By Mostafa Valavi and Arne Nysveen

In This article, the state of the art in

the  variable-speed operation of hydropower plants
is reviewed, with a focus on pumped-storage
hydropower. Relevant literature is reviewed to
address the benefits of variable-speed opera-
tion for both power systems and hydropower
facilities. Two main configurations to enable
variable-speed operation—the doubly fed
induction machine (DFIM) and the con-
verter-fed synchronous machine (CFSM)—
are discussed and compared. The article
addresses the technology and energy
policies of the past, present, and future
and points out how the motivation,
services, value, and technology of
variable-speed hydropower plants
have been subject to consider-
able change.

©istockphoto.com/goce

Variable-Speed Operation
of Hydropower Plants
A LOOK AT THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIAS.2017.2740467

Date of publication: 18 June 2018

18 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine œ september/october 201 8 1077-2618/18©2018IEEE

Pumped-Storage Plants power. In contrast to reversible pump–
Variable-speed hydropower genera- turbines, the drawbacks include
tors (motor–generators in pumped- Pumped-storage high investment costs, larger space
storage facilities) do not need to
operate at a constant rotational speed
hydropower facilities requirements, mechanical complexity,
and high operating and maintenance
because they are no longer directly are the most efficient costs. As indicated in [3], both vari-
connected to the grid. In conventional able-speed and ternary systems are
hydropower plants, to produce the and practical large- considered to be advanced pumped-
grid frequency, the rotational speed
of the generator and turbine must
scale energy storage storage hydropower technologies. In
pumped-storage plants with relatively
be constant. In the case of pumped- systems, with typical low heads, a mechanically complex
storage plants, operation at a con- pump–turbine solution (i.e., the Deri-
stant speed means that the pumping overall efficiency in az turbine [5]) with adjustable blades
power cannot be properly adjusted.
But variable-speed operation can offer
the range of 70–85%. can extend the operational range
and enable the regulation of the
many advantages. This article aims to pumping power; its use, however, has
address the opportunities and chal- been limited.
lenges of variable-speed hydropower facilities. The most As a mature technology, conventional pumped-storage
relevant application is pumped-storage hydropower, which facilities have been used mainly for balancing the power
is the focus of this work. In addition, variable-speed op­­­­­ production and load demand in the grid. Typical opera-
eration in small hydropower and high-voltage dc (HVdc)- tion includes working in the pumping mode during off-
connected plants is discussed. peak hours (normally at night) and in the production
Pumped-storage hydropower facilities are the most mode during peak hours. The flexibility of pumped-
efficient and practical large-scale energy storage systems, storage plants allows large thermal and nuclear power
with typical overall efficiency in the range of 70–85% plants to operate most efficiently at their peak produc-
[1]–[3]. In production mode, the plant operates as a con- tion. In many countries, this was the main motivation for
ventional hydroelectric plant. In pumping mode, electri- the development of pumped-storage technology in the
cal energy from the grid is consumed to pump the water 1970s [3], [6].
from the lower reservoir to the upper one. In a pumped- Today, such plants in the grid can play much a greater
storage facility, a motor–generator is used to work either role than that. As intermittent renewable energy sources
as a generator in the production mode or as a motor in such as wind and solar become more important, advanced
the pumping mode. pumped-storage hydropower may be the enabling
For the hydraulic system, the following two configu- technology that allows for the higher penetration of
rations can be employed: 1) a reversible pump–turbine renewable energies into the grid. Because the gen-
(usually of the Francis type) and 2) a separate pump and eration of these variable renewables is difficult to pre-
turbine (i.e., a ternary system). It is most common to use dict, flexible energy storage capacity is needed to improve
reversible pump–turbines in pumped-storage hydropower
plants (such as the one shown in Figure 1). In this config-
uration, the direction of rotation must be reversed when
the pumping mode is switched to the production mode
and vice versa. As will be discussed later, in the design
of reversible pump–turbines, priority is normally given to
the pumping operation. The emphasis of this article is the
variable-speed operation of reversible pump–turbines.
A way to bring additional flexibility to hydropower
plants is to use ternary systems, in which a separate
pump and turbine can work simultaneously. In this con-
figuration, a pump and turbine are connected to the
motor–generator so that there is no need to reverse
the direction of rotation when the mode of operation
changes. Hence, they can offer a quicker transition time
between modes and a faster response. In addition, both
the pump and turbine can be optimized, leading to a high-
er hydraulic efficiency. FIGURE 1. The runner of a 240-MW reversible Francis pump–turbine
The operation of ternary systems in hydraulic short in the Limberg II pumped-storage plant, Austria. (Used with
circuit also makes it possible to regulate the ­p umping permission from [4].)

s e p t e m be r/o ct o be r 2018 œ IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 19

 their grid integration. Conventional pumped-storage Another application that could benefit from variable-
facilities with constant rotational speed are not capable of speed operation is in small hydropower systems [10],
providing the high degree of flexibility that a power sys- where head and flow variations can be considerable. With
tem needs in this case. The variable-speed operation of variable-speed technology, it is possible to replace rather
pumped-storage hydropower plants can bring additional mechanically complex turbines with simpler ones, while
flexibility to the power system while offering a variety of maintaining a sufficiently high efficiency.
valuable ancillary services. In addition to the power system,
the hydropower facility itself could benefit substantially Benefits for the Power System
from variable-speed operation, through, e.g., improved effi- The flexibility and stabilization of the power system can
ciency and an extended operating range. be greatly improved with the ancillary services that hydro-
This article reviews the state of the art in the vari- power plants with variable speed can provide. Offering high
able-speed operation of hydropower plants and is an dynamic control, they increase the controllability of the
extended version of [7]. The status of the technology is power system. One obvious advantage of pumped-storage
reported, and future trends are discussed. facilities is their ability to adjust the pumping power
and hence contribute to frequency regulation. In fixed-
Benefits of Variable-Speed Operation speed systems, the pumping power cannot be properly
The development of variable-speed pumped-storage plants varied, so one way to increase flexibility is to use mul-
dates back to the early 1990s in Japan, where pioneering tiple pumps. The variable-speed solution, however, has
achievements took place and the world’s first such facili- distinct advantages over the multiple pumps solution; for
ties were successfully commissioned. The main reason example, the capability for load balancing is much better,
for their development was to reduce the number of large and there is no need for frequent start/stop sequences.
thermal plants operating as reserves during the night Variable-speed pumped-storage plants are also able
and take advantage of the great flexibility offered by to compensate in the production of variable renewables
variable-speed pumped-storage facilities for frequen- and improve their integration into the grid [3], [11], [12].
cy regulation [8]. Still, nondispatchable production of these renewables is
The main advantage of variable-speed operation for not the only challenge for this integration. The variable
pumped-storage plants is the ability to control power in renewable sources do not provide inertia in the same
the pumping mode. Hence, such plants can contribute to way that classical units do, and, as a result, grid stabil-
frequency control in the pumping mode as well as in the ity problems can be a limiting factor for high penetra-
production mode. As will be addressed in this section, tion of renewables [13], [14]. The stability of the grid can
variable-speed pumped-storage facilities can also offer be greatly improved by the ancillary services provided
ancillary services to support the reliable and stable opera- by variable-speed pumped-storage plants, and there
tion of the grid. are many papers and reports that discuss this [3], [8,]
The application of variable-speed hydropower technol- [14]–[19]. The variable-speed hydropower approach is
ogy is, however, not limited to pumped-storage plants. claimed not to need any power system stabilizer (PSS)
In the case of HVdc-connected hydropower facilities functionality [20]. A comparison between variable-speed
[9], because the frequency of the generator is not tied hydroelectric systems and conventional systems with PSS
to the grid, the operation of the plant can be optimized in terms of dynamic behavior is presented in [19]. Iso-
by adjusting the rotational speed. In such plants, it can lated grids are, in general, more sensitive in responding
be advantageous to employ variable-speed technology. to frequency deviations; hence, pumped-storage facilities
could play a key role in ensuring the safe operation of
the grid [12], [21]. In addition, flexible pumped-storage
plants, particularly those equipped with variable-speed
0 technology, can greatly reduce the amount of wind
–0.1 power curtailment [3], [22].
–0.2
–0.3 In variable-speed systems, the output power can be
(p.u.)

–0.4 controlled by the converter; by contrast, in convention-

–0.5 al hydropower facilities, the turbine governor has this
–0.6
–0.7 responsibility [3], [8], [23]. The result can be very fast and
high dynamic power control that can be used to improve
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
power system stability. In this regard, an interesting fea-
Time (s)
ture offered by variable-speed operation is instantaneous
power injection [16], [18], [24], [25], as shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2. The measurement of instantaneous power injection (the
flywheel effect) in a 3.3-kVA prototype DFIM. The per unit (p.u.) In this case, because the rotational speed does not need
active power of the machine stator terminals is in red, and the to be constant, a large amount of active power can be
network is in green. (Used with permission from [18].) injected into the grid by reducing the rotational speed

20 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine œ september/october 201 8

(the flywheel effect). This can be particularly advanta- operation. It is also natural to expect greater efficiency
geous during disturbances, allowing a reduction of the gains in plants with single units compared with those hav-
grid’s spinning reserve [16]. ing multiple units. As noted in [30] and [31], a hydraulic effi-
An example illustrating the role of variable-speed pumped- ciency improvement up to 10% can be achieved. In the case
storage plants in providing grid support during disturbances of the 400-MW Okawachi pumped-storage facility, an aver-
is the operation of the Okawachi hydropower facility in age efficiency gain of 3% is reported [8]. Figure 3 shows the
Japan during an earthquake disaster in 1995 [3], [8]. It was typical range of efficiency improvement for hydropower
reported that the variable-speed unit absorbed power dis- plants when variable-speed technology is employed.
turbances in random spikes and satisfactorily contributed As mentioned previously, it is most common to use
to maintaining grid stability. reversible Francis pump–turbines in pumped-storage
As mentioned previously, one motivation for introduc- plants. In this case, a single hydraulic machine operates
ing variable-speed operation in pumped-storage plants is as both the pump and turbine. Because the hydraulic
to provide frequency control. This feature can reduce the parameters are different for these two modes of opera-
number of thermal plants needed to operate at night as tion, the hydraulic machine cannot have the best effi-
a reserve for frequency regulation. Flexible operation of ciency characteristics for both modes. They are normally
pumped-storage facilities can create a steadier operation first designed and optimized as pumps and then work
profile for thermal units and reduce their startups/shut- with a reduced efficiency in the turbine mode [6], [14],
downs and ramping costs [3]. As reported in [8], for the [15], [17], [30], [33] because optimal speed during pump-
case of Japan, the most attractive evaluation factor for the ing is normally higher than that during turbine operation
adjustable speed operation is a reduction of the thermal [6], [14], [30]. This problem can be solved with variable-
power units to be operated for automatic frequency con- speed operation so that both the pump and turbine can
trol at night. operate at their optimal rotational speeds to reach their
As an alternative to large-scale pumped-storage plants, maximum efficiencies.
relatively small variable-speed pumped-storage facilities In small and run-of-a-river hydropower plants with
are being developed as closely as possible to wind farms, low heads or no reservoirs, the discharge rate may vary
thus providing a decentralized energy storage capacity. As significantly. Here, mechanically complex Kaplan turbines
claimed in [14], this can be a key storage technology for
future smart grids.
100
Benefits for the Hydropower Plant
90
Efficiency (%)

Variable-speed operation can offer distinct advantages

for hydraulic machinery and overall power plant perfor-
80
mance. An important benefit is improving hydraulic effi-
ciency, especially for reversible pump–turbines. Hydraulic 70
machines are optimized for a single operating point (the
best-efficiency point), which is a function of the head, dis- 60
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
charge, and rotational speed. At a fixed speed, deviations Rated Head (%)
in the head and discharge can lead to reduced efficiency (a)
and increased vibration and cavitation problems. Thus,
100
only limited variations of the head and discharge are
allowed. This is why hydraulic efficiency can fall rather
90
sharply at partial loads in a fixed-speed system. While the
Efficiency (%)

operating range of fixed-speed pump–turbines is limited to

80
a ratio of about 1.25 between the maximum and minimum
head [26], [27], this can be extended, using variable-speed
technology, to as high as 1.45, as claimed in [27]. Variable- 70
speed operation offers a new degree of freedom to improve
efficiency at each point of operation [25], [28], [29]. 60
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
If the rotational speed can be adjusted, it is possible Rated Power Output (%)
to reach an acceptably high efficiency even in the case of (b)
large head and discharge variations. In addition, vibra-
Single-Speed Range
tion and cavitation problems can be greatly reduced, and
Adjustable-Speed Range
the operating range can be extended. The efficiency gain
depends strongly on the plant’s operational conditions and
hydrology. Efficiency improvements are expected to be FIGURE 3. The turbine efficiency versus (a) the rated head and
higher at sites with large head variations and partial-load (b) the rated output power. (Used with permission from [32].)

s e p t e m be r/o ct o be r 2018 œ IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 21

 submergence may be necessary, which leads to a reduced
(MW) civil engineering cost [14].
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 A further advantage of utilizing variable-speed technolo-
gy in pumped-storage facilities is that there is no need to use
Penstock Pressure additional equipment for the pumping startup. In conven-
tional plants, frequency converters (previously pony motors)
Draft Tube Pressure
are needed for pumping startup and synchronization.
It should be noted that variable-speed technology does
Shaft Deflection
not normally allow a full range of variation (0–100%) in
the rotational speed and hence the pumping power. The
Head Cover Vibration main limiting factors are the cavitation and stability con-
siderations related to the hydraulic pump–turbine [3], [14].
Still, considerable improvement in the operating range is
feasible, even with a limited allowed speed variation [3].
(a) The typical power variation range in the pumping mode
(MW) is approximately 30–40%.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Challenges
Penstock Pressure In general, the most important hurdle for pumped-storage
facilities is profitability. New plants need a great deal of
Draft Tube Pressure investment, take a relatively long time to construct, and
could have a negative environmental impact; moreover,
new project sites might be limited [1], [23], [38]. Regarding
Shaft Deflection
the initial investment, while pumped-storage plants were
cost-effective in the past compared to flexible gas tur-
Head Cover Vibration
bines, they are no longer economically competitive [3]. (In
the case of Norwegian hydropower, however, it is claimed
that, because of existing reservoirs, the investment costs
(b)
for new plants can be greatly reduced [39].)
In addition, gaining revenue from energy arbitrage
FIGURE 4. The pressure pulsation and vibration of a reversible
pump–turbine with (a) fixed-speed and (b) variable-speed (i.e., pumping and producing when the electricity price
operations. (Used with permission from [37].) is low and high, respectively) is no longer guaranteed for
pumped-storage facilities [3], [40]. In Europe, for instance,
the price difference between peak and off-peak electric-
can be used to maintain an acceptable efficiency amid the ity in the power markets has not been large enough to
wide range of head and discharge rates. But an alternative ensure plants’ profitability [38], [41]. In addition, pumped-
solution is to use simpler and cheaper propeller turbines storage facilities today have to cope with a more dynamic
equipped with variable-speed technology [10], [34]–[36]. operational routine, resulting in higher maintenance
This technology could help in developing small hydropower requirements [38].
projects where environmental impacts are less significant Despite the investment issues, there have been chang-
compared to large plants. es, mainly in global energy policies, that favor flexible
In addition to efficiency, flexibility in terms of choos- pumped-storage plants. For example, with the high pen-
ing the optimal speed provides additional advantages for etration of variable renewable sources, there comes an
the hydraulic machinery. The speed can be adjusted to increasing need for energy storage capacity in the grid. In
avoid hazardous operating zones and reduce cavitation addition, the ancillary services offered by variable-speed
and vibration problems. In fixed-speed systems, partial- pumped-storage facilities are becoming more important in
load operation and specific gate openings (normally supporting the reliable operation of the grid. Within a
approximately 40–60%) can cause pressure pulsations well-defined market, pumped-storage plants can gain
and result in considerable vibration [3], [30]. This can be revenue from such services. However, most competitive
reduced in variable-speed operation. Figure 4 [37] pres- markets currently do not pay for some of the advanced
ents a comparison between the vibration signals of a services offered by pumped-storage facilities [1], [3], [41].
reversible Francis pump–turbine with fixed- and variable- While the added value of pumped-storage plants derived
speed operation in the Yagisawa pumped-storage plant. from their ancillary services is not well defined in the Unit-
Reduced vibration and cavitation problems can potentially ed States, some areas of Europe have stronger ancillary
lead to less maintenance and an increased life span. In service markets [1], [3]. Establishing a market for these ser-
addition, because of improved cavitation behavior, less vices makes variable-speed pumped-storage facilities more

22 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine œ september/october 201 8

economically attractive. The value of such plants depends discusses and compares these two solutions and also
strongly on the level of renewable energy penetration in addresses technology status and future trends.
the grid. In [3], a detailed economic study is presented to
assess the value of pumped-storage facilities in the United DFIMs
States. It is shown that their value increases with higher As shown in Figure 5, the DFIM stator is directly connect-
penetration of variable renewables in the grid. This indi- ed to the grid, while the rotor windings are connected via
cates that pumped-storage plants will become increasingly a power electronic converter, using slip rings. A detailed
valuable in future power systems. description of DFIM systems, including features related
Note that the previously mentioned challenges are to pumped-storage hydroelectricity, can be found in [47].
related to the development of new pumped-storage plants Through frequency control of the rotor current, it is pos-
in general. Including variable-speed technology will only sible to have variable-speed operation while the stator
slightly increase the total investment costs, while provid- frequency and voltage remain constant. In the DFIM, the
ing many advantages. As reported in [3], the incremental stator frequency ( fs, in hertz) is a function of both the
costs for incorporating variable-speed capability are in rotational speed (n, in revolutions per minute) and the fre-
the range of 7–15%, mainly due to the increased costs for quency of the rotor current ( fr, in hertz):
electrical equipment. Considering the challenges regard-
n # Np
ing the development of new pumped-storage facilities, fs = ! fr,(1)
120
upgrading existing plants to variable-speed technology is
gaining attention [23], [42]–[44]. where N p is the number of poles. The ± before fr depends
When adopting variable-speed technology in hydropow- on the rotational direction of the magnetic field produced
er plants, several considerations must be carefully weighed. by the rotor currents. According to (1), it is possible to vary
●● A more detailed analysis is needed in the design phase the rotational speed in a certain range (above or below
of a facility’s hydraulic and electrical equipment, and the synchronous speed) while having constant stator
the effects of speed variation should be thoroughly frequency (50 or 60 Hz). This variable-speed operation
investigated. can be realized by controlling the frequency and voltage
●● Because the speed can be varied, there is an increased applied to the rotor windings. To have around ±10% of
risk of mechanical resonance in the system that should speed variation, the converter rating does not normally
be considered. exceed 30% of the rated power. This is the main advan-
●● For variable-speed systems, more space is required to tage of a variable-speed system with a DFIM, which
accommodate the power electronics converter and the makes it the preferred configuration for high power rat-
associated cooling equipment. ings (higher than 100 MW). Therefore, the cost and losses
●● In electrical machines, converter-fed operation could of the converter can be greatly reduced compared to the
bring more complexity and potentially greater losses, CFSM solution with a full-power converter.
vibration, and insulation problems [9], [45], [46]. Until recently, the cycloconverter-driven DFIM was
●● Another challenge, as will be discussed in the “DFIMs” the most common technology in variable-speed plants.
section, is the operation of a DFIM-equipped power The thyristor-based cycloconverter produces a lower-
plant in the event of grid failure. frequency three-phase output from the grid. The state-
of-the-art technology, however, is the voltage source
Technology Evaluation converter (VSC) [18], [33], as shown in Figure 5. The VSC
In conventional pumped-storage hydropower facilities,
the electrical machine is directly connected to the grid.
Hence, frequency and rotational speed are constant. A
Grid
method to provide double-speed characteristics in the
past was to use pole-changing synchronous machines [6], Pump– DFIM
Turbine
[33]. These machines are capable of changing the number
of active poles and are equipped with two separate wind- ac dc
ings in the stator, corresponding to each pole number. dc ac
They are heavier and more complex. Needless to say, this (a)
technology is not attractive today because its ability to
Grid
provide adjustable speed is very limited.
ac dc
To realize variable-speed operation, two solutions are Pump–
Turbine CFSM
dc ac
available: DFIMs and CFSMs. Briefly stated, the CFSM
provides superior performance, but the need for a full- (b)
rated converter is a main drawback. This makes the DFIM
more attractive in high-power applications because the FIGURE 5. (a) A DFIM configuration and (b) a CFSM configuration.
converter itself can be considerably smaller. This section (Power transformers are not shown.)

s e p t e m be r/o ct o be r 2018 œ IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 23

 offers many advantages compared tor, operation as a DFIM could be
to the classical cycloconverter solu- problematic because of the subhar-
tion, as noted in [1], [6], [16], [18], and The concept of monics and reduced air gap length. In
[33]: a simpler structure, the ability variable-speed this case, one probable consequence
to regulate reactive power (the cyclo- would be a considerable increase in
converter absorbs reactive power, operation in the vibration level, as reported in [53].
making compensation necessary),
an improved ability to control the hydropower systems CFSMs
machine during faults, no need for using the CFSM was In this configuration, a synchronous
an additional frequency converter machine is connected to the grid via a
during startup, and a much lower introduced for HVdc full-rated converter. As shown in Fig-
total harmonic distortion. In terms ure 5, a back-to-back VSC is used to
of power electronic devices, both application using connect two ac sides using a dc link.
transistor- and thyristor-based equip- current–source Hence, the frequency of the motor–
ment can be used [6], [48]. The generator does not need to be equal to
latter—e.g., integrated gate-commu- converters. the grid. Since the machine is decou-
tated thyristors (IGCTs)—is claimed pled from the grid, a wide range of
to be best suited for high-power speed and frequency variations is pos-
applications [20], [23], [38], [49]. sible. Obviously, the drawback is the
For providing variable-speed capability in pumped- full-rated converter, which could be very expensive and not
storage plants, the focus has been on the DFIM configura- practical for the high power ratings. Converter losses could
tion, both in industry and in academia. However, as will also be an issue. While the efficiency of the synchronous
be addressed later, variable-speed hydropower systems machine is higher than that of the similar induction machine,
with DFIMs have a considerable number of drawbacks mainly due to lower rotor losses, higher converter losses
compared with those utilizing CFSMs. make the CFSM less efficient than the DFIM system [54].
●● The use of slip rings is a major drawback. These problems limit the application of CFSMs to hy­­
●● The rotor is mechanically more complex and expen- dropower plants with power ratings below approximately
sive than that of a synchronous machine. 100 MW. This limit is expected to be pushed to higher
●● Because of the rotor complexity, the maximum DFIM power ratings in the future with advances in semiconductor
speed is normally lower than that of a comparable syn- devices (e.g., wide-bandgap semiconductors, such as silicon
chronous machine. carbide) and converter topologies. It has recently become
●● It has been claimed [49] that using DFIMs for sites with a possible to build a frequency converter with a rated power
maximal head higher than 600 m could prove challenging. in excess of 100 MVA [44], [49]. As claimed in [49], using
●● The DFIM startup procedure can be difficult [33], modular multilevel converter technology with IGCT devic-
[49], [50]; because of the limited starting torque, a es, it is possible to design converters for very high power
time-consuming and costly dewatering procedure may ratings (up to 500 MVA). In the future, progress in power
be necessary. electronics may provide the opportunity for the CFSM to
●● The performance of DFIMs during grid failure and in become the preferred configuration, even in high power
meeting grid code requirements, specifically low- ratings, because of its superior performance over the DFIM.
voltage ride through (LVRT), can be challenging [24], The concept of variable-speed operation in hydropower
[33], [49], [51], [52]. In this situation, the rotor voltage systems using the CFSM was introduced for HVdc applica-
dynamically increases, and a special protection scheme tion using current–source converters [9], [30], [46]. Because
must be designed to protect the converter [24], [52]. In of the remote location of some hydropower plants, an HVdc
the worst case (i.e., severe short circuit faults), a crow- transmission solution might be preferred. An HVdc link
bar must be activated, short-circuiting the rotor wind- makes the hydropower generator independent of the ac grid,
ings, to protect the converter against the overvoltages and the requirement for having constant speed and frequen-
before the circuit breakers switch off the drive. In this cy is lifted. This can result in the relaxation of some restric-
case, it is impossible to control the DFIM [33]. Improv- tions imposed by the stability requirement, such as minimum
ing the LVRT capability creates additional complexity inertia [30]. It should be noted, though, that the main moti-
and costs. Demanding new grid codes may require the vation for the HVdc connection of hydropower facilities is
power rating of the converter to be increased [38], [49]. transmission benefits; variable-speed operation is a further
For upgrading existing plants to variable-speed technol- advantage, leading to improved efficiency and extended
ogy, the synchronous generator’s rotor and exciter system operating range. A detailed report regarding variable-speed
must be replaced with the new DFIM rotor. In some cases, operation of HVdc-connected plants is ­presented in [9]. More
it might be possible to keep the stator. It should be noted, recently, HVdc-connected hydropower plants utilizing the
though, that if fractional-slot windings are used in the sta- CFSM configuration with a VSC are discussed in [55].

24 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine œ september/october 201 8

 In small hydropower facilities, the CFSM configura- for high power ratings. This is also the case for most of the
tion is normally preferred over the DFIM because of the plants under construction. The main reason, as mentioned
relatively low power ratings. In the proposed concept of previously, is the reduced size of the converter compared to
decentralized pumped-storage plants [14] with power rat- CFSM technology. A list of the existing and planned large
ings up to 50 MW, CFSMs are employed. pumped-storage facilities with DFIMs can be found in
A pioneering project to use the CFSM system in pumped- [3]. Figure 6 shows the rotor of a 250-MW DFIM in the
storage facilities is reported in [56], where a 60-MW cur- Linthal, Switzerland, pumped-storage plant (commissioned
rent source converter is provided between the existing in December 2015).
generator and the grid to enable variable-speed opera- Advances in DFIM systems have been related mainly
tion in a hydropower plant with large head variation. to the frequency converter. The development of variable-
Recently, a 100-MW CFSM system equipped with a VSC speed pumped-storage hydropower facilities began with
started operation at the Grimsel 2 pumped-storage plant thyristor-based cycloconverters. Today, the preferred
in Switzerland [44], [57]. topology is the VSC. With the use of modern semiconduc-
Compared to the DFIM, the CFSM offers superior tor devices—e.g., IGCTs, insulated-gate bipolar transis-
performance and significant advantages. The startup is tors, and injection-enhanced gate transistors—significant
easier and faster and can be performed in water, thanks improvements have been achieved in the design and
to the possibility of producing substantial torque at zero operation of power electronic converters. Regarding
speed [49], [57]. In addition, speed and power variations electrical machines, DFIMs can now be used in sites with
can be larger [38], [49]. The CFSM system does not have higher rotational speed requirements. As reported in [23],
the limitations on maximum speed that the DFIM has, the DFIM with the world’s highest rated speed of 576–
and it can be used for sites with high heads and large 624 r/min was installed in a 340-MW pumped-storage
head variations [49]. Compared with the DFIM, a variable- plant in Japan in 2007. The pump head is more than 700 m,
speed system with a CFSM offers good LVRT capability while the rotor weight exceeds 400 t.
and better compliance with grid codes [38], [49], [51], [58]. In contrast to the established and mature DFIM tech-
The converter could be used (while not connected to the nology, the CFSM configuration is still in its early devel-
machine) as a reactive current static compensator, sup- opment stage for use in hydropower plants with high
plying considerable reactive power to the grid [49]. In power ratings. The experiences from the operation of a
addition, a CFSM configuration is more suitable for use in 100-MW CFSM system in Grimsel 2 have been promis-
upgrading existing plants. With respect to the design of ing [44]. Figure 7 shows the full-rated converter of the
the synchronous machine, lifting the rotational speed and installed CFSM system in this power plant. Even though
frequency requirements could initiate a new generator
design strategy to achieve optimized operation [59].
In the CFSM configuration (and in contrast to the
DFIM topology), a switch can be provided to bypass the
converter, if needed [12], [44], [49]. The most relevant case
is when the hydraulic efficiency gain due to variable-
speed operation does not compensate for the converter
losses. For this reason, the converter is bypassed in the
production mode at Grimsel 2, as reported in [44].

Current Status and Future Trends

According to [1], out of 270 pumped-storage plants in the
world (either operating or under construction), 36 are
variable-speed systems, 17 of which are currently in opera-
tion. In Europe, 38% of the total pumped-storage capac-
ity planned to be installed by 2020 is for variable-speed
hydropower facilities [60]. Most of the operating variable-
speed pumped-storage plants are in Japan, with Europe
coming in second. Currently, there is no variable-speed
pumped-storage plant operating in the United States, but,
as reported in [3], many of the approximately 50 proposed
projects (in various stages of planning and licensing) are
considering variable-speed technology.
Since the early 1990s, when the development of vari- FIGURE 6. A motor–generator rotor of a 250-MW DFIM in the
able-speed pumped-storage facilities started in Japan, the Linthal pumped-storage plant, Switzerland. (Used with permission
DFIM configuration has been the preferred technology from [61].)

s e p t e m be r/o ct o be r 2018 œ IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 25

 Technology, Trondheim, Norway. Valavi is a Member of the
IEEE. Nysveen is a Senior Member of the IEEE. This article
first appeared as “Variable-Speed Operation of Hydropower
Plants: Past, Present, and Future” at the 2016 22nd Interna-
tional Conference on Electrical Machines. This article was
reviewed by the IAS Electric Machines Committee.

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