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Preliminary Notes on Design of Steel Structures

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DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
PRELIMINARY NOTES

By:
Muhammed Abbas
Lecturer at Department of Civil Engineering
University of Samarra
(November 2017)
 ‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

25 ‫سورة الحديد \ االية‬

In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful

We have indeed sent Our messengers with clear proofs, and sent down
with them the book and the balance, so that people may uphold equity.
And we sent down iron in which there is strong power, and benefits for
the people; and (We did it) so that ALLAH knows who helps Him and
his messengers without seeing (Him). Surely ALLAH is Strong, Mighty.

HOLY QURAN /AL-Hadeed / 25

Usage of Steel in Structures: Bridges, Buildings, Trusses, Towers, Frames, Others.

Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material:

1- High Strength: High strength per unit of weight important , for example : in long span
structures and tall buildings.
2- Uniformity: Homogeneous material and do not change with time.
3- Elasticity: Closed to design assumptions than most materials.
4- Permanence: New steel do not require painting maintenance.
5- Ductility: Withstand Extensive deformation without failure.
6- Toughness: Absorbs energy in large amounts ( Beneficial in erection and in structure).
7- Addition to existing structures: Elements can be added to the structures.
8- Others ( Ability to connect parts by bolts and welding, Fast erection, Various sections, Reuse
after a structure is disassembled, Recyclable material).

Disadvantages:
1- Corrosion.
2- Fireproofing Costs.
3- Buckling.
4- Fatigue: The strength reduced if a variation of tensile stress occurs.
5- Brittle Fracture: In some cases, for example: fatigue, low temperature, stress concentration.
What is the steel?
The steel is an alloy consisting almost entirely of iron. It also contains small quantities of
carbon, silicon, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and other elements. Carbon is the material
that has the greatest effect on the properties of steel. The hardness and strength of steel
increase as the carbon increased. However, more carbon will cause steel to be more brittle
and will adversely affect its weldability. If the carbon content is reduced, the steel will be
softer and more ductile, but also weaker. The addition of elements such as chromium, silicon ,
and nickel produces high strength steel but the steel will be more expensive and not as easy
to fabricate.

The steel is manufactured in special process (extraction from the earth, melting in high
temperature, casting, ….etc.). Today, most the structural steel shapes and plates made by
melting scrap steel ( junk cars, scrapped structural shapes, discarded refrigerators, motors,
…etc.)
Types of Steel:
1- Carbon Steel:
- Low – carbon steel : carbon content less than 0.15 percent. (e.g. nails, screws)
- Mild – steel: carbon content 0.15 – 0.29 percent ( e.g. structural steel )
- Medium – carbon steel: carbon content 0.30 – 0.59 percent. ( e.g. structural steel, rails)
- High – carbon steel: carbon content 0.60 – 1.70 percent. (e.g. saw blades, punches)

2- High – Strength Low – Alloy Steel:

Contains additional element such as chromium, silicon, copper, and nickel. It has higher strength
and greater atmospheric corrosion resistance.
The term Low – Alloy Steel means the total of all alloying elements is low ( does not exceed 5
percent of the total composition of steel).

3- Atmospheric Corrosion – Resistance High – Strength Low – Alloy Steel:

Small percentage of copper leads to more corrosion resistance steel.

Note: The Stainless steel is Steel alloyed with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content, also it
contains nickel, and other minerals in specified percentages. It is hard, tough and corrosion
resistance. It is used in sinks, cooking utensils, surgical instruments.
Structural Steel Sections:
Generally there are four main types of steel sections:

1- Hot – Rolled Sections: High temperature used to made these sections.

Bars Plates
Pipe Section Structural Tubing
The structural shapes are identified by a certain system, for example:

W27 x 114: Wide flange section approximately 27 inches deep, 114 lb/ft weight.

S12 x 35: Structural I - shape section 12 in. deep, 35 lb/ft weight (Standard Sections).

HP12 x 74: H- shape Bearing Pile sections approximately 12 in. deep, 74 lb/ft weight. It has W
shape with thicker web , and the width and depth are approximately equal.

M8 x 6.5: Miscellaneous section 8 in. deep, 6.5 lb/ft weight. It has H-Shaped but with slope of
inner flanges other than 16 2/3 percent (In “Miscellaneous”. The features of sections do not
meet the criteria for W, S, or HP shapes).

C10 x 30: Channel 10 in. deep, 30 lb/ft weight. The double channel is denoted by 2C10 x 30.

MC18 x 58: Miscellaneous channel 18 in. deep, 58 lb/ft weight which cannot classified as C
shape because of its dimensions.

HSS14 x 10 x 5/8: Hollow structural section 14 in. deep, 10 in. wide, and 5/8 in. wall
thickness (Represented by outside dimensions).
L6 x 6 x 1/2: Equal leg angle, each leg 6 in. long and 1/2 in. thickness.
2L8 x 6 x 1 SLBB: Two 8 x 6 x 1 angles with the 6 in. short legs back to back.
2L8 x 6 x 1 LLBB: Two 8 x 6 x 1 angles with the 8 in. long legs back to back.
WT18 x 151: Tee obtained by splitting a W36 x 302.
PL1/2 x 10 x 1 ft 4 in: Plate 1/2 in. thick, 10 in. wide and 16 in. long.

For pipes, there are three classes: Std., X-Strong, and XX-Strong.
For example,
Pipe 5 Std.: Pipe with 5 in. nominal diameter.
Other classification for pipes: For example,
Pipe 14 x 0.375: Pipe with 14 in. outside diameter and 0.375 in. wall thickness.

In metric units: W920 x 449 has 920 mm depth and 449 kg/m weight.
(equivalent to W36 x 302 in American units).
2- Cold – Formed Light – Gage Sections: Made by bending thin sheets of steel.
May be used for light members in roofs, floors, and walls. The thickness 0.01 – 0.25 in.
3- Built – Up Sections: Made by fabricator from two or more standard sections.
Built-up members are specified by the designer when the desired properties or configuration
cannot be obtained in a single hotrolled section.

Built-up (W) shapes.

Built-up (C) Channels.

Built-up (L) Angles.

4- Steel Decks: The concrete cast on these decks to get economical forms.
Stress – Strain Relationships in Structural Steel:

Typical stress–strain diagram for a mild or low-carbon structural steel at room

temperature.
Typical stress–strain curves for various types of steel.
Effect of temperature on yield strengths.
Applicable ASTM Specifications for Various Structural Shapes
Specifications, Loads, and Methods of Design:

Specifications:
The AISC ( American Institute of Steel Construction ) specification will be adopted.

Loads:
- Dead Loads: Self weight of structure and other loads that permanently attached to it.
- Live Loads: Loads that may change in position and magnitude. ( The main live loads are:
Floor live loads, Traffic loads, Impact loads, Lateral earth pressure, Hydraulic pressure,
Blast loads, Thermal forces, Centrifugal forces ).
- Environmental Loads: Includes mainly: Wind loads, Snow loads, Rain loads, Earthquake
loads.

Methods of Design:
AISC provides two methods for designing structural steel members and their connections.
These are Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), and Allowable Strength Design (ASD).
Both LRFD and ASD methods are based on limit states design principles.

The term limit state is used to describe a condition at which the structure or part of a structure
ceases to perform its intended functions.

There are two categories of limit states: strength and serviceability.

Strength limit states define load – carrying capacity, including excessive yielding, fracture,
buckling, and fatigue.
Serviceability limit states define performance, including deflection, cracking, slipping, vibration
deterioration.

All limit states must be prevented.

There are two main differences between LRFD and ASD:

1- Method of calculating the design loads: Each method depends on special load combination
expressions based on certain specifications.
2- Using the factor of safety: In LRFD, the nominal strength of a member (calculated theoretical
strength) is multiplied by a factor ɸ (less than one) with factored load conditions for safety. In
ASD, the nominal strength is divided by a factor Ω (greater than one) with service load
conditions.
The relationship between Ω and ɸ is: Ω = 1.5 / ɸ . For example, if ɸ=0.75 then Ω = 1.5/0.75 = 2.
Load Combination Expressions in LRFD:
Part two in AISC Manual (14th edition), entitled “General Design Considerations” provides the
following load combination expressions for LRFD method which are based on ASCE 7:
1- U = 1.4D
2- U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
3- U = 1.2D + 1.6 (Lr or S or R) + (L* or 0.5W)
4- U = 1.2D + 1.0W + L* + 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
5- U = 1.2D + 1.0E + L* + 0.2S
6- U = 0.9D + 1.0W
7- U = 0.9D + 1.0E
* The load factor on L in combinations 3, 4, and 5 is to be taken as 1.0 for floors in places of
public assembly, for live loads in excess of 100 psf and for parking garage live load. The load
factor is permitted to equal 0.5 for other live loads.

In which: U = the design or factored load

D = Dead load
L = Live load due to occupancy
Lr = Roof live load
S = Snow load
R = Nominal load due to initial rainwater or ice, exclusive of the pond.
W= Wind load
E = Earthquake load
The largest value (governing load) of U which calculated from these seven expressions is used in
the design.
Load Combination Expressions in ASD:
Part two in AISC Manual (14th edition), entitled “General Design Considerations” provides the
following load combination expressions for ASD method which are based on ASCE 7:

1- U = D
2- U = D + L
3- U = D + (Lr or S or R)
4- U = D + 0.75L + 0.75 (Lr or S or R)
5- U = D + (0.6W or 0.7E)
6- (a) U = D + 0.75L + 0.75 (0.6W) + 0.75 (Lr or S or R)
(b) U = D + 0.75L + 0.75 (0.7E) + 0.75(S)
7- U = 0.6D + 0.6W
8- U = 0.6D + 0.7E

Note: The designer should carefully consider whether the load combinations specified
adequately cover all the possible combinations for a particular structure. If it is thought that they
do not, the designer is free to consider additional loads and combinations as may seem
appropriate. This is true for LRFD and ASD.
NOTES:
The main reasons for Using the Factors of Safety are:
1- The strength of material vary due to creep, corrosion, and fatigue.
2- The structural analysis is not exact and not accurate.
3- Nature forces (hurricanes, Earthquake, … etc.)
4- Stresses developed during fabrication and erection.
5- Estimation of live load is not accurate.
6- Stress concentration and residual stresses.

Stages for the Engineering Projects:

1- Planning Stage: Function, Size, Cost.
2- Design Stage: Architectural, Structural, Others.
3- Construction Stage.
4- Operation and Maintenance Stage.

The structural designer aims to make an optimum design in which the structure will has:
(1) minimum weight. (2) minimum cost. (3) minimum construction time.
(4) minimum labor force. (5) minimum operational and maintenance cost.

The failure of the steel structures mainly caused by:

(1) Failure of members. (2) Failure of connections. (3) Settlement of foundations which cause
an additional stresses. (4) High deflections, high vibrations, corrosion, and Fatigue.
References and Bibliography:

1- Jack C. McCormac & Stephen F. Csernak, " Structural Steel Design " ,
5th Edition, Pearson Education Inc., 2012.

2- Charles G. Salmon, John E. Johnson & Faris A. Malhas, " Steel Structures: Design and
Behavior ", 5th Edition, Pearson Education Inc., 2009.

3- Wikipedia, “Stainless steel”, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel.

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