioned
plans is intended to be made it is obligatory on the part of the applications to obtain
sanction of plan showing such derivations from the local authority before taking up such
construction.
After the construction of the building, the applicant is required to submit a notice of
completion of the building to the authority. On receipt of the notice of the completion, the
authority conducts inspection of the work and issues the occupancy certificate after the
objection if any, observed during inspection are removed physically.
The grant of building permit normally remains valid for two years (from the date of the
sanction) for residential, industrial and commercial buildings up to 4 storeyed
construction and for three years for larger complexes and multi-storeyed buildings. In
case the construction is not completed within the valid period it will be necessary for the
owner to get the building permit revalidated from the authority.
Contravention or disregard of any provision made by the local authority can render the
offender liable to procution and imposition of penalties.

WHAT IS GUNITING – ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

GUNITING
WHAT IS GUNITING?
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Guniting is a process in which inferior or damaged concrete works can be effectively

repaired. It is also used for providing an impervious layer.
Gunite is a mixture of cement and sand in usual proportion of 1:3. A special equipment
known as cement gun is used to deposit this mixture on the concrete surface under a
pressure of about 2 to 3 kg/cm2.
The surface to be treated is cleaned and washed. The nozzle of the gun is generally
kept at a distance of about 80 cm from the surface to be treated. The velocity of flow
through the nozzle is from 120 t0 160 m/sec.

ADVANTAGES OF GUNITING:
1. High impermeability can be achieved.
2. The repairs can be carried out in any situation in very short time.
3. High compressive strength, say of the order of 500 to 700 kg/cm2 at 28 days can be
obtained.

DISADVANTAGES OF GUNITING:
1 Production cost is very high.
2 Concrete can be wasted in excess amount.

APPLICATION:
1. Thin overhead vertical or horizontal surfaces.
2. Curved or folded structures such as tunnels, canals, reservoirs, swimming pools, pre-
stressed tanks.
3. Stabilized rock slopes.
4. Restoration and repairing of old building and fire-damaged structure.
5. Waterproofing walls etc.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIER AND ABUTMENT

PIER:
The intermediate supports for the superstructure of a multi-span bridge are known as
piers.

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A pier essentially consists of two parts i.ee a column shaft and the foundation. It is
sometimes provided with projections, called cut water and easy passage of water.

FUNCTION OF PIER:
The function of a pier is to transmit the load from the bridge to the underneath sub-soil.

TYPES OF PIERS:
Depending upon the type of superstructure, sub-soil conditions and the construction
procedure of the bridge, pier can be classified into the following two types:
1. Solid piers
2. Open piers.

ABUTMENTS:
The end supports of a bridge superstructure are known as abutments.
Abutments are built either with brick masonry, stone masonry, mass concrete, precast
concrete blocks or RCC. The top surface of abutment is made flat for girder bridges or
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semi-circular arch bridges but provided with skewbacks if the bridge arches are
segmental or elliptical.

FUNCTION OF ABUTMENTS:
1. To transmit the load from the bridge superstructure to the underlying sub-soil.
2. To provide final formation level to the bridge superstructure.
3. To retain the earth pressure of embankment of the approaches.

TYPES OF ABUTMENTS:
Depending upon the layout plan abutments are classified into following types:
1. Abutments with wing walls.
2. Abutments without wing walls.

HOW TO STORE CEMENT AT SITE – STORAGE OF CEMENT

HOW TO STORE CEMENT AT SITE:
Storage of cement requires extra care to preserve its quality and fineness for use. To
prevent its deterioration it is necessary to protect it from different weathering conditions
such as rain, sun, moisture, wind etc.

Moisture is the biggest enemy of cement. Cement has great affinity for moisture and
hence it should be stored well shielded from moisture laden current of air.
The exposed cement is attacked by air which further forms lumps. If the lumps are very
hard which cannot be powdered by fingers then it can not be used in any sound
construction.
Cement should be stored in dry, leakproof and moisture proof sheds with minimum
number of windows and close fitting doors. The cement bags should be stacked on
wooden planks placed about 150 to 200 mm above the floor. The space between stacks
and exterior walls should be 450 to 600 mm.
The maximum height of stack should not exceed 15 bags. The width of stacks should
not be more than 4 bags or 3 m. Thus possibilities of lumping under pressure can be
prevented.
In monsoon or in situations when it is necessary to store cement for unusually long
periods, the cement stacks should be completely enclosed by 700 gauge polythene
sheet or some other waterproofing membrane materials.

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The stack should be arranged in such a manner that cement bags can be removed on
principle of first come first serve basis. that means oldest cement should be taken out
first.

WHY COVER BLOCKS ARE USED IN REINFORCEMENT

WHAT IS COVER BLOCK?

A cover block is essentially a spacer that is used to lift the rebar matrix off the ground so
that concrete may flow underneath the rebar.
In order to prevent corrosion of the rebar, it needs to be fully embedded in concrete. By
code, it usually needs about 2 to 3 inches of coverage on all sides. So the cover block
lifts the rebar up by about 2 to 3 inches and becomes a permanent and integral part of
the poured concrete, ensuring that no part of the rebar sags and minimizes that required
concrete coverage during the pour.

TYPES OF COVER BLOCKS:

There are different types of covering blocks based on the type of material used:-
1. Wooden cover block.
2. Steel cover block.
3. PVC Block.
4. Cement masonry cover block
5. Aluminum cover block.
6. Stone cover block.
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WHY COVER BLOCKS ARE USED IN REINFORCEMENT?

Cover blocks are used for the following reasons:
1. To maintain a specified distance between the rebar and the shuttering.
2. To protect the steel reinforcement bars from environmental effects to prevent
their corrosion.
3.. To provide thermal insulation, which protects the reinforcement bars from fire.
4. To give reinforcing bars sufficient embedding to enable them to be stressed without
slipping.

USEFUL METHODS TO IMPROVE THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

5 METHODS TO IMPROVE THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:
These are the following methods which can be used to improve the bearing capacity of
soil.

1. INCREASING THE FOUNDATION DEPTH:

Increasing the depth of the foundation is the simplest method for improving the bearing
capacity of soil. Because soil has a high pressure at the deeper depth. Hence it will be
more compacted.

2. DRAINING THE SUBSOIL:

Drainage is another well-known method which improves the bearing capacity of soil. In
this process drains are placed near the footing base, then the subsoil water is collected
and drained out by a pipe.

3. BLENDING GRANULAR MATERIALS:

In this method certain amount of granular materials such as sand, gravel, crushed stone
etc is blended into the weak soil by ramming. Hence the poor soil becomes much
stronger and bearing capacity is improved.

4. CONFINING THE SOIL:

The soil is confined in a bounded area with the help of sheet piles. This method is
suitable for sandy soils.

5. DRIVING SAND PILES:

This method is also helpful to improve the bearing capacity of soft soil by reducing the
void volume.. Here wooden piles are used to make holes in the weak soils and then
sand is filled into the holes by ramming.

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CAISSON FOUNDATION – TYPES OF CAISSON FOUNDATION

TYPES OF CAISSON FOUNDATION:
The foundation constructed by sinking a caisson to rest on firm base under water and
then filling the same with concrete or stone masonry to act as a pier is known as
caisson foundation. This type of underwater foundation is mainly constructed in sandy
soils and where the depth of water is more.

TYPE OF CAISSONS:
The various types of caissons used in constructing caisson foundations under water are
given below:
1. Box caissons,
2. Open caissons,
3. Pneumatic caissons.

1. BOX CAISSONS:
The caisson in the form of an air tight vessel without top, floated to the site and sunk to
rest on a firm base, is called box caisson. This type of caisson is made of timber, steel
or reinforced concrete.

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2. OPEN CAISSON:
The caisson which is without its top and bottom is called open caisson. This type of
caisson is like a well with vertical sides only. It may be square, rectangular, oval or of
any other suitable shape. Open caissons are usually made of RCC or of steel plates,
riveted or welded together.

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3. PNEUMATIC CAISSON:
The caisson which is open at the bottom and close at the top and sunk by means of
utilizing compressed air is known as pneumatic caisson.
Pneumatic caisson consists essentially of the working chamber, the shaft, and an air
lock.
This type of caisson is usually made of n inner and outer skin plates with steel trusses
or girders to form a box like structure. It is provided with a cutting steel edge at its
bottom to facilitate sinking in the soil. The working chamber, provided in the caisson, is
about 3 to 4 m deep and is made air tight by providing an air tight roof. It is meant for
working of workmen during sinking process. Access to the working chamber is made
through the shaft and air lock.
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The air pressure to be used in the working chamber depends upon the depth. The
maximum pressure allowed at a depth of 35 m is 3.75 km/cm2. A normal workman can
work for eight hours under a pressure of 1.3 kg/cm2. For greater pressure, the working
hour is to be reduced accordingly.

TYPES OF STIRRUPS USED IN BEAM AND COLUMN

TYPES OF STIRRUPS USED IN BEAM AND COLUMN:
Stirrups are used to resist lateral shear stress and diagonal tension stress in RCC
structure. Thus stirrups help to prevent buckling failure in columns.
Depending upon the nature of construction, the different types of stirrups used in beam
and columns are listed below:

1. SINGLE LEGGED STIRRUPS:

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2. TWO-LEGGED OR DOUBLE LEGGED STIRRUPS:

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3. FOUR-LEGGED STIRRUPS:

4. SIX-LEGGED STIRRUPS:

Sometimes, three-legged stirrups are also used in construction.

TYPES OF CULVERTS – ARCH CULVERT, BOX CULVERT, SLAB CULVERT,

PIPE CULVERT
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WHAT IS CULVERT:
A small bridge having total length of 6 m or less than 6 m between the faces of
abutments is known as culvert. Culvert is a permanent drainage structure mainly
constructed to carry roadway or railway track over small streams or channels.

TYPES OF CULVERT:
Culverts are classified into the following four types:
1. Arch Culvert.
2. Open or Slab Culvert.
3. pipe Culvert.
4. Box Culvert.

1. ARCH CULVERT:
The culvert having its superstructure consisting of one or two arches constructed of any
suitable masonry is known as arch culvert.

In these culverts segmental arches consisting of brick masonry, stone masonry or

concrete are commonly used. These arches can be easily and cheaply constructed. The
abutments and piers or these arches are constructed sufficiently strong to take their
lateral thrust Arch culverts are specially suitable where the approaches are to be
constructed in cutting.

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2. SLAB CULVERTS:
The culvert, having its superstructure consisting of RCC slab which carries the bridge
floor, is known as slab culvert.

In this type of culvert, the RCC slab of suitable thickness is provided as simply
supported over abutments and piers which are constructed of any suitable type of
masonry. Slab culverts are suitable where the bed of the canal or stream is sufficiently
firm. These are provided upto maximum span of 3 m.

3. PIPE CULVERT:
The culvert which consists of one or more pipes placed side by side over a concrete
base below the embankment of a roadway or railway track is known as pipe culvert.

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In this type of culvert, one or more pipes consisting of cast iron, steel or RCC are held in
position over a concrete base by fixing their both the ends into masonry walls. In pipe
culverts, generally, more than one pipe, of diameter not less than 30 cm is used.
However, their exact number and diameter depending upon the discharge and height of
the bank. As far as possible the gradient of the pipe should not be less than 1 in 1000.
Pipe culverts are suitable where the flow of water in the stream is very small.

4. BOX CULVERT:
The culvert consisting of one or more numbers of rectangular or square openings,
having their floor and top slabs constructed monolithically with abutments and pier, is
known as box culvert.

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Box culverts are usually constructed of precast RCC slabs. Small span box culverts
may be constructed of stone slabs, supported on masonry abutments, with brick or
stone flooring. These culverts provide the least interference to traffic during
construction.
Box culverts are mainly constructed where the sol is soft and the load has to be
distributed over a wider foundation area. This type of culvert can be conventionally used
for a single span of 3 m or for double span of 6 m.

TYPES OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SUITABILITY

TYPES OF BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SUITABILITY:
Depending upon nature and depth, bridge foundations can be classified into the
following types:
1. Spread or open foundation.
2. Raft foundation.
3. Grillage foundation.
4. Inverted arch foundation.
5. Pile foundation.
6. Well foundation
7. Caisson foundation.

1. SPREAD OR OPEN FOUNDATION:

This type of foundation is suitable for bridges of moderate height, to be built on dry
ground which is sufficiently firm to support the bridge structure. It is best suited in
situations where hard soil is available within 1.5 to 3 m below the bed level of water
course and when the scouring is minimum.

2. RAFT FOUNDATION:
This type of foundation is suitable when the bed of the water course consists of soft clay
and silt and the hard soil is not available within reasonable depth (1.5 to 2.5 m) below
the river bed.
It is best suited in situations where the allowable bearing capacity of the soil is low or
when the bridge loads are heavy. Raft foundation is also suitable when the soil bed has
some soft pockets which are compressible and there is possibility of unequal
settlement.

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3. GRILLAGE FOUNDATION:
This type of bridge foundation is suitable for heavy and isolated footings of piers where
deep foundations are to be avoided. It is best suited where sub-soil conditions are poor.

4. INVERTED ARCH FOUNDATION:

This type of bridge foundation is suitable when the depth of excavation for foundation is
less. It is best suited where the bearing capacity of the soil is less, especially when the
sub-soil has some soft pockets and their is possibility of unequal settlement.

5. PILE FOUNDATION:
This type of bridge foundation is suitable when the soil is very soft and the hard strata
are not available at a reasonable depth below the bed level of the river. It is best suited
where heavy scouring of river bed is expected and heavy concentrated loads are
expected to be taken by the foundation. It is also suitable when it is much expensive to
provide raft or grillage foundation.

6. WELL FOUNDATION:
This type of bridge foundation is suitable where good soil is available at about 3 to 4 m
below the bed level of the river and the bed consists of sandy soil. It is best suited to
soft soils or sandy beds, where heavy scouring is liable to occur due to excessive
velocity of approach of the river water.

7. CAISSON FOUNDATION:
Caisson foundation is suitable when a hard strata is available near to the river bed but
the depth of water is excessive and it is not economically possible to exclude water from
a dry bed for sinking the wells to provide well foundation.

TOP DOWN CONSTRUCTION – PROCEDURE, ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES

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TOP DOWN CONSTRUCTION:

Top down construction is the reverse method of bottom-up construction in which the
permanent structure is built from top to bottom of the basement along with deep
excavations.
In this method, the basement floors are constructed as the excavation
progresses. basement concrete slabs act as lateral bracing for the perimeter wall
system. Ground level and subsequent basement slabs are poured, accessing holes left
to allow excavation beneath. As each subsequent subgrade level is completed,
the floors act as lateral bracing for the perimeter wall system. Perimeter wall which is
generally referred to as Diaphragm wall (or D wall) is a single, safe solution for all the
constructional problems encountered in underground construction. D walls provide
effective earth retention and good control over ground water movement. It’s capable of
carrying the superstructure loads, providing early utilization of the superstructure even
before the completion of substructure of that building.
The top down method is used for deep excavation projects where tieback installation is
not feasible and soil movements need to be minimized, metro station
construction, tunnel construction, underground construction etc.

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the perimeter wall, Constructpiles. Place the steel columns or stanchions
where the piles are constructed.
2. Cast the floor slab of first basement level.
3. Proceed to the first stage of excavation.

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4. Start construction of the superstructure.

5. Cast the floor slab of the second basement level Proceed to the second stage of
excavation.
6. Repeat the same procedure till the desired depth is reached.
7. Construct the foundation slab and ground beams, etc. Complete the basement
8. Keep constructing the superstructure till it gets finished.

ADVANTAGES OF TOP DOWN CONSTRUCTION:

1. Early restoration of the superstructure is possible even before the completion of
the building and the structures aboveground can be carried out simultaneously with the
structures below ground. This greatly reduces the time for construction.
2. Concrete diaphragm walls are more cost-effective when they can simultaneously
function as a groundwater cut-off and temporary soil retention system during the
excavation phase of the project, and then as permanent underground walls with load-
carrying capabilities for the finishedstructure.
3. Easier and economical construction of roof since it can be cast on prepared
grade rather than using bottom forms.
4. The structural slab act as an internal bracing for the support of excavation, thus
reducing the number of tiebacks required.
5. The virtually vibration-free operation minimizes the potential for ground movement
and its resulting detrimental settlement.
6. It requires less width for construction area. Reduced environmental pollution
associated with pre-construction earthworks
7. Eliminates the need to underpin adjacent structures

DISADVANTAGES OF TOP DOWN CONSTRUCTION:

1. Inability to install external waterproofing outside the walls.
2. Potential water leakage at the joints.
3. More complicated connections for the roofs, floor, and base slabs.
4. Access to the excavation is limited and limited space for the construction of base
slab.
5. Complex design involved.

TIPS TO REDUCE THE COST OF BUILDING A HOUSE

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The cost of building a house differs from plan to plan. It is always essential to provide
economical design to the house owner. Civil engineers and architects use their
professional experience and technical skills to minimize the cost of a project where it is
possible. In this article, I will give you some basic ideas which can be used to reduce
the overall cost of constructing residential building or house. But these are just basic
ideas, never compromise with the quality and strength to reduce the cost.

TIPS TO REDUCE THE COST OF BUILDING A HOUSE:

1. Square shaped structure has more advantages than a rectangular shaped structure.
It saves almost 15 -20% walls than a rectangular shape of same structure.
2. For a 2 storey building half number of rooms should be constructed on the ground
floor and the other half rooms at the upper floor. Because construction in upper floor is
about 25% cheaper than ground floor.
3. The cost can be reduced by making outer walls thicker than the inner walls.
4. Time should always be maintained. The work should be started in due time without
any delay. Delay in starting the work will increase the total cost of the project.
5. Avoid unnecessary structural members just for beautification in architectural design.
6. Hire good Civil/Structural Engineers/Architects.
7. Construction work should be done by skilled workers.
8. Make sure the building design layout is easy to understand to the contractor and
workers.

FLAT SLAB – TYPES, USES, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

WHAT IS FLAT SLAB:
Flat slab is an RCC slab built monolithically with supporting columns and reinforced in
two or more directions. Beams are not provided to support the slab. The loads are
directly transferred to the columns.
In flat slabs, the columns are provided with enlarged heads called capitals or column
heads. The thickness of slab over columns is also increased to support heavy loads and
the thickened part of the slab is called drop panel.
For lighter loads the column heads and drop panels are eliminated, such flat slab with
constant thickness supported on prismatic columns are called flat plate.

TYPES OF FLAT SLAB:

1 Flat slab with drop panel.
2 Flat slab with column head.

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3 Flat slab with drop panel and column head.

4 Flat slab without drop panel and column head.

USES OF FLAT SLAB:

1. Flat slabs are mostly used in large industrial structures, parking garages, ramps,
warehouse, high rise buildings and hotels.
2. They are also used where uses of beams are not required.
3. Or where the structure requires less formwork.

ADVANTAGES OF FLAT SLABS:

1. It reduces the overall height of the structure.
2. Flat slabs are capable to carry concentrated loads.
3. Requires less formwork.
4. As reinforcement detailing of flat slabs is simple it is easy to place.
5. Better quality control.
6. Installation of sprinkler and other piping and utilities are easier due to absent of
beams.
7. It gives a better appearance and better diffusion of light.
8. Better fire resistant than other floor systems.
9. Fast construction.

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DISADVANTAGES OF FLAT SLABS:

The disadvantages of flat slabs are as following:
1. In flat plate system, construction of large span is not possible.
2. Use of drop panels may interfere with larger mechanical ducting.
3. Not suitable for masonry partitions (Supporting brittle).
4. The thickness of flat plate slab is higher compared to the typical RCC two way slab.

WHAT IS PLOT AREA, CARPET AREA, BUILT UP AREA, SUPER BUILT UP

AREA & SETBACK AREA

PLOT AREA:
Plot area commonly known as site area is a piece of land enclosed by definite
boundaries. The mean horizontal distance between the front and rear site boundaries is
known as depth of the plot area.

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BUILT UP AREA OR PLINTH AREA:

Built up area is the total covered area measured at the floor level of the basement or of
any storey. That means the area covered by a typical building or flat. It is also known as
plinth area.
Areas included in built-up area:
Bedrooms, living room, hall, balcony, kitchen, bathroom, utility area, shafts, staircase,
terrace, verandah, Wall thickness.

SUPER BUILT UP AREA:

The built-up area plus common proportionate areas such as swimming pool, garden,
park, gym, playground etc is known as super built-up area.
Areas included in super built-up area:
Swimming pool, garden, park, gym, playground, clubhouse, and other amenities.

CARPET AREA:
Carpet area is the area excluding the walls of built-up area. In simple words, it is the
internal space within the walls which you can actually use. Usually, carpet area is
around 70 -90 % of the built-up area.

SETBACK AREA:
The area on all sides of the plot boundaries laid down by the local municipal authority
beyond which nothing can be constructed toward the plot boundary is known as setback
area.
The line usually parallel to the plot area on each side is call setback line. This area
helps a building to get more daylight and fresh air to the street level.

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PARTS OF STAIRS – COMPONENTS OF STAIRS

COMPONENTS OF STAIR – PARTS OF STAIR:

The different components of stairs are described below:

1. STEP:
It is a combination of tread and riser which permits ascent and descent from one floor to
another.

2. TREAD:
The upper horizontal portion of the step over which foot is placed during ascending or
descending a stairway is known as tread.

3. RISER:
The vertical member of the step is known as riser. It is used to support and connect the
successive treads.

4. RISE:
The vertical height between two consecutive treads is known as rise.

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5. LANDING:
A horizontal platform between two successive flight of a stair is called landing. Landing
is used as a resting place during use of the stair. It facilitates the change of direction of
the flight. Landing which extends for full width of the staircase is known as half-space
landing. Landing extending for only half the width of staircase is known as quarter space
landing.

6. NOSING:
It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser. Nosing is usually
rounded to give good aesthetic effect to the treads and make staircase convenient and
easy to use.

7. GOING:
The horizontal distance between without the faces of two consecutive risers is known as
going of steps.

8. FLIGHT:
A continuous series of steps without any break between landings or landing and flooring
is known as flight.

9. HEAD ROOM:
The vertical height between the tread of one flight and the ceiling of the overhead
construction is known as head room. Head room should be sufficient so as not to cause
any difficulty to the persons using the stair. Head room is also known as head way.

10. HAND RAIL:

It is an inclined rail provided at convenient height over balustrades. The inclination of
the rail is parallel to the slope of the stair. It serves as a guard rail and provides
assistance to the users of the stair. hand rails can be molded in so many architectural
forms. It also acts as a protective bar.

11. BALUSTER:
It is an individual vertical member made of timber, metal, or masonry and fixed between
string and hand rail to provide support to the hand rail.

12. BALUSTRADE:
Framework made from series of balusters and hand rail is known as balustrade. It is
also known as barrister.

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13. PITCH OR SLOPE:

Vertical angle made by nosing line of the stair with the horizontal is known as pitch or
slope of the stair.

14. RUN:
The total length of the stair in horizontal plane including lengths of landings is known as
run of the stair.

15. SOFFIT:
The undersurface of the stair is known as soffit. It is either finished with plaster or
covered with a ceiling.

16. SCOTIA:
It is a sort of additional moulding provided under the nosing or tread to beautify the step
of elevation.

17. NEWEL-POST:
It is a vertical timber or steel post provided at the head, foot or at point where the
balustrade changes its direction. It is also used for supporting the hand rail.

18. STRINGS OR STRINGERS:

These are the sloping wooden members of a stair, used to support the end of the steps.
Stringers may be two types, Cut or open type and closed or housed type. In case of
former type, the upper edge is cut exactly to sie to receive the ends of steps. In latter
type i.e closed or housed type, the ends of steps are housed into the stringers.

19. WAIST:
The thickness of the RCC slab over which steps of RCC rest, is known as waist.

20. LINE OF NOSING:

It is an imaginary sloping line parallel to the slope of the stair and touching the nosing of
all the treads.

21. WALKING LINE:

It is the approximate line on the stair, adopted by the people during use of the stair. This
line is located about 40 cm from the centre of the hand rail.

22. SPANDREL:
It is triangular framing under the outside string of an open string stair.
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PILE DRIVING – METHODS OF PILE DRIVING

PILE DRIVING:

Pile Driving
The process of forcing pile into the ground without any excavation is known as pile
driving. The equipment required for pile driving can be classified as follows:
1. Pile frames,
2. Pile hammers,
3. Leads,
4. Winches,
5. Miscellaneous Equipment.

METHODS OF PILE DRIVING:

Methods of pile driving can be enumerated as follows:
1. By drop hammer,
2. By Steam hammer,
a. Single acting,
b. Double acting,
c. Differential acting,
3. By water jet boring,
4. By boring.
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1. DROP HAMMER:
It is made from solid mass of C.I which is lifted and allowed to fall under gravity on the
pile head. It is provided with two lugs so that it may slide on the leads. It also consists of
a hook to tie the rope to it. Drop hammer weighs 1 ton to 4 ton and has a free fall
varying from about 1.5 to 6 m. It can deliver 4 to 8 blows per minute. The energy
imparted to the pile head by the hammer is dependent on fall and weight of the
hammer. Heavy hammer with short fall should be preferred than using light hammer and
large fall.

2. STEAM HAMMER:

A. SINGLE-ACTING STEAM HAMMER:

In this method, the hammer is lifted either with compressed air or steam but allowed to
drop on pile head under gravity only. Its weight is about 2 ton and fall or drops from 1 m.
It can deliver about 60 blows per minute. It can be open type or closed type. Single-
acting steam hammer can be used for driving piles under water.

B. DOUBLE-ACTING HAMMER:
In this method, the hammer is lifted by steam or compressed air like single-acting
hammer but during fall steam or compressed air also aids the fall of the hammer in
addition to the gravity effect. If compressed air is used for lifting and dropping the
hammer on the pile head, it is known as pneumatic hammer. Double acting hammer
weighs about 1/2 ton but because of added effect of steam pressure, it develops an
effect of about 3 ton on the pile head. It can deliver 100 to 300 blows per minute. This
hammer is generally fully enclosed in a steel case and hence equally useful for driving
piles under water. In this hammer, energy per blow and number of blows per minute can
be regulated by adjusting steam pressure.

C. DIFFERENTIAL ACTING STEAM HAMMER:

It is a modified form of double-acting steam hammer. Advantages of both single-acting
and double acting steam hammers are embodied in it. It is claimed that this
hammer consumes the least power in penetration of a pile as compared to single or
double-acting hammers. It may be open type or closed type and hence can be used for
driving piles under water also.

3. WATER JET:
In this method, piles are cast with jetting pipe in them. Water under a pressure of 7 to
17.5 kg/cm2 is forced through this jetting pipe at the rate of 20 to 40 liters per second
near the bottom of the pile. This water dislodged the soil at the bottom of the pile and
pile can sink under its own weight or with a very light blow of the hammer. Some water
from the bottom rises along the sides of the pile and helps in reducing the friction

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between the pile and surrounding soil. The water jet is stopped about 1 m to 2 m from
the depth to be reached by the pile and this length is driven entirely with hammers.

4. BY BORING:
Piles may be driven by first boring a hole with the help of auger, rotary well drills or by
any other method. Auger is used when the soil is soft and depth is very small. In case of
rock and hard soils boring may be done by well drill or other methods. A precast pile is
lastly put into the bored hole.

HOW TO PREVENT LEAKAGES IN COFFERDAMS

HOW TO PREVENT LEAKAGES IN COFFERDAMS:
Water may leak through the underground flow of water or through the piling sheet of the
cofferdam. The following measures can be adopted to prevent leakages in cofferdam.
1. Water entering the dewatered area through fissures or cracks in the rocks can be
stopped by grouting the fissures by cement grout.
2. Clay or mixture of clay and sand can be dumped in form of beams both on inside and
outside faces of the cofferdam.
3. In case of single-walled cofferdams, sheeting should be connected through V-shaped
notches and filled with clay puddle.
4. Cracks or fine joints or nail holes in the sheet piles should be closed using bitumen or
cement mortar.
5. If a lot of leakages is taking place and no measures stated above have been to
control it, the water face of the cofferdam may be completely covered with canvass
coated with tar or tarpaulin.
6. In case of double-walled cofferdams leakage is generally because of insufficient
compaction of the filling material. In this case, measures to control seepage through
filling material should be adopted.
7. Another method may be a box filled with the mixture of ashes and sawdust held near
the leaking joints. Leaking water carries these contents into the joints and thus helps
check the leakage to some extent.
8. Sufficient grease applied at interlocks of sheet piles also helps check leakage of
water.

COMPONENTS OF ARCH | PARTS OF ARCH

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ARCH:
Arch is a mechanical arrangement of wedge-shaped blocks of stones or bricks mutually
supporting each other and supported at the end by piers or abutments. In common with
lintels, the function of an arch is to carry the weight of the structure above the opening.

The different parts of an arch are described below:

1. ABUTMENT OR PIER:
It is the part of wall or pier on which the arch rests.

2. ARCH RING:
It is a course of stones or bricks having a curve similar to that of the arch.

3. INTRADOS OR SOFFIT:
It is the under-surface of an arch.
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4. EXTRADOS:
It is the outer surface of an arch or the outer curve of the arch ring.

5. VOUSSOIRS OR ARCH BLOCK:

The wedge-shaped units forming the arch are known as voussoirs or arch stones or
arch block.

6. SPRINGING STONE:
Springing stone or springer is the first voussoirs at springing level on either side of the
arch.

7. SPRINGING LINE:
Springing line is an imaginary line joining two springing points.

8. CROWN:
Crown is the highest point of the extrados or it is the highest part of the arch.

9. KEY-STONE:
It is the highest central wedge-shaped block of an arch.

10. SKEW-BACK:
It is the surface of the abutment on which the arch rests.

11. SPAN:
Span is the clear horizontal distance between supports.

12. RISE:
Rise is the vertical distance between the springing line and the highest point on the
intrados.

13. SPRINGING POINT:

Springing points are the points at extremities of the intrados.

14. DEPTH OF ARCH:

The depth of the arch is the perpendicular distance between the intrados and the
extrados.

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15. HAUNCH:
Haunch of the arch is the portion of the arch situated centrally between the key and
skew backs.

16. SPANDRIL:
Spandril is the triangular walling enclosed by the extrados of the arch, a horizontal line
from the crown of the arch and a perpendicular line from the springing of the outer
curves.

GYPSUM PLASTER (PLASTER OF PARIS) – ADVANTAGES &

DISADVANTAGES
GYPSUM PLASTER (PLASTER OF PARIS):

Gypsum plaster, also known as plaster of paris obtained from gypsum, which occurs in
form of natural rocks. Gypsum consists of one part of calcium sulphate and two parts of
chemically combined water of crystallization.
When gypsum is heated at a certain temperature, water of crystallization is driven off
and the powdery product left is called plaster of paris. As soon as water is added to the
plaster of paris, it sets immediately without giving time for mixing and application.
When plaster of paris is to be used for plastering the surfaces, its setting time will have
to be prolonged which can be done by adding certain salts to it. Addition of some burnt
ash and fine sand prolong its setting time. When used for plastering, the setting time of
the mortar of plaster of paris and sand is normally 5 minutes. Hence it has to be used
very briskly so as to enable its application to the surface before it sets.
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Generally dry mix of paris plaster with sand is prepared on an impervious platform.
Small quantity of mix is taken in pans and carried to masons. The mason will add water
to the dry mix only when it is to be used. This plaster is a very good plaster and gives
very smooth finishing. Since it is slightly soluble in water, it cannot be used for externally
exposed surfaces.
When raw gypsum is heated from 160 to 170 about 15 water of crystallization is driven
off and resulting product is known as hemihydrate calcium sulphate. Hemihydrate is
also known as first settle plaster which is actually plaster of paris. The term hemihydrate
gypsum plaster is used to indicate plaster of paris with retarders mixed with it.
On further heating to about 200C entire water content of crystallization is driven off and
the resulting product is known as gypsum anhydrite or hard burnt plaster. The setting
time of gypsum anhydrite is quite large and requires accelerators to be added to shorten
its setting time. Anhydrous gypsum plaster indicates gypsum anhydrite added with
accelerators.

ADVANTAGES OF GYPSUM PLASTER:

1. It is very good fire resistant and hence a very good heat insulating material. It can
successfully protect steel beams, columns, and timber from high temperature.
2. There is no shrinkage while setting and hence it does not develop cracks on heating
or setting.
3. It is used for ornamental works like boards and blocks. Gypsum plaster boards are
very popularly used for ceilings, internal linings of walls and partition walls. Gypsum
plaster boards are very cheap, light in weight, fireproof and easy to work.
4. It does not require curing like conventional plaster which saves water and time during
construction.
5. It has good adhesion on fibrous materials.
6. It gives a very good smooth finishing with perfect right angle corners.
7. It is easy to apply.

DISADVANTAGES OF GYPSUM PLASTER:

1. Gypsum plaster cannot be used in external surfaces as it is slightly soluble in water.
2. It is costly compared to conventional plaster.
3. Storing of gypsum plaster is much more difficult.

FOUNDATION ON SLOPING SITE

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FOUNDATION ON SLOPING SITE:

When structure is to be constructed on sloping ground, it becomes uneconomical to
provide foundation of the whole of the structure at the same level.

The work can be economized by providing stepped foundation. In stepped foundation

excavation of the foundation trench is done in steps. The depth of each step in
excavation should not be more than the thickness of the concrete bed block to be
provided under the foundation. The depth of each step should be multiple of even
number of masonry courses.
The concrete beds meeting at the step should lap for length equal to the thickness of
the concrete bed or twice the depth of the step, whichever is greater. At no point, the
depth of the foundation should be less than 80 cm. This is essential from point of view
of protecting the foundation from weathering effects.
If the bottom of different walls of the same structure happens to be at different levels
following I.S.I recommendations should be adhered to:
1. Depth at no point should be less than 1 m, in case foundation is located in soils and
0.6 m if it is located in rocks.
2. Imaginary line joining upper surfaces of adjacent steps at step points should not have
slope steeper than 2:1 (i.e two horizontal: one vertical).

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PRECAUTIONS TO CONSTRUCT NEW FOUNDATION NEAR OLD

STRUCTURES

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CONSTRUCTION OF NEW FOUNDATION NEAR OLD

STRUCTURES:
When new foundations are to be constructed near old existing structures, the stability of
the existing structures is likely to be affected due to vibrations and undermining effects.
The depth of new foundations and its distance from the old structure control the extent
of harmful effect which may occur to the old structure. In order to eliminate the chances
of any damage to the old structure, following precautions should be taken:
1. The clear horizontal distance between adjacent faces of old and new foundations
should be at least to the larger of the widths of foundations.
2. If the foundation of new structure is to be laid touching the old structure, its
foundation should not be carried to the depth greater than the depth of old foundation.
If however, new foundation has to be carried for large depth, the old structure should be
adequately protected by giving lateral support to it and also by giving suitable support of
the foundation.
3. For deciding the depth of new foundation up to which it can be excavated without
affecting the old structure, draw an inclined line from outer bottom-most edge of old
foundation.
The depth of new foundation should not cut this line. Inclination of this line with
horizontal for soft soils is kept 30° and for average soils 45°.

MACHINE FOUNDATION
MACHINE FOUNDATION:
Foundation provided below the superstructure of vibrating and rotating machine for
installation, is known as machine foundation. It essentially consists of a mass of
concrete. Design of machine foundation involves consideration of static load and kinetic
forces.
The load of the machine is the static load which is of minor importance in the design of
a machine foundation. The moving parts of the machine develop inertia forces which
are the major forces to be considered in its design. The kinetic or inertia forces are
periodic and vibratory in nature, the magnitude of which depends on the type of
machine. The general principles of machine design are enumerated as follows:
1. Machine foundations should be isolated from the adjoining parts of the building by
leaving a gap around it to avoid the transmission of vibrations. The gap is filled with
suitable insulator or dampers.
2. The foundation should be stiff and rigid to avoid possibilities of tilt in it.

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3. In static state, the resultant of forces acting on machine foundation should pass
through the c.g of the contact area of the base.
4. The weight of the foundation block should be adequate. It should be able to absorb
vibrations and resist resonance between adjoining soil and the machine. The weight of
the foundation block may be assumed roughly 2.5 times the weight of the machine.
5. A vibration absorbing medium is introduced between bottom of the foundation block
and the floor on which it is resting. This medium may be in form of a rubber or leather
gasket, layer of sawdust etc. Sometimes, springs are used below the machine itself to
prevent the development of the vibrations. It is advised that relevant data of machine
should be obtained from the manufacturer before any design of foundation is
undertaken.

TYPES OF MACHINE FOUNDATION:

1. Block Type Machine Foundation:

2. Box Or Caisson Type Machine Foundation:

3. Wall Type:

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4. Framed Type:

5. Non-Rigid or Flexible Type:

SITE LAYOUT OR JOB LAYOUT AT BUILDING SITE

SITE LAYOUT OR JOB LAYOUT AT BUILDING SITE:
Site layout is the plan of the construction site. It shows the area and the exact location
for placing the resources required in the work. It also indicates the place for offices,
godowns, workshops, accommodation etc. Besides this, it shows the existing
relationship of the site with its surrounding in respect of communication, approaches
and existing facilities.
A systematic and scientifically prepared site layout is necessary to
1. Get a continuous supply of materials in sufficient amount.
2. Have an easy access to material and to check its wastage and deterioration.

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3. Decrease the number of plants and reduce the movement of heavy equipment.
4. Avoid confusion and reduce accidents.
5. Have a tidy outlook to facilitate the inspection of the materials.

The layout satisfying maximum of these conditions increases efficiency and thus
productivity. Such a layout is known as optimum layout. The site layout depends very
largely on the following factors.
1. Location of the site.
2. Availability of space.
3. Access to the site.
4. Material bulk.
5. Type of equipment to be used.
6. Ground conditions.

PRINCIPLES OF JOB LAYOUT:

The following are the principles of job layout. They promote economy, efficiency tidiness
and safety.

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1. The site should have preferably two openings, one for entry and the other for exist. It
promotes flow of traffic. If there is only one gate then it is preferable to provide a cross-
over near the gate.
2. The general office should be located near the main gate. This avoids confusion at
construction site.
3. The godown should be located just behind the general office. It facilitates delivery of
the material to be stored in it. It also permits a closer supervision of the stores.
4. Temporary roads may be constructed around the operation area. It promotes the flow
of material and movement of equipment. In fact, if such roads are required to be
constructed in the project, it is better to construct them first so that these can be used
during the construction proper.
5. The workshops for joiner, fitter, electrician etc should be decided and located by
balancing easy and short access routes.
6. Staff accommodation should be away from noise. It should be concentrated in one
area to promote communication and reduce the cost of facilities and services.
7. The existing services should be used to the maximum extent.

BULK DENSITY OF BRICKS

BULK DENSITY OF BRICKS:
Objective:
To determine the bulk density of bricks.
Equipment & Apparatus For Test:
1. Oven (300°C)
2. Scale for measuring purpose.
3. Balance (0-10 kg).
Test Procedure:
1. Put a brick in the ventilated oven and dry it at a temperature of 105° – 115° C till it
achieves appreciable constant mass.
2. Then cool it in room temperature and record its mass as M.
3. After that, measure the dimension of the brick and calculate its volume.
Calculation:
The bulk density of brick is calculated by the following formula:
Bulk Density = Mass (M) / Volume (V)
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Report:
Bulk density is reported to the closest decimal place.
Safety And Precautions During Test:
1. Wear hand gloves to remove the container of brick after switching off the oven.
2. Check the electric supply carefully.
3. Clean the container thoroughly and dry it for few minutes before testing.
4. Air should not enter from outside while using the balance.

HOW TO CHECK QUALITY OF CEMENT AT SITE

HOW TO CHECK QUALITY OF CEMENT AT SITE:
Cement is one of the most important materials used in construction. The strength of a
structure depends upon several factors, cement quality is one of them. To achieve the
desired strength of concrete and to increase the longevity of structure good quality
cement should always be used.

So it is important to check the quality of cement before using. In our previous article, we
have already discussed the different types of cement and their uses in
construction.Today we will discuss how to check the quality of cement at site.
To check the quality of cement we need to pass some easy tests which are described
below.

1. DATE OF PACKING:
The strength of cement decreases with time. First of all, check the manufacturing date
in the bag before using. Generally, cement should be used before 90 days from the
manufacturing date. The percentage of strength loss of cement is given in the below
table.

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2. CEMENT COLOR:
The cement should be uniform in color. Good quality cement should have gray color
with greenish shade.

3. CHECK FOR LUMPS:

No lumps should be present in the cement. Lumps are formed due to absorption of
moisture from the climate.

4. RUBBING TEST:
Cement should feel smooth while rubbing in between fingers. If it gives a rough feeling
that means cement is mixed with sand.

5 TEMPERATURE TEST:
Simply insert your hand into the cement bag, it should give cool feeling if its quality is
good. Otherwise, you may feel warm because of hydration reaction.

6. FLOAT TEST:
Take some amount of cement and throw it in water. The cement should float for
sometimes before it sinks in the water.

7. SETTING TEST:
Make a thick cement paste with water and immerse it in water for 24 hours. It should be
set and should not develop cracks.

8. STRENGTH TEST:
Prepare a cement block of 25 mm x 25 mm and 200 mm in length. Now submerge it in
water for 7 days. Now place it on supports 15 cm apart and load it with 34 kg weight.
Block made from good cement will not show any signs of failure.

WHAT IS SUNK SLAB

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SUNK SLAB:

Sunk slabs are slabs which are cast at a certain depth (200 or 300 mm or any other
depending on design) below normal floor level. This extra depth is used for placing
pipes and utility ducts. And then space is filled with sand or other light weight materials
until the normal floor level.

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METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF A SUNK SLAB:

1. The concrete of the R.C.C. (floor and sunken slab) should be mixed with a
waterproofing material to get a denser, watertight concrete.
2. Then cement and waterproofing material should be diluted in water and splashed
onto the RCC sunken slab. Over that, a layer of plaster should be provided using a
mortar plasticizer with the cement mortar.
3. Brick laying of walls and plastering (prior to tiling) of the walls and floor should be
done with cement mortar mixed with a mortar plasticizer.
4. Tile fixing for the floor and walls tiles should be done with non-shrink, waterproof tile
adhesives to make the tiled area waterproof.
5. Sanitary pipe joints should be sealed with sealants specially manufactured for sealing
sanitary joints firmly so that no water can leak through.

USES OF SUNK SLAB:

Sunk slabs can be used in the following locations :
1. Bath room/toilet/latrine /wash area floor: The floor trap and the drainage lines can be
taken within the sunk portion
2. Porch slab: here the beams are inverted so that the beams do not protrude down side
and a plain surface is available.
3. Mid Landing on a staircase: The end beam is designed as an inverted beam so that
there is adequate head room available below the landing.

WHEN AND WHERE TO USE PILE FOUNDATION

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Pile foundations are generally adopted in the following situations:

1. The sub-soil water table is very high which can easily affect other foundations.
2. Heavy and uniform load is coming to the soil from the structure.
3. Where raft or grillage foundations are either very costly or cannot be adopted due to
local difficulties.
4. When timbering of the excavation trenches is not possible.
5. When it is impossible to maintain the foundation trenches in dry condition by pumping
due to heavy inflow of seepage or capillary water.
6. When the underneath soil is waterlogged and compressive. Hard firm strata are
situated at a deeper depth.
7. When the structure is situated on or near sea-shore or river bed and foundations are
liable to be scoured due to the action of water.
8. Pile foundations can be used in the construction of piers, docks, or other marine
structures as fender piles.
10. Pile foundation can also be used as anchors.

VARIOUS TYPES OF WALLS

TYPES OF WALLS:
The various types of walls are described below:

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1. LOAD BEARING WALL:

A wall designed to carry on imposed vertical load in addition to its own weight together
with any load is known as load bearing wall.

2. PARTITION WALL:
It is an interior non-load bearing wall. Its height may be one storey or part of one storey.
Its purpose is to divide the larger space into smaller spaces.

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3. PANEL WALL:
It is an exterior non-load bearing wall in framed construction. It remains totally
supported at each storey but subjected to lateral loads.

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4. CAVITY WALL:
A wall consists of two leaves, each leaf being built of masonry units and separated by a
cavity and tied together with metal ties or bonding units to ensure that the two leaves
act as one structural unit. The space between the leaves in either left as continuous
cavity or filled with non-load bearing insulating and water proofing material.

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5. FACED WALL:
It is a wall in which the facing and backing of two different materials are bonded
together to ensure common action under load.

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6. VENEERED WALL:
It is a wall in which the facing is attached to the backing but not so bonded as to result
in a common action under load.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 43 GRADE AND 53 GRADE CEMENT

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 43 GRADE AND 53 GRADE CEMENT:
There are different types of cement used in construction works. Ordinary portland
cement is most widely used cement among them. Portland cement is graded according
to their strength where the grade denotes the compression strength of concrete that will
achieve after setting of 28 days in MPa (Mega Pascals) or in N/mm2.

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COMPRESSION STRENGTH:
The compression strength of 43 grade cement is 43 MPa after 28 days of setting and
the compression strength of 53 grade cement is 53 MPa after 28 days of setting.

INITIAL STRENGTH:
53 graded cement is mostly used in fast forward construction where initial strength
needs to be achieved quickly.
53 grade cement has faster setting compared to 43 grade cement. Compression
strength of 53 grade cement after 7 days is 27 MPa but 43 grade cement gets 23 MPa
after 7 days.

USES AND APPLICATION:

As 53 grade cement has a faster setting, it is used where earlier strength development
is required such as reinforced concrete structures, cement grouts, prestressed concrete
structures of higher grades, instant plugging mortars etc.
43 grade cement is used in non-RCC structures, plastering works, pathways etc where
initial setting time is not a criteria.

PRICES:
Well, the prices of 43 and 53 grade cement vary from different brand to brand. Normally
53 grade cement is 3-4% costlier than 43 grade cement.

STRENGTH OF BRICK MASONRY

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STRENGTH OF BRICK MASONRY:

The strength of brick masonry mainly depends on the strength of bricks that are used in
the construction. The strength of bricks depends on the soil used to make the bricks,
method and making process, burning of bricks. Since the nature of the soil varies from
region to region, the average strength of bricks also varies from region to region.
The permissible compressive stress of brick masonry depend upon several factors such
as,
1. Type of bricks (1st class, 2nd class, 3rd class)
2. Strength of bricks
3. Size and shape of the masonry construction.
4. Mix of mortar.
5. uniformity of bricks
6. Workmanship.
7. The method adopted for laying bricks.
There are some useful checklists which can be applied to increase the strength of brick
masonry.
1 Visual check – The bricks to be used should be good quality, burnt well with uniform
shape, size, and color.

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2 A metallic ringing sound should be produced when striking two bricks with each other.
3 A good quality brick will not break if dropped from one meter height.
4 A good brick should not absorb water more than 20% (By its weight) while submerged
in water for 24 hours.

WHICH CEMENT IS BETTER – PPC OR OPC?

WHICH CEMENT IS BETTER – PPC OR OPC?
Well, Both types of cement are good in their own field of construction. The basic
comparison of opc and ppc is described below.

OPC:
OPC or ordinary portland cement is the basic type of cement which is used in all type of
construction work. Basic properties of this cement are listed below:
1. This type of cement has adhesive and cohesive properties, therefore it forms a good
bond with other materials.
2. This cement is comparatively finer and particles are very small.
3. It has low resistance to sulfate reaction.
4. This cement produces greater heat of hydration, therefore more concentrated curing
is required.
5. The rate of gaining strength, drying shrinkage, and resistance to cracking of opc is
moderate.
6. Mainly used in RCC buildings, pavements, culverts, tanks and all other structures
where the heat of hydration will not cause any defect.

PPC:
PPC means portland pozzolana cement. This cement is produced either by uniformly
blending portland cement and fine pozzolana or by grinding portland cement clinker and
pozzolana, The basic properties of this cement are given below:
1. This cement has lower heat of hydration and requires normal curing.
2. Initial strength is low but final strength is similar to opc33.
3. This cement has good resistance to chemical agencies.
4. It can also resist attack by sea water better than opc.
5. The rate of strength development is lower than opc.
6 This cement has same 7 days compressive value as opc.
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7. This cement is suitable for hydraulic works, construction in sea water and for mass
concrete works.

BASIC CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF RCC COLUMN

BASIC CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF RCC COLUMN:
RCC column is a vertical structural member which transfers loads from beam and slab
directly to the underneath soil. That means an entire building stands on columns. Most
of the building failure occurs not only for design fault but also for poor construction
practices. Therefore it is essential to know the construction procedure of RCC column
appropriately. In this article, I will discuss the basic construction process of RCC
column.
RCC columns are mainly constructed in four different stages, which are
1. Column Layout Work.
2. Column Reinforcement Work.
3. Column Formwork and
4. Pouring Concrete,

1. COLUMN LAYOUT WORK:

This is the first step of column construction. In this step, the location of columns is
decided practically in the field. It is done by laying rope as per the grids are shown in the
drawing and afterward, the location of columns are marked.

2. COLUMN REINFORCEMENT WORK:

When marking of column location is done, the reinforcement of columns are placed
according to the structural drawing.
For example, C1-12#16 mmØ and stirrup-10 mmØ@4″c/c.
This means, the column C1 will have 12 numbers of 16 mm diameter bars as the
vertical bar and 10 mm diameter steel should be placed 4 inch center to center spacing
as the stirrup.
Lets look for another example, C2-8#20 mmØ +10#16 mmØ and stirrup – 10 mmØ
@(4″+6″)c/c
So the column will have 8 numbers of 20 mm dia bar and 10 numbers of 16 mm dia bar
for vertical reinforcement and (4″+6″) c/c means the middle half portion of clear height of
column will have 6″ center to center spacing of stirrups and the upper one-fourth as well
as bottom one-fourth height of the columns clear height will hold stirrups at 4″ center to
center spacing.

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Additional notes such as lap length for column steel of different diameter etc will be
given in the sheet of structural drawing.

RCCColumns Reinforcement Layout

3. COLUMN FORMWORK:
The floor height is normally kept at 10 feet. If the slab contains beam, then concrete has
to be poured upto the beam bottom level. For example, if the beam height is given in the
drawing is 1′-6″, the casting height of column and formwork will be 8′-6″. But as we know
that dropping concrete more than 5 feet height is not allowed because it will cause
segregation, we should create formwork within 5 feet height. When the first part will be
cast completely, the rest part should be started.

4. POURING CONCRETE INTO COLUMN:

Concreting of column is done in two different methods
1. Manually
2. Using machine or pump.

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Manual Concrete Pouring

Concreting Of Column Using Pump

POINTS TO BE FOLLOWED DURING AND AFTER

CONCRETING:
1. Use machine mix concrete for less amount of concrete, and ready-mix concrete for
larger amount of concrete.
2. Approval of placing concrete whether by manually or by pump should be taken from
the client.
3. Concrete should be poured upto slab bottom and the remaining column should be
concreted during beam and slab concreting.
4. Mechanical vibratior must be used for full compaction of the column, but remember
excess vibration can create segregation of the concrete. So each layer should be
compacted properly.
5. The target slump is 160 mm.
6. Concrete should not be poured from more than 1.5 m height.
7. Always avoid construction joints in the column.
8. Covers should be given properly as per the structural drawing.
9. During concreting pouring, the temperature should be below 30º.
10. Check verticality and horizontally of the column after pouring and vibrating the
concrete.

TYPES OF POINTING

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TYPES OF POINTING:
The choice of particular type of pointing depends upon the type of masonry, nature of
the structure and the nature of the finish desired. The various types of pointing
commonly used are described below:
1. Flush Pointing.
2. Cut Or Weathered Or Struck Pointing.
3. Keyed Or Grooved Pointing.
4. V-grooved Pointing.
5. Tuck Pointing.
6. Beaded Pointing.

1. FLUSH POINTING:
In this type of pointing, the mortar is pressed into the raked joints and finished off flush
with the edges of the bricks or stones, so as to give a smooth appearance. The edges
are then nearly trimmed with a trowel and straight edge. This is the simplest type of
pointing and is extensively used in work and stone masonry face work.

2. CUT OR WEATHERED OR STRUCK POINTING:

In this type of pointing, the mortar is first pressed into raked joints. While the mortar is
still green, the top of the horizontal joints is neatly pressed back by 3 to 6 mm with the
pointing tool. Thus the joint is finished sloping from the top of the joint to its bottom.

3. KEYED OR GROOVED POINTING:

In this type of pointing, the mortar is pressed into the raked joints and finished off flush
with the face of the wall. While the pressed mortar is still green, a groove is formed by
running the bent end of a small steel rod (6 mm in the diameter) straight along the
center line of the joints. The vertical joints are also finished in the same manner.

4. V-GROOVED POINTING:
This type of pointing is made similar to keyed or grooved pointing by suitably shaping
the end of the steel rod to be used for forming the groove.

5. TUCK POINTING:
In this type of pointing, the mortar is first pressed in the raked joints and after it is
finished flush with the face of the wall. While the pressed mortar is still green, the top
and bottom edges of the joints are cut parallel so as to have a uniformly raised band
about 6 mm high and 10 mm in width.

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6. BEADED POINTING:
In this type of pointing, the mortar is pressed in the raked joints and finished off flush
with the face of the wall. While the pressed mortar is still green, a steel rod having its
end suitable shaped is run straight along the center line of the joints to form the
beading.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLASTERING AND POINTING

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLASTERING AND POINTING:
Plastering and pointing are two common terms in building construction. However, both
are not same. The difference between plastering and pointing are as following:
1. The main object of plastering is to protect the exposed surface of the masonry. That’s
why mortar is applied to the total surface of the masonry. But in pointing only joints are
properly filled with mortar.
2. Cement, sand, lime mortar is used in plastering. But only cement mortar is used in
pointing.
3. Plastering is done both the inside and outside surfaces. Pointing is done only on the
outside parts.
4. Larger amount of materials is required in plastering work. On the other hand, less
amount of material is required in pointing.
5 After plastering the surface becomes smooth, and plain. It gives a better appearance
to the structure. But After pointing the surface do not becaome plain as plastering.

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6. After plastering the defects of masonry are not visible, but the defects of masonry can
be seen in case of pointing.
7. Plastering can be done in all types of brick surface. Pointing is only suitable for first
class bricks.

Plastering

Pointing

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METHOD AND PERIOD OF REMOVING FORMWORK

METHOD AND PERIOD OF REMOVING FORMWORK:
The formwork should be constructed in such a manner that it is possible to remove the
different components in the following order of sequence:
1. Shuttering forming vertical faces of walls, beams and columns sides (which bear no
loads but are used only to retain the concrete) should be removed first.
2. Shuttering forming soffit to slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should
be removed in the end.
Duration of time up to which the formwork should be kept in place depends upon many
factors such as type of cement used, shape and position of the member (whether the
member is vertical, horizontal or inclined) loads to be carried by the members and the
temperature of the air. In general, rapid hardening cement, warm weather, and light
loading conditions allow early removal of formwork.
Early release of formwork permits its reuse in other areas and this results in economy
by way of optimum utilization of material and fast construction. At the same time,
premature removal of formwork may prove to be dangerous and should not be allowed.
The formwork should, under no circumstances, be allowed to be removed until the
concrete reaches a strength of at least twice the stress to which the concrete may be
subjected to at the time of removal of formwork.
In normal conditions (where the air temperature is above 20°C and where ordinary
Portland cement is used) the formwork may be struck or removed after the expiry of the
period indicated against respective members in the below table.

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PERIOD FOR FORMWORK REMOVAL:

Note:
For rapid hardening cement 3/7th of the periods given in the above table will be
sufficient in all cases except vertical sides of slabs, beams, and columns which should
be retained for at least one day.

All formwork should be eased gradually and carefully in order to prevent the load being
suddenly transferred to concrete. The forms can be easily stripped by loosening the
double edges. Sometimes the swelling of timber may result in shuttering getting jammed
at places. In such situation, a small crowbar can be used to strike off the shuttering. In
Case of cantilever slabs and beams, the centering should be removed only after
necessary construction to provide proper counterweight has been carried out and the
same has attained sufficient strength.

HOW TO BUILD STRONG FOUNDATION FOR STRUCTURES

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HOW TO BUILD STRONG FOUNDATION FOR STRUCTURES:

Foundation is one of the most important parts of a structure because it transfers loads
of the structure to the underneath soil. That means the whole structure stands on the
foundation. So we need to build a strong foundation to support the structural loads
adequately. Here are some useful construction tips which should be followed in order to
build a strong foundation.
1.The soil on which the structure is to be constructed should be strong and the
foundation should be continuous.
2. A dry base ( soil under the foundation) should be provided to avoid liquefaction and
sinking of structure during earthquake.
3. There are different factors which can affect the depth of the foundation such as,
ground water table, bearing capacity of soil, excavation allowance, shrinkage and
swelling due to seasonal changes, depth of frost penetration etc. So considering these
factors the minimum depth of foundation should be 1.5 m.
4. Only broken stones should be used in the construction of foundation, round and
unbroken stones should be avoided.
5. To join the stones properly, sufficient mortar should be used and if required,
reinforcement can also be used to increase the overall strength of the structure.
6. The width of footings for one and half brick wall should be 1 m and for one brick wall
75 cm.

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DEWATERING
WHAT IS DEWATERING?

Dewatering
The process of removing water from an excavation is known as dewatering. In this
process, the water is drained outside by pumping from the location.
The main purpose of dewatering is to provide a dry base for the foundation by lowering
the ground water table of a given location. Dewatering is an useful method for dealing
with running sand, construction as well as repairing of dams, sewers, basement,
building, tunnel etc.

METHODS OF DEWATERING:
There are generally four methods of dewatering which are listed below:
1 Well point method.
2. Eductor wells.
3. Open sump pumping and.
3. Deep Wellpoint method.

PRECAUTIONS FOR DEWATERING:

1. The water should not be pumped directly into slopes.
2. Wooded buffer should be used in dewatering, if possible.

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3. Dewatering should be done under special supervision, if any signs of erosion or

instability found, stop dewatering instantly.
4. Channels to be used on dewatering must be stable and protected with grass or
vegetation.
5. Always avoid dewatering under heavy rains.
6. Water contaminated with oil, grease, chemical products should not be discharged
directly. In such cases, an oil/water separator can be used.
7. Check and understand the water table condition of the location, because the
underground water may be situated near the surface so the plan might not work.

DROPPING WEIGHT METHOD

DROPPING WEIGHT METHOD:
In dropping weight method, a known weight is dropped from a height on the bottom
surface of the foundation trench and depth of the impression made on the soil is noted.
Bearing capacity of the soil is then calculated as below:

Let,
R = Ultimate resistance offered by the soil.
h = Height from the trench bottom, from where weight is dropped
d = Depth of impression made by the falling weight.
A = Cross-sectional area of the falling weight coming in contact with the soil.
W = Weight of the falling weight.
Energy lost in penetration is equal to the potential energy of the falling weight.
Wh = R x d
R = Wh/d
Ultimate resistance of the soil/Unit area = R/A
If f is the factor of safety, the safe bearing capacity of the soil per unit area is equal to R
/Axf

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This method of evaluating the safe bearing capacity of the soil is an approximate
method, and hence should be used in case of minor structures only or where the
method of slowly applying load is impracticable.

CONSTRUCTION OF FORMWORK
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMWORK:
The construction of formwork normally involves the followings operations.
1. Propping and Centering.
2. Shuttering.
3. Provision of camber.
4. Cleaning and surface treatment.

1. PROPPING AND CENTERING:

The props used for centering may be of steel, timber posts or bullies. Pillars made up of
brick masonry in mud mortar are also sometimes used as props. In case wooden bullies
are used as props, they should rest squarely on wooden sole plates laid either on groud
or in brick masonry pillars in mud mortar. The wooden plate should have area of at least
0.1 sq.m and it should be 40 mm in thickness. Double wedges are essentially provided
between the sole plates and the timber props with a view to permit accurate adjustment
of the shuttering prior to concreting operation and to allow easy removal of shuttering
afterward.
In case brick masonry pillars are used at props, the wooden sole plates are provided at
the top of the pillars, and the double wedges are inserted between the sole plates and
the bottom of shuttering.

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2. SHUTTERING:
As described earlier the shuttering can be made up of timber planks, or it may be in the
form panel units made either by fixing plywood to timber frames or by welding steel
plates to angle framing. In any case, the shuttering should be constructed in such a
manner that the joints should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
Sometimes the architect specifies provision of molding in slab or columns or provision of
chamfers at corners of beams and columns. All such moldings, beveled edges,
chamfers etc required to be formed in the concrete work should be made in the
shuttering itself. Similarly, opening for fan clamps or other fittings should be provided in
the shuttering as per details in the drawing.

3. PROVISION OF CAMBER:
Certain amount of deflection in structure is unavoidable. It is therefore desirable to give
an upward camber in the horizontal members of the concrete structure (especially in
members having long spans) to counteract the effect of deflection. The provision of
desired camber should be made in the formwork itself during erection. Camber for slabs
and beams may be ADOPTEED @ 4 mm per meter span. In case of cantilevers, the
camber at free end should normally be taken @1/50th of the projected length of the
cantilever.

4. SURFACE TREATMENT:
Before laying concrete the formwork should be cleaned of all rubbish particularly the
sawdust shavings and chippings etc. All surfaces of timber shuttering that are to come
in contact with concrete should be well wetted with water. This is necessary to prevent
the chances or dry shuttering absorbing water from the concrete which may cause
warping, swelling and distortion of timber besides resulting in defect of honeycombing in
concrete.
Similarly, steel forms that have been exposed to hot weather should be cooled by
watering before laying concrete.
In addition, all surfaces of shuttering which are to come in contact with concrete should
be given a good coating of raw linseed oil or soft soap solution or any other material so
as to prevent the concrete getting stuck to the formwork and thus facilitate easy
removal. It is, however, important to note that the coating should not come in contact
with reinforcement. The selected coating should be impermeable and should neither get
flaky on exposure to weather nor stain the surface of concrete.

CANTILEVER BEAM – ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

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WHAT IS CANTILEVER BEAM?

Cantilever beam can be defined as a beam which is supported on only one end. That
means one end is fixed and the other end is exposed beyond the support. The beam
transfers the load to the support where it can manage the moment of force and shear
stress. Moment of force is the tendency of a force to twist or rotate an object. Shear
stress is defined as a stress which is applied parallel to the face of a material.
In other words, the beam carries a specific weight on its open end as a result of the
support on its enclosed end, in addition to prevent breaking down as a result of the
shear stress, the weight would generate on the beam structure. Cantilever construction
allows for overhanging structures without external bracing/support pillars. Cantilever
beams can also be constructed with trusses or slabs.

ADVANTAGES OF CANTILEVER BEAM:

1. Very simple to construct.
2. Only one fixed support is required, support on the opposite side is not required.
3. This types of beams create a negative bending moment, which can help to counteract
a positive bending moment created elsewhere. This is particularly helpful in cantilevers
with a back span where a uniform load on the back span creates positive bending, but a
uniform load on the cantilever creates negative bending
4. The span can be greater than that of a simple beam, because a beam can be added
to the cantilever arms.
5. Because the beam is resting simply on the arms, thermal expansion and ground
movement are fairly simple to sustain.
6. Cantilever beams are very rigid, due to their depth.

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DISADVANTAGES OF CANTILEVER BEAM:

1. Large deflections.
2. Generally results in larger moments.
3. You either need to have a fixed support, or have a back span and check for uplift of
the far support.
4. when the beam is loaded at one end, the moment at the fixed end is higher, if more
load is applied, it can break free from the support.

DEFECTS IN BRICK MASONRY & THEIR REMEDIES

DEFECTS IN BRICK MASONRY:

The most common causes of defects in brick masonry are described below:

1. SULPHATE ATTACK:
Sulphate salts present in brickwork react with alumina content of cement and with
hydraulic lime in the lime mortar causing considerable increase in the volume of mortar.
This, in turn results in chipping and spalling of bricks and formation of cracks in joints
and rendering.

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This defect occurs in situations where the brickwork is exposed like boundary walls,
parapets etc. or where it is likely to be in contact with moisture like manholes, retaining
walls etc.
This defect can be remedied by adopting suitable construction details and choosing
materials in such a way that entry of moisture into the body of brickwork can be
checked.

2. CRYSTALLIZATION OF SALTS FROM BRICKS:

This defect commonly occurs in masonry made out of bricks which contain excessive
soluble salts. When such bricks come in contact with water, the soluble salts get
dissolved and appear in the form of fine whitish crystals on the surface of brickwork.
The phenomenon is also known as efflorescence.
In this defect, the surface of brickwork gets disfigured and presents an ugly look.
Efflorescence can be remedied by brushing and washing the affected surface
repeatedly.

3. CORROSION OF EMBEDDED IRON OR STEEL:

Iron or steel embedded in brickwork gets corroded in the presence of dampness. On
corrosion, the metal expands in volume and tends to crack the brickwork.
This effect can be prevented by encasing the reinforcement or iron member in dense
cement mortar and providing a cover of 15 to 25 mm around the embedded member.

4. SHRINKAGE ON DRYING:
Brickwork normally swells with the absorption of water and subsequently shrinks when
the water evaporates. In the process of shrinkage, it develops cracks in the masonry
joints. If the mortar used in the masonry is lean, the cracks are distributed over a large
number of joints and in case of rich mortar, the cracks are few but wider. Such cracks
do not affect the structural strength of the brickwork and can be easily rectified.
This defect can be prevented by using good quality bricks and by protecting masonry
from moisture penetration.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF T-BEAM

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WHAT IS T-BEAM?
It’s simply a rectangular beam cast monolithically with the slab shaped as T.
The various advantages and disadvantages of T-beam are as following:

ADVANTAGES:
1. Since the beam is cast monolithically with the slab, the flange also takes up the
compressive stresses which mean, it will be more effective in resisting the sagging
moment acting on the beam.
2. Better head room, this is direct outcome of the first point since the depth of the beam
can be considerably reduced.
3. For larger spans, t beams are usually preferred rather than rectangular beam as the
deflection is reduced to a good extent.

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DISADVANTAGES:
1. There is a considerable increase in the shear stress at the junction of the flange and
the web of the beam due to the change in cross section. So casting should be done
very carefully to ensure both are bonded well.
2. Since the beam slab is monolithic (rigid), it becomes very weak in resisting lateral
shear forces. (cracks develops quickly). Hence usually in earthquake prone zones using
t beams for high rise building is reinforced with mechanical stiffeners in the junction.
3. There will be small savings in steel too (not a significant amount though).

FORMWORK FOR BEAMS AND SLABS

FORMWORK FOR BEAMS AND FLOORS:

Formwork for interior and end beam and floors are shown in Fig. Various parts of the
formwork are shown in the same fig. Sizes of various elements and their functions are
given in brief.

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1. Cleats:
Cleats are fixed to the sides of the beams. The size of the cleat is 100 mm x 20 mm or
100 mm x 30 mm.
2. Side forms of the sheathing of the beams are generally 30 mm thick.
3. Joists Or Battens:
Joists support the decking. The size of the joists depends upon the c/c spacing of the
joists and span of the joists. Joists are also known as battens.
4. Ledgers:
Ledgers are horizontal wooden pieces nailed to the cleats. They form the bearing for
joists.
5. Bottom Sheathing:
It should be made 50 mm to 70 mm thick as load is quite heavy over it.
6. Head Tree:
The whole of the beam is supported on a head tree. It is a horizontal beam connected at
top of the vertical post or shore, through inclined cleats or beams.
At the bottom of the vertical posts or shores, a pair or wedges are fixed over sole
pieces. Wedges help in tightening or slightly raising the formwork to develop initial
camber in the formwork. Wedges are withdrawn while stripping the formwork. Formwork
should not be stripped at once, but should be loosened slowly by withdrawing the
wedges slightly in stages.
All the construction joints in beams and floors should be made in the middle third of the
beam.

TYPES OF FOOTINGS USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

TYPES OF FOOTINGS USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:
Footing is one of the most important parts of a structure which transfers loads of a
structure to the underlying soil. The selection of suitable type of footing generally
depends on the following factors:
1. The depth of the soil at which safe bearing strata exists.
2. The type and condition of soil.
3. The type of the superstructure.

TYPES OF FOOTINGS:
The different types of footings used for building construction are described below:

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1. Wall footing/Strip footing.

2. Spread Footings
3. Isolated footings.
4. Stepped footings.
5. Combined footings.
6. Sloped footings.
7. Mat or Raft foundation.
8. Strapped footings
9. Pile foundation.

1. STRIP FOOTING:
It is a component of shallow foundation which distributes the weight of a load bearing
wall across the area of the ground. It is also known as wall footing.

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2. SPREAD FOOTING:
As the name suggests, a spread is given under the base of the foundation so that the
load of the structure is distributed on wide area of the soil in such a way that the safe
bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded.

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3. ISOLATED FOOTINGS:
It is square, circular or individually rectangular slab of uniform thickness, provided under
each column.

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4. STEPPED FOOTINGS:
The main purpose of using stepped footing is to keep the metal columns away from
direct contact with soil to save them from corrosive effect. They are used to carry the
load of metal columns and transmit this load to the below ground.

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5. COMBINED FOOTINGS:
When two or more columns are supported by a footing it is called combined footing.
This footing may be of rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Combined footing is provided
under following situations.

 When columns are close to each other and their individual footings overlap.
 Soil having low bearing capacity and requires more area under individual footing.
 The column end is situated near the property line and the footing can not be
extended.

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6. STRAP FOOTING:
In such footing, the outer and inner column is connected by a strap beam, does not
transfer any load to the soil. The individual footing areas of the columns are so arranged
that the C.G of the combined loads of the two columns pass through the C.G of the two
footing areas. Once this criterion is achieved, the pressure distribution below each
individual footing will be uniform.

7. MAT FOUNDATION:
This foundation covers the entire area under the structure. This foundation has only
RCC slab covering the whole area or slab and beam together. Mat foundation is
adopted when heavy structures are to be constructed on soft made-up ground or
marshy sites with uncertain behavior. Mat foundation is also known as raft foundation.

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8. SLOPED FOOTING:
The footings having sloping top or side faces are known as sloped footings. This type of
footing is useful in the construction of formwork.

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SPECIFICATION OF PLASTERING
SPECIFICATION OF PLASTERING:
The general specification of plastering are as following:

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1. Plastering is the finishing coat which protects the masonry and gives a decent look. It
also enhances the hygienic conditions in the building.
2. The reference marks (BUNDAS) should be made on the wall in 2″ to 3″ diameter
before starting the plastering work.
3. Cement and sand mortar is used in plastering which comprises of different thickness
according to the requirement of site..
4. Plastering should be done with cement mortar ratio of 1:3, 1:4, 1:6 etc. as per the
requirements of the work.
5. The plaster should be in straight line, leveled, plumbed and the joint must be in right
angle.
6. Before starting the plaster, the surface should be raked and properly cleaned by wire
brush and it should be wet for 24 hours.
7. Door and window frames, water supply lines, electric fittings should be fitted
appropriately before starting the plastering work. They should be laid as per the
drawings.
8. All unnecessary cement mortar should be removed from the frames and electric
fittings instantly after finishing the plaster.
9. Curing of the plastered surface should be done properly. It should be cured at least
for 7 days to get desired strength.

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS OF A FIRST CLASS BUILDING

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS OF A FIRST CLASS BUILDING:
The general specifications of a first class building are listed below.

FOUNDATION AND PLINTH:

First class bricks with cement or lime mortar shall be used in the foundation and plinth
of a building.

FILLING:
Local sand shall be used to fill the foundation trenches and plinth.

DPC:
2.5 cm thick cement concrete shall be used in the damp proof course and 5 % pudlo or
other good waterproofing materials shall be used at DPC.

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SUPER STRUCTURE:
Superstructure shall be made of first class brick work in cement mortar. Lintels over
doors and windows shall be of R.C.C.

ROOFING:
The roof shall be of 10 cm R.C.C. slab with an insulation layer and lime concrete
terracing above, supported over R.S.Joist or R.C.C. beam as required. The height of
rooms shall not be less than 3.7m (12 feet).

FLOORING:
Drawing room and dining room floors shall be mosaic (terrazzo). Bathroom and W.C.
floor and dado shall be of mosaic (terrazzo). Floors of bedroom shall be colored and
polished of 2.5cm (1”) cement concrete over 7.5cm (3”) lime concrete. Floors of other
shall be of 2.5cm (1”) cement concrete over 7.5cm (3”) lime concrete polished.

DOORS AND WINDOWS:

Doors and windows frame shall be of seasoned teak wood. Shuttering shall be of 3 cm
teak wood thick paneled and partly glazed as required, with additional wire gauge
shutter. All fitting shall be of brass. Doors and windows shall be varnished or painted
two coats with high-class enamel paints over one coat of priming. Windows shall be
provided with iron grating or grills.

MISCELLANEOUS:
Rainwater pipes of cast iron or of asbestos cement shall be provided and finished with
painting. The building shall be provided with 1st class Sanitary and Water Fittings and
Electrical installations. 1 meter wide 7.5cm thick C.C. 1:3:3 apron shall be provided all
around the building.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SHOULD BE OBSERVED IN BRICK MASONRY

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SHOULD BE OBSERVED IN BRICK
MASONRY:
The points to be observed in supervising brick masonry construction are as following:
1. The bricks to be used should fulfill all the requirements of the specification of the
work. The bricks should be sound, hard, burnt well with uniform color, shape, and size.
2. The bricks should be immersed in fresh water at least for 2 hours before using in
masonry.
3. Do not use broken bricks unless they are essential for making good bonds.

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4. The bricks should be laid on their proper bond. The frog of the bricks should be kept
upward.
5. Brick bats should be avoided.
6. The thickness of the joints should not exceed 13 mm.
7. The masonry walls should be always truly vertical and verticality should be checked
continuously using a plumb bob.
8. Brickwork should be raised uniformly. Any part of the masonry should not be raised
more than 90 cm to the rest of the masonry work.
9. The work should be raked back in successive courses if it is to be constructed later.
10. In masonry work, large voids should not be filled with mortar only. It is
uneconomical.
11. Cement mortar should be used to enclose all the iron fixtures of doors and windows.
12. To achieve easy and adequate bond for plastering and pointing, the facing mortar
joints should be raked for a depth of 13-19 mm when the mortar in the joint is green.
13. The finished brick masonry should be cured at least for 7 days.
14. Any brick masonry wall should not be constructed more than 1.5 meters in a day.
15. In brick masonry piers, buttresses, counterforts etc should be constructed along with
the main walls, maintaining a proper bond between them.
16. Suitable scaffolding should be used to carry out masonry work at higher levels.
The scaffolding should be made by giving one end of horizontal bullies into the new
masonry work and secured to it properly.

TYPES OF DRAWINGS USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

TYPES OF DRAWINGS USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:
Drawings are the most important things we need to start any construction project. There
are different types of drawings for different purposes. In this article, we will discuss
different types of construction drawings (also known as working drawing).
Construction drawings provide detail measurements and clear section of every building
parts. After reviewing, the drawings are justified and modified and finally approved for
construction. The different types of construction drawings are listed below.

1 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING:
This type of drawing provides complete view of a building. It demonstrates the location
of building and all building parts where they will be placed. There are different types of
architectural drawings with different names such as plan, elevation, section etc.
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2 STRUCTURAL DRAWING:
As the name suggests, this type of drawing provides information about structure, like
strength of different structural elements, structural materials, grade, size and placement
of reinforcement etc.

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3 ELECTRICAL DRAWING:
This type of drawings provide the details and location of electrical wiring, fixtures, sub-
station etc. The electrical load calculation is also given in the drawing.

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4 PLUMBING AND SANITARY DRAWINGS:

These drawings give the location of sanitary, piping for water supply system, fixture, and
the process to connect every fixture etc.

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5 FINISHING DRAWING:
This types of drawings contain the details of finishing and appearance of the building
such as marbles, tiles, etc.

POINTS TO BE OBSERVED IN SCAFFOLDING

The following points should be observed in scaffolding:

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1. Standards should be created to rest on hard and rigid ground. If hard and farm
ground is not available, standards may be created on ordinary timber sole plate.
2. Loadings on the scaffolding should not be heavy.
3. The scaffoldings should be tied at appropriate levels of the buildings. To tie the
scaffoldings, horizontal or vertical bullies can be used inside the building and secure
scaffolding to it by tying putlogs through door or window openings. To give lateral
support to the scaffoldings rakers should be used.
4. To enable working at heights, working platforms should be lifted by lengthening the
standards and providing extra ledgers and putlogs.
5. Holes left in the walls should be filled immediately after withdrawing of putlogs.
6. The spacing between standards should be made according to the load to be carried
and section of the standards.
7. Special patented scaffoldings should be used for constructing structures like towers,
domes, chimneys etc.

TYPES OF BUILDINGS

TYPES OF BUILDINGS:
Depending upon the character of occupancy or the type of use, building can be
classified into different categories as follows:

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1. RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS:
These buildings include one or two private dwellings, apartment houses (flats), hotels,
dormitories etc.

2. EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS:
These buildings include any building used for school, college or day care purposes
involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation.

3. INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS:
These buildings include any building or part which is used for medical treatment etc.
Such as Hospitals, nursing homes, orphanages, sanatoria, jails, prisons, mental
hospitals etc.

4. ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS:
These buildings may include any building or part of a building where a group of people
gathers for recreation, amusement, social, religious or such types of purposes such as
theaters, assembly halls, exhibition halls, restaurants, museum, club rooms, auditoria
etc.

5. BUSINESS BUILDINGS:
These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for business
transactions, keeping records of accounts, town halls, city halls, court houses etc.

6. MERCANTILE BUILDINGS:
These shall include those buildings which are used for soap, market, stores, wholesale
or retail.

7. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS:
This types of building mainly used for manufacturing purposes. Here products or
materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled or processed, for
example, gas plants, refineries, mills, dairies etc.

8. STORAGE BUILDINGS:
These buildings are generally used for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares, or
merchandise like warehouses, cold storages, garages, stables, transit sheds etc.

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9. HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS:
These buildings include any building which is used for storage, handling, manufacture
or processing of highly combustible explosive materials or products which are liable to
burn with extreme rapidly which may produce poisonous fumes, building which is used
for storage, handling or manufacturing highly corrosive, toxic, acid or other liquids or
chemicals producing flame, fumes explosive etc.

DIFFERENCE AMONG SCAFFOLDING, SHUTTERING, CENTERING,

STAGGING
SCAFFOLDING:
Scaffolding is a temporary framework having platforms at different level of a structure
which enables the masons/labor for working at the height. They are usually used for
activities such as plastering, painting, brickwork at heights etc. There are various types
of scaffolding:
1. Brick Layer / Single Scaffolding.
2. Mason’s Or Double Scaffolding.
3. Steel Scaffolding.
4. Needle Or Cantilever Scaffolding.
5. Gantries.
6. Bamboo/Wooden Scaffold
3. Suspended Scaffolding.

SHUTTERING/FORMWORK:
Formwork is a temporary structure used as a mold in which fresh concrete are poured
to cast the members of the structure at the site. It is also known as falsework or

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shuttering. In the context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the shuttering
molds for example column sides, beam sides, slab side, wall side etc.

So, By their definitions, scaffolds are for supporting labor and materials and act as
working platforms. Formwork (Shuttering) acts as molds for pouring concrete.

CENTERING:
Part of the formwork which supports the horizontal surface is called centering for
example slab bottom, beam bottom etc.

STAGING:
That portion which supports centering & shuttering is called Staging. This can be:

1. Wooden Ballies

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2. Pipes/Props/Jacks
3. H frames
4. Space frames using Coupler / Cup-Lock system

SPECIAL MATERIALS USED IN PLASTERING

SPECIAL MATERIALS USED IN PLASTERING:

1. PLASTER OF PARIS:
It is also known as calcium sulfate plaster and obtained by heating gypsum. When water
is added to the plaster of paris it forms a plastic mass, which sets quickly.
Plaster of paris adheres well to gypsum, wood, metal lath, masonry or other plastering
surfaces. The setting time of the plaster of Paris can be controlled by the addition of
certain salts. It is mostly used in combination with ordinary lime for making good small
defects in plastered surfaces. Since gypsum is slightly soluble in water, plaster of paris
is not used for external works.

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2. KEENE’S CEMENT:
This is hardest and densest form of gypsum plaster. It is obtained by a calcining
selected form of gypsum. It is pure white in color and takes a high glass-like polish. It is
used for highly decorative plastering work and ornamental work. It is used alone for an
extra hard finish or it is mixed with lime putty for a medium hard finish.

3. BARIUM PLASTER:
This is essentially made from barium sulfate and is applied in the form of final coat to
serve as a protection around X-ray rooms.

4. ACOUSTICAL PLASTER:
This is gypsum mixture, which is employed as a final coat to serve the purpose of a
sound-repellent finish. The minute passages in the form of tiny openings in the plaster
coat, absorb sound. The plaster is usually applied in two coats, each 6 mm in thickness.
The surface must be finished uniformly in a manner that promotes porosity. Wooden
floats preferred to a steel trowel in finishing.
Other Plastering Materials:
1. Waterproof plaster.
2. Stucco plaster.
3. Martin’s cement.
4. Parian cement.
5. Sirapite.
6. Scagliola.
7. Asbestos marble plaster.
8. Snowcrete and colorcrete cement.

WATERPROOF CEMENT

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WATERPROOF CEMENT:

Waterproof cement is produced by mixing a small percentage of metal stearates (Al,

Ca, etc) with ordinary cement, during grinding stage.
Concrete made with such a cement is more resistant to water penetration than the
concrete of ordinary cement.
Due to having resistance power to water penetration, this cement is mainly used in
water retaining structure construction such as reservoirs, water tanks, dams, retaining
walls, bridge pier, swimming pools etc. This cement is also more resistant to the
corrosive action of acids, alkalies etc. which are usually present in the industrial water.

GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF R.C.C STRUCTURE

GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF R.C.C STRUCTURE:
An efficient design of a reinforced concrete structure requires that the materials be
economically selected, proportioned and arranged to carry the required loads without
developing stresses which are in excess of the allowable working stresses. Due
consideration should be given to the effect of continuity on the distribution of bending
moments and shears due to monolithic construction. Correct estimation of all types of
loads should be made before taking up the design proper. The design requirements
may be summarized into the following steps:

1. To decide suitable arrangement of beams, columns, foundations etc. for the structure
on the layout plan.
2. To determine all types of loads and forces to which the structure is likely to be
subjected to.
3. To analyze the structure and to calculate, stresses, moments and shears etc. in the
members.

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4. To work out safe section and area of steel for different members.
5. To provide the calculated area for tensile, compressive, shear or temperature
reinforcement in right positions so as to ensure that the stresses remain within
permissible limits.
6. To provide sufficient anchorage for all reinforcement, so that the anchorage and bond
requirements are fully met.

TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MASONRY WORKS

The common terms used in masonry works are listed below

1. HEADER:
It is a full brick or stone which is laid with its length perpendicular to the face of the wall.

2. STRETCHER:
It is a full brick or stone in which is laid its length parallel to the face of the wall.

3. BOND:
It is a term applied to the overlapping of bricks or stones in a wall in alternate courses,
to bind the whole wall together.

4. COURSE:
A horizontal layer of bricks or stones is termed as course.

5. HEADER COURSE:
It is a course of brickwork entirely composed of headers.

6. STRETCHER COURSE:
It is a course of brickwork in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers.

7. BED:
It is a term used to indicate the lower surface of bricks or stones in each course. It may
also be termed as surface of the bricks on which it rests.

8. FACE:
The surface of a wall exposed to weather is termed as face.

9. FACING:
The material used in the face of the wall is known as facing.

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10. BACK:
The inner surface of the wall which is not exposed to the weather is termed as back.

11. BACKING:
The material used in forming the back of the wall is known as backing.

12. HEARTING:
The portion of a wall between facing and backing is termed as hearting.

13. JOINT:
The junction of two or more bricks or stones is called joint.

14. RACKING BACK:

The process of stopping the unfinished end of a wall in stepped fashion.

15. BAT:
It is a portion of a brick cut across the width or a brick cut by some fraction of its length.

16. CLOSER:
It is a portion of a brick cut in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut.

17. KING CLOSER:

It is a brick which is cut in such a way that the width of one of its end is half that of a full
brick.

18. QUEEN CLOSER:

It is a term applied to a brick which is half as wide as full brick. Queen closer is made by
cutting a brick lengthwise into two portions.

19. BEVELLED CLOSER:

It is similar to king closer with the only difference that the whole length of the brick is
bevelled for maintaining half width at one end and full width at the other.

20. MITRED CLOSER:

It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for the full width.

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21. PERPEND:
It is a vertical joint on the face of a wall directly over vertical joints in an alternate
course.

22. FROG:
It is a depression on the top face of a brick. Frog provides a recess for the mortar which
on setting forms a key and prevents the displacement of the brick above.

23. PLINTH:
The horizontal projecting or flush course of stone or brick provided at the base of the
wall above ground level is known as plinth.

24. SILL:
It is a horizontal member of brick, stone, concrete or wood provided to give support for
the vertical members of a window.

25. JAMBS:
The vertical sides of a finished opening for door, window or fire place etc. are termed as
jambs.

26. REVEALS:
Reveals are the exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the door
or window frame has been fitted in position.

27. LINTEL:
A horizontal member of stone, brick, steel or RCC, used to support the masonry or load
above an opening.

28. ARCH:
A mechanical arrangement of wedge-shaped blocks of stone or brick arranged in the
form of a curve supporting the masonry or load above an opening.

29. CORNICE:
It is a horizontal moulded projection provided near the top of a building or at the junction
of a wall and ceiling.

30. PARAPET:
It is a term applied to a low wall built around a flat roof to act as a protective solid
balustrade for the users of the terrace.

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31. WEATHERING:
Weathering is the term applied to the bevelled top surface of a stone.

32. GABLE:
It is a triangular shaped portion of masonry at the end of a sloped roof.

33. SPALLS:
Chips or small pieces of stone broken off a large block are termed as spalls.

34. COLUMNS:
It is an isolated vertical load bearing member whose width does not exceed four times
its thickness.

35. PIER:
It is a vertical member of stone or brick masonry constructed to support an arch, beam
or lintel etc.

36. BUTTRESS:
It is similar to pier built on the exterior of a wall properly bonded to it.

37. CORBEL:
It is the extension of one or more course of brick or stone from the face of a wall.

38. THRESHOLDS:
The arrangement of steps provided from ground level to reach plinth level on external
doors and verandah is termed as thresholds.

DEFECTS IN PLASTERING
The common defects in plaster works are listed below

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1. CRACKING:

In this formation, one or more cracks appear in the plastered surface.

2. BLOWING OR BLISTERING:

This consists in formation of small patches of plaster swelling out beyond the plastered
surface.

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3. FALLING OUT OF PLASTER:

In this formation, some area of a plastered surface is fallen out.

4. EFFLORESCENCE:

A deposit of soluble salts in the form of whitish crystalline substance appears on the
surface or background of the plaster.

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5. CRAZING:

The development of thin hair cracks is known as crazing.

6. GRINNING:

In this formation, a pattern of joints or similar breaks in the continuity of the surface is
found.

COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING
COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING:
A building can be divided into two general categories

1. SUB-STRUCTURE:
It is the portion of a building situated underneath the surrounding ground.

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2. SUPERSTRUCTURE:
The portion which is situated above the ground level is called superstructure.
The components of a building can be further classified as under:

1. FOUNDATION:
Foundation is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level which transfers all
the loads (dead load, live load etc) to the soil.

2. PLINTH:
The Portion of a building between the ground surrounding the building and the top floor
just above the ground is termed as plinth. Plinth is provided to prevent the surface water
from entering the building.

3. DPC:
DPC or damp proof course is a layer of waterproofing materials like asphalt, bitumen,
waterproof cement etc on which the walls are constructed.

4. WALLS:
Walls are the vertical members on which the roof finally rests. Walls are provided to
divide the floor space in the desired pattern. Walls provide privacy, security, and
protects from the sun, rain wind, cold etc.

5. COLUMN:
Columns are the isolated load bearing member which carry the axial compressive load
of a structure.

6. FLOORS:
Floors can be defined as flat supporting elements dividing a building into different levels
( e.g first floor, second floor etc) to create more accommodation on a given land. They
provide a firm and dry platform for people and other items like furniture, equipment,
stores etc.

7. DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATION:

Doors are provided as a barrier secured in an opening left in a wall to access the
building, room or passage.
A window may be defined as an opening left in a wall for the purpose of providing
daylight, vision, natural air, and ventilation.

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8. STAIRS:
Stairs can be defined as a structure comprising a number of steps arranged in a series
connecting one floor to another. Stairs are used to access various floors of the building.

9. ROOF:
A roof is the topmost part of a building which covers the space below and protects from
rain, direct sunlight, snow, the wind etc.

10. BUILDING FINISHES:

Building finishes include items like plastering, pointing, washing, varnishing, painting,
distempering etc.

11. BUILDING SERVICES:

Building services include services like water supply, drainage, lighting, sanitation,
electricity, acoustics, ventilation, heating, air conditioning, fire detection, and control etc.

HOW TO SELECT MATERIALS FOR DPC

MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP-PROOFING:
An effective damp proofing material should have the following properties:
1. It should be impervious.
2. It should be strong and durable and should be capable of withstanding both dead as
well as live loads without damage.
3. It should be dimensionally stable.
4. It should be free from deliquescent salts like sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
The materials commonly used to check dampness can be divided into the following four
categories:
1. Flexible material: Material like bitumen felts ( which may be hessian based or
fibre/glass fibre based), plastic sheeting ( polythene sheet) etc.
2. Semi-rigid Materials: Materials like mastic asphalt or the combination of materials or
layers.
3. Rigid Materials: Materials like first class bricks, stones, slate, cement concrete etc.
4. Grout: Consisting of cement slurry and acrylic based chemicals/polymers.

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SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR DPC:

The choice of material to function as an effective damp-proof course requires a
judicious selection. It depends on several factors such as climatic and atmospheric
conditions, nature of the structure and situation where DPC is to be provided. The
points to be kept in view while making the selection of DPC materials are briefly
discussed below.

1. DPC ABOVE GROUND LEVEL:

In ordinary buildings, plinths are usually provided above the ground level. For DPC
above ground level, all four types of materials discussed earlier can be used.
At plinth level, 40 mm to 50 mm thick layer of 1:2:4 cement concrete is treated as the
best material for normal conditions. When more damp conditions are to prevail rich
mixed concrete can be used. Some waterproofing materials such as pudlo, impermo etc
can be used during concrete mixing to make the concrete thicker. Normally one or two
coatings are applied to the dried surface of the concrete layer.

2. DPC MATERIAL FOR FLOOR ROOFS ETC:

In case of large area such as under floors, over roofs are to be covered by DPC,
bitumen felts or mastic asphalt are most common in use. But ensure that their joints are
lapped and scaled properly.

3. DPC MATERIAL FOR CAVITY WALLS:

In case of cavity walls, flexible materials such as copper strips, bitumen sheets, lead
strips, etc can be used as the material of DPC. At the base level of the cavity, just
around the foundation from where the cavity is started, bitumenized felt or ordinary
mastic asphalt can be used.

4. DPC MATERIAL FOR SITUATIONS WHERE

DIFFERENT THERMAL MOVEMENTS OCCUR:
In case of parapet walls, most common recommended materials are mastic asphalt,
lead sheets, copper sheets, and bitumen felts. But ensure that the DPC materials are
adequately flexible to allow slight movement due to the structural settlement.

CHECKLISTS FOR SHUTTERING

CHECKLISTS FOR SHUTTERING:
Formwork or shuttering is a temporary and rigid structure used as a mould in which the
freshly mixed concrete is poured to be hardened subsequently. It withstands all types of
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dead and live loads. The types of formwork totally depend on the material of formwork
and the structural elements.
Formworks are generally three types:
1. Beam Formwork: Used in beams.
2. Slab Formwork: Used in slabs.
3. Column Formwork: Used in columns.
The checklists for before and after shuttering are as following:
1. The material of shuttering is new/old?
2. Are repairs Ok?
3. Cleanness of shuttering is Ok?
4. Oiling of shuttering?

FIXED SHUTTERING:
5. The design of shuttering is Ok?
6. Rigidity, levelling, and allignment Ok?
7. Check the props. Ok?
8. Check the acrow span. Ok?
9. Check the braces. Ok?
10. Check the holes, sealing joints. Ok?
11. Check for any changes or rework.

AFTER REMOVAL OF SHUTTERING:

12. Concrete Surface – Good/moderate/level/line?
13. Any repair of surface is required?
If required then it should be done and properly investigated by a quality assurance
engineer.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

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SELECTION OF SITE FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:

Before planning and constructing any building it is essential to select a suitable site
properly. A properly selected site enhances the appearance of the building without any
expenditure. So, selection of site before starting construction is very much important for
planning. The following points should be considered during selection of a site for
building.
1. The site where the building is to be constructed should be preferably situated on an
elevated and levelled ground. It should not be situated near flood prone area.
2. The soil at the site should have a good bearing capacity and it should not be made up
or marshy type.
3. The ground at the site should have a good water table and it should be high.
4. The shape of the site should not irregular or having sharp corners. The ideal shape of
a site is square or rectangular.
5. The site should be located in a developed area where the following facilities are
available

 Medical shop, Hospitals.

 Educational Institutions.
 Shopping centre.
 Transport facility ( Roads, railway etc)
 Electricity
 Water supply
 Gas supply
 Police station
 Drainage, sanitation
 Fire station
 Recreation
 Post office etc

6. The site should not be located near kilns, quarries, industrial plants emitting smoke,
steam, fumes and obnoxious odour, noise or other polluting agents. The site should be
far away from them.
7. Natural light and air should be sufficient in the site and the building should not get
overshadowed by the adjacent buildings.
8. The site should not be very much undulating.

TYPES OF FLOORING

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TYPES OF FLOORING:
There are several types of floors which are mostly adopted by the public as well as
residential buildings nowadays. But there is not a single type of floor that could be used
under all circumstances because each floor has its own merits in specific
circumstances. The various types of floors which are most commonly adopted for
construction of ground floor are listed below.

1. Terrazzo flooring.
2. Mud flooring.
3. Brick flooring.
4. Cement concrete flooring.
5. Tiled flooring.
6. Mosaic flooring.
7. Marble flooring.
8. Asphalt flooring.
9. Flagstone flooring.
10. Rubber flooring.
11. Timber flooring.
12. Acidproof flooring.
13. Granolithic flooring.
14. Muram flooring.
15. Linoleum flooring.
Due to their different advantages in different conditions, it becomes very hard to select
the type of floor and as such the following points should be kept in view while selecting
the type of floor.
1. The floor should be strong and durable,
2. It should be easy to clean.
3. It should possess pleasing appearance.
4. It should be free from dampness.
5. It should be noiseless as far as possible.

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6. It should be fire resistant.

7. It should have low or no maintenance cost.
8. It should not be highly expensive.

ADVANTAGES OF RCC STAIRS

R.C.C STAIRS OR REINFORCED CONCRETE STAIRS:

RCC Stairs Details

RCC stairs may be the most common stairs widely used than any other types of stair.
These stairs can be easily moulded to any desired shape and are better wear and fire
resistant. The steps of RCC stairs are made by using ordinary cement concrete.
Besides ordinary cement concrete, some other superior finishing materials are also
used such as marble, terrazzo, tiles etc. to give them better appearances.

ADVANTAGES OF RCC STAIRS:

The advantages of R.C.C stairs are as following:
1. R.C.C stairs are better fire resistant than any other stairs.
2. They are adequately strong and more durable.
3. The steps are non-slippery.
4. They offer better and pleasant appearances.
5. The stairs can be designed for greater widths and longer spans.
6. They can be easily cleaned.
7. R.C.C stairs can be precast or cast in situ.
8. The maintenance cost is almost nil.

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9. In modern sky scraper construction always framed structures are adopted, for such
structures R.C.C stairs are the one and only stairs which can be used.

RCC FRAMED STRUCTURE BUILDINGS

RCC FRAMED STRUCTURE:

Due to the lower compressive strength of bricks (For 1:2:4 cement concrete works), the
width of load bearing walls for the building having more than four story becomes
extremely thick and for such cases, RCC framed structures are suitably adopted.
Framed structures are generally of two types.
1. Steel Frame
2. RCC Frame.
In this article, we will discuss various advantages of RCC framed structure which are as
following:
1. In RCC framed structure building the floor area is normally 10% to 12 % greater
compared to a load bearing walled building. hence, this type of building is preferably
economical where the value of land is very high.
2. It is very easy to alternate the interior plan of a room, bathroom, W.C etc by changing
the actual position of the partition walls which ultimately gives more freedom in
planning.

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3. Monolithic construction can be adopted for resisting shocks and vibrations more
effectively than load bearing walled buildings.
4. Normal earthquake effects can also be resisted by providing required further design.
5. Faster construction work saves time, early finishing.
6. No matter the soil is soft or hard, RCC framed buildings can be established
anywhere.
7. Maintenance cost is also minimum which can be ignored.

CONCRETING IN HOT WEATHER

Hot Weather Concreting.

HOT WEATHER CONCRETING:

We know that cement possesses faster rate of hydration in hot weather. The rate of
hydration of cement increases with the increases in temperature. Generally, 10° C –
27° C is considered as most suitable for hydration.
At higher temperature, the concrete may start to set before placing and compacting in
position. Therefore the concrete should be placed as fast as possible after mixing.
During concreting in hot climatic condition, the concrete may have to be cooled to
protect from ill effects. To achieve this, cooled water and aggregates can be used while
preparing the concrete.

PRECAUTIONS BEFORE, DURING & AFTER CONCRETING:

1. The main aim is to decrease the temperature of the concrete itself and furthermore
the forms where it will be placed.
2. If possible, mixer machine should be installed below the shade.

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3. If concrete is to be transported to a longer distance, concreting materials may be

mixed first in dry condition and the water may be included at the job site just before
placing the concrete in position.
4. To protect the water content from evaporation, always deep containers should be
used for the transportation of concrete.
5. After placing, wet burlap should be used to cover the concrete. It will help to protect
coolness and moisture of concrete.
6. Curing should be started immediately as soon as the concrete starts hardening.
7. Retarding admixtures can also be used while adding the water in the mix to slow
down the setting action of concrete.
8. Ice cubes or refrigerator can be used to cool the water to be used. But ensure that ice
cubes are totally melted and there are no solid ice crystals present in the concrete.

CONDITIONS OF STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS

CONDITIONS OF STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS:
A good retaining wall must fulfill the following requirements to ensure its stability:
1. The retaining wall should be able to resist the pressure coming from it.
2. The wall section should be well proportioned that it will never overturn by lateral
pressure.
3. The retaining wall should be protected from sliding. That means the wall should not
be moved by the lateral pressure.
4. The weight of the wall and the force coming on it due to the earth pressure should not
push its foundation to a value more than the S.B.C ( safe bearing capacity) of the soil on
which it is established.
5. It is essential to avoid accumulation of water behind the retaining wall. Weep holes
should be provided to drain the backing materials suitably.
6. In case of long masonry retaining wall, expansion joints should be used at 6 to 9
meter apart.

MANUFACTURED SAND OR M-SAND FOR CONSTRUCTION

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MANUFACTURED SAND OR M-SAND:

Manufactured Sand
Manufactured sand or M-Sand is a replacement of natural river sand made artificially
from hard granite stone by crushing. M-sand is cubical in shape and edges are rounded.
After crushing, the sand is clearly washed and graded properly for using as construction
material. Generally, the size of M-sand is less than 4.75 mm.
M-sand is gaining its popularity and uses over vast construction works due to several
advantages which are described below.

ADVANTAGES OF M-SAND:
1. Manufactured sand is graded very well at their right proportion.
2. Organic and soluble compounds are eliminated which can affect the properties and
setting time.
3. In this sand no impurities are available such ads dust, clay, silt coatings etc requires
more water as on account of river sand which makes weaker the cement-aggregate
bond. Therefore the quality and durability of concrete are increased.
4. M-Sand is produced from granite using latest techniques which ensure their required
properties. Here high carbon steel hit rock and then Rock On Rock technology is used
which is also similar to the natural process of river sand formation.
5. Modern and imported machines are used to manufacture M-Sand which gives cubical
shape and confirms their proper gradings.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEIR AND BARRAGE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEIR AND BARRAGE:
The difference between weir and barrage is described below.

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WEIR:

Weir is an impenetrable boundary which is developed over a river or waterway to raise

the water level on the upstream side. In this system, the water level is raised up to the
required height and the excess water is permitted to discharge over the weir. Weir is
mainly constructed across an immersion river or waterway.

BARRAGE:

When adjustable gates are installed in a weir to keep up the surface the water at a
diverse level at various time, is called barrage.
In this system, the water level is balanced by operating the shutters or gates. The gates
are provided at different levels and operated by cables from a cabin. These gates are
supported on piers at both ends. The pier to pier distance is called bay.

SPECIFICATION FOR LAYING 38 MM DAMP-PROOF COURSE WITH

CONCRETE OF 1:2:4 AT PLINTH LEVEL
1. The damp-proof course should cover the total wall thickness.
2. The bottom of the DPC should be clear, even and free from overhanging that may
damage to the damp-proof course.
3. The side shuttering should be sufficiently strong and fixed well that it does not get
disturbed at the time of compaction and cement slurry does not spill out.
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4. The concrete should be prepared in the quantitive ratio of 1:2:4 (Cement: Sand:
Stone chips 12 mm).
5. The concrete used in the DPC should be workable.
6. The concrete should be placed and tempered roughly to make a thick mass.
7. After laying the concrete of 24 hours, it should be cured minimum for 7 days.
8. After completing the curing properly, the surface should be left to dry out to get the
cover of hot bitumen.
9. After drying the concrete surface, it should be cleaned with brushes and with a
kerosine soaked cloth piece.
10. Finally, the treated concrete surface should be filled uniformly with hot bitumen in
specified quantity.

WATERPROOFING OF FLAT ROOFS

WATERPROOFING OF FLAT ROOFS:

FLAT ROOF WATERPROOFING:

Waterproofing of roofs has become an essential part of building construction. There are
different methods which can be used for waterproofing of roofs.
In this article, I will share 3 most common methods used for waterproofing of flat roofs.

1. FINISHING:
Just in case of ordinary and low-cost construction the rooftop surface should be finished
by cement mortar ideally in the quantitive proportion of 1:4. To face up to the shrinkage

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and extensive impacts of cement concrete or mortar, lime cream may be included in the
finishing layer of concrete or mortar.

2. ASPHALT LAYER:
In this process, a mastic layer of asphalt is provided on the roof floor earlier than the
mud or lime concrete is being placed. Sometimes, asphalt layer is additionally laid on
highly finished roof surface that is later sanded and properly finished.

3. BEDDING CONCRETE AND FLOORING:

In This method, the top surface of R.C.C slab is kept rough when casting. Here, a 100
mm thick layer of brick-bat lime concrete in the proportion of 1:2:4 or brick-bat cement
concrete in the proportion of 1:6:12 is laid over the R.C.C slab. The concrete layer is
called bedding concrete.
After that, the surface of the bedding is properly finished by tiles or using some other
kind of finishing materials.

HANDLING OF REINFORCEMENT AT SITE

HANDLING OF REINFORCEMENT AT SITE:
Whatever be the size of R.C.C work, it is important to arrange a bar bending schedule
before starting of handling reinforcement at the construction site.
Bar bending schedule or B.B.S is an explanatory list which contains all details relating to
correct shape, diameter and dimension of each and every bar along with the bars of
each shape.
Bars are sliced to the required lengths after which bent cold according to the info given
in the bar bending schedule.
Before putting the bars in position within the formwork it is essential to confirm that the
reinforcement is clean and free from loose rust oil, loose scale, and other coatings. This
precaution is important to fulfill the criteria of making a good bond between steel and
concrete for monolithic behavior.
The reinforcement should be put and maintained in position appropriately by tying the
bars at the junction with binding wire or by welding. To confirm right cover to the
reinforcement small precast cover blocks of cement mortar can be used. These cover
blocks are inserted underneath the reinforcement mesh and tied with binding wire
before concreting. Some extra precautions should also be taken to avoid displacement
of reinforcement at the time of concreting.

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR HEAVY CONSTRUCTION WORKS

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CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR HEAVY CONSTRUCTION

WORKS:

Construction Equipment
Every construction project involves different work process such as earth cutting, earth
moving, hauling, concreting equipment, equipment for compaction and different
construction materials etc. In case of small projects, manual labor with ordinary
instruments are used. But when it is a large project we must need heavy construction
equipment to finish the work comfortably. Here in this article equipment commonly used
for heavy construction are given.
1. Tractor.
2. Bulldozer.
3. Grader.

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4. Scraper.
5. Basic shovel.
6. Drag Line.
7. Clam Shell.
8. Power Shovel.
9. Back Hoe.
10. Dumper Trucks.
11. Road roller.
12. Sheep’s Root Roller.
13. Electric Over Head Crane.
14. Whirler Crane.
15. Single Cable Rope Way.
16. Belt Conveyor.
17. Concrete Mixer.
18. Pumpcrete.
19. Concrete Vibrator.
20. Crusher Machine.
21. Paver.
22. Excavator.
23. Reach Truck etc.

R.C.C BEAM AND SLAB FLOOR

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R.C.C BEAM AND SLAB FLOOR:

For larger span and excessive loading situations or in circumstances where

intermediate walls are not used RCC beam and slab construction is suitably adopted to
decrease the span of the floor slab.
In the floor system, the beams stay as intermediate walls and the floor is outlined as
continuous slab. The beams in this manner utilized are called T-beams because a part
of the floor slab helps to resist the compression created by the beams. The anticipatory
portion of the beam underneath the slab is known as rib of the beam.
In framed structures, the floor is normally supported on the primary and secondary
beams. The floor slab is rested continuously over the secondary beams which are
framed into and supported by the primary beams.

DESIGN CRITERIA OF SEPTIC TANK

SEPTIC TANK:
Septic tank is a tank where sewage is kept a long time for sedimentation of suspended
solid by anaerobic microorganism activity.

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Septic Tank Design

Basically, the tank is rectangular in shape consisting of rooftop with two chambers,
isolated from each other by a baffle wall. The first chamber is called grit chamber in
which the sewage enters first and the rest one is called anaerobic chamber.
Inlet and outlet pipe should be fitted in such a manner that while entering or existing
there should not be any unsettled influence in the sewage of anaerobic chamber. Sand,
grit etc is settled down in the grit chamber before the sewage is directed to the
anaerobic chamber. In the anaerobic chamber, natural solids settle at the base of the
tank where anaerobic bacteria follows up on it and changes over complex unsteady
mixes to more straightforward stable mixes.

SEPTIC TANK DESIGN:

The following measure should be kept in view to design a septic tank:
1. The floor zone of the git chamber must be adequate to decrease the speed of steam
and to allow sedimentation.
2. The capacity of a septic tank should be sufficient to give a detainment period
fluctuating from 12 hours to 3 days, 24 hours time frame is normally viewed as
satisfactory.
3. The depth beneath segment divider opening should be adequate to allow aggregation
for the predetermined period. A minimum area of 0.07 m2 for each client in grit chamber
and minimum volumetric substance of the grit chamber of 0.02 m3 for every client is
required.
4. The minimum width and depth of a septic tank should be 0.75 m and 1 meter
underneath water level. The length should be 2 to 4 times of the width. The minimum
capacity of a septic tank is granted 1 m3.
5. Every septic tank should be furnished with a ventilating channel minimum diameter of
5 cm.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUALITY PAINTS

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUALITY PAINTS:

The characteristics of a good paint are as following:
1. A paint will be said good quality if it sticks well to the surface along with the ability to
seal the porous substrata.
2. It should give easy and homogeneous workability.
3. The thickness of the paint coating should be sufficient to protect and decorate the
surface very well.
4. The paint coating should dry quickly.
5. After drying completely it should be able to protect the surface from unfriendly
weather impact for long time without losing its shine.
6. It should be check and crack resistant, flake resistant, and moisture resistant.
7. The color of a paint should remain constant for a long time. It should not fade quickly.

TYPES OF PIPES USED IN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

TYPES OF PIPES:
The types of pipes commonly used in water distribution system are described below.

1. CAST IRON PIPES:

Cast iron pipes or CI pipes are broadly utilized for distribution of water because they are
less expensive, corrosion resistant, and long lasting. CI pipes are mainly produced by
following four techniques.
1. Horizontally cast ( MC ware pipes)
2. Vertically cast ( Pit cast in sand molds)
3. Centrifugally cast in sand lines molds spun type.
4. Centrifugally cast in water cooled molds.
Uses of horizontally cast CI pipes are presently pretty much outdated, that’s why they
are infrequently produced these days. Centrifugally cast pipes are most widely used
because they have more grained dense structure and uniform thickness. Generally, CI
pipes are 3-6 m long, so much heavy, and require extra care to avoid from damaging
while transporting and creating connections.

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2. STEEL PIPES:
Steel pipes are utilized in water mains circumstances where the pipes are going through
very high pressure ( More than 7 kg/cm2) and required large diameter pipes. These
pipes have greater strength and less weight than CI pipes. Satisfactory treatments
should be given to maintain antagonistic climatic conditions.

3. GALVANIZED IRON PIPES:

Galvanized pipes are also known as GI pipes are fashioned steel pipes with zinc
coating. GI pipes are mostly utilized for water supply and service connections.

4. COPPER PIPES:
Copper pipes are most commonly utilized in hot water supply establishment. Some
features of this pipes are as following:
1. They possess high tensile strength.
2. They can be bent easily.
3. Copper pipes can be used in thin wall.
Copper pipes are sometimes chromium plated to enhance their appearance and to
match with the chromium plated water supply fittings.

5. POLYTHENE PIPES:
Polythene and PVC pipes are being utilized progressively nowadays for cold water
supply inside and outside works. These pipes are lightweight, cheaper, corrosion
resistant, and require no threading for making any connections.
Besides these, there are other pipes commonly used for water distribution such as
asbestos cement (AC) pipes, reinforced concrete (RCC) pipes, prestressed reinforced
concrete (PSC) pipes etc. The selection of the types of pipe for utilizing any purposes is
adopted according to the design criteria, material availability, cost, and other
comparative variables.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF PRECAST PILES

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PRECAST CONCRETE PILES:

Precast Piles
The various advantages and disadvantages of precast piles are described below:

ADVANTAGES OF PRECAST PILES:

1. Precast piles can be cast well before the initiation of the work bringing about fast
execution work.
2. Construction of precast piles can be inspected easily and if any deformity
distinguished can be redressed before utilize.
3. The reinforcement stays at the right position and doesn’t get dislocated.
4. They can be driven under water.
5. The driving of neighboring pile does not create unfriendly impact on the piles already
driven.
6. They can be loaded very soon after driving to the required depth.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRECAST PILES:

1. Due to their heavy weight handling and transportation of precast piles is very difficult.
2. The correct length of a pile can once in a while be pre-decided and hence it must be
extended sometimes, rendering the piles becomes weaker at the joint.
3 If a pile is observed to be too long after driving it must be cut down which includes
additional labor, time, and cost.
4 Piles are subjected to the driving shocks after the concrete has completely set. This
may lead to defective construction.

PIER FOUNDATION
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PIER FOUNDATION:
When a heavy structure or building is to be constructed in soft or sandy soil and hard
bed stratum for the foundation is situated at the reasonable depth pier foundation is
suitably provided for transmitting the load into strong stratum.

In this method, vertical shafts are made upto hard bed and then filled with freshly mixed
concrete. Thus concrete piers rest on the hard stratum and transfer the load of the
structure into it,
The diameter and center to center to spacing of shafts mainly depends upon the
character of soil, depth at which the hard stratum is located, condition of loading etc,
The diameter of the shaft (In case of square or rectangular pier) should be less than
1/12 th of its height. Sometimes the shaft may be lined with timber to prevent thee side
earth sliding. The timber lining is eliminated after filling the shaft with concrete.
Generally, reinforce concrete, or grillage cap or concrete arch is used to connect the
shafts with each other. The arrangement of pier foundation is shown in the following
figure.

8 IMPORTANT TESTS ON BRICKS YOU SHOULD KNOW

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BRICK TESTS:

Bricks are the most common and useful building materials used for masonry
construction works. To build a long lasting structure we should always use good quality
bricks and other building materials. In our previous article, we have already discussed
the types of bricks used in construction. Today we will discuss some important brick
tests to determine the quality of bricks. The common brick tests performed on the field
as well as in the laboratory are described below.

1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST:

This test is performed to determine the compressive strength of bricks. It is additionally
known as crushing strength test of bricks. Normally, 5 samples of bricks are selected
and transported to the laboratory for testing. A brick sample is kept on the crushing
machine and then the pressure is thoroughly applied axially until it breaks. The
maximum pressure at which the brick starts to crack is noted. The test is repeated with
all 5 brick samples one by one and the average result is considered as the compressive
strength or crushing strength of bricks.

2. WATER ABSORPTION TEST:

In this test, bricks are weighed first in dry condition (W1) and then they are fully
submerged in water for 24 hours. After immersion of 24 hours, the bricks are collected
and weighed again in wet condition (W2). The difference of weight between dry and wet

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condition is considered as the water absorbed by the bricks. Then the amount of water
absorption is determined in percentage.
Water absorption (%) = [(W2-W1)/W1] * 100
The less water consumption by the bricks indicates their greater quality. A brick will be
considered as good quality if it does not consume more than 20% water of its own
weight.

3. EFFLORESCENCE TEST:
This test is carried out to obtain the presence of alkaline substances in bricks. First,
bricks are fully submerged in fresh water for 24 hours. After 24 hours they are collected
from water and left them to dry. After completely dried the bricks are closely observed to
find the presence of alkali. If a white or gray layer is formed on the brick surface, it
means alkali is present in the brick.

Observation Efflorescence

No Deposition Nil

10% of the brick surface. Slight (Ok)

10% – 25 % of the brick surface. Moderate

25% – 50% of the brick surface. Heavy

>50% of the brick surface. Extreme (Serious)

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4. IMPACT TEST:
In this test few bricks are dropped from 1-meter height. If bricks are broken it indicates
low impact value and not acceptable for construction work. Good quality bricks do not
break at all.

5. DIMENSION TOLERANCE TEST:

20 bricks are randomly collected and arranged in a straight line. This is done to see the
variation of shape, size, and color with the standard bricks.

6. SOUNDNESS TEST:
In this test, two randomly selected bricks are hardly punched with each other. If they
produce a clear metallic sound and remain unbroken then they are good quality bricks.

7. HARDNESS TEST:
This test is done to know the hardness of bricks. In this test, scratches are made on the
surface of the brick by a hard thing. If it does not leave any impression on the brick
surface then it will be considered as good quality bricks.

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8. STRUCTURE TEST:
In this test, a brick is fractured and firmly investigated. If any flaws, holes or cracks are
seen inside the broken brick, then it is considered as poor quality brick.

TYPES OF BRICK BONDS

TYPES OF BRICK BONDS:
The general types Of brick bonds are as following:

ENGLISH BOND:

Primary elements of this bond are as following:

1. In this brick bond, every alternate course demonstrates headers and stretchers.
2. A course will show either just headers or just stretchers when seen along the side.
3. To break the vertical joints in progressive courses, it is important to provide a queen
closer after the first header in every header course.
4. Queen closer is required just in header course. Stretcher course does not need any
closer.
5. Every header of the header course is centrally supported over the stretchers of the
stretcher courses.
6. Bricks in the similar course don’t break joints with each other.
7. When the thickness of the wall is even multiple of half brick, a specific course will
demonstrate only headers or stretchers on both the confronted of the wall.
8. When the thickness of the wall is odd multiple of half brick, a course showing
stretchers on one face will demonstrate headers on the other face and vice versa. Be
that as it may, the wall of half brick thick will demonstrate stretchers on the both
appearances.

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9. The quantity of joint in header course is about twice than that in stretcher course. So,
header joints ought to be kept as thin as possible to maintain appropriate lapping over
joints. (immediately below the course)

FLEMISH BOND:
Primary elements of flemish bond are as following:

1. Each course comprises of headers and stretchers.

2. To break the vertical joints in progressive courses it is necessary to provide queen
closers in interchanging courses beside the quoin header.
3. Each header is centrally upheld over a stretcher beneath it.
4. Flemish bond gives a preferable appearance over the english bond.
5. Bats are essentially required for the walls having their thickness equivalent to odd
number half bricks.
Flemish bond can be sub-divided into two different categories.

1. Single flemish bond and

2. Double Flemish bond.

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SINGLE FLEMISH BOND:

It is a combination of english bond and flemish bond. Facing of the wall is developed by
using flemish bond and backing is developed by using english bond. This type of bond
can not be used in walls less than one and a half brick thickness. However, this bond
gives better and attractive looks.

DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND:

In this brick bond, each course demonstrates the same appearance both in the front as
well as back elevations (headers and stretchers are laid in every course alternatively).
Alternate headers and stretchers are used in every course. This bond enables one brick
wall to have flush and uniform faces on the both sides. It gives better appearance but
comparatively weaker than english bond.

STRETCHER BOND:

Stretcher bond is the simplest form of brick bond utilized for construction works.
Sometimes it is also known as running bond. In the arrangement of stretcher bond, all
the bricks are laid as stretchers (as shown in fig). No header is present in this bond,

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hence suitable reinforcement should always be provided for construction of structural

bond.

HEADER BOND:

In this pattern of bonding all the bricks are placed as header on the faces (as shown in
fig). This bond is also known as heading bond.The overlap is half the width of the brick
and can be achieved by providing a three-quarter bat in each alternate course at
quoins. Header bond can be used in the construction of curved structure, brick
foundation etc.
Other Brick Bonds:

1. Facing Bond.
2. Garden Wall Bond.
3. Raking Bond.
4. Dutch Bond.
5. English Cross Bond.
6. Zig-zag bond.
7. Silverlock’s Bond.

CHECKLIST FOR MASONRY WORK

CHECKLIST FOR MASONRY WORK:
The masonry work checklist is as following:
1. Availability of the materials according to everyday necessity and reports of tests.
2. Cleaning work zone of free concrete/material.
3. Appropriate bundling of blocks/bricks.
4. Quality of the bricks/sand after testing.
5. Wetting of the bricks.
6. Frames of doors assuming any, erected in right position.

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7. Recheck outline. (Room measurements, diagonals, arrangement with one layer of

brick wall, position of door openings etc.
8. Check mortar preparation and arrangement of platform.
9. Check the thickness of mortar.
10. Check the plumb.
11. Check the amount of silt content in sand.
12. Chek cleaning of dead mortars.
13. Check completed level/mix proportion/Rt angle.
14. Check raking/curing.
15. Check for any expansion or modification.
16. Check for accurate pointing, packing and finishing.

CHECKLIST FOR CONCRETE SLAB WHILE CASTING

Reinforced Concrete Slab

CHECKLIST FOR CONCRETE SLAB:

The Checklist For Concrete Slab are listed below:
1. Make sure that the cover blocks are at right position and stay okay while concreting.
2. If the concrete is prepared at site, carefully handle the process of batching, water
content, mixing and testing of fresh concrete.
3. Ensure that the beams are primarily cast in layers and compacted properly by
vibrators.

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4. Make sure that one carpenter and one helper is always present under the shuttering
slab to confirm that it is supported well and will stay constant during and after
concreting.
5. Assure the presence of a bar bender to avoid displacement of steel reinforcement.
6. Never permit extremely smooth finishing for the concrete slabs.
7. Try not to permit sprinkling of dry cement during finishing, It will help to prevent micro
shrinkage cracks in the concrete.
8. Put the chairs appropriately to avoid disturbance at the top reinforcement bars during
concreting.
9. Try to prevent cold joints in the casting slab.
10. In case of concreting in hot weather, protect the concrete surface by covering with
wet gunny bags at least for 4 – 5 hours.
11. In case of concreting in rainy, windy, or extremely hot weather, put a cover of
tarpaulin over the slab. It will protect the slab from getting damaged.
12. To prevent plastic shrinkage cracks in the concrete slab, avoid drastic drying of
green concrete.
13. Ensure full compaction and complete finishing of the concrete.

PRECAUTIONS FOR CONCRETING IN COLD WEATHER

COLD WEATHER CONCRETING:
During hydration process temperature plays a great role on the rate of strength
development. When the temperature is just above the freezing point the rate of
hydration becomes very slow. The hydration that occurs in 1 day at a temperature of
20°C may take up to 7 days at 4°C temperature. Thus the time for removing formwork
also extends. So some precautions should be taken while concreting in cold weather.

PRECAUTIONS FOR COLD WEATHER CONCRETING:

1. Hot water (60°C) and aggregates (15°C) should be mixed before adding cement
content in the mix.
2. Concrete should be placed at a temperature of 4° -5° C. After placing and compacting
the temperature should be kept at 2°C until it becomes hardened.
3. To prevent flashing, cement should not be added alone with water.
4. Do not use frozen aggregates in the mix.

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5. Accelerating admixtures (mainly calcium chloride) can be used to increase the

internal temperature of concrete.
6. Damaged concrete due to frost action should be eliminated.
7. Formwork should be cleaned and free of snow or ice.
8. To keep the temperature at constant and to protect the concrete from frost action, the
concrete surface should be covered with dry blankets of cement bags, staws, tarpaulins
etc.
9. Curing should be extended for a longer period.
10. Formwork should be removed after a longer period.

HOW TO CHECK SAND QUALITY IN FIELD

HOW TO CHECK QUALITY OF SAND IN FIELD:
There are some useful tests that can be done in the field for checking the quality of
sand utilized for construction. The following tests may be performed to determine the
characteristics of sand.

FIELD TEST OF SAND:

1. Take a glass and add some water in it.
2. Add a few amount of sand in the glass. At that point, shake it vivaciously and permit it
to settle. If there is clay present in the sand, an apparent layer will be formed at the top
level of sand.
3. Mix the sand into sodium hydroxide or caustic soda solution to distinguish the
presence of organic impurities. If organic impurities are present in the sand, the color of
the solution will be turned into brown.
4. Now take a squeeze of sand and taste it. If it is salty that means salt is present in the
sand.
5. Take little amount of sand in the hand, and then rub it against the fingers. If the
fingers are recolored it means sand consists of some earthy materials.
6. The color of sand describes the cleanness of sand. The size and sharpness might be
examined by touching and watching visually.
7. The sand may be examined by mechanical analysis to know its fineness, durability,
void ratio etc.

TYPES OF BRICKS

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TYPES OF BRICKS:

types of bricks
Bricks are one of the most useful building materials used in construction works. It is
important to know the types of bricks for understanding the masonry work properly. The
types of bricks depend on their quality, strength, making process, motivation behind
their utilizing etc. In this article, we will discuss types of bricks used for different criteria.
Bricks are mainly classified into two general categories.
1. Unburnt Bricks & 2. Burnt Bricks.

UNBURNT BRICKS:
Unburnt bricks are also known as sun-dried bricks because they are dried by the heat
coming from the sun. Nowadays these bricks are not used in construction due to their
lower strength but if required they can be used for constructing temporary structures.

BURNT BRICKS:
This types of bricks are made by burning in the kilns. Depending upon the quality burnt
bricks can further be classified into 3 categories which are as following:

1. FIRST CLASS BRICKS:

As the name suggest, first class bricks are best bricks compared to others. Due to their
high quality and greater strength, these bricks are most commonly used in construction
work. The basic properties of first class bricks are given below.

First Class Bricks Properties

1. Type 1. Class 1

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2. Feature 2. Table molded.

3. Shape & Size 3. Standard and uniform (rectangular).

4. Surface & Edges 4. Sharp, smooth, square and straight.

5. Color 5. Uniform red or brown.

6. Maximum Water Absorbing 6. 15% of its self-weight when

submerged in water for 24 hours.

7. Crushing Strength 7. 105 kg/cm2

8. Making Process 8. Burnt in kilns.

9. Use 9. Permanent and superior work.

2. SECOND CLASS BRICKS:

The quality of second class bricks is slightly lower than first class bricks. The basic
properties of this type of bricks are given below.

Second Class Bricks Properties

1. Type 1. Class 2

2. Feature 2. Table molded.

3. Shape & Size 3. Irregular

4. Surface & Edges 4. Rough, uneven faces, may consist of

hairline cracks.

5. Color 5. Uniform color.

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6. Maximum Water Absorbing 6. 22% of its self-weight when

submerged in water for 24 hours.

7. Crushing Strength 7. 70 kg/cm2

8. Making Process 8. Burnt in kilns and sometimes may be

slightly over burnt.

9. Use 9. Used in internal walls. (Plaster or

coating is required.

3. THIRD CLASS BRICKS:

The quality and strength of third class bricks are too much low and they do not fulfill all
the properties of good bricks. The basic properties of these bricks are given below.

Third Class Bricks Properties

1. Type 1. Class 3

2. Feature 2. Ground molded.

3. Shape & Size 3. Non-uniform

4. Surface & Edges 4. Irregular and distorted edges.

5. Color 5. Non-uniform and dark.

6. Maximum Water Absorbing 6. 25% of its self-weight when

submerged in water for 24 hours.

7. Crushing Strength 7. 30 kg/cm2

8. Making Process 8. Burnt in kilns and may be overburnt

or underburnt

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9. Use 9. Used in temporary structures.

SITE INSPECTION AND PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION

SITE INSPECTION AND PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION FOR
CONSTRUCTION:
Investigation of a site is the initial step that should be taken before planning and
developing a structure. A proper site inspection incorporates the study of all surrounding
objects or cuts made in the close by territories for development purposes, the
investigation of remaining structures and if conceivable of their foundations. Data
assembled in regard to other’s involvement in making unearthing in that region may turn
out to be a great help. The investigation of the strata presented to see in the old pits,
unlined wells or banks or nallahas in the close region may uncover the nature of the dirt
at profundities.
The other essential data that can be collected at the time of assessment are as
following:
1. Regardless of whether the soil is poor, strong, marshy, water logged or made up sort.
2. The arrangement of the soil after a proper test.
3. Conduct of the ground amid changes in the ground water level. Regardless of
whether the rain water gets depleted off or causes flooding of the site.
4. Regardless of whether there is unreasonable displacement of the ground. (this might
be because of mining or the site being exceptionally close to some pits well, old drain
etc.
5. Regardless the subsoil water consists of sulphates or any other chemicals that can
affect the foundation.

RAFT FOUNDATION OR MAT FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION

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RAFT FOUNDATION:

Raft foundation is a type of shallow foundation that is made with dense reinforced
concrete slab covering the total area of the bottom of a structure. Sometimes the slabs
are used at the bottom and the beams at the top. This foundation is mostly suitable for
constructing heavy structures on soft made ground or marshy sites having a low bearing
capacity.
Raft foundation is also provided in the mining area where the structure is liable to fail
due to uncertain behaviour. It gives an economical solution to difficult site conditions
when pile foundation can not be used. This foundation sometimes is also known as mat
foundation because the RCC slab covers the whole area of a structure like a mat.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION:
The raft slab is projected at a distance of 30 cm to 40 cm on every side of the outer
walls of a structure. Thus the area of excavation becomes slightly greater than the area

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of the structure. The entire area is then excavated to its required depth and
consolidated. When the surface becomes dry it gives a strong base on which the raft
slab is established.
All the necessary precautions should be taken during the construction of RCC
structures. Further construction should be started after the curing of the raft.

ADVANTAGES OF RAFT FOUNDATION:

The advantages of raft foundation are as follows:

1. Raft foundation can be suitably used in difficult site conditions. It is mostly preferred
for the erratic, soft and marshy sites. It bridges the erratic deposits and reduces the
differential settlement.
2. The intensity of pressure on the foundation soil is considerably decreased due to
the distribution of total load over a large area.
3. The load is uniformly distributed on the entire foundation area.

PROPERTIES OF FIREPROOF MATERIALS FOR BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION
Fireproof is an essential term in building construction. The materials used in
construction should possess fire resisting properties for better safety and protection.
The characteristics of a good fire resisting material are as following:
1. The strength of the material should not be reduced in high temperature.
2. The arrangement of the material ought to be with the end goal that it doesn’t break
down and disintegrate under the impact of high temperature.
3. Expansion and contraction of the of the material because of rising and falling of
temperature, individually should not be exorbitant. Intemperate compression because of
sudden cooling by water, is riskier than the extension impact.
4. The material should be non flammable as much as possible. It should never be
comprehended that non ignitable material is better fireproof. For example, mild steel is
non burnable however not a decent fireproof but timber is an ignitable material yet it is
preferred fireproof over mild steel.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FORMWORK

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REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FORMWORK:

Formwork is a temporary but rigid structure in which the cast in situ concrete is laid for
casting the members to required shape. It is also known as centering or shuttering.
Formwork is placed at its right position before pouring the fresh concrete in it. Poured
concrete is then compacted and permitted to solidify to gain strength. The formwork is
permitted to stay in position till the concrete achieve enough strength to resist the
stresses coming on it without the assistance of the formwork. After this, the formwork is
removed.
The formwork is permitted to stay in position till the concrete achieve enough strength to
resist the stresses coming on it without the assistance of the formwork. After this, the
formwork is removed.
A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1. It should be adequately strong to withstand an extensive variety of dead and live
loads. For instance, self-weight, weight of reinforcement, weight of wet concrete, loads
of workers, and any other loads during and after casting of concrete.
2. It should be inflexibly built and efficiently propped and supported to hold its shape
without undue deflection.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight enough to prevent leakage of cement grout.
4. The formwork should be created in such a way that it may allow the evacuation of
different parts in the desired sequence without shaking or damaging the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be inexpensive, easily accessible and can be
reused for several times.
6. The surface of the formwork should be plain and smooth, and set properly to the
desired line and level.
7. The material of the formwork should not bend or get perverted in presence of sun,
rain or water at the time of concreting.

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8. It should be lightweight.
9. It should be easy to remove.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOLT AND SCREW

BOLT VS SCREW:

Fasteners are the smallest part of a structure. Bolts and screws are the most commonly
used as fasteners for joining of materials. In this article, we will discuss the differences
between bolt vs screw.
In this article, we will discuss the differences between bolt vs screw.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOLT VS SCREW:

The difference between bolt and screw are as following

Bolt Screw

1. Bolt has an external thread at the 1. Screw has no external thread except
lower end. one head.

2. Bolts are always assembled with 2. Screws are always used by itself.
nuts.

3. It has uniform cross-section. 3. It has non-uniform cross-section.

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4. It does not have any decreased 4. It contains decreased or pointed

shank. shank.

5. The threads are spiral in shape. 5. The threads are helical in shape.

6. Holes are required for inserting the 6. Usually, screws are inserted without
bolts. any holes.

7. Bolts are always fixed at a single 7. It requires being turned every time
position and do not need to be to be joined or to be removed.
turned.

8. Torque is applied to the nut(lower 8. Torque is applied to the head.

end) for fastening with the material.

9. Bolts are larger in size. 9. Screws are smaller than bolts.

10. The structure that is joined with 10. It gives less strength than the bolt.
bolts possesses a greater strength.

ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL INSULATION IN A BUILDING

THERMAL INSULATION:
During building construction, the process adopted to prevent heat transfer between
outside and inside of the building is known as thermal insulation. Nowadays thermal
insulation has become an essential part of building construction due to its various
advantages.

ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL INSULATION IN A BUILDING:

1.. The rooms or buildings that are thermally insulated remain warmer in winter and
cooler in summer. Hence, Thermally insulated building provides great comfort both in
summer and winter.
2. A building provided with thermal-insulation requires less power to maintain the
desired temperature conditions in the building. This saves energy and extra costs.

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3. No need of AC, cooler, heater etc.

4. Thermal-insulation prevents the roof deck from cracking.
5. Expansion joints are not required in a structure during construction.
6. The materials that are used in thermal-insulation are lightweight than concrete which
reduces the dead weight on the roof slab.
7. Thermal insulating materials are manufactured from recycled materials.
8. It is easy to install.
9. It is fire resistance.
10. Maintainance is not required.
11. It is environment-friendly.

PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

PRECAST CONCRETE:

As the name suggest, precast concrete is prepared by casting and curing the concrete
in a mold under specific circumstances. The concrete is totally manufactured in a
factory by adopting special construction techniques. When the concrete is fully
hardened and prepared, it is sent to the final construction site. Precast concrete
construction has become very popular in some countries like the USA, UK etc. The
advantages and disadvantages of this type of concrete are given below:

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ADVANTAGES OF PRECAST CONCRETE:

1. Precast concrete is produced in a factory with advanced construction techniques.
2. The materials used in precast concrete production are easily obtainable.
3. The construction procedure is very fast, which ultimately saves time.
4. It possesses better thermal insulating characteristics.
5. Precast members are totally fire-proof and sound-proof.
6. Precast members are lightweight and can be transported easily to the job site.
7. Formwork is not required in such construction.
8. If necessary, precast members can be separated and reused in other structure.
9. It is economical.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRECAST CONCRETE:

1. It requires careful supervision and more skilled workers for producing the members.
2. Uniform spacing between beams are required in the structure, which can become
difficult.
3. Some members are broken up and wasted during the time of transportation from the
factory to the construction site.
4. The molds that are used for casting are little costly, so the construction will be
economical when a lot of members are produced.

UNDERWATER CONCRETING BY TREMIE METHOD

UNDERWATER CONCRETING:

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The degradation of concrete under water is a serious and troublesome matter.

Underwater concreting is necessarily adopted in marine works and in deep foundations.
Due to the continuous loss of cement and segregation of concrete, placing of concrete
under water becomes very difficult to unreinforced construction. Today I am going to
discuss tremie method that is mostly adopted for concreting under water such as
cofferdams, caissons, and such other dewatering method.

UNDERWATER CONCRETING BY TREMIE METHOD:

Tremie method is one of the most common methods that is used for concreting under
water. In this method, a long steel pipe (named as tremie) having a diameter of 15 to 30
cm is inserted vertically into the water. The pipe should be long enough that it reaches
to the bed of water keeping its one end above the water level.
The tremie is then fitted with a hopper at the upper end for pouring concrete inside the
pipe. The lower end of the tremie pipe must be closed with a check valve before
inserting it into the water. After that, freshly mixed concrete is poured with the help of
hopper. When the concrete is poured, it displaces the air and water present in the pipe
and finally reaches to the bed.

During the time of concreting the tremie is continuously lifted keeping the lower end of
the tube in the concrete that is already poured. To reduce the extra loss of cement
under water, rich concrete mix should be always used. Thus concrete laid underwater
should never be compacted or consolidated.

TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:
Scaffolding is a temporary rigid structure having still, bamboo or timber platforms raised
up with increasing the building height. It enables the mason work at different stages of a
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building and takes up the materials for the immediate use at various heights. Different
types of scaffolding are used depending upon the types of construction.

USEFUL TERMS RELATED TO SCAFFOLDING:

1. Standard: It is a vertical member supported on the ground.
2. Ledgers: Ledgers are the longitudinal horizontal members connected with standards.
3. Braces: Braces are the diagonal members that are connected with standards to
stiffen the structure.
4. Put Logs: Put logs are the transverse horizontal members that are 90 cm in length
and are generally spaced 120 cm apart. They are provided to support the working
platform.
5. Transoms: When both the ends of put logs are connected with ledgers, it is called
transoms.
6. Boarding: Boarding is a horizontal member supported by put logs. It is used to
enable the mason and materials.
7. Guard Rail: It is similar to ledgers, used for a better protection at the working level.
8. Toe Board: It is a long horizontal board of wood used at the different working level.

TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING:
Different types of scaffolding are described below:
1. Brick layer’s scaffolding,
2. Mason’s scaffolding,

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3. Steel or tubular scaffolding,

4. Needle scaffolding.

1. BRICK LAYER’S SCAFFOLDING:

This type of scaffolding consists of standards firmly secured in the grounds at 2.4 to 3
m. The standards are connected to each other by ledgers at every rise of 120 to 150
cm. They are provided on the building side of the standards and are secured in position
by rope-lashing. Putlogs are lashed on the ledgers at one end and into the holes in the
wall at the other end. In high scaffolding, cross braces are invariably used to stiffen the
temporary structure. Braces consist of poles tied by rope-lashing on the standards.

2. MASON’S SCAFFOLDING:
Since it is difficult to leave holes in the stone masonry to provide a bearing for the
putlogs, in mason’s scaffolding two frames of standards, at a distance of 1.5 m from the
first one. Thus the mason’s scaffolding is entirely independent of the stone wall.
Close mason’s scaffolding: They are supposed to carry loads of heavy blocks of
stones and the stresses produced on account of the lifting device and hence they are
made stronger by placing the standards at a fairly close distance apart.

3. STEEL SCAFFOLDING:
The construction of steel scaffolding is essentially similar to that of timber scaffolding. In
this case, the wooden members are replaced by 38 mm to 64 mm diameter steel tubes
and instead of rope-lashings, special types of steel couplets or fittings are used for
connecting different members.
The steel tubes used for scaffolding for normal building construction work are heavy
class and of diameter varying from 40 to 60 mm.
In this type of scaffolding, the vertical tubes called uprights or standards are spaced 2.5
to 3 m apart. Each standard is welded to a base plate, square or circular in plan. The
base plate has holes so that it can be spiked to a timber or concrete base, thus forming
a rigid foundation for the scaffolding. Ledgers or the longitudinal tubes connecting the
standard and are spaced at 1.8 m vertically apart. Short tubes or put logs are normally
1.2 m to 1.8 m in length. The putlogs have special ends to fit into the joints in the wall
and thus no big holes are required to be left on the wall for their bearing.
Tubular scaffolding has several advantages over the timber scaffolding such as rapid
erection and dismantling, greater strength and durability, higher fire resisting qualities
and salvage value. Although it works out to be costlier initially, but considering its
several advantages and the increased number of reuses, it proves to be economical in
the long run and hence it is being extensively used these days.

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Tubular scaffolding mounted on wheels can be used for carrying out the work of
painting the walls, underside roofs etc.

4. NEEDLE SCAFFOLDING:
When scaffolding is to provide for a building on the side of a busy street where the
construction of ordinary scaffolding will obstruct the traffic on road, needle scaffold is
used. The scaffold is erected from window corners of string courses by means of
projecting needles. A needle is a timber beam which cantilevers out through the holes
cut in the wall. From inside the needles are supported on sole pieces and are prevented
from lifting up by vertical struts wedged between the needles and the headpieces. The
projected end of the needle is supported by an inclined strut which rests on the window
sill. The joint between the raking or inclined strut and the needle is clamped by mean of
dogs. The arrangement provides the staging for the erection of ordinary type of
scaffolding.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENGLISH BOND & FLEMISH BOND

ENGLISH BOND:

English bond is considered as the strongest and most widely used brick bond in
construction work. It consists of alternate course of headers and stretchers.
In this arrangement, vertical joints in the header and stretcher courses come over each
other. To break the vertical joints in the consecutive courses queen closer should be
placed after the first header in every header course.

FLEMISH BOND:
In this brick bond, each course consists of alternate headers and stretchers. Every
header is centrally supported over the stretchers below it. To break the vertical joints in
the successive courses queen closers are placed in alternate courses next to the queen
header. Bats are essentially required for the walls having their thickness equal to odd
numbers of half bricks. Flemish bond gives better appearance than english bond.

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Flemish Bonds

Flemish bond can be sub-divided into two different categories.

1. Single flemish bond and
2. Double flemish bond.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENGLISH BOND AND FLEMISH

BOND:
Difference between english bond and flemish bond are as follows:

1. English bond is much stronger than flemish bond for the walls thicker more than 1½
brick.
2. Flemish bond shows more attractive and pleasing appearance of masonry work.
3. Flemish bond is economical as it uses broken brick bats, although it requires some
extra mortar for additional joints.
4. Uses of flemish bond is a bit difficult than english bond. Flemish bond requires more
skilled labour and supervision.

CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS
TYPES OF STAIRS:
Depending upon the various arrangement of steps, stairs can be classified under
following categories:

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1. STRAIGHT STAIR:

In this stair, all the steps are arranged continuously along in one direction. One flight
may be split into one or more than one flight by interposing a landing. This stair can be
used where narrow and long space is available for a staircase such as entrance, porch
etc.

2. DOGGED-LEGGED STAIR:

This stair consists of two straight flights of steps with direct turns between them. This
stair is very useful where the total width of the stair is just twice the width of the steps.

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3. OPEN NEWEL STAIR:

This type of stair consists of two or more flights arranging a well or opening between the
backward and forward flights. When all the steps are difficult to arrange in two flights, a
short third flight of 3 to 6 steps may be provided along the direction perpendicular to the
hall. Open newel stair is mostly adopted in the lift.

4. GEOMETRICAL STAIR:

This is another type of open newel stair where the open well between the forward and
the backward flight is curved. This stair may contain different geometrical shape. Here
the change in direction is achieved by using winders.

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5. CIRCULAR STAIR:

In this type of stair, all the steps radiate from a newel or well hole, in the form of
winders. The circular stair is adopted at the back side of a building to access its various
floors.

6. SPIRAL STAIR:

Spiral stair is very similar to a circular stair. It consists of individual steps or treads,
connecting to a centre column. The overall diameter of the stair may range from 1 to 2.5
m.

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7. QUARTER-TURN STAIR:

The quarter-turn stair can be defined as the stairs that are turned at 90 degrees with the
help of level landing.

8. BIFURCATED STAIR:

This type of stair is provided in modern public buildings as well as residential buildings.
In this stair, the flight is so arranged that there is a wide flight at the start which is sub-
divided into narrow flights at the mid-landing. The narrow flights start from either side of
the mid landing.

TYPES OF ADMIXTURES USED IN CONSTRUCTION

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ADMIXTURES:
Admixtures are the special ingredients added during concrete mixing to enhance the
properties and performance of fresh concrete. Various types of admixtures are available
in the market which is used in construction work.

FUNCTION OF ADMIXTURES:
1. To accelerate or retard the setting time of fresh concrete.
2. To improve the workability or flowability of concrete.
3. To increase the strength and durability of concrete.
4. To reduce the heat of hydration.
5. To reduce the segregation and bleeding.
6. To decrease the permeability.
7. To achieve other desired properties.

TYPES OF ADMIXTURES:

1. ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES:
This admixture is added in concrete or mortar for increasing the rate of hydration of
hydraulic cement and for shortening the setting time. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is the
most widely used accelerating admixture.

2. RETARDING ADMIXTURES:
Retarding admixtures delay the initial rate of hydration of cement and extend the setting
time of cement paste. This admixture can be used in high temperature and where the
concrete has to be transported to a long distance. It is also suitable for using in grouting
oil wells.

3. AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES:
Air entraining admixtures help to produce a certain amount of air bubbles in the
concrete mixture. The main goal of this admixture is to increase the resistance against
freeze-thaw degradation and cohesion. It also improves the workability of fresh concrete
without changing the setting or the rate of hardening.

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4. WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES:

As the name suggests, water reducers are added to a concrete mixture, mortar or grout
to increase the flowability without increasing the water content.

ADVANTAGES OF WATER REDUCING

ADMIXTURES:
1.The rate of concrete placement is faster.
2. Strength, durability, density etc. are significantly improved.
3. Segregation, permeability, and cracking are reduced.

SPECIAL ADMIXTURES:
1. Superplasticizing admixtures.
2. Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures.
3. Grouting admixtures.
4. Coloring admixtures etc.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION:
Foundation is the lowest portion of a structure which transmits the load into the
supporting soil. The main purpose of the foundation is to distribute the total weight of
the superstructure over a large area of soil. Various types of foundation are described
below which are used in construction.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION:
Foundation can be classified into two general categories:

1. Shallow Foundation.
2. Deep Foundation.

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1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION:
A Shallow foundation is a type of foundation in which the foundation is situated instantly
below the lowest part of a structure. The depth of foundation is equal or less than its
width.
In this foundation, the total loads of the structure are distributed over a horizontal area
at shallow depth below the ground level.

CLASSIFICATION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION:

1. Spread Footings.
2. Combined Footings.
3. Mat Or Raft Foundation.

SPREAD FOOTINGS:
Generally, spread footing consists of a wide base of foundation for transmitting the load
to the soil over a wider area.

COMBINED FOOTINGS:
Combined footing consists of a common footing provided to two columns which may be
either rectangular or trapezoidal.

 Strap Footing.
 Strip Footing.

RAFT FOUNDATION:
Raft foundation consists of dense reinforced concrete slab which covers the total bottom
area of the structure. It is provided in the soil with low bearing capacity where structural
loads are heavy.

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2. DEEP FOUNDATION:
A deep foundation is a type of foundation in which the foundation is placed at a deeper
depth below the ground level. The depth of foundation is much greater than its width.

Deep foundation can be further classified into three categories:

1. Pile Foundation.
2. Cofferdams.
3. Caisson Foundation.

PILE FOUNDATION:
Pile foundation is a type of foundation where a slender member of wood or concrete or
steel is inserted into the ground for transferring the load of a structure. The load is
transferred to a stronger stratum by friction or by bearing.
Classification Of Pile Foundation:
Classification Based On function:

1. Bearing Piles.
2. Friction Piles.
3. Sheet piles.
4. Anchor Piles.
5. Batter Piles.
6. Fender Piles.
7. Compaction Piles.

Classification based On Material:

1. Timber piles.
2. Concrete Piles.
3. Steel Piles.
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COFFERDAMS:
A Cofferdam is a temporary structure which excludes the water from a given site to
enable the construction on a dry surface.
Classification Of Cofferdams Based On Material:

1. Earthen Cofferdam.
2. Rock-fill Cofferdam.
3. Single-walled cofferdam.
4. Double-walled cofferdam.
5. Crib Cofferdam.
6. Cellular Cofferdam.

CAISSON FOUNDATION:

Caisson is a watertight structure made of wood, steel or reinforced concrete which

excavates for the foundation of bridges, piers etc.
Types Of Caissons:

1. Open Caisson.
2. Box Caisson.
3. Pneumatic Caisson.

HOW TO SELECT THE LOCATION OF DOORS IN A BUILDING

LOCATION OF DOORS:
The location of doors can affect the aesthetics and can change the entire looks (internal
or external) of a house or building. So it is also necessary to select the right position of
doors during the planning stage. The following points should be considered while
deciding the location of doors in a building.

AIR CIRCULATION:
The doors should be provided on the opposite walls, facing each other to ensure
adequate air circulation in a room.

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SPACE & PRIVACY:

Considering the point of proper utilization of space and privacy, the door should be
located near the corner of a room.

NUMBER OF DOORS:
Excellent utilization of space can be achieved by lowering the number of doors in a
room, because a large number of doors occupy more area, creates an obstruction in
circulation.

UTILIZATION OF LIGHT:
The door should be so located that no dark corner is left in the room and light and
ventilation are evenly distributed.

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS:
The location of doors must fulfill all the functional requirements of the room.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS TO BUILD A GOOD STAIR

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF STAIRS:

Stairs are the steps arranged in a series to access the various floors of a building. A
well-established staircase should have an easy, quick and safe mode of communication
between the different floors of that building. The following points should be kept in view
to design and build a good stair.

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1. LOCATION OF STAIR:
The staircase should be located at the right place in a building with adequate light and
ventilation. In a residential house, the stairs may be provided near the main entrance. In
case of a public building, it should be located at the central position for a quick
accessibility.

2. WIDTH OF STAIR:
The width of stairs depends on the traffic flow and may vary from building to building. In
public building, the width of stairs should be at least 6 feet and in a residential building,
it should be 3 feet.

3. LENGTH OF STAIR:
The flight should provide a maximum of 12 and a minimum number of 3 steps.

4. PITCH OF STAIR:
The maximum pitch for a domestic building should not exceed 42° and for a public
building, it should not exceed 33°.

5. HEADROOM:
The minimum headroom in a staircase should not be less than 6 feet 8 inches.

6. LANDING:
The width of landing should be always greater than the width of a stair.

7. MATERIALS:
Fire resisting materials should be used to construct the staircase for better safety.

8. BALUSTRADE:
Balustrade should be provided in all open well stairs to minimize the accidents. Handrail
must be used on both sides of wide stairs (When stair is wider than 44 cm).

9. WINDERS:
To build a safe and easy staircase, winders should be avoided, but if necessary it may
be provided at lower end of the flight.

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10. STAIR PROPORTIONS:

Uniform dimensions should be provided to the rise and trade in each step. A well-
proportioned ratio between the rise and the going is required to access the stairway
more comfortably.
The following guidelines should be considered to obtain a good result:
1. (Going in cm) + (2×Rise in cm) = 60
2. (Going in cm) × (Rise in cm) = 400 (approx).
And the following rules should be considered to decide the step size:
3. In residential buildings, the average size of a step is used as (25 cm × 16) cm.
4. In public buildings, the average size of step varies from (27 cm × 15) cm to (30 cm
× 13) cm.

WATERPROOFING TREATMENT FOR THE ROOFS OF MULTI-STOREYED

BUILDINGS
WATERPROOFING TREATMENT OF CONCRETE:
Waterproofing treatment of concrete is an essential part of building construction. In case
of multi-storey building, besides waterproofing, thermal insulation is an equally
important factor to be kept in view. This is achieved by increasing the thickness of the
grading by using economical and effective materials. The water-proofing treatment
generally given to roof of multi-storey buildings and other important structures may be
divided into the followings steps:

1. Painting the top of roof slab uniformly with a layer of hot bitumen spread at the rate of
1.70 of bitumen per sq.m of the roof surface.
2. Spreading immediately coarse sand at the rate of 0.6 cu.m of sand per 100 sq.m of
roof surface when the bitumen is still hot.
3. Laying cinder concrete 1:15 (1 cement:15 cinders of 13 mm and down gauge) in an
average thickness of 15 cm, the slope for the proper drainage of the roof being given to
this layer.
4. Laying 7.6 cm thick layer of lime concrete over the consolidated layer of cinder
concrete, the lime concrete being prepared bu mixing 50% of mortar consisting of lime
and sand mixed in the ratio of 1:2 with brick ballast 25 mm, and down gauge.
5. Spreading 13 mm. a thick layer of cement mortar 1:3 and laying tile brick flat and
open jointed over the mortar. Finally grouting the joints in the bricks with cement mortar
1:3.
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