B.

Ed Second Semester
Paper 201: Development of Education System in India
Prepared By: Ms. Fareeda Akhtar
Faculty IASE M.A Road Srinagar.
UNIT I and UNIT II
Education in Medieval India
MUSLIM EDUCATION (650AD - 1700AD)
Introduction:
Muslim period is popularly known the Golden period. Education was imparted at religious
places. They were generally attached to mosques. Education was free and rigorous. Both rewards and
punishments were in vogue. Kings held teachers in high esteem and devoted liberally to educational institutions.
Teaching was imparted orally. Students crammed verses of the holy Quran without understanding them. In
higher classes subjects like history, philosophy, grammer and law were taught. The medium of instruction was
Arabic and Persian.
Salient Features of Muslim Education
Muslim invaders ravaged (looted) Indian wealth and disturbed the country's philosophical,
cultural and political serene atmosphere. They established their own Muslim educational institutions and started
giving religious ideals to spread and wanted to establish their superior status. The salient features of Muslim
educations are discussed as follows:-
1. Encouragement to education: Muslim rulers established a number of primary and higher educational
institutions along with mosques, because each mosque had its own Maktab and Madaras which had library
facility, where in scholars were patronized by the state. Medals were given to brilliant students, the state would
grant scholarship generously to the bright pupils. They were provided high posts in the state after the completion
of their education. In this way, education received state patronage and developed enormously.
2. University of education: Like other educational systems, Muslims education also had religious essence. In
the Maktabs and Madrasas, religious education was imparted . The languages of preaching were Arabic and
Persian, so the Hindus were deprived of educational privileges of Muslim education. There was also predominant
role of social stratification. The pupils of higher and middle classes could get education but pupils of lower classes
were deprived by the educational facilities. So there was no University of educational opportunities for all the
strata of society.
3. Emphasis on 3R's: Muslim education laid great emphasis on 3R's viz., reading, writing and arithmetic. The
verses from Quran were crammed by the children without understanding them. Thus, much emphasis was laid on
oral learning. The subjects of study at the higher stage were philosophy, history, sufi religion, grammar, law and
great works of Islam.
4. Emphasis on oral work: Education in the Maktab was mostly oral. Children learnt everything by rote
memory. Writing and Mathematics were taught at the later stage. The monitor held the charge of the class in the
absence of the teacher. Only one teacher taught all the classes. At the higher stage of education teaching was
done through lecture followed by discussion.
5. Discipline: The concept of discipline in the medieval times was different from what it is today. It was
very rigorous and strict. Corporal punishment was prevalent. Students had to become a cock for the
lapses. In rare cases they were canned. But generally the students were self-disciplined and teacher
-taught relationship was cordial and intimate.
6. Examination system: For evaluating the knowledge of the students, tests were held periodically.
Examinations were both oral and written. Meritorious students were awarded scholarships. Knowledge
of the students was also adjudged in mushairas and other intellectual gatherings organized from time to
time.
7. Education of Girls: Education of girls was restricted to higher families only. Muslim women
observed the "Pardah" system. Usually they were not allowed to get education. The primary education
was given to the local women but not at Madrasas. They would learn only reading and writing . Maktabs
were attached to the Mosques, so women used to attend the classes conducted in Maktabs. There was
no seperate provision made for their education. There was no uniformity and so they remained
backward in society.
8. Degrees: In Muslim education, there was also the system of awarding degrees after the completion of
education. The students, who acquired special knowledge in religion, were given the degree of "Alim".
The students completing the educatiuon of logic were conferred the degree of "Fazil".
9. Neglect of the colloquial language: During Muslim period Arabic and Persian languages were used as the
medium of instruction and the vernacular languages had been altogether neglected.
Aims of Muslim education:
The prominent factor of imparting education in medieval period was its Islamic
spirit in various parts of India. The following were the aims of Islamic education:-
1. Propagation of Islam: The aim of Islamic education or Muslim education was the propagation and spread
of Islam in India. So the Maktabs and Madrasas were established in different parts of the country. Every Mosque
had the Maktab where Muslim children were taught to recite the Quran. Madrasas were the centers of higher
education, where islamic history, rituals together with higher knowledge of the religion was taught. Education
was based on religion. It wanted to make the people religious oriented and the construction of Maktabs and
Madrasas was the holy task of every Muslim ruler.
2. Spread Of Islamic knowledge among Muslims: Muslim theologists believed that the inculcation of
Islamic ideals and values was the real education. So they emphasized upon education by religious Mullahs and
Maulvies. According to Islam, education gives knowledge that knowledge is nectar. Salvation is not possible
without knowlede. Prophet Mohammad (SAW) himself taught the people the right ways of life, the right and
wrong thoughts and deeds. Knowledge is necessary for all men and women according to Islamic religion and the
same rays reflected during medieval education. That is why the very aim of Islamic education was to spread the
light of knowledge among the ardent followers of Islamic religion.
3. Development of morality: The third aim of Medieval education was the development of Islamic social
morals which were based on Islamic doctrines, social traditions and political principles. To achieve this aim,
Islamic students were taught religious books. At the same time, Maulvis taught Muslim children the ideals of
morality to lead a pious life. To develop moral quality among the pupils they were made to follow the principles
of truth, ethical behaviour, respect for elders and reverence for the teacher.
4. Propagation of Shariyat: Propagation of Shariyat was another important aim of Muslim education.
Shariyat means a code of Islamic laws and rules of conduct to be followed by those who had belief and faith on
Islamic religion and its principles. In the Maktabs and Madrasas these rules and laws were taught to the educands
by the Maulvis. These molvis tried to prepare them to shoulder the responsibilities of the govt and the mode of
living in the society. Education was an instrument to teach those laws and principles to pupils and also making
known to the kings, officers and common people about the essence of Shariyat.
5. Character building: According to Prophet Mohammad (SAW), only a man of character could achieve
progress and develop his 'self'. To supplement good character among the pupils of "Muslims", Islamic education
would give importance to their character building.
6. Achievement of material well being: Muslim education honoured people, pupils and scholars by
providing them all sorts of privileges, high posts, medals for the meritorious students, honourable rank and
grants to educational institutions to retain interest among students. In the executive departments, some of the
students were appointed as commanders of the army, judges in civil administration and ministers. This was the
process of encouraging students. Education was highly respected and adored. The aim of islamic education was to
achieve material prosperity.
7. Support to administration: The Muslim rulers had a great hand in the management of education. The aim
was to strengthen and develop a good administration. Education helped them to a great extent in this respect.
This led to the expansion of their empire and stabilized the prevailing administrative system. The rules and
regulations, framed were in tune with the political and social development.
8. Preservation and spread of muslim culture: Muslim educational system worked for the preservation
and transmission of culture. Study of authentic works was compulsary. Rules and regulations pertaining to their
culture were strictly followed. The medium of instruction were Persian and Arabic language. Emphasis was laid
on the study of original works. The help and cooperation of kings and priests was readily available in this matter.
Process of Muslim Education:
The Muslim Prophets had urged their followers to preach and expand their religion.
Education in its religious philosophy was necessary for preaching Islam. In the Muslim period education was
mainly divided into two stages. These are:-
1. Maktabs (Elementary Education)
2. Madrasas (Higher Education)
During medieval period, these stages of educational institutions spread all over the country.
1. Maktabs (Elementary Education): Maktabs were primary schools meant for small children. They were
situated adjacent to homes in the mosques organized on the pattern of the indigenous system of education.
Children attended these schools in the beginning of their life and crammed the verses of Quran. The priest of the
mosque performed the work of the teacher. He had an elementary knowledge of the language and the religious
prayer. In the Maktabs, the child was initiated in education through a ritual known as "Bismillah". Ordinarily,
only one teacher taught all children. Single teacher system was in vogue and the monitor system was prevalent.
Education was free. The chief aim of education was to instill faith in religion and inculcate religious feeling
among the children.
In Maktabs, the teaching method was oral. Since the students in Maktabs were small, thus learing, speaking and
hearing Qalima, cramming some verses from the Quran was made essential. After that, the pupils were given
religious education and they were made to study Holy book i.e. the Quran. Writing and Arithmetic were also
taught in some Maktabs. There was no scientific method of teaching in the Maktabs. So most of the students used
to memorise Quran and prayers for most of the time.
2. Madrasas (Higher Education): Higher Education in muslim period was imparted through the institution
of Madrasas. They worked as the international centers of learing. Students from other muslim countries of the
west were attracted to these centers. The chief aim of establishing these centers was the preservation and spread
of muslim religion and culture. Rulers helpedthem financially by sanctioning huge sums from time to time for
their maintenance and development. The administration of these higher educational institutions was in the
hands of the private people and wealthy donors. Duration of course was 10-12 years. The medium of instruction
was Arabic. Higher education was encouraged by providing honourable places in the state after the completion of
education in Madrasas.
In Madrasas, the teaching method was oral dars means lecture. This method existed at
that time. Lecture method demanded consultation of books for reference. On Ilahi, Tibii and Riyaji, practical and
experimental education was made known. Ilahi is a divine science consisting of theology and ways and
approaches of acquiring spiritual knowledge. Tibii deals with medicine and physical science, Riyaji deals with
mathematics, astrology, music and machines. These three branches were taught in the Madrasas through the
lecture method. Individual attention was paid to each of the pupils. At the initial stage reading and writing was
done separately to ensure getting mastery over the lesson. There after they would pass on the next lesson. This
had taken long duration and later reading and writing was done simultaneously.
There was monitorial system during Medieval period, higher class brilliant students would look
after the lower lasses in the absence of the class teacher. They used to teach with the consent of the teacher.
In addition to this, there was inductive and analytical method which was adopted to teach
philosophy, religion and logic. In Madrasas discussions were also held in the courts of the Emperors.
In the Medieval period, due to Pardah system, Women were kept away from educational benefits
but few women could get education at their own places. There was no special arrangement of education for
common women folk. They were allowed to get education only upto the primary level. Higher education was not
open to all. This was due to early marriage.
Curriculum in Muslim Education
Curriculum in Muslim education can be discussed under the following headings:
1. Curriculum of Maktabs (Elementary curriculum)
2. Curriculum of Madrasas (Higher curriculum)
1. Curriculum of Maktabs (Elementary curriculum):
When the pupil was too young and tender, the aim of primary education was to teach alphabets. Besides, this
stage was confined to reading, writing and elementary Arithmetic. In Maktabs, the students were taught to
become rational minded and also appreciated equality. They would become skilled craftsmen in warfare-such a
kind of education was given in Maktabs. Later on, Islamic principles were taught. They used to train pupil's eyes
and ears through recitation of the holy scriptures. Great emphasis was laid on pronunciation. The children were
expected to recite verses from the Quran with comprehension. "Pandnamah" of sadi was taught to the children.
They used to learn Persian grammer by heart. They were also taught Gulistan and Bostan of Sadi. Good
handwriting was considered as a part of education and for good handwriting students were made to have practice
for 4-5 hours. Along with these, letter writing, conversation, elementary arithmetic, drawing petitions in simple
ways were the subjects of study in Maktabs.
2. Curriculum of Madrasas: There were two categories of learning in Madrasas, namely:-
a) Religious learning; and
b) Secular learning
a) Religious learning: Religious learning included the study of Quran, Prophet Mohammad (SAW) and its
conventions, Islamic history and laws, traditions and conventions of Islamic religion. These subjects would
improve and initiate philosophical serenity of minds of the pupils of the Madrasas. Subjects of both the categories
were imparted through the medium of Arabic. Mother tongue of the educands was also used to recite Islamic
hymns. They taught mother tongue which helped the pupils to increase memory power and retension power.
Subjects like philosophy, literature and other Indian subjects were taught to Hindu students in the same
institutions along with Muslim students. Later on, other subjects like geometry, Menstruation, physiognomy,
rules and laws of govt and also home science was included. For Hindu students, Vedanta, Grammer, Law, Yoga
were compulsory. Music was also taught but it was not included in the curriculum. The practical utility of the
subjects was taken into consideration.
b) Secular learning: Secular learning included the study of subjects like Arabic grammer, Prose, Philosophy,
Literature, Logic, Law, Astrology, History, Geography, Medicines, Agriculture, Arithmetics, Compositions,
Economics and Greek language. These subjects helped the students to attain material prosperity.
Merits of Muslim Education
Muslim education possessed the following merits:
1. Compulsory: Education was compulsory especially for boys.
2. Character: Great stress was laid on character building.
3. Practical: In Muslim education great stress was laid on practical utility.
4. Literature: Under Muslim rulers, (through educational system), a good deal of development of literature
took place.
5. Free education: The education during the Muslim rule was mostly free.
Demerits of Muslim Education
In addition to so many merits, Muslim education had the following demerits:-
1. No universal education: There was no provisions of universal education which was its greatest drawback.
2. One sided curriculum: There was too much emphasis on teaching of Arabic and Persian. This led to the
neglect of other subjects.
3. Lack of psychological basis: Muslim education lacked psychological incentives.
Education in British India-I
Woods Despatch (1854)
Introduction:
The early years of the second half of the nineteenth century were a period of great
importance, when a tide of Westernisation strongly set in on Indian soil. Many changes in education took place
between 1813 to 1853. A stage had reached when a survey of the whole field of education in India was
indispensable. By 1853, the Directors of the company decided to lay down a definite educational policy for india.
A Parliamentary Committee was appointed to survey the educational progress in india. The most important
witnesses of the committee were Trevelyan, Sir E. Parry, Alexander Duff, H. H . Wilson, Sir F. Halliday and others.
The committee reported clearly that Indian education could not be ignorned further and its growth and
expansion was in no way harmful to british interests in India. The suggestions of the committee were favourably
considered by Board of Directors. Sir Charles Wood was the chairman of the Board of Control, so the decleration
is known as Wood's Education Despatch. According to John Stuart, "Wood's Educational Despatch (1854) has a
very important place in the History of Education in India."
Main Objectives
The Despatch had the following objectives as recordedby S.N. Mukerji:-
1) To confer upon the natives of india those vast and material blessings which flow from the general diffusion and
western knowledge;
2) To produce a higher degree of intellectual fitness and to raise the moral character of those who partake of the
above advantages;
3) To supply the East India Company with reliable and capable public servants.
The Despatch then emphatically declared, " The education that we desire to see extended
in India is that which has for its objects the diffusion of the improved arts, science, philosophy and literature of
Europe; in short of European Knowledge".
Recommendations
Wood's Despatch is a long report of 100 paragraphs in which all the important
educational points have been dealt in detail. Sir Charles Wood declared that in India, the British had to deal with
" a race of people slow to change, bound up by religious prejudices and antiquated customs". Therefore, the
British approach to the subject required a change for which he made the following recommendations in his
Despatch.
1. Establishment of Universities:
 The Despatch suggested that Universities should be established at:
a) Calcutta (now called as Kolkata),
b) Bombay (now called as Mumbai), and
c) Madras (now called as Chennai).
The Despatch recommended that the govt should establish Universities which could be both affiliating
and also examining bodies. Each University should have a Chancellor and a Vice-Chancellor and should be
organized on the pattern of London University which was to be taken as their model. The Universities should
have a senate to frame rules for conducting examinations and controlling funds and professorships for different
branches of education.
2. Establishment of Department of Public Institutions:
Wood's Despatch recommended the creation of a seperate Department of Public Instruction in each of
the five provinces of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, North-west Provinces and Punjab. The Department in each
province was to be placed under the officer to be called the Director of Public Instruction. He was to be assisted
by inspectors of schools who would make periodical reports of educational work in their respective provinces.
3. Grant-in-aid System:
The Despatch admitted that it was impossible for the govt to develop a comprehensive scheme of
education for the whole country single handedly and thus the necessary of building up a system of grent-in-aid
was stressed. The Despatch proposed to give grants to such schools and colleges as would:-
a) Satisfy govt about the stability of their management.
b) Impart good secular education.
c) Be open to state inspection, and
d) Agree to any conditions which might be laid down for the regulation of such grants.
4. Medium of Instruction:
The Despatch also dealt with question of the medium of instruction and declared English as the most
perfect medium of instruction but it should not be insisted upon at all stages. It should be used only when a
sufficient knowledge of its use has been gained. The Despatch gave importance to the existing vernacular
languages because it was through the medium of vernacular language that European knowledge could filter down
to the masses.
5. Establishment of Regular Institutions:
The Despatch recommended the establishment of a network of graded institutions all over
the india. The hierarchy of these institutions would be - Primary School, Middle School, High School, College
followed by University.
6. Training of Teachers:
Regarding the training of teachers, the Despatch advocated the need for establishing
different types of training institutions and giving stipends to teachers under training. It also recommended that
the professional training in law, medicine and civil engineering should come under the direct control of
universities.
7. Womens Education:
The Woods Despatch did not ignore the Women's education and gave a good tribute to
the persons who were engaged in this pious work. According to the Despatch, "the importance of female
education in india cannot be overrated". It recommended frank and cordial support of the govt to the cause of
female education and said that schools for females were to be included among these to which grants-in-aid might
be given.
8. Muslim Education:
It was found that Muslim community was lagging far behind in education. So concerning
Muslim education, Charles Wood has said that Muslims should be encouraged to attain education and various
efforts should be made in this direction.
INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OR HUNTER COMMISSION (1882-83)
Introduction:
The Woods Despatch of 1854 had clearly laid down that govt should provide education for those
who are literally incapable of obtaining education worthy of the name by their own unaided efforts. It was felt
that too much was being done for higher education and that primary education was being paid less attention. The
progress of education was also very slow and there were complaints that the Wood's Despatch of 1854 had not
been followed in letter and spirit. In the midst of circumtances Lord Ripon, and then Governor General,
appointed a commission composed of 22 members on feb 3, 1882 with Sir William Hunter as its chairman. It is
after the name of Sir William Hunter that the Indian Education Commission is also called as Hunter Commission.
The Hunter Commission was required to report on "the present state of elementary education and the means by
which this can be extended and improved". The commission was appointed mostly as a result of the agitation
raised by the General Council of Education in London. The commission had its sittings in Calcutta (now Kolkata)
for seven weeks. Then toured over the country for next eight months, examined witnesses and collected
memorials. Finally, in 1883, it submitted its report of more than 600 folio pages and 222 resolutions.
Recommendations of the Commission
The Hunter Commission submitted its report after a thorough investigation into the matter. It made
the following important recommendations:
1. Primary Education
The commission strongly recommended the importance of primary education by declaring, "that
while every branch of education can justly claim the fostering care of the state. The elementary education of the
masses, its provision, extension and improvement" deserves the greatest attention in any national system of
education. Accordingly, some recommendations of importance nature were made in favour of primary education
viz. policy, administration, finance, curriculum and training of teachers. The commission felt that elementary
schools should be handed over to the Management of Municipal Councils and District Boards and other bodies
subject to the inspection and supervision by the govt. It further pointed out that these Boards should deal with
the whole system of primary education. A careful watch over educational needs of all classes or communities is
provided for all such wants weather by creating schools of their own or by aiding existing schools. Regarding
finance, the Commission made some important recommendations, which are as follows:
- Every District and Municipal Board was asked to keep a seperate fund for primary education;
- Primary education was considered to have an almost exclusive claim on local funds set apart for education and a
large claim on provincial revenue;
- Government was asked to assist local funds by a suitable system of grant-in-aid.
2. Secondary Education
The commission is suggested the need for bifurcation of curricula in the higher standards of
secondary schools, which are as :-
a) A Course - leading to the entrance examination of Universities; and
b) B Course - of a practical type, commercial or non-literary in nature.
Regarding the medium of instruction, the commission favoured the use of English.
3. Higher Education
With regard to higher education, the commission made various recommendations. While giving
grants-in-aid to the colleges the number of the teachers, expenditure of the college, efficiency and local needs
must also be kept in mind. If needed, non- recurring or special grants may be given to the colleges for establishing
furnished library and other educational equipments. Vast and varied curricula should be arranged in these
colleges so that the students must have the subjects of their choice and aptitude. Meritorious and promising
students may be sent to foreign countries for higher education on Govt scholarships. The commission also
recommended that in order to raise the moral standards of the students such books should be compiled which
may contain the principles of religion at large. It also recommended that the number of the students receiving
free education should be limited. Private colleges should be authorized to receive lesser fee as compared to govt
colleges. While appointing teachers such Indians should be preferred who have received education in European
Universities.
4. Grant-in-aid for Indigenous Schools
 The Hunter Commission made recommendations for the encouragement of indigenous schools by
grant-in-aid on the basis of "Payment by Results". The aided schools and colleges were to be allowed lower rates
of fees. Govt owned institutions and these colleges should be encouraged to employ more Indian graduates
trained in European Universities.
5. Training of Teachers
For improving the standard of teaching the commission recommended adequate inspetion and
proper training of teachers. It stressed the need for organizing an examination in Principles and Practice of
teaching for teachers and urged that successful examines should be employed permanently as teachers in a
secondary schools whether aided or Government.
6. Education of the Women
Hunter Commission also paid attention on the education of women at that time. The commission gave
various recommendations with regard to women's education. It also suggested that Govt should give liberal aids
to private girl's schools, award grants to Zanana teachers, prescribe a simple syllabus for girls at primary stage and
organize a seperate inspectorate for girls education. The commission also considered it necessary to extend
primary education in backward classes and specially amongst the aboriginal tribes and low castes through an
exemption of fees. The commission also suggested that night schools be encouraged wherever practicable.
7. Muslim Education
The commission considered that the education of the Muslims was not given sufficient and
proper attention. The commission recommended that every effort should be made to popularize muslim
education. Special funds should be allocated for it. The commission also recommended that in the localities
where muslims are in majority, the teaching of Hindustani (Urdu) and Persian should be given in middle and
high schools. More scholarships should be given to muslim students as they are unable to pay the fee. In the Govt
appointments, muslims should be given appropriate representation.
8. Education of Harijans and backward classes:
With regard to the education of Harijans and backward classes, the commission suggested that all
the schools run by the Government, Muncipalities and local Boards should be directed to admit children of
Harijans and backward classes. In places where an objection is raised to the admission of these Harijans and
Backward children, special schools should be opened for them. It was also recommended that on the part of
school teachers and inspectors judicious efforts should be taken to remove caste prejudices.
9. Religious Education
The commission recommended that religious education of any sort should not be given in the public
schools. Religious education may be imparted in the private institutions and the Government should have
nothing to do with it.
It also recommended that while giving grant-in-aid to institutions imparting religious education careful
attention should be paid to their teaching work only.